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 Eighth Edition

MECHANICS
of MATERIALS

Beer
Johnston
DeWolf
Mazurek
 Preface
Objectives
The main objective of a basic mechanics course should be to develop in the
engineering student the ability to analyze a given problem in a simple and
logical manner and to apply to its solution a few fundamental and well-­
understood principles. This text is designed for the first course in mechanics
of ­materials—or strength of materials—offered to engineering students in the
sophomore or junior year. The authors hope that it will help instructors achieve
this goal in that particular course in the same way that their other texts may
have helped them in statics and dynamics.

General Approach
In this text the study of the mechanics of materials is based on the understanding
of a few basic concepts and on the use of simplified models. This approach makes
it possible to develop all the necessary formulas in a rational and logical manner,
and to indicate clearly the conditions under which they can be safely applied to
the analysis and design of actual engineering structures and machine components.
This title is supported by SmartBook, a feature of the LearnSmart adap-
tive learning system that assesses student understanding of course content
through a series of adaptive questions. This platform has provided feedback
from thousands of students, identifying those specific portions of the text that
have resulted in the greatest conceptual difficulty and comprehension among
the students. For this new edition, the entire text was reviewed and revised
based on this LearnSmart student data.
Additionally, over 25% of the assigned problems from the previous edition
have been replaced or revised. Photographic content has also been modified to
provide a more suitable conceptual context to the important principles discussed.

Lab Videos. Student understanding of mechanics of materials is greatly

enhanced through experimental study that complements the classroom expe- NEW!
rience. Due to resource and curricular constraints, however, very few engi-
neering programs are able to provide such a laboratory component as part
of a mechanics of materials course. To help address this need, this edition
includes videos that show key mechanics of materials experiments being
conducted. For each experiment, data has been generated so that students
can analyze results and write reports. These videos are incorporated into the
Connect digital platform.

Free-body Diagrams Are Used Extensively. Throughout the text free-

body diagrams are used to determine external or internal forces. The use of
“picture equations” will also help the students understand the superposition
of loadings and the resulting stresses and deformations.

The SMART Problem-Solving Methodology Is Employed. Continuing

in this edition, students are presented with the SMART approach for solving
engineering problems, whose acronym reflects the solution steps of Strategy,

vii
viii Preface

Modeling, Analysis, and Reflect & Think. This methodology is used in all
Sample Problems, and it is intended that students will apply this approach in
the solution of all assigned problems.

Design Concepts Are Discussed Throughout the Text When

­Appropriate. A discussion of the application of the factor of safety to
design can be found in Chapter 1, where the concepts of both Allowable Stress
Design and Load and Resistance Factor Design are presented.

A Careful Balance Between SI and U.S. Customary Units Is

­ onsistently Maintained. Because it is essential that students be able to
C
handle effectively both SI metric units and U.S. customary units, half the
Concept Applications, Sample Problems, and problems to be assigned have
been stated in SI units and half in U.S. customary units. Since a large number
of problems are available, instructors can assign problems using each system
of units in whatever proportion they find desirable for their class.

Optional Sections Offer Advanced or Specialty Topics. Topics such

as residual stresses, torsion of noncircular and thin-walled members, bending
of curved beams, shearing stresses in nonsymmetrical members, and failure
criteria have been included in optional sections for use in courses of varying
emphases. To preserve the integrity of the subject, these topics are presented
in the proper sequence, wherever they logically belong. Thus, even when not
covered in the course, these sections are highly visible and can be easily
referred to by the students if needed in a later course or in engineering prac-
tice. For convenience all optional sections have been indicated by asterisks.

