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Measurement of Gears Tooth Profile

Gears
• Gear is a toothed wheel that meshes together with other gears,
• Gears are used in groups of two or more.
• The gears in a train are arranged so that their teeth closely interlock
or mesh.
• The teeth on meshing gears are the same size so that they are of
equal strength.
• The spacing of the teeth is the same on each gear
Gear changes the: 1). Speed 2). Torque 3).Direction of rotating shafts
Purpose: To transmit rotatory motion and forces.

Classification of Gears

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Gear Tooth Measurements

Classification of Gears

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• Base circle
• Outside circle
• Pitch circle
• Root circle
• Addendum
• Dedendum
• Module
• Circular pitch
• Tooth
thickness
• Face
• Flank

• Base circle It is the circle from which the involute form is

generated. Only the base circle of a gear is fixed and unalterable.
• Outside circle It marks the maximum diameter of the gear up to
which the involute form is extended. It is also called the addendum
circle. In addition, it is the diameter of the blank from which the
gear is cut out.
• Pitch circle It is the imaginary circle on which lies the centres of
the pitch cylinders of two mating gears.
• Root circle It is the circle corresponding to the minimum diameter
of the gear profile. However, the involute profile is limited only up
to the base circle of a spur gear.

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• Addendum It is the radial distance between the addendum circle and the
pitch circle.
• Dedendum It is the radial distance between the pitch circle and the root
circle.
• Face The portion of tooth lying between the addendum circle and the
pitch circle is called the face.
• Flank The portion of tooth lying between the pitch circle and the
dedendum circle is called the flank.
• Circular pitch It is the distance between corresponding points of
adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
• Diametrical pitch It is expressed as the number of teeth per unit
diameter of the pitch circle.

• Module It is simply the metric standard for pitch. It is the linear distance
(in millimeters) that each tooth of the gear would occupy if the gear teeth
were spaced along the pitch diameter. Accordingly, if the pitch circle
diameter of the gear is D and the number of teeth is N, then the module m
is given by D/N and is expressed in millimeters.
To ensure the interchangeability and smooth meshing of gears, standard
modules are recommended. These standards are also useful for the design
of gear-cutting tools. The Indian Standards Institute has recommended the
following modules (in mm) in order of preference:
First choice 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20
Second choice 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18
Third choice 3.25, 3.75, 6.5

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• Tooth thickness It is the arc distance measured along the pitch circle
from its intercept with one flank to that with the other flank of the same
tooth.
• Base pitch It is the distance measured around the base circle from the
origin of the involute on the tooth to the origin of a similar involute on the
next tooth. Base pitch = Base circumference/Number of teeth

Line of Action and Pressure Angle

The mating teeth of two gears in the mesh

make contact with each other along a
common tangent to their base circle, as
shown in Fig. This line is referred to as the
‘line of action’. The load or the so-called
pressure between the two gears is
transmitted along this line. The angle
between the line of action and the common
tangent to the pitch circles is known as the
pressure angle.

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Gear Nomenclature

Gear Tooth Profile

1. Involute Profile Teeth

An involute is defined as the locus of a point
on a straight line that rolls without slipping on
the circumference of a circle. Also, it is the
path traced out by the end of a piece of taut
cord being unwound from the circumference
of a circle. The circle on which the straight
line rolls or from which the cord is unwound
is known as the base circle.

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2. Cycloidal Profile Teeth

In this type, the faces of the teeth are epicycloids
and the flanks are the hypocycloids.
A cycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle that rolls without
slipping on a fixed straight line.
An epicycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle that rolls without
slipping on the circumference of another circle.
A hypocycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle that rolls without
slipping inside the circumference of another circle.

Advantages of involute gears:

• The center distance for a pair of involute gears can be varied within
limits without changing the velocity ratio. This is not true for cycloidal
gears which requires exact center distance to be maintained.
• In involute gears, the pressure angle, from the start of the engagement of
teeth to the end of the engagement, remains constant. It is necessary for
smooth running and less wear of gears. But in cycloidal gears, the
pressure angle is maximum at the beginning of engagement, reduces to
zero at pitch point, starts increasing and again become maximum at the
end of engagement. This results in less smooth running of gears.

