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Precipitation Science
Measurement, Remote Sensing,
Microphysics, and Modeling
Precipitation Science
Measurement, Remote Sensing,
Microphysics, and Modeling
Edited by
Silas Michaelides
Climate and Atmosphere Research Center (CARE-C),
The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Silas Michaelides
Climate and Atmosphere Research Center (CARE-C),
The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
Contents
List of contributors ............................................................................................... xvii
Foreword ................................................................................................................xxv
Preface ................................................................................................................ xxvii
Related titles by Silas Michaelides ......................................................................xxix
Credits ..................................................................................................................xxxv
vii
viii Contents
xxv
xxvi Foreword
Vincenzo Levizzani
National Council of Research of Italy, Institute of
Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), Bologna, Italy
Preface
This book entitled Precipitation Science—Measurement, Remote Sensing,
Microphysics, and Modeling aspires to assemble and present a state-of-the-art
treatise on precipitation which is unquestionably a vital source of fresh water.
This book is primarily addressed to those who are involved in precipitation
research but also to those whose research interests fall within the wider area of
Atmospheric Sciences that encompass this extremely important weather phenome-
non. In addition, this book aims at those scientists from other disciplines who
wish to have an up-to-date comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted char-
acter of precipitation. Moreover, newcomers in the field will find the book quite
informative, as it covers a wide spectrum of precipitation knowledge.
Indeed, as its subtitle suggests, the book encompasses four chief areas of
Precipitation Science, namely, the Measurement, Remote Sensing, Microphysics,
and Modeling. The volume consists of 25 chapters. For the ease of reference, the
chapters elaborating various aspects of the field are separated into four sections,
each devoted to one of the four constituent thematic parts of the subtitle.
Apparently, there can be no strict categorization of all the chapters, and the sepa-
ration of them into four sections is by no means exclusive, as some of the individ-
ual chapters may touch upon two or more of these sections. On the one hand, in
the assignment of writing tasks to the large number of authors involved in the
structuring of the chapters, every effort has been made to avoid overlapping of
the material covered, as much as possible. On the other hand, complementary
writing of the chapters was encouraged.
Under the Measurement thematic section, four chapters on precipitation
recording and methodologies for quality control and verification are presented. In
the Remote Sensing section, ten chapters with emphasis on satellite precipitation
monitoring and satellite-related precipitation records are presented. The
Microphysics section is covered by five chapters, focusing on ice particles, rain-
drop size distribution, atmospheric moisture, and cloud processes. The section
devoted to Modeling features six chapters on quantitative precipitation forecast-
ing, and on radar and lightning data assimilation in numerical models.
In an effort to compile a volume with a state-of-the-art coverage of the most
important aspects of Precipitation Science, the book represents the collaborative
outcome of the work performed by 95 renowned scientists who have insightfully
contributed to it with their knowledge, expertise, and research findings. Also, it is
worth mentioning that in this book a range of spatial scales are covered, ranging
from local and regional to global, reflecting upon the respective spatial dimen-
sions of interest in Precipitation Science. I trust that the readers of this book will
appreciate it as a useful resource of information on precipitation and that it
will promote further creative exploration of the various scientific facets of
Precipitation Science.
xxvii
xxviii Preface
I feel the need to add that the book was written, compiled, and published dur-
ing the COVID-19 pandemic. This adverse situation made the endeavor of com-
pleting the various tasks within the original time schedule particularly hard for
some of the contributors who have been impacted in various ways. As the Editor
of this book, coordinating the work under these conditions was sometimes diffi-
cult; however, the completion of the book with only small deviations from the
original plan is credited to the strong commitment of all the contributing indivi-
duals. Closely collaborating with an outstanding group of esteemed colleagues
from many different parts of the world made my work a challenging but enjoy-
able experience.
As the Editor of this book, I wish to express my gratitude to all the contribut-
ing authors who have accepted the invitation to share their scientific expertise
with the wider community. I trust that with their focused contributions, individual
authors and groups of collaborating authors make this book an important collec-
tion of chapters, covering a wide spectrum of precipitation-related aspects. I also
wish to express my thanks to the staff of Elsevier that provided the required edito-
rial support during the compilation of this volume.