Chapter Organization
It is expected that students using this text will have completed a course in
statics. However, Chapter 1 is designed to provide them with an opportunity
to review the concepts learned in that course, while shear and bending-­moment
diagrams are covered in detail in Sections 5.1 and 5.2. The properties of
moments and centroids of areas are described in Appendix B; this material
can be used to reinforce the discussion of the determination of normal and
shearing stresses in beams (Chapters 4, 5, and 6).
The first four chapters of the text are devoted to the analysis of the
stresses and of the corresponding deformations in various structural members,
considering successively axial loading, torsion, and pure bending. Each anal-
ysis is based on a few basic concepts: namely, the conditions of equilibrium
of the forces exerted on the member, the relations existing between stress and
strain in the material, and the conditions imposed by the supports and loading
of the member. The study of each type of loading is complemented by a large
number of Concept Applications, Sample Problems, and problems to be
assigned, all designed to strengthen the students’ understanding of the subject.
The concept of stress at a point is introduced in Chapter 1, where it is
shown that an axial load can produce shearing stresses as well as normal
stresses, depending upon the section considered. The fact that stresses depend
upon the orientation of the surface on which they are computed is emphasized
again in Chapters 3 and 4 in the cases of torsion and pure bending. However,
the discussion of computational techniques—such as Mohr’s circle—used for
the transformation of stress at a point is delayed until Chapter 7, after students
have had the opportunity to solve problems involving a combination of the basic
loadings and have discovered for themselves the need for such techniques.
 Preface ix
The discussion in Chapter 2 of the relation between stress and strain in
various materials includes fiber-reinforced composite materials. Also, the
study of beams under transverse loads is covered in two separate chapters.
Chapter 5 is devoted to the determination of the normal stresses in a beam
and to the design of beams based on the allowable normal stress in the mate-
rial used (Section 5.3). The chapter begins with a discussion of the shear and
bending-moment diagrams (Sections 5.1 and 5.2) and includes an optional
section on the use of singularity functions for the determination of the shear
and bending moment in a beam (Section 5.4). The chapter ends with an
optional section on nonprismatic beams (Section 5.5).
Chapter 6 is devoted to the determination of shearing stresses in beams
and thin-walled members under transverse loadings. The formula for the shear
flow, q = VQ∕I, is derived in the traditional way. More advanced aspects of
the design of beams, such as the determination of the principal stresses at the
junction of the flange and web of a W-beam, are considered in Chapter 8, an
optional chapter that may be covered after the transformations of stresses have
been discussed in Chapter 7. The design of transmission shafts is in that
chapter for the same reason, as well as the determination of stresses under
combined loadings that can now include the determination of the principal
stresses, principal planes, and maximum shearing stress at a given point.
Statically indeterminate problems are first discussed in Chapter 2 and
considered throughout the text for the various loading conditions encountered.
Thus students are presented at an early stage with a method of solution that
combines the analysis of deformations with the conventional analysis of forces
used in statics. In this way, they will have become thoroughly familiar with this
fundamental method by the end of the course. In addition, this approach helps
the students realize that stresses themselves are statically indeterminate and can
be computed only by considering the corresponding distribution of strains.
The concept of plastic deformation is introduced in Chapter 2, where it
is applied to the analysis of members under axial loading. Problems involving
the plastic deformation of circular shafts and of prismatic beams are also
considered in optional sections of Chapters 3, 4, and 6. While some of this
material can be omitted at the choice of the instructor, its inclusion in the
body of the text will help students realize the limitations of the assumption
of a linear stress-strain relation and serve to caution them against the inap-
propriate use of the elastic torsion and flexure formulas.
The determination of the deflection of beams is discussed in Chapter 9.
The first part of the chapter is devoted to the integration method and to the
method of superposition, with an optional section (Section 9.3) based on the
use of singularity functions. (This section should be used only if Section 5.4
was covered earlier.) The second part of Chapter 9 is optional. It presents the
moment-area method in two lessons.
Chapter 10, which is devoted to columns, contains material on the design
of steel, aluminum, and wood columns. Chapter 11 covers energy methods,
including Castigliano’s theorem.

Supplemental Resources for Instructors

Included on the website are lecture PowerPoints and an image library. On
the site you’ll also find the Instructor’s Solutions Manual (password-protected
and available to instructors only) that accompanies the eighth edition. The
manual continues the tradition of exceptional accuracy and normally keeps
solutions contained to a single page for easier reference. The manual includes
an in-depth review of the material in each chapter and houses tables designed
x Preface

to assist instructors in creating a schedule of assignments for their courses.

The various topics covered in the text are listed in Table I, and a suggested
number of periods to be spent on each topic is indicated. Table II provides
a brief description of all groups of problems and a classification of the prob-
lems in each group according to the units used. A Course Organization Guide
providing sample assignment schedules is also found on the website.

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they’ll need to achieve success. With Connect Engineering you can deliver
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you can edit existing questions and author entirely new problems. Integrate
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WebCT and Blackboard—and much more. ConnectPlus® Engineering provides
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assessments. To learn more, visit www.mcgrawhillconnect.com.