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• The face and flank of involute teeth are generated by a single curve
where as in cycloidal gears, double curves (i.e. epi-cycloid and hypo-
cycloid) are required for the face and flank respectively. Thus the
involute teeth are easy to manufacture than cycloidal teeth. In involute
system, the basic rack has straight teeth and the same can be cut with
simple tools.

Note : The only disadvantage of the involute teeth is that the interference
occurs with pinions having smaller number of teeth. This may be avoided
by altering the heights of addendum and dedendum of the mating teeth or
the angle of obliquity of the teeth.

Advantages of cycloidal gears :

• Since the cycloidal teeth have wider flanks, therefore the cycloidal gears
are stronger than the involute gears, for the same pitch. Due to this
reason, the cycloidal teeth are preferred specially for cast teeth.
• In cycloidal gears, the contact takes place between a convex flank and
concave surface, where as in involute gears, the convex surface are in
contact. This condition results in less wear in cycloidal gears as
compared to involute gears. However the difference in wear is negligible.
• The cycloidal gears, the interference does not occur at all. Though there
are advantages of cycloidal gears but they are outweighed by the greater
simplicity and flexibility of the involute gears

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ERRORS IN SPUR GEARS

• Gear blank runout errors Gear machining is done on the gear blank,
which may be a cast or a forged part. The blank would have undergone
preliminary machining on its outside diameter (OD) and the two faces.
The blank may have radial runout on its OD surface due to errors in the
preliminary machining. In addition, it may have excessive face runout.
Unless these two runouts are within prescribed limits, it is not possible
to meet the tolerance requirements at later stages of gear manufacture.
• Gear tooth profile errors These errors are caused by the deviation of
the actual tooth profile from the ideal tooth profile. Excessive profile
error will result in either friction between the mating teeth or backlash,
depending on whether it is on the positive or negative side.

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• Gear tooth errors This type of error can take the form of either tooth
thickness error or tooth alignment error. The tooth thickness measured
along the pitch circle may have a large amount of error. On the other
hand, the locus of a point on the machined gear teeth may not follow an
ideal trace or path. This results in a loss in alignment of the gear.

• Pitch errors Errors in pitch cannot be tolerated, especially when the

gear transmission system is expected to provide a high degree of
positional accuracy for a machine slide or axis. Pitch error can be either
single pitch error or accumulated pitch error. Single pitch error is the
error in actual measured pitch value between adjacent teeth.
Accumulated pitch error is the difference between theoretical summation
over any number of teeth intervals and summation of actual pitch
measurement over the same interval.

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• Runout errors This type of error refers to the runout of the pitch circle.
Runout causes vibrations and noise, and reduces the life of the gears and
bearings. This error creeps in due to inaccuracies in the cutting arbour
and tooling system.
• Lead errors This type of error is caused by the deviation of the actual
advance of the gear tooth profile from the ideal value or position. This
error results in poor contact between the mating teeth, resulting in loss
of power.

• Assembly errors Errors in assembly may be due to either the centre

distance error or the axes alignment error. An error in centre distance
between the two engaging gears results in either backlash error or
jamming of gears if the distance is too little. In addition, the axes of the
two gears must be parallel to each other, failing which misalignment will
be a major problem.

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MEASUREMENT OF GEAR ELEMENTS

The following elements of gears are important for analytical inspection:

1. Runout
2. Lead
2. Pitch
5. Backlash
3. Profile
6. Tooth thickness

MEASUREMENT OF GEAR ELEMENTS

Measurement of Runout
• Runout is caused when there is some deviation in the trajectories of the
points on a section of a circular surface in relation to the axis of rotation.
• In case of a gear, runout is the resultant of the radial throw of the axis of
a gear due to the out of roundness of the gear profile.
• Runout tolerance is the total allowable runout.
• In case of gear teeth, runout is measured by a specified probe such as a
cylinder, ball, cone, rack, or gear teeth. The measurement is made
perpendicular to the surface of revolution.
• On bevel and hypoid gears, both axial and radial runouts are included in
one measurement.