Silas Michaelides
Climate and Atmosphere Research Center (CARE-C),
The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
Related titles by Silas Michaelides
Silas Michaelides
Climate and Atmosphere Research Center (CARE-C),
The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
References
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L., Ramis, C., Homar, V., Romero, R., Michaelides, S., & Manes, A. (2002). The para-
doxical increase of Mediterranean extreme daily rainfall in spite of decrease in total
values. Geophysical Research Letters, 29, 1 31. Available from https://doi.org/
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xxx Related titles by Silas Michaelides
Gabella, M., Michaelides, S. C., Constantinides, P., & Perona, G. (2006). Climatological
validation of TRMM precipitation radar monthly rain products over Cyprus during the
first 5 years (December 1997 to November 2002). Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 15(5),
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Gabella, M., & Michaelides, S. (2008). Adjusting ground radar using space TRMM precip-
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(pp. 493 514). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-540-77655-0_19.
Gabella, M., Morin, E., Notarpietro, R., & Michaelides, S. (2013). Winter precipitation
fields in the Southeastern Mediterranean area as seen by the Ku-band spaceborne
weather radar and two C-band ground-based radars. Atmospheric Research, 119,
120 130. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.06.001.
Gabella, M., Joss, J., Perona, G., & Michaelides, S. (2006). Range adjustment for ground-
based radar, derived with the spaceborne TRMM precipitation radar. IEEE
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Golz, C., Einfalt, T., & Michaelides, S. C. (2006). Quality control of rainfall measurements
in Cyprus. Meteorological Applications, 13(2), 197 201. Available from https://doi.
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Hadjimitsis, D., Mitraka, Z., Gazani, I., Retalis, A., Chrysoulakis, N., & Michaelides, S.
(2011). Estimation of spatio-temporal distribution of precipitable water using MODIS
and AVHRR data: A case study for Cyprus. Advances in Geosciences, 30, 23 29.
Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-30-23-2011.
Hadjimitsis, D. G., Papadavid, G., Agapiou, A., Themistocleous, K., Hadjimitsis, M. G.,
Retalis, A., Michaelides, S., Chrysoulakis, N., Toulios, L., Clayton, I., & R., C. (2010).
Atmospheric correction for satellite remotely sensed data intended for agricultural
applications: Impact on vegetation indices. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science,
10(1), 89 95. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-89-2010.
Hatzaki, M., Lingis, P., Flocas, H. A., Michaelides, S., & Oikonomou, C. (2008). The
impact of an upper tropospheric teleconnection pattern on precipitation extremes over
Cyprus. Advances in Geosciences, 16, 131 136. Available from https://doi.org/
10.5194/adgeo-16-131-2008.
Ivanov, S., Michaelides, S., Ruban, I., Charalambous, D., & Tymvios, F. (2021). Impact of
radar data assimilation on simulations of precipitable water with the Harmonie model:
A case study over Cyprus. Atmospheric Research, 253. Available from https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105473.
Ivanov, S., Michaelides, S., & Ruban, I. (2018). Mesoscale resolution radar data assimila-
tion experiments with the harmonie model. Remote Sensing, 10(9), 1453. Available
from https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10091453.
Joss, J., Gabella, M., Michaelides, S. C., & Perona, G. (2006). Variation of weather radar
sensitivity at ground level and from space: Case studies and possible causes.
Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 15(5), 485 496. Available from https://doi.org/10.1127/
0941-2948/2006/0150.
Katsanos, D., Retalis, A., & Michaelides, S. (2016). Validation of a high-resolution precipi-
tation database (CHIRPS) over Cyprus for a 30-year period. Atmospheric Research,
169, 459 464. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.05.015.
Related titles by Silas Michaelides xxxi
Katsanos, D., Retalis, A., Tymvios, F., & Michaelides, S. (2016). Analysis of precipitation
extremes based on satellite (CHIRPS) and in situ dataset over Cyprus. Natural
Hazards, 83, 53 63. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2335-8.
Katsanos, D., Retalis, A., Tymvios, F., & Michaelides, S. (2018). Study of extreme wet
and dry periods in Cyprus using climatic indices. Atmospheric Research, 208, 88 93.
Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.09.002.
Lane, J., Kasparis, T., Michaelides, S., & Metzger, P. (2017). A phenomenological relation-
ship between vertical air motion and disdrometer derived A-b coefficients. Atmospheric
Research, 208, 94 105. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.07.011.
Lingis, P., & Michaelides, S. C. (2009). Teleconnection patterns of the Siberian
Anticyclone and precipitation over Cyprus. Atmospheric Research, 94(4), 663 674.
Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.05.013.
Llasat, M. C., Llasat-Botija, M., Prat, M. A., Porcú, F., Price, C., Mugnai, A.,
Lagouvardos, K., Kotroni, V., Katsanos, D., Michaelides, S., Yair, Y., Savvidou, K., &
Nicolaides, K. (2010). High-impact floods and flash floods in Mediterranean countries:
The FLASH preliminary database. Advances in Geosciences, 23, 47 55. Available
from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-23-47-2010.