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Acknowledgments
The authors thank the many companies that provided photographs for this
edition. Our special thanks go to Amy Mazurek (B.S. degree in civil engi-
neering from the Florida Institute of Technology, and a M.S. degree in civil
engineering from the University of Connecticut) for her work in the checking
and preparation of the solutions and answers of all the problems in this edi-
tion. Additionally, we would like to express our gratitude to Blair McDonald,
Western Illinois University, for his extensive work on the development of the
videos that accompany this text.
We also gratefully acknowledge the help, comments, and suggestions
offered by the many reviewers and users of previous editions of Mechanics of
Materials.
John T. DeWolf
David F. Mazurek
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 Guided Tour
Chapter Introduction. Each chapter begins with an

Introduction—
1 introductory section that sets up the purpose and goals of
the chapter, describing in simple terms the material that will
1.2 Stresses in the Members of a Structure
Concept of Stress 9 be covered and its application to the solution of engineering
The units associated with stresses are as follows: When SI metric units
are used, P is expressed in newtons (N) and A in square meters (m2), so the
P
Stresses occur in all structures subject to loads. This chapter will
examine simple states of stress in elements, such as in the two-force
members, bolts, and pins used in the structure shown.
problems. Chapter Objectives provide students with a pre-
stress σ will be expressed in N/m2. This unit is called a pascal (Pa). However,
the pascal is an exceedingly small quantity and often multiples of this unit Objectives
In this chapter, we will:
view of chapter topics.
must be used: the kilopascal (kPa), the megapascal (MPa), and the gigapas- • Review statics needed to determine forces in members of
simple structures.
cal (GPa): • Introduce the concept of stress.
P d
• Define different stress types: axial normal stress, shearing

Chapter Lessons. The body of the text is divided into

stress, and bearing stress.
d
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/m2 C M
• Discuss an engineer’s two principal tasks: the analysis and
design of structures and machines.
• Develop a problem-solving approach.

units, each consisting of one or several theory sections, Con-

6 6
1 MPa = 10 Pa = 10 N/m
9 9
1 GPa = 10 Pa = 10 N/m
2
• Discuss the components of stress on different planes and under
different loading conditions.
• Discuss the many design considerations that an engineer should
2
review before preparing a design.

When U.S. customary units are used, force P is usually expressed in

cept Applications, one or several Sample Problems, and a
pounds (lb) or kilopounds (kip), and the cross-sectional area A is given in
square inches (in2). The stress σ then is expressed in pounds per square inch
large number of homework problems. The Companion Web-
(psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi).† P' P' site contains a Course Organization Guide with suggestions
on each chapter lesson.
©Pete Ryan/Getty Images
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.13 An example of eccentric loading.

bee13272_ch01_002-055.indd 2-3 8/9/18 3:20 PM

Concept Application 1.1 Concept Applications. Concept Applications are used

Considering the structure of Fig. 1.1, assume that rod BC is made of a steel extensively within individual theory sections to focus on
with a maximum allowable stress σall = 165 MPa. Can rod BC safely support
the load to which it will be subjected? The magnitude of the force FBC in the specific topics, and they are designed to illustrate specific
rod was 50 kN. Recalling that the diameter of the rod is 20 mm, use Eq. (1.5)
to determine the stress created in the rod by the given loading. material being presented and facilitate its understanding.
P = FBC = +50 kN = +50 × 103 N