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MEASUREMENT OF GEAR ELEMENTS

A common method of runout inspection,

called a single-probe check and shown in
Fig.8.7, uses an indicator with a single probe
whose diameter makes contact with the
flanks of adjacent teeth in the area of the
pitch circle.

Single-probe check

In a two-probe check illustrated in Fig.,

one fixed and one free-moving probe,
are positioned on diametrically opposite
sides of the gear and make contact with
identically located elements of the tooth
profile. The range of indications obtained
with the two-probe check during a
complete revolution of the gear is twice Two-probe Check

the amount resulting from the single-

probe check.

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Measurement of Pitch

Pitch-measuring Instruments
These instruments enable the
measurement of chordal pitch between
successive pairs of teeth. The instrument
comprises a fixed finger and a movable
finger, which can be set to two identical
points on adjacent teeth along the pitch
circle. The pitch variation is displayed on Pitch-measuring instrument

a dial indicator attached to the instrument,

as shown in Fig.

In some cases, the pitch variation is recorded on a chart recorder, which

can be used for further measurements. A major limitation of this method is
that readings are influenced by profile variations as well as runout of the
gear.
Pitch-checking Instrument
A pitch-checking instrument is essentially a dividing head that can be used
to measure pitch variations. The instrument can be used for checking small
as well as large gears due to its portability. Figure explains the measuring
principle for a spur gear. It has two probes—one fixed, called the anvil, and
the other movable, called the measuring feeler. The latter is connected to a
dial indicator through levers.

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The instrument is located by two

adjacent supports resting on the
crests of the teeth. A tooth flank is
butted against the fixed anvil and
locating supports. The measuring
feeler senses the corresponding next
flank. The instrument is used as a
comparator from which we can
calculate the adjacent pitch error,
Pitch-checking instrument
actual pitch, and accumulated pitch
error.

Measurement of Lead
• Figure illustrates the procedure adopted
for checking lead tolerance of a spur gear.
• A measuring pointer traces the tooth
surface at the pitch circle and parallel to
the axis of the gear.
• The measuring pointer is mounted on a slide, which travels parallel to the
center on which the gear is held.
• The measuring pointer is connected to a dial gauge or any other suitable
comparator, which continuously indicates the deviation.
• The total deviation shown by the dial indicator over the distance measured
indicates the amount of displacement of the gear tooth in the face width
traversed.

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Measurement of Backlash
• If the two mating gears are produced such that tooth spaces are equal to
tooth thicknesses at the reference diameter, then there will not be any
clearance in between the teeth that are getting engaged with each other.
This is not a practical proposition because the gears will get jammed
even from the slightest mounting error or eccentricity of bore to the
pitch circle diameter.
• Therefore, the tooth profile is kept uniformly thinned, as shown in Fig.
This results in a small play between the mating tooth surfaces, which is
called a backlash.

• We can define backlash as the amount by which a

tooth space exceeds the thickness of an engaging
tooth.
• Backlash should be measured at the tightest point
of mesh on the pitch circle, in a direction normal
to the tooth surface when the gears are mounted
Tooth thinning
at their specified position.
• Backlash value can be described as the shortest or normal distance between the trailing
flanks when the driving flank and the driven flank are in contact. A dial gauge is usually
employed to measure the backlash.
• Holding the driver gear firmly, the driven gear can be rocked back and forth. This
movement is registered by a dial indicator having its pointer positioned along the
tangent to the pitch circle of the driven gear.

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Profile Measurement
• The gear to be inspected is mounted on an arbour on the gear-
measuring machine, as shown in Fig.
• The probe is brought into
contact with the tooth profile. To
obtain the most accurate
readings, it is essential that the
feeler (probe) is sharp,
positioned accurately, and
centred correctly on the origin of
the involute at 0° of the roll. Gleason gear inspection machine

• The machine is provided with multiple axes movement to enable

measurement of the various types of gears.
• The measuring head comprising the feeler, electronic unit, and chart
recorder can be moved up and down by operating a handwheel.
• The arbour assembly holding the gear can be moved in two
perpendicular directions in the horizontal plane by the movement of a
carriage and a cross-slide.
• Additionally, the base circle disk on which the gear is mounted can be
rotated by 360°, thereby providing the necessary rotary motion for the
gear being inspected.
• The feeler is kept in such a way that it is in a spring-loaded contact with
the tooth flank of the gear under inspection.

