Suggestion for Semester Mobile Communication

1.What do you mean by frequency hopping?

Ans: Frequency hopping is a technique used in wireless communication systems to avoid
interference and to increase security. It involves rapidly switching the carrier frequency of a
transmission according to a pattern known to both the transmitter and receiver. By hopping
among a set of frequencies in a coordinated manner, communication can be maintained even
in the presence of jamming or other sources of interference. This method is widely used in
technologies like Bluetooth and some Wi-Fi standards to improve reliability and privacy.
2. Explain in details the PRN code generation of CDMA.

Ans: PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise) code generation is a crucial aspect of CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access) technology, used to differentiate multiple users' signals in the same frequency
band. Here's a detailed explanation of PRN code generation in CDMA:

1. Background on CDMA

CDMA is a digital cellular technology that allows multiple users to share the same frequency
channel by assigning unique codes to each user. These codes are used to modulate the user's
data signal before transmission. The most common form of these codes is PRN codes.

2. What is PRN Code?

• PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise) Code: It's a sequence of binary values (usually +1 and -1)
that appear random but are deterministically generated. PRN codes have a high auto-
correlation property, meaning they correlate strongly with themselves, and a low cross-
correlation property, meaning they correlate weakly with other PRN codes.

3. PRN Code Properties

• Orthogonality: PRN codes are chosen to be nearly orthogonal to one another. This
property allows multiple users to share the same frequency spectrum without
significantly interfering with each other.
• Periodicity: PRN codes are periodic with a period related to the number of chips (bits) in
the code sequence. The chips are the individual bits in the PRN sequence.

4. PRN Code Generation

Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR) Method:

The most common method for generating PRN codes is the Linear Feedback Shift Register
(LFSR) method. An LFSR is a shift register whose input bit is a linear function of its previous
state.
Steps for PRN Code Generation:

1. Initial State (Seed): The LFSR is initialized with a seed value. The seed value determines
the initial state of the LFSR.
2. Feedback Polynomials: A feedback polynomial is chosen based on the desired
properties of the PRN code. The feedback polynomial determines which bits of the LFSR
are XORed together to produce the new input bit.
3. Clocking the LFSR: The LFSR is clocked (shifted) at the chip rate (much faster than the
data rate) to produce a sequence of bits (chips).
4. Output Mapping: The output bits of the LFSR are then mapped to +1 and -1 (or 0 and 1),
forming the PRN code sequence.
5. Cycle Repetition: The LFSR is clocked for a full cycle (period) to produce the complete
PRN sequence. This sequence repeats periodically.
3. What is frequency reuse ? Explain it.
Ans: Frequency Reuse is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region is done. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or
Frequency sub-bands to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell. The shape of
the cell is Hexagonal. The process of selecting and allocating the frequency sub-bands for all
of the cellular base station within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency
Planning. Salient features of using Frequency Reuse:
• Frequency reuse improve the spectral efficiency and signal Quality (QoS).
• Frequency reuse classical scheme proposed for GSM systems offers a protection
against interference.
• The number of times a frequency can be reused is depend on the tolerance
capacity of the radio channel from the nearby transmitter that is using the same
frequencies.
• In Frequency Reuse scheme, total bandwidth is divided into different sub-bands
that are used by cells.
• Frequency reuse scheme allow WiMax system operators to reuse the same
frequencies at different cell sites.

4. Draw the block diagram of a Cellular Mobile Communication system and explain.
Ans:

5. Explain fixed channel allocation(FCA) and Dynamic channel allocation(DCA).

Ans: Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):

Fixed Channel Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or voice channels are
allocated to the cells. Once the channels are allocated to the specific cells then they cannot
be changed. In FCA channels are allocated in a manner that maximize Frequency reuse.
In cell A 20 Channels or Voice channels are allocated. If all channels are occupied and user
make a call then the call is blocked. Borrowing Channels handles this type of problem. This
cell borrow channels from other cells.
• Advantages :
1. Simple to implement and manage
2. Does not require complex equipment or algorithms
• Disadvantages :
1. Limited channel utilization as unused channels remain unused.
2. Susceptible to interference and congestion.

Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):

Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in which channels are not permanently allocated to
the cells. When a User makes a call request then Base Station (BS) send that request to the
Mobile Station Center (MSC) for the allocation of channels or voice channels. This way the
likelihood of blocking calls is reduced. As traffic increases more channels are assigned and
vice-versa.
• Advantages :
1. Efficient use of available bandwidth.
2. Reduces call blocking and improves call quality.
3. Allows for dynamic allocation of resources.
• Disadvantages :
1. Requires more complex equipment and algorithms.
 2. May result in call drops or poor quality if resources are not available

6. What is WCDMA?what are the main features of WCDMA?

Ans: Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a type of cellular technology that
was developed as a third-generation (3G) mobile communications standard. It is based on the
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technologies that were developed in the 1980s, but it
uses a wider frequency band and provides higher data rates than previous versions of CDMA.
WCDMA was developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a collaboration
between several telecommunications standards organizations. The first version of the
WCDMA standard was released in 1998, and it was later adopted by many mobile network
operators around the world as a way to provide high-speed data services to their customers.
WCDMA was widely adopted as the dominant 3G technology in many parts of the world,
including Europe, Asia, and North America. It offered several benefits over the 2G (second
generation) mobile networks that it replaced, including higher data rates, improved capacity,
and better coverage.
WCDMA has evolved over time, and later versions of the standard (such as High-Speed Packet
Access, or HSPA) have been developed to provide even higher data rates and more efficient
use of the spectrum. Today, WCDMA and its successors are used by billions of people around
the world as a means of accessing the internet and staying connected with others.
WCDMA was eventually superseded by more advanced 4G (fourth generation) technologies,
such as LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access), which offer even higher data rates and improved performance. However, WCDMA is
still used in many parts of the world, especially in areas where 4G networks are not yet available
or are not yet widely adopted.

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a 3G mobile telecommunications

technology that provides high-speed data and voice services. Here are the main features of
WCDMA:

1. Wideband Transmission:

• Increased Bandwidth: WCDMA uses a wider bandwidth compared to earlier CDMA

technologies, allowing for higher data transmission rates and better spectral efficiency.

2. High Data Rates:

• High-Speed Data: WCDMA supports high data rates, up to several Mbps, making it
suitable for multimedia applications, video streaming, and high-speed internet
browsing.

3. Flexible Spectrum Allocation:

 • Variable Channel Sizes: WCDMA supports variable channel sizes (5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15
MHz, and 20 MHz), which allows for more efficient spectrum utilization and the ability
to adapt to different network demands.

4. Quality of Service (QoS):

• Enhanced QoS: WCDMA provides better quality of service for voice and data compared
to previous technologies, ensuring improved call quality, reduced call drops, and better
performance for multimedia applications.

5. Interoperability:

• Global Standard: WCDMA is an internationally recognized standard, ensuring

interoperability and compatibility between different networks and devices worldwide.

6. Soft Handover:

• Seamless Handover: WCDMA supports soft handover, where mobile devices can
maintain connections with multiple base stations simultaneously. This allows for
seamless handovers between cells without interruption to ongoing calls or data
sessions.

7. Efficient Spectrum Use:

• Code Division Multiplexing: WCDMA uses a spreading technique called Code Division
Multiplexing (CDM), which allows multiple users to share the same frequency band. This
improves spectrum efficiency and reduces interference.

8. Support for Multimedia:

• Multimedia Applications: WCDMA supports multimedia applications such as video calls,

mobile TV, and high-speed internet access with improved efficiency and quality.

9. Security:

• Enhanced Security: WCDMA provides enhanced security features, including encryption

and authentication mechanisms, to protect user data and privacy.

10. Evolutionary Path:

• Evolution to LTE: WCDMA serves as the foundation for the evolution to Long Term
Evolution (LTE) and LTE-Advanced (LTE-A), providing a smooth transition path to higher
data rates and improved performance.
7. Draw the architecture of GSM .Describe the function.
Ans:

1. Mobile station (MS) : It refers for mobile station. Simply, it means a mobile phone.
2. Base transceiver system (BTS) : It maintains the radio component with MS.
3. Base station controller (BSC) : Its function is to allocate necessary time slots
between the BTS and MSC.
4. Home location register (HLR) : It is the reference database for subscriber
parameters like subscriber’s ID, location, authentication key, etc.
5. Visitor location register (VLR) : It contains a copy of most of the data stored in HLR
which is temporary and exists only until the subscriber is active.
6. Equipment identity register (EIR) : It is a database that contains a list of valid
mobile equipment on the network.
7. Authentication center (AuC) : It performs authentication of subscribers.