A = πr2 = π(
2 )
20 mm 2
= π(10 × 10−3 m) 2 = 314 × 10−6 m2
Sample Problems. The Sample Problems are intended
σ=
P
=
+50 × 103 N
A 314 × 10−6 m2
= +159 × 106 Pa = +159 MPa to show more comprehensive applications of the theory to
Since σ is smaller than σall of the allowable stress in the steel used, rod BC the solution of engineering problems, and they employ the
can safely support the load.
SMART problem-solving methodology that students are
1.2 Stresses in the Members of a Structure 19
encouraged to use in the solution of their assigned problems.
To be complete, our analysis of the given structure should also include
the compressive stress in boom AB, as well as the stresses produced in the Since the sample problems have been set up in much the
pins and their bearings. This will be discussed later in this chapter. You should
also determine whether the deformations produced Sample
A B
by the givenProblem
loading are1.2 same form that students will use in solving the assigned
acceptable. The study of deformations under axial The loads will
tie be
barthe subject
of Chap. 2. For members in compression, the stability
steel
of the
nitude P =member
shown
120 kN (i.e.,
is to be designed to carry a tension force of mag-
when its
bolted between double brackets at A and B. The problems, they serve the double purpose of amplifying the
ability to support a given load without experiencingbar a sudden change infrom
will be fabricated con-20-mm-thick plate stock. For the grade of steel
figuration) will be discussed in Chap. 10. to be used, the maximum allowable stresses are σ = 175 MPa, τ = 100 MPa,
and σb = 350 MPa. Design the tie bar by determining the required values
text and demonstrating the type of neat and orderly work that
† of (a) the diameter d of the bolt, (b) the dimension b at each end of the bar,
The principal SI and U.S. customary units used in mechanics are listed in Appendix A.
and (c) the dimension h of the bar.
Using the third table, 1 psi is approximately equal to 7 kPa, and 1 ksi is approximately equal
students should cultivate in their own solutions. In addition,
to 7 MPa.

F1
STRATEGY: Use free-body diagrams to determine the forces needed to
obtain the stresses in terms of the design tension force. Setting these stresses
in-problem references and captions have been added to the
F1
equal to the allowable stresses provides for the determination of the required
dimensions. sample problem figures for contextual linkage to the step-
d
F1 = 1
2
P
P MODELING and ANALYSIS:
a. Diameter of the Bolt. Since the bolt is in double shear (Fig. 1),
by-step solution.
Fig. 1 Sectioned bolt. F1 = 12 P = 60 kN.
bee13272_ch01_002-055.indd 9 t = 20 mm F1 60 kN 60 kN 7/20/18 9:50 AM

Over 25% of the nearly

τ= = 1 2 100 MPa = d = 27.6 mm

h
A 4π d
1
4π d
2
Homework Problem Sets.
Use d = 28 mm ◂

d
At this point, check the bearing stress between the 20-mm-thick plate (Fig. 2) 1500 homework problems are new or updated. Most of the
problems are of a practical nature and should appeal to engi-
and the 28-mm-diameter bolt.
b
P 120 kN
σb = = = 214 MPa < 350 MPa OK

Fig. 2 Tie bar geometry.

td (0.020 m)(0.028 m)
neering students. They are primarily designed, however, to
t b. Dimension b at Each End of the Bar. We consider one of the
end portions of the bar in Fig. 3. Recalling that the thickness of the steel illustrate the material presented in the text and to help stu-
plate is t = 20 mm and that the average tensile stress must not exceed

a
1
2 P
175 MPa, write
1
dents understand the principles used in mechanics of mate-
P 60 kN
rials. The problems are grouped according to the portions of
2
P' = 120 kN σ= 175 MPa = a = 17.14 mm
b d ta (0.02 m)a
1
P
2
b = d + 2a = 28 mm + 2(17.14 mm) b = 62.3 mm ◂
material they illustrate and are arranged in order of increas-
a

Fig. 3 End section of tie bar. c. Dimension h of the Bar. We consider a section in the central
t = 20 mm
portion of the bar (Fig. 4). Recalling that the thickness of the steel plate is
t = 20 mm, we have ing difficulty. Answers to a majority of the problems are
σ=
P
th
175 MPa =
120 kN
(0.020 m)h
h = 34.3 mm given at the end of the book. Problems for which the answers
P = 120 kN Use h = 35 mm ◂
are given are set in blue type in the text, while problems for
h REFLECT and THINK: We sized d based on bolt shear, and then checked which no answer is given are set in red italics.
bearing on the tie bar. Had the maximum allowable bearing stress been exceeded,
Fig. 4 Mid-body section of tie bar. we would have had to recalculate d based on the bearing criterion.

xii bee13272_ch01_002-055.indd 19 7/20/18 9:50 AM

 Guided Tour xiii
Chapter Review and Summary. Each chapter ends
with a review and summary of the material covered in that
chapter. Subtitles are used to help students organize their
review work, and cross-references have been included to
Review and Summary
help them find the portions of material requiring their spe- This chapter was devoted to the concept of stress and to an introduction to
the methods used for the analysis and design of machines and load-bearing

cial attention. structures. Emphasis was placed on the use of a free-body diagram to obtain
equilibrium equations that were solved for unknown reactions. Free-body
diagrams were also used to find the internal forces in the various members
of a structure.