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• As the feeler is mounted exactly above the straight edge, there is no

movement of the feeler if the involute is a true involute.
• If there is an error, it is sensed due to the deflection of the feeler, and is
amplified by the electronic unit and recorded by the chart recorder.
• The movement of the feeler can be amplified 250, 500, or 1000 times, the
amplification ratio being selected by a selector switch. When there is no
error in the involute profile, the trace on the recording chart will be a
straight line.
• Gleason gear inspection machine, a product of Gleason Metrology Systems
Corporation, USA, follows the fundamental design aspect of any testing
machine with the capability to handle up to 350 mm dia gears. It also
integrates certain object-oriented tools to achieve faster cycle times and a
better human–machine interaction.

Measurement of Tooth Thickness

• Various methods are recommended for the measurement of gear tooth
thickness.
• There is a choice of instruments such as the gear tooth calliper, and span
gauging or tooth span micrometer.
• Constant chord measurement and measurement over rolls or balls are
additional options.

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Measurement with Gear Tooth Callipers

• This is one of the most commonly used
methods and perhaps the most accurate
one.
• Figure 8.14 illustrates the construction
details of a gear calliper. It has two
vernier scales, one horizontal and the
other vertical.
• The vertical vernier gives the position of
Gear tooth caliper
a blade, which can slide up and down.

• When the surface of the blade is

flush with the tips of the measuring
anvils, the vertical scale will read
zero.
• The blade position can be set to any
required value by referring to the
vernier scale.
• From Fig., it is clear that tooth
thickness should be measured at the
pitch circle (chord thickness C1, C2
in the figure). Chordal thickness and chordal height

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• Now, the blade position is set to a value equal to the addendum of the
gear tooth and locked into position with a locking screw.
• The calliper is set on the gear in such a manner that the blade surface
snugly fits with the top surface of a gear tooth.
• The two anvils are brought into close contact with the gear, and the
chordal thickness is noted down on the horizontal vernier scale.

Constant Chord Method

• The constant cord is defined as the chord
joining those points, on opposite faces of the
toot, which make contact with the mating
teeth when the centre line of the tooth lies
on the line of the gear centres.

• In the figure, AB is known as a constant

chord. The value of AB and its depth from
the tip, where it occurs, can be calculated
mathematically and then verified by
instrument.

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• The advantage of the constant cord method is that for all number of teeth
(of same module) value of constant chord is same.

• Secondly it radially lends itself to a form of comparator, which is more

sensitive than the gear tooth were near.

Base Tangent Method('David Brown' tangent comparator)

• In this method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is measured

with the help of the tangent comparator.

• This uses a single vernier caliper and has, therefore, the following
advantages over gear tooth vernier which used two vernier scales

(i) The measurements do not depend on two vernier readings, each

being function of the other.

(ii) the measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw
with the face.

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• Consider a straight generator (edge)ABC being rolled back and forth

along a base circle (Fig. 15.19).
• Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutesA2AA1 and C2CC1 respectively.
• Thus the measurements made across these opposed involutes by span
gauging will be constant (i.e. AC= A1C1 = A2C2 = A0C0) and equal to the
arc length of the base circle between the origins of involutes.

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• Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as

they are parallel and on an opposed pair of the true involutes.
• AB the tooth form is most likely to conform to a true involute at the pitch
point of the gear, it is always preferable to choose a number of teeth
such that the measurement is made approximately at the pitch circle of
the gear.
• The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the
dimension over parallel faces is equal to the distance round the base
circle between the points where the corresponding tooth flanks cut i.e.,
ABC in Fig.

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COMPOSITE METHOD OF GEAR INSPECTION

• Composite action refers to the variation in center distance when a gear
is rolled in tight mesh with a standard gear.
• It is standard practice to specify composite tolerance, which reflects
gear runout, tooth-to-tooth spacing, and profile variations.
• Composite tolerance is defined as the allowable center distance variation
of the given gear, in tight mesh with a standard gear, for one complete
revolution. The Parkinson gear testing machine is generally used to
carry out composite gear inspection.