8. Prove that for hexagonal geometry the co-channel reuse ratio is given by Q=√ (3N), where
N=i2+ij+j2.
Ans: solve

9. Explain in details about Agent advertisement and Discovery during IP Packet delivery.

Ans: During IP packet delivery, agent advertisement and discovery are processes that facilitate
communication in networks. Here’s a detailed explanation:

Agent Advertisement and Discovery in IP Packet Delivery

1. Agent Advertisement:

• Definition: Agent advertisement is the process by which a network device (agent)

announces its presence and capabilities to other devices on the network.
 • Purpose: The main purpose of agent advertisement is to notify devices, particularly
hosts, about the availability of services and capabilities of agents that can assist in IP
packet delivery.
• Protocol: In IPv6, agent advertisement is part of the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP).
In IPv4, it's typically part of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
• Details:
o IPv6: Agents (routers) periodically send router advertisement messages to the
local subnet multicast address. These messages contain information such as the
router's IP address, network prefix, and other configuration parameters.
o IPv4: Agents (DHCP servers) send DHCP advertisement messages, which can be
broadcast or unicast, depending on the DHCP configuration. These messages
announce the availability of DHCP services and network configuration
parameters.

2. Agent Discovery:

• Definition: Agent discovery is the process by which hosts on the network identify and
choose an agent (such as a router or DHCP server) to assist in IP packet delivery.
• Purpose: The purpose of agent discovery is to allow hosts to find and select the most
appropriate agent based on factors such as network configuration, availability of
services, and network topology.
• Protocol: The protocol used for agent discovery depends on the version of IP being used
(IPv4 or IPv6).
• Details:
o IPv6 Neighbor Discovery:
▪ Router Solicitation: Hosts send router solicitation messages to the all-
routers multicast address. Routers respond with router advertisement
messages.
▪ Neighbor Solicitation: Hosts use neighbor solicitation messages to
discover the link-layer address of a neighbor or to verify its reachability.
o IPv4 DHCP Discovery:
▪ DHCP Discover: Hosts broadcast DHCP discover messages on the local
subnet to find available DHCP servers.
▪ DHCP Offer: DHCP servers respond with DHCP offer messages containing
network configuration parameters.
▪ DHCP Request and Acknowledge: Hosts choose a DHCP offer and send a
DHCP request message. The DHCP server responds with a DHCP
acknowledge message, confirming the lease of the IP address and other
configuration parameters

10. What are the difficulties in using CSMA/CD in wireless LAN? What alternative method can
be used?
Ans: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a contention-based
access method commonly used in Ethernet networks to regulate access to the shared
communication medium. However, using CSMA/CD in wireless LAN (WLAN) environments
presents several challenges due to the nature of wireless communication. Here are some
difficulties and alternative methods:
### Difficulties in Using CSMA/CD in Wireless LAN:
1. **Hidden Node Problem**: In wireless LANs, nodes may be physically obstructed from each
other, leading to a situation where two nodes cannot detect each other's transmissions. This
can result in collisions that CSMA/CD cannot detect, leading to increased packet loss and
reduced network performance.
2. **Exposed Node Problem**: Conversely, in a wireless LAN, a node may refrain from
transmitting data despite having a clear channel because it detects transmissions from other
nodes that are actually too distant to interfere. This results in inefficient channel utilization as
nodes unnecessarily defer transmissions.
3. **Varying Signal Strength**: Signal strength can vary significantly in wireless environments
due to factors such as distance, obstacles, interference, and fading. Nodes at the edge of the
coverage area may experience weaker signals, leading to higher error rates and increased
likelihood of collisions.
4. **Limited Channel Capacity**: Wireless LANs typically operate in shared frequency bands,
resulting in limited channel capacity. With CSMA/CD, the probability of collisions increases as
the number of active nodes in the network grows, potentially leading to network congestion
and reduced throughput.
### Alternative Method: CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
CSMA/CA is an alternative access method specifically designed for wireless LAN environments.
Instead of detecting collisions after they occur (as in CSMA/CD), CSMA/CA attempts to avoid
collisions altogether by employing a "listen-before-talk" approach. Here's how it works:
- **Carrier Sense (CS)**: Nodes listen to the wireless channel to detect ongoing transmissions.
If the channel is idle for a specified period (Distributed Inter-Frame Space, or DIFS), the node
assumes the channel is clear and proceeds with transmission.
- **Collision Avoidance (CA)**: Before transmitting, a node may perform a virtual carrier
sensing by waiting for an additional random period (Random Backoff Time) after the DIFS. This
helps mitigate the hidden node problem and reduces the likelihood of collisions.
- **Acknowledgment (ACK)**: After transmitting a data frame, the sender waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) frame from the receiver. If no ACK is received within a specified time,
the sender assumes the frame was lost due to a collision or other error and retries
transmission.
CSMA/CA is better suited to the wireless environment because it reduces the probability of
collisions and improves channel utilization efficiency compared to CSMA/CD. It addresses the
challenges of hidden and exposed node problems and adapts to varying signal strengths and
network conditions in wireless LANs.
11. What are the differences between soft handoff and hard handoff?
Ans:
 Feature Soft Handoff Hard Handoff
Simultaneous connection to
Definition Brief interruption during handover.
multiple cells.
Non-disruptive, continuous Disruptive, momentary loss of
Handover Type
handover. connection.
Mobile device connects to new cell
Network Mobile device disconnects from the old
before disconnecting from the old
Behavior cell before connecting to the new cell.
cell.
Overlap Cells may overlap. Minimal or no overlap.
Used in CDMA (Code Division Used in GSM (Global System for Mobile
Implementation
Multiple Access) networks. Communications) networks.
Complexity More complex to implement. Relatively simpler to implement.
Delay Longer handover delay. Shorter handover delay.
Spectrum
More efficient use of spectrum. Less efficient use of spectrum.
Efficiency
Potential drop in call quality during
Coverage Better coverage and call quality.
handover.
Power May lead to higher power
More efficient power management.
Management consumption.
Used in WCDMA (Wideband Code
Examples Used in 2G and 3G GSM networks.
Division Multiple Access) networks.