Review Problems. A set of review problems is included Axial Loading: Normal Stress
The concept of stress was first introduced by considering a two-force member
under an axial loading. The normal stress in that member (Fig. 1.41) was
at the end of each chapter. These problems provide students
P
obtained by
P
further opportunity to apply the most important concepts σ=
A
(1.5)

introduced in the chapter.

The value of σ obtained from Eq. (1.5) represents the average stress
over the section rather than the stress at a specific point Q of the section.
Considering a small area ΔA surrounding Q and the magnitude ΔF of the
A
force exerted on ΔA, the stress at point Q is
ΔF
σ = lim (1.6)
ΔA→0 ΔA
In general, the stress σ at point Q in Eq. (1.6) is different from the value
of the average stress given by Eq. (1.5) and is found to vary across the section.
However, this variation is small in any section away from the points of appli-
cation of the loads. Therefore, the distribution of the normal stresses in an
axially loaded member is assumed to be uniform, except in the immediate P'
vicinity of the points of application of the loads. Fig. 1.41 Axially loaded

Review Problems
For the distribution of stresses to be uniform in a given section, the line member with cross section
of action of the loads P and P′ must pass through the centroid C. Such a normal to member used to
loading is called a centric axial loading. In the case of an eccentric axial define normal stress.
loading, the distribution of stresses is not uniform.

1.59 In the marine crane shown, link CD is known to have a uniform

Transverse Forces and Shearing Stress
cross section of 50 × 150 mm. For the loading shown, determine the
When equal and opposite transverse forces P and P′ of magnitude P are
normal stress in the central portion of that link.
applied to a member AB (Fig. 1.42), shearing stresses τ are created over any
15 m 25 m 3m section located between the points of application of the two forces. These

B
P

A C B
35 m

C 80 Mg

P′
15 m
D Fig. 1.42 Model of transverse resultant forces on
A either side of C resulting in shearing stress at section C.

45

Fig. P1.59

1.60 Two horizontal 5-kip forces are applied to pin B of the assembly bee13272_ch01_002-055.indd 45 7/20/18 9:52 AM
shown. Knowing that a pin of 0.8-in. diameter is used at each con-
nection, determine the maximum value of the average normal stress
(a) in link AB, (b) in link BC.
0.5 in.

B
1.8 in.
5 kips
5 kips
0.5 in.

Computer Problems
A 60°
45° 1.8 in.

C
The following problems are designed to be solved with a computer.

Fig. P1.60
1.61 For the assembly and loading of Prob. 1.60, determine (a) the aver-
age shearing stress in the pin at C, (b) the average bearing stress at
C in member BC, (c) the average bearing stress at B in member BC.
48
bee13272_ch01_002-055.indd 48
Computer Problems. Computers make it possible for
Element n 1.C1 A solid steel rod consisting of n cylindrical elements welded together
Pn is subjected to the loading shown. The diameter of element i is
denoted by di and the load applied to its lower end by Pi, with the
magnitude Pi of this load being assumed positive if Pi is directed
downward as shown and negative otherwise. (a) Write a computer
program that can be used with either SI or U.S. customary units to
determine the average stress in each element of the rod. (b) Use this
program to solve Probs. 1.1 and 1.3.
Element 1
1.C2 A 20-kN load is applied as shown to the horizontal member ABC.
P1 Member ABC has a 10 × 50-mm uniform rectangular cross section
Fig. P1.C1 and is supported by four vertical links, each of 8 × 36-mm uniform
rectangular cross section. Each of the four pins at A, B, C, and D
7/20/18 9:52 AM
has the same diameter d and is in double shear. (a) Write a com-
puter program to calculate for values of d from 10 to 30 mm, using
1-mm increments, (i) the maximum value of the average normal
stress in the links connecting pins B and D, (ii) the average normal
stress in the links connecting pins C and E, (iii) the average shear-
ing stress in pin B, (iv) the average shearing stress in pin C, (v) the

engineering students to solve a great number of challenging average bearing stress at B in member ABC, and (vi) the average
bearing stress at C in member ABC. (b) Check your program by
comparing the values obtained for d = 16 mm with the answers
problems. A group of six or more problems designed to be given for Probs. 1.7 and 1.27. (c) Use this program to find the
permissible values of the diameter d of the pins, knowing that the

solved with a computer can be found at the end of each allowable values of the normal, shearing, and bearing stresses for
the steel used are, respectively, 150 MPa, 90 MPa, and 230 MPa.
(d) Solve part c, assuming that the thickness of member ABC has
chapter. These problems can be solved using any computer been reduced from 10 to 8 mm.