Parkinson Gear Tester

• The gear being inspected will be made to mesh with a standard gear, and
a dial indicator is used to capture radial errors.
• The features of a Parkinson gear tester are illustrated in Fig.

Parkinson gear tester

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• The standard gear is mounted on a fixed frame, while the gear being
inspected is fixed to a sliding carriage.
• The two gears are mounted on mandrels, which facilitate accurate
mounting of gears in machines, so that a dial indicator will primarily
measure irregularities in the gear under inspection.
• A dial indicator of high resolution is used to measure the composite
error, which reflects errors due to runout, tooth-to-tooth spacing, and
profile variations.
• To start with, the two gears are mounted on respective mandrels and the
slide comprising the standard gear is fixed at a convenient position.
• The sliding carriage is moved along the table, the two gears are brought
into mesh, and the sliding carriage base is also locked in its position.

• Positions of the two mandrels are adjusted in such a way that their axial
distance is equal to the gear center distance as per drawings.
• However, the sliding carriage is free to slide for a small distance on steel
rollers under a light spring force.
• A vernier scale attached to the machine enables measurement of the
center distance up to 25 μm.
• The dial indicator is set to zero and the gear under inspection is rotated.
Radial variations of the gear being inspected are indicated by the dial
indicator.
• This variation is plotted on a chart or graph sheet, which indicates the
radial variations in the gear for one complete rotation.

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Screw Thread Measurement

• A screw thread is a continuous helical
groove of a specified cross-section
produced on the external or internal
surface of a cylinder or a cone.
• A screw thread formed on a cylinder
is known as a straight or parallel
screw thread, while the one formed
on a cone is known as a tapered
thread.

Types of Screw Thread

• External thread: a thread formed on the
outside of a workpiece is known as an
external thread.
Example: on bolts or studs etc.
• Internal thread: a thread formed on the
workpiece inside of a workpiece is known
as an internal thread.
Example: on a nut

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Forms of Screw Thread

Screw threads are used for:

• To hold parts together-act as fasteners with the help of nuts,

bolts, and studs

Ex: V-threads

• To transmit motion & power with the help of lead screw in a

lathe or in a fly press.

Ex: Square, Acme threads

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Terminologies of
screw threads

Terminologies of screw threads

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• Crest: The crest is the prominent part of the thread i.e., top surface
joining the two sides of the thread
• Root: The root is the bottom of the groove between the sides of two
adjacent threads.
• Flank: The straight surface between the crest and root which connects
the crest with the root is called the flank.
• Pitch: The distance from a point on a screw thread to a corresponding
point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis.
• Lead: The distance a screw thread advances in one turn. For a single
start thread, lead=pitch,
• For double start, lead=2xpitch, & so on.

 Major Diameter: This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, co-axial

with the screw, which just touches the crests of an external thread or
roots of an internal threads.

It is also called as ‘Nominal diameter’

 Minor diameter: This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, co-axial

with the screw which just touches the roots of an external thread or the
crest of an internal thread. This is also referred to as ‘root’ or ‘core
diameter’.

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• Effective diameter or Pitch diameter: On a straight screw

thread, the diameter of an imaginary cylinder where the
widths of the threads(metal) and the widths of the spaces
between the threads are equal; each being half the pitch.

• Thread angle(Included angle θ): Included angle between

sides of the thread measured in the axial plane.

• Flank angle(θ/2): The angle made by the flank of a thread

with the perpendicular to the thread axis is called flank angle.
It is half the included angle of the thread.

• Helix angle(α): On a straight thread, the helix angle is the

angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the
axis. Helix angle is complementary of lead angle.

• Tan α = p/πd, where p=pitch, d=mean diameter

• Lead angle: On a straight thread, lead angle is the angle made

by the helix of the thread at the pitch line, with the plane
perpendicular to the axis.

• Depth of thread: It is the distance between crest and root

measured perpendicular to axis of screw.

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• Addendum: It is the distance between the crest and the pitch

line measured perpendicular to axis of the screw.

• Dedendum: It is the distance between the pitch line & the

root measured perpendicular to axis of the screw.

• Multiple start thread: This is produced by forming two or

more helical grooves, equally spaced and similarly formed in
an axial section on a cylinder. This gives a quick traverse
without sacrificing core strength.