12. Discuss in detail about location management in mobile network.

Ans: Location management in mobile networks refers to the processes and protocols used to
track and update the current location of mobile devices as they move between different
geographical areas. This is crucial for ensuring that incoming calls and data can reach the
mobile device seamlessly regardless of its current location. Here's a detailed discussion on
location management:

1. Basic Concepts

• Mobile Subscriber Identity (MSID): Each mobile device is assigned a unique MSID,
which is used to identify and track the device within the network.
• Location Area (LA): A location area is a geographical area in which a mobile device can
move without triggering an update of its location to the network.
• Tracking Area (TA): A tracking area is a subset of a location area. It is the smallest unit
for which location update is required when a mobile device moves between tracking
areas.

2. Components of Location Management

 • Location Update: When a mobile device moves into a new tracking area, it notifies the
network by performing a location update. This update is necessary to inform the
network about the current location of the mobile device.
• Location Update Types:
o Periodic Update: The mobile device periodically updates its location to the
network even if it hasn't moved.
o IMSI Attach: The mobile device updates its location when it initially attaches to
the network.
o Location Area Update (LAU): The mobile device updates its location when it
moves to a new location area.
• Location Registration: The process by which the network updates the current location
of a mobile device in its location register.
• Location Management Database: The network maintains a database (Location Register)
that keeps track of the current location of all registered mobile devices.

3. Handover Management

• Handover: When a mobile device moves from one cell to another, the network
performs a handover to maintain the ongoing communication session. Location
management plays a role in ensuring that the handover process is smooth and seamless.
• Types of Handover:
o Intra-cell Handover: Handover between different sectors of the same cell.
o Inter-cell Handover: Handover between cells belonging to the same location
area.
o Inter-location Area Handover: Handover between cells belonging to different
location areas.

4. Location Management Procedures

• Location Update Procedure:

1. The mobile device detects a change in tracking area.
2. It sends a location update request to the network, providing its current location
and MSID.
3. The network updates the Location Register with the new location information.
• Call Delivery Procedure:
1. When a call or data packet is received for a mobile device, the network consults
the Location Register to find the current location of the device.
2. The call or data packet is then routed to the current location of the mobile
device.

5. Challenges and Solutions

• Optimization: Efficient location management techniques are required to minimize

signaling overhead and delay associated with frequent location updates.
 • Security: Location management procedures must be secure to prevent unauthorized
access to subscriber information.
• Roaming: Location management also supports roaming, allowing mobile devices to
maintain service while traveling in different countries or regions.