Mariani, S., Accadia, C., Tartaglione, N., Casaioli, M., Gabella, M., Michaelides, S. C., &
Speranza, A. (2008). Multisensor comparison and numerical modeling of atmospheric
water fields: A VOLTAIRE case study over Cyprus. Weather and Forecasting, 23(4),
674 701. Available from https://doi.org/10.1175/2007WAF2007032.1.
Michaelides, S., Lane, J., & Kasparis, T. (2019). Effect of vertical air motion on disdrom-
eter derived Z-R coefficients. Atmosphere, 10(2), 77. Available from https://doi.org/
10.3390/atmos10020077.
Michaelides, S. C., Savvidou, K., Nicolaides, K. A., Orphanou, A., Photiou, G., &
Kannaouros, C. (2008). Synoptic, thermodynamic and agroeconomic aspects of severe
hail events in Cyprus. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, 8(3), 461 471.
Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-8-461-2008.
Michaelides, S., Savvidou, K., & Nicolaides, K. (2010). Relationships between lightning
and rainfall intensities during rainy events in Cyprus. Advances in Geosciences, 23,
87 92. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-23-87-2010.
Michaelides, S., Levizzani, V., Anagnostou, E., Bauer, P., Kasparis, T., & Lane, J. E.
(2009). Precipitation: Measurement, remote sensing, climatology and modeling.
Atmospheric Research, 94(4), 512 533. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosres.2009.08.017.
Michaelides, S. C., Tymvios, F. S., & Michaelidou, T. (2009). Spatial and temporal charac-
teristics of the annual rainfall frequency distribution in Cyprus. Atmospheric Research,
94(4), 606 615. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.04.008.
Michaelides, S., & Pashiardis, S. (2008). Monitoring drought in Cyprus during the
2007 2008 hydrometeorological year by using the Standardized Precipitation Index
(SPI). European Water, 23/24, 123 131. Available from https://www.ewra.net/ew/pdf/
EW_2008_23-24_11.pdf.
Michaelides. (2008). Precipitation: Advances in measurement, estimation and prediction.
Springer-Verlag p. XXX, 540pp. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-
77655-0.
Michaelides, S. C., Pattichis, C. S., & Kleovoulou, G. (2001). Classification of rainfall var-
iability by using artificial neural networks. International Journal of Climatology, 21
(11), 1401 1414. Available from https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.702.
xxxii Related titles by Silas Michaelides
Michaelides, S. C., Savvidou, K., Nicolaides, K. A., & Charalambous, M. (2009). In search
for relationships between lightning and rainfall with a rectangular grid-box methodol-
ogy. Advances in Geosciences, 20, 51 56. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/
adgeo-20-51-2009.
Michaelides, S., Karacostas, T., Sánchez, J. L., Retalis, A., Pytharoulis, I., Homar, V.,
Romero, R., Zanis, P., Giannakopoulos, C., Bühl, J., Ansmann, A., Merino, A.,
Melcón, P., Lagouvardos, K., Kotroni, V., Bruggeman, A., López-Moreno, J. I.,
Berthet, C., Katragkou, E., et al. (2018). Reviews and perspectives of high impact
atmospheric processes in the Mediterranean. Atmospheric Research, 208, 4 44.
Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.11.022.
Morsy, M., Scholten, T., Michaelides, S., Borg, E., Sherief, Y., & Dietrich, P. (2021).
Comparative analysis of TMPA and IMERG precipitation datasets in the arid environ-
ment of El-Qaa plain, Sinai. Remote Sensing, 13(4), 1 19. Available from https://doi.
org/10.3390/rs13040588.
Nicolaides, K. A., Michaelides, S. C., Savvidou, K., Orphanou, A., Constantinides, P.,
Charalambous, M., & Michaelides, M. (2008). Case studies of selected Project “Flash”
events. Advances in Geosciences, 17, 93 98. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/
adgeo-17-93-2009.
Nicolaides, K. A., Photiou, G., Savvidou, K., Orphanou, A., Michaelides, S. C.,
Karakostas, T. S., Charalambous, D., & Kannaouros, C. (2008). The impact of hail
storms on the agricultural economy of Cyprus and their characteristics. Advances in
Geosciences, 17, 99 103. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-17-99-2009.
Nicolaides, K. A., Photiou, G., Savvidou, K., Orphanou, A., Michaelides, S. C.,
Karakostas, T. S., Charalambous, D., & Kannaouros, C. (2008). The impact of hail
storms on the agricultural economy of Cyprus and their characteristics. Advances in
Geosciences, 17, 99 103. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-17-99-2009.
Orphanou, A., Nicolaides, K., Charalambous, D., Lingis, P., & Michaelides, S. C. (2010).