• Lead: The distance a screw thread

advances in one turn.
• For a single start thread, lead=pitch,
• For double start, lead=2xpitch, & so
on.

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Errors in threads
• Errors in Major and Minor diameters: Will cause interference with the
mating thread. Due to errors in these elements, the root section and wall
thickness will be less, also the flank contact will be reduced and
ultimately the component will be weak in strength.
• Errors in the effective diameter will also result in the weakening of the
assembly due to interference between the flanks. More force is required
for fitting.
• Similarly pitch and angle errors are also not desirable as they cause a
progressive tightening and interference on assembly. These two errors
have a special significance as they can be precisely related to the
effective diameter.

Pitch Error: the total length of the thread engaged will be either
too high or too small.
The various pitch errors may be classified into
1. Progressive error.
2. Periodic error.
3. Drunken error.
4. Irregular error.

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1) Progressive error: The pitch of the thread is uniform but is longer or

shorter its nominal value and this is called progressive.
Causes of progressive error:
1. In correct linear and angular velocity ratio.
2. In correct gear train and lead screw.
3. Saddle fault.
4. Variation in length due to hardening.

2. Periodic error
These are repeats itself at regular intervals along the thread Causes of
periodic error:
1. Un uniform tool work velocity ratio.
2. Teeth error in gears.
3. Lead screw error.
4. Eccentric mounting of the gears.

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3. Drunken error:
• Drunken errors are repeated once per turn of the thread in a
Drunken thread.
• In the Drunken thread the pitch measured parallel to the
thread axis. If the thread is not cut to the true helix the
drunken thread error will form

4) Irregular errors:
It is varying irregular manner along the length of the thread.
Irregular error causes:
1. Machine fault.
2. Non-uniformity in the material.
3. Cutting action is not correct.
4. Machining disturbances.

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Effect of pitch errors:

➢ Increase the effective diameter of the bolt and decreases the diameter of
nut.
➢ The functional diameter of the nut will be less.
➢ Reduce the clearance.
➢ Increase the interference between mating threads.

5. Angle error: The difference between the actual angle of the thread and
the prescribed angle of the thread. Angles larger than the prescribed angle
are “plus” while angles smaller than the prescribed angle are “minus”.
• Flank error: Difference between the actual flank angle and a prescribed
flank angle
• Half angle error: of thread Flank angle error at point where thread
profile is symmetrical to the centre line of the thread ridge

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Angle error

• Angle errors on threads may be either due to errors on one or both

flanks. Any error in angle of thread results in interference between the
bolt and nut.
• Thus like pitch errors, the angle errors also increase the effective
diameter of a bolt and decrease that of a nut.
• Assuming that one of the pairs is correct, it is possible to satisfactorily
assemble the thread pairs by modifying the effective diameter.

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MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THREAD

To find out the accuracy of a screw thread it will be necessary

to measure the following:
1) Major diameter.
2) Minor diameter.
3) Effective or Pitch diameter.
4) Pitch
5) Angle of thread

Measurement of major diameter:

The instruments which are used to find the major diameter are by
➢ Ordinary micrometer
➢ Bench micrometer.
a) Ordinary micrometer: The ordinary micrometer is quite suitable for
measuring the external major diameter.
• It is first adjusted for appropriate cylindrical size (S) having the same
diameter (approximately). This process is known as ‘gauge setting’.
• After taking this reading, D1 the micrometer is set on the major diameter
of the thread, and the new reading is D2
Major Diameter D=S±D1+D2

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Bench micrometer:
• For getting the greater accuracy the bench micrometer is used for
measuring the major diameter.
• In this process the variation in measuring Pressure, pitch errors are
being neglected.
• The fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the measurements are made at
same pressure.
• The instrument has a micrometer head with a vernier scale to read the
accuracy of 0.002mm. Calibrated setting cylinder having the same
diameter as the major diameter of the thread to be measured is used as
setting standard.

• After setting the standard, the setting cylinder is held between the anvils,
and the reading is taken.
• Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded workpiece and the new
reading is taken.