language that provides a basis for analytical calculations. 0.4 m

Developing the algorithm required to solve a given problem 0.25 m

C

0.2 m

will benefit the students in two different ways: (1) it will B

help them gain a better understanding of the mechanics prin-

20 kN E

ciples involved; (2) it will provide them with an opportunity A

to apply the skills acquired in their computer programming

course to the solution of a meaningful engineering problem.
Fig. P1.C2

52

bee13272_ch01_002-055.indd 52 7/20/18 9:52 AM

 List of Symbols
a Constant; distance PU Ultimate load (LRFD)
A, B, C, . . . Forces; reactions q Shearing force per unit length; shear
A, B, C, . . . Points flow
A, 𝒶 Area Q Force
b Distance; width Q First moment of area
c Constant; distance; radius r Radius; radius of gyration
C Centroid R Force; reaction
C1, C2, . . . Constants of integration R Radius; modulus of rupture
CP Column stability factor s Length
d Distance; diameter; depth S Elastic section modulus
D Diameter t Thickness; distance; tangential
e Distance; eccentricity; dilatation deviation
E Modulus of elasticity T Torque
f Frequency; function T Temperature
F Force u, ν Rectangular coordinates
F.S. Factor of safety u Strain-energy density
G Modulus of rigidity; shear modulus U Strain energy; work
h Distance; height v Velocity
H Force V Shearing force
H, J, K Points V Volume; shear
I, Ix, . . . Moment of inertia w Width; distance; load per unit length
Ixy, . . . Product of inertia W, W Weight, load
J Polar moment of inertia x, y, z Rectangular coordinates; distance;
k Spring constant; shape factor; bulk displacements; deflections
modulus; constant x, y, z Coordinates of centroid
K Stress concentration factor; torsional Z Plastic section modulus
spring constant α, β, γ Angles
l Length; span α Coefficient of thermal expansion;
L Length; span influence coefficient
Le Effective length γ Shearing strain; specific weight
m Mass γD Load factor, dead load (LRFD)
M Couple γL Load factor, live load (LRFD)
M, Mx, . . . Bending moment δ Deformation; displacement
MD Bending moment, dead load (LRFD) ε Normal strain
ML Bending moment, live load (LRFD) θ Angle; slope
MU Bending moment, ultimate load (LRFD) λ Direction cosine
n Number; ratio of moduli of elasticity; ν Poisson’s ratio
normal direction ρ Radius of curvature; distance; density
p Pressure σ Normal stress
P Force; concentrated load τ Shearing stress
PD Dead load (LRFD) ϕ Angle; angle of twist; resistance factor
PL Live load (LRFD) ω Angular velocity

xiv
 Eighth Edition

Mechanics of Materials
 Introduction—
1
Concept of Stress
Stresses occur in all structures subject to loads. This chapter will
examine simple states of stress in elements, such as in the two-force
members, bolts, and pins used in the structure shown.

Objectives
In this chapter, we will:
• Review statics needed to determine forces in members of
simple structures.
• Introduce the concept of stress.
• Define different stress types: axial normal stress, shearing
stress, and bearing stress.
• Discuss an engineer’s two principal tasks: the analysis and
design of structures and machines.
• Develop a problem-solving approach.
• Discuss the components of stress on different planes and under
different loading conditions.
• Discuss the many design considerations that an engineer should
review before preparing a design.

©Pete Ryan/Getty Images

4 Introduction—Concept of Stress

Introduction
Introduction The study of mechanics of materials provides future engineers with the means
of analyzing and designing various machines and load-bearing structures
1.1 REVIEW OF THE
involving the determination of stresses and deformations. This first chapter is
METHODS OF STATICS
devoted to the concept of stress.
1.2 STRESSES IN THE Section 1