6. Examples

• GSM/UMTS: Use Location Area and Tracking Area concepts with a Visitor Location
Register (VLR) and Home Location Register (HLR) for location management.
• LTE: Similar principles with tracking areas and mobility management entities (MMEs) for
location updates and handover management.
13. How a reverse tunnel does differ from a forward tunnel in mobile IP protocol?
Ans:
Feature Reverse Tunneling Forward Tunneling
In reverse tunneling, the mobile node's In forward tunneling, the HA encapsulates
Definition traffic is encapsulated and forwarded to and forwards the mobile node's traffic to
the home agent (HA). the care-of address (CoA).
Traffic Traffic flows from the mobile node to Traffic flows from the HA to the mobile
Flow the HA. node.
Used when the mobile node is behind a Used when the mobile node is roaming and
Purpose NAT or firewall, and cannot receive needs to maintain connectivity without
incoming traffic directly. changing its IP address.
Home Agent is configured to accept Care-of Address (CoA) is registered
Network
and decapsulate packets for the with the HA to forward packets to the
Configuration
mobile node. mobile node.
Use Often used when the mobile node is Commonly used during handovers and
Case stationary or has a predictable location. when the mobile node is roaming.
IP-in-IP encapsulation is typically IP-in-IP encapsulation is also typically
Encapsulation
used. used.
May reduce scalability due to Generally more scalable, as traffic is
Scalability
potential congestion at the HA. distributed between the HA and CoA.
Requires additional security considerations May provide better security as traffic can
Security
for traffic going through the HA. be encrypted from the HA to the CoA.
More straightforward to configure for More complex due to potential changes in
Complexity
the mobile node. the CoA during roaming.
Example Mobile IPv4 (MIPv4) and Mobile IPv6 Mobile IPv4 (MIPv4) and Mobile IPv6
Protocol (MIPv6). (MIPv6).

14. Describe the entities associated with MOBILE IP packet delivery system in Mobile IP.
Ans: In Mobile IP packet delivery system, several key entities are involved to ensure seamless
communication for mobile devices as they move across different networks. Here's a short
description of each entity:

Entities in Mobile IP Packet Delivery System

1. Mobile Node (MN):

o Definition: A mobile device that moves between different IP networks while
maintaining ongoing communications.
o Role: Initiates mobility management procedures such as registration and
handover.
2. Home Agent (HA):
o Definition: A router on the home network of the mobile node.
o Role: Acts as a gateway for the mobile node when it is away from its home
network. It maintains the current location (care-of address) of the mobile node
and forwards packets destined for the mobile node to its current location.
3. Foreign Agent (FA):
o Definition: A router on a visited network (foreign network) that assists the
mobile node.
o Role: Provides routing services to the mobile node while it is visiting the foreign
network. It typically assigns a care-of address to the mobile node and forwards
packets from the home agent to the mobile node.
4. Home Address (HoA):
o Definition: The permanent IP address of the mobile node on its home network.
o Role: Used as a permanent address of the mobile node, even when the mobile
node is away from its home network.
5. Care-of Address (CoA):
o Definition: The temporary IP address of the mobile node on the foreign network.
o Role: Used to route packets to the mobile node while it is away from its home
network. The foreign agent typically assigns the care-of address to the mobile
node.
6. Correspondent Node (CN):
o Definition: A node with which the mobile node communicates.
o Role: Sends and receives packets to and from the mobile node, regardless of its
current location. The correspondent node is typically unaware of the mobile
node's mobility.
15. What is Hidden-Exposed problem?
Ans: The hidden-exposed terminal problem is a phenomenon in wireless communication
networks where a node may incorrectly sense the status of the wireless medium due to the
presence of other nodes that are out of its transmission range or hidden by physical obstacles.
Here's a short explanation:
In wireless networks, the hidden terminal problem occurs when a node senses the medium as
idle because it cannot detect transmissions from other nodes that are hidden from its view. As
a result, it may start transmitting, causing collisions at the receiver. Conversely, the exposed
terminal problem happens when a node refrains from transmitting, incorrectly sensing that the
medium is busy because it detects transmissions from a node that is too distant to cause
interference. These issues can lead to inefficient channel utilization and degraded network
performance. Various protocols and techniques, such as RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to
Send), are used to mitigate these problems in wireless communication.
16. What is HIPERLAN? What are the four different versions of HIPERLAN?