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Bench micrometer Holding centre H olding centre

M easuring anvil M easuring anvil

Standard Cylinder

Screw Thread
M easurem ent of M ajor diam eter

Measurement of the major diameter of an Internal thread:

• The Inter thread major diameter is usually measured by a thread
comparator fitted with ball-ended styli.
• First the Instrument is set for a cylindrical reference having the same
diameter of the major diameter of the internal thread and the reading is
taken.
• Then the floating head is retracted to engage the tips of the styli at the
root of the spring under pressure.
• For that the new reading is taken.

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2) Measurement of Minor diameter:

• The minor diameter is measured by a comparative method by using
floating carriage diameter measuring machine and small ‘V pieces which
make contact with the root of the thread.
• These V pieces are made in several sizes, having suitable radii at the
edges.
• V pieces are made of hardened steel.
• The floating carriage diameter-measuring machine is a bench
micrometer mounted on a carriage.

Measurement process:
➢ The threaded work piece is mounted between
the centers of the instrument and the V pieces
are placed on each side of the work piece and
then the reading is noted.
Anvils being set
➢ After taking this reading the work piece is
then replaced by a standard reference

Thread being measured

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Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads:

1. Using taper parallels:

• For diameters less than 200mm the use of
Taper parallels and micrometer is very
common.
• The taper parallels are pairs of wedges
having reduced and parallel outer edges.
• The diameter across their outer edges can Measurement of minor diameter of
internal thread using taper parallels
be changed by sliding them over each
other.

2. Using rollers:
• For more than 20mm diameter this
method is used. Precision rollers are
inserted inside the thread and proper
slip gauge is inserted between the
rollers.
• The minor diameter is then the
length of slip gauges plus twice the Measurement of minor diameter of
thread using rollers
diameter of roller.

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Measurement of Effective Diameter

One wire method:
• This method is used if a standard gauge of
the same dimension as the theoretical value
of dimension over wire is available.
• First of all, the micrometer anvils are set
over the standard gauge and the dimension is
noted down. Thereafter, the screw to be
inspected is held either in hand or in a
fixture, and the micrometer anvils are set
over the wire as shown in Fig.

• Micrometer readings are taken at two or three different locations and the
average value is calculated.
• This value is compared with the value obtained with the standard gauge.
• The resulting difference is a reflection of error in the effective diameter
of the screw.
• An important point to be kept in mind is that the diameter of the wire
selected should be such that it makes contact with the screw along the
pitch cylinder.

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Two-wire method:
In this method, two steel wires of identical diameter are placed on opposite
flanks of a screw, as shown in Fig.
The distance over wires (M) is measured
using a suitable micrometer. Then, the
effective diameter, De = T + P
where T is the dimension under the wires Two-wire method
and P is the correction factor.

And, T = M − 2d
where d is the diameter of the best-size wire.

These relationships can be easily derived by

referring to Fig. shown.
The two wires of identical diameter are so selected
that they make contact with the screw thread on
the pitch line.
The aforementioned equations are valid only if this
condition is met.

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Since AG accounts for the correction factor only on one side of the screw,
we have to multiply this value by 2 in order to account for that on the
opposite flank.
Therefore, the total correction factor is as follows:
P = 2 AG =p/2cot(x/2) − d[cosec(x/2) − 1]
Although it is possible to measure the value of M, the distance over the
wires, using a handheld micrometer, this method is prone to errors.

Three-wire Method
• The three-wire method is an extension of the principle of the two-wire
method.
• As illustrated in Fig., three wires are used to measure the value of M,
one wire on one side and two wires on adjacent thread flanks on the
other side of the screw.

Three-wire method

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• Measurement can be made either by

holding the screw, wires, and micrometer in
hand or by using a stand with an attachment
to hold the screw in position.
• Since three wires are used, the micrometer
can be positioned more accurately to
measure M, the distance over the wires.
Principle of three-wire method

Now, OC = OA cosec (x/2) =d/2 cosec (x/2)

H =p/2 cot (x/2) and, therefore, BC = H/2 =p/4 cot (x/2)
If h is the height of the center of wire from the pitch line,
then h = OC − BC.
h =d/2 cosec (x/2) −P/4 cot (x/2
Distance over wires, M = E + 2h + 2r, where r is the
radius of the wires.
Therefore, effective diameter
E = M − d cosec (x/2) +p/2 cot (x/2) − d
E = M − d[1 + cosec (x/2)] +p/2cot (x/2)