Tropopause and jetlet characteristics in relation to thunderstorm development over
Cyprus. Advances in Geosciences, 23, 113 117. Available from https://doi.org/
10.5194/adgeo-23-113-2010.
Panagos, P., Borrelli, P., Spinoni, J., Ballabio, C., Meusburger, K., Beguerı́a, S., Klik, A.,
Michaelides, S., Petan, S., Hrabalı́ková, M., Olsen, P., Aalto, J., Lakatos, M.,
Rymszewicz, A., Dumitrescu, A., Tadić, M. P., Diodato, N., Kostalova, J., Rousseva,
S., et al. (2016). Monthly rainfall erosivity: Conversion factors for different time reso-
lutions and regional assessments. Water, 8(4), 119. Available from https://doi.org/
10.3390/w8040119.
Panagos, P., Ballabio, C., Borrelli, P., Meusburger, K., Klik, A., Rousseva, S., Tadić,
M. P., Michaelides, S., Hrabalı́ková, M., Olsen, P., Aalto, J., Lakatos, M., Rymszewicz,
A., Dumitrescu, A., Beguerı́a, S., & Alewell, C. (2015). Rainfall erosivity in Europe.
Science of the Total Environment, 511, 801 814. Available from https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.008.
Panagos, P., Ballabio, C., Borrelli, P., Meusburger, K., Klik, A., Rousseva, S., Tadić,
M. P., Michaelides, S., Hrabalı́ková, M., Olsen, P., Aalto, J., Lakatos, M., Rymszewicz,
A., Dumitrescu, A., Beguerı́a, S., & Alewell, C. (2015). Reply to the comment on
“Rainfall erosivity in Europe” by Auerswald et al. Science of the Total Environment,
532, 853 857. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.020.
Papadavid, G. C., Agapiou, A., Michaelides, S., & Hadjimitsis, D. G. (2009). The integra-
tion of remote sensing and meteorological data for monitoring irrigation demand in
Related titles by Silas Michaelides xxxiii
Cyprus. Natural Hazards Earth System Sciences, 9(6), 2009 2014. Available from
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-9-2009-2009.
Papadavid, G., Hadjimitsis, D. G., Perdikou, S., Michaelides, S., Toulios, L., & Seraphides,
N. (2011). Use of field spectroscopy for exploring the impact of atmospheric effects on
landsat 5 TM/7 ETM 1 satellite images intended for hydrological purposes in Cyprus.
GIScience & Remote Sensing, 48(2), 280 298. Available from https://doi.org/10.2747/
1548-1603.48.2.280.
Pashiardis, S., & Michaelides, S. (2008). Regional drought assessment based on the stan-
dardized precipitation index (SPI) and the reconnaissance drought index (RDI): A case
study for Cyprus. European Water, 23/24, 57 65. Available from https://www.ewra.
net/ew/pdf/EW_2008_23-24_05.pdf.
Price, C., Yair, Y., Mugnai, A., Lagouvardos, K., Llasat, M. C., Michaelides, S., Dayan,
U., Dietrich, S., Galanti, E., Garrote, L., Harats, N., Katsanos, D., Kohn, M., Kotroni,
V., Llasat-Botija, M., Lynn, B., Mediero, L., Morin, E., Nicolaides, K., et al. (2011).
The FLASH Project: Using lightning data to better understand and predict flash floods.
Environmental Science and Policy, 14(7), 898 911. Available from https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.envsci.2011.03.004.
Price, C., Yair, Y., Mugnai, A., Lagouvardos, K., Llasat, M. C., Michaelides, S., Dayan,
U., Dietrich, S., Di Paola, F. D., Galanti, E., Garrote, L., Harats, N., Katsanos, D.,
Kohn, M., Kotroni, V., Llasat-Botija, M., Lynn, B., Mediero, L., Morin, E., et al.
(2011). Using lightning data to better understand and predict flash floods in the
Mediterranean. Surveys in Geophysics, 32(6), 733 751. Available from https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10712-011-9146-y.
Retalis, A., Tymvios, F., Katsanos, D., & Michaelides, S. (2017). Downscaling CHIRPS
precipitation data: An artificial neural network modelling approach. International
Journal of Remote Sensing, 38(13), 3943 3959. Available from https://doi.org/
10.1080/01431161.2017.1312031.
Retalis, A., Katsanos, D., & Michaelides, S. (2016). Precipitation climatology over the
Mediterranean Basin—Validation over Cyprus. Atmospheric Research, 169, 449 458.
Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.01.012.