Ans: HIPERLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network) is a standard for wireless
communication networks designed to provide high-speed data transmission and multimedia
services within a local area. It was developed by the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) to address the increasing demand for wireless LANs with enhanced capabilities.
Here's an overview of HIPERLAN and its different versions:

HIPERLAN Versions:

1. HIPERLAN Type 1 (H1):

o Description: The first version of HIPERLAN, standardized in ETSI in the mid-
1990s.
o Features: It operates in the 5 GHz frequency band and provides data rates of up
to 23.5 Mbps.
o Applications: Initially intended for indoor wireless LAN applications, including
high-speed internet access and multimedia streaming.
2. HIPERLAN Type 2 (H2):
o Description: An evolution of HIPERLAN Type 1, designed to support more
advanced applications and services.
o Features: Offers improved data rates of up to 54 Mbps and supports Quality of
Service (QoS) features for multimedia traffic.
o Applications: Suitable for both indoor and outdoor wireless LAN deployments,
including enterprise networks and public hotspots.
3. HIPERLAN Type 2 Extended (H2E):
o Description: An extension of HIPERLAN Type 2 to enhance its capabilities further.
o Features: It extends the operating frequency band to include both 5 GHz and 17
GHz bands, providing greater flexibility and capacity.
o Applications: Intended for high-capacity outdoor wireless LANs, point-to-
multipoint links, and backhaul connections in wireless networks.
4. HIPERLAN/2:
o Description: HIPERLAN/2, also known as IEEE 802.11a, is a standard based on the
HIPERLAN Type 2 specification.
o Features: It operates in the 5 GHz frequency band and offers data rates of up to
54 Mbps, similar to HIPERLAN Type 2.
 o Applications: Widely adopted for both indoor and outdoor wireless LAN
deployments, providing high-speed internet access, multimedia streaming, and
voice over IP (VoIP) services.

17. Briefly describe the architecture of Bluetooth.

Ans: The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
Piconet: Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the
master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there
is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication
between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible
communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not
possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation
in communication unless it gets converted to the active state.

Bluetooth Architecture

Scatternet: It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can
act as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a
message from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other
piconet where it is acting as a master. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A
station cannot be mastered in two piconets.

18. What is WAP? Explain various aspect of WAP in mobile communication.

Ans: WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-
browsers and it enables access to the internet in mobile devices. It uses the markup
language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML is defined as an XML 1.0
application. It enables the creation of web applications for mobile devices. In 1998,
WAP Forum was founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose aim was to
standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols. WAP protocol resulted from the
joint efforts of the various members of WAP Forum. In 2002, WAP forum was merged with
various other forums in the industry resulting in the formation of Open Mobile Alliance
(OMA).

Various aspects of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) in mobile communication explained

briefly:

1. Protocol Suite: WAP uses a suite of protocols designed specifically for wireless devices
to access information and services over mobile networks. These protocols include WAP
itself, WML (Wireless Markup Language) for content presentation, WTLS (Wireless
Transport Layer Security) for secure communication, and others. WAP protocols are
optimized for low-bandwidth and high-latency environments typical of mobile networks.
2. Functionality: WAP enables mobile devices to access a range of internet-based services,
including web browsing, email, and messaging. Mobile-friendly versions of web pages
are accessed through WAP browsers, which are designed to render content on small
screens and with limited input capabilities. WAP also supports push content delivery,
enabling real-time updates and notifications.
3. Components:
o WAP Browser: Software on mobile devices that interprets WML content and
displays it on the screen. It communicates with WAP gateways to access internet
content.
o WAP Gateway: Acts as a bridge between mobile devices and the internet,
translating requests and responses between WAP protocols and standard
internet protocols (HTTP, TCP/IP).
o WAP Server: Hosts WML content and services, providing access to information
and applications tailored for mobile users.
4. Evolution: Initially introduced in the late 1990s, WAP has undergone several iterations
and improvements. Newer versions enhanced security, performance, and compatibility
with modern mobile devices. However, the dominance of HTML5 and native mobile
applications has largely supplanted WAP for mobile internet access.
5. Impact: WAP played a crucial role in enabling early mobile internet access, offering basic
web browsing, email, and messaging capabilities. It facilitated the development of
mobile-friendly websites and services, paving the way for the mobile internet era.
Despite its decline, WAP laid the foundation for subsequent mobile communication
standards and technologies.