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Diameter of Best-size Wire

The best-size wire, of diameter d, makes
contact with the thread flank along the pitch
line.
Fig. illustrates the condition achieved by the
best-size wire.
In triangle OAB, sin (AOB) = AB/OB
that is, sin (90 − x/2) = AB/OB
or, OB =AB/sin (90 − x/2)=AB/cos (x/2) Determination of the best-size wire

= AB sec (x/2)

Diameter of the best size wire = 2(OB) = 2(AB) sec (x/2).

However, from Fig., AB = p/4
where p is the pitch of the thread.
Therefore, diameter of the best-size wire is
d = (p/2) sec (x/2)

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Floating Carriage machine

Pitch measurement

The most commonly used methods for measuring the pitch are

1. Tool makers microscope

2. Pitch measuring machine(Pitter and Matrix)
3. Screw pitch gauge or profile gauge
4. Profile projector

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Tool makers microscope: Accuracy: 0.001 mm, for angles 10 sec of arc

Tool makers microscope:

• The Worktable is placed on the base of the instrument.
• The optical head is mounted on a vertical column it can be moved up and
down.
• The work piece is mounted on a glass plate.
Optical head
Eye piece
• A light source provides a horizontal
Column
beam of light which is reflected from a
work table
mirror by 90 degree upwards towards with carriage

Hollow base
the table.
Lamp

• Image of the outline of the contour of Collimator lens

Mirror
the workpiece passes through the Base

objective of the optical head.

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• The image is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass

screen.
• The measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the
ground glass screen.
• The screen can be rotated through 360°.
• Different types of graduated screens and eyepieces are used

Pitch measuring machine(Pitter)

• Spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up the flank of the thread
and down into the next space as it is moved along. The screw is held
stationary between the centers.

• Accurate positioning of the

stylus between the two
flanks is obtained by
ensuring that the pointer T
is always opposite to its
index mark when readings
are taken.

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• When the pointer is accurately placed

in position, the micrometer reading is
noted. The stylus is then moved
along into the next thread space, by
rotation of the micrometer, and a
second reading taken.
• The difference between the two
readings is the pitch of the thread.
Readings are taken in this manner
until the whole length of the screw
thread has been covered.

Matrix Pitch Measuring machine:

• Similar to the Pitter machine.
• Robust in construction and sensitive to measurement
• Accuracy:0.0025 mm over a distance of 50mm for all thread forms
• Micrometer head is provided on the headstock which is fixed to the base.
The rotation of the micrometer head moves the longitudinal carriage
along the bed of the base
• Another carriage carrying the indicating and amplifying units comprising
the stylus.
• The stylus is traversed along the thread, pitch-by-pitch reading being
taken each time the fiducial indicator is set at zero.

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Matrix pitch measuring machine

Profile Projector (optical profile projector)

• By using lenses and beams of light, profiles
of small shapes can be magnified. The
enlarged image can be compared with an
accurate drawing made to the scale of
magnification.
• Such a comparison can reveal any
deviations in the sizes and contours of the
objects and to get a numerical assessment
of such deviations, measurements can be
made on the enlarged shadow.

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Measurement of screw thread angle (Flank angle)

It has a circular scale calibrated in half
degrees, minutes of arc being read off a
tangent screw dial. Each flank angle is
measured separately as shown in figure,
the protractor arm being rotated in turn
to each flank of the projected thread
image. Hence, the included angle of the
thread (2θ) is the sum of the two flank Profile Projector & protractor

angles θ.

Screw Pitch Gauges

• IS:4211-1967, the gauges which help to identify the
thread pitch of ISO metric screw threads in the pitch
range 0.25 to 6.0 mm are made in the form of 24
blades made of suitable tool steel sheet and 0.5 mm
thick.
• 23 for checking the pitches and one having an ISO
profile of 600
• All these blades are assembled in a protective
sheath.
• These are suitable hinged in the sheath with screw
and nut arrangement, and can be easily removed and
rotated.

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