Retalis, A., Katsanos, D., Tymvios, F., & Michaelides, S. (2020). Comparison of GPM
IMERG and TRMM 3B43 products over Cyprus. Remote Sensing, 12(19), 1 18.
Available from https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12193212.
Retalis, A., Katsanos, D., Tymvios, F., & Michaelides, S. (2018). Validation of the first
years of GPM operation over Cyprus. Remote Sensing, 10(10), 1520. Available from
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101520.
Rossa, A., Bruen, M., Frühwald, D., McPherson, B., Holleman, I., Michelson, D., &
Michaelides, S. (2006). Use of radar observations in hydrological and NWP models.
Final report. VIII, 286pp. Available from: Publication Office of the European Union.
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/32a66ae5-c273-4909-a0a4-
6cbc1933b936/language-en/format-PDF/source-search#document-info
Savvidou, K., Nicolaides, K. A., Michaelides, S. C., Orphanou, A., Charalambous, M., &
Adamou, S. (2008). A study of the flood events in Cyprus. Advances in Science and
Research, 2(1), 127 131. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-2-127-2008.
Savvidou, K., Lagouvardos, K., Michaelides, S., Kotroni, V., & Constantinides, P. (2010).
Verification of the BOLAM weather prediction model over the area of Cyprus.
Advances in Geosciences, 23, 93 100. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-
23-93-2010.
xxxiv Related titles by Silas Michaelides
Savvidou, K., Michaelides, S. C., Orphanou, A., Constantinides, P., Schulz, J. P., Voigt,
U., & Savvides, M. (2007). Verification of precipitation forecasts by the DWD limited
area model LME over Cyprus. Advances in Geosciences, 10, 133 138. Available from
https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-10-133-2007.
Savvidou, K., Orphanou, A., Charalambous, D., Lingis, P., & Michaelides, S. (2010). A
statistical analysis of sounding derived indices and parameters for extreme and non-
extreme thunderstorm events over Cyprus. Advances in Geosciences, 23, 79 85.
Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-23-79-2010.
Savvidou, K., Nicolaides, K. A., Michaelides, S. C., Orphanou, A., Charalambous, M., &
Adamou, S. (2008). A study of the flood events in Cyprus. Advances in Science and
Research, 2(1), 127 131. Available from https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-2-127-2008.
Tartaglione, N., Mariani, S., Accadia, C., Michaelides, S., & Casaioli, M. (2008). Objective
verification of spatial precipitation forecasts. Precipitation: Advances in measurement,
estimation and prediction (pp. 453 472). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Available from
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77655-0_17.
Tartaglione, N., Mariani, S., Accadia, C., Casaioli, M., Gabella, M., Michaelides, S. C., &
Speranza, A. (2006). Sensitivity of forecast rainfall verification to a radar adjustment
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Credits
Credits for the four photographs used in the design of the cover are given to the
following:
The photograph depicting the deployment of
a hydrophone system in the Aegean Sea was pro-
vided by Dr. Marios Anagnostou; it was attached
to one of the Poseidon II project buoys of the
Hellenic Centre of Marine Research.
xxxv
xxxvi Credits
Silas Michaelides
Climate and Atmosphere Research Center (CARE-C),
The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
PART
Precipitation
Measurement
1
CHAPTER
Chaper Outline
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Precipitation measurement biases ..................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Instrumental biases and calibration procedures for catching gauges ....6
1.2.2 Calibration of non-catching gauges .................................................10
1.3 Wind-induced bias of catching gauges ............................................................ 12
1.3.1 Computational fluid dynamic simulations ........................................13
1.3.2 Particle tracking model and collection efficiency curves ...................15
1.4 Intercomparison of precipitation measurement instruments ............................... 22
1.5 Concluding remarks ........................................................................................ 30
References ............................................................................................................ 31
1.1 Introduction
In situ liquid and solid precipitation measurements are the essential source of
information about the precipitation process, its spatiotemporal variability, and
observed frequency. Other sources are remote sensing or the measurement of
hydrologically related variables (e.g., the water flow in rivers or evaporation), but
all these provide only indirect estimates of precipitation. Notwithstanding the evi-
dent advantages of areal estimates, they still require accompanying in situ mea-
surements for calibration and/or validation purposes.
Two main classes of in situ measurement instruments can be identified: catching
gauges (CGs), collecting precipitation into a container before the accumulated
volume of water is measured over a given period using various principles, and
where ΔPw , ΔPe , and ΔPm are the correction terms for wetting, evaporation, and
mechanical biases, respectively, while subscripts r and s refer to liquid (rain) and
solid (snow) precipitation (see also WMO, 2014). This formulation reveals that
the adjustment of catching (environmental) biases due to the wind applies to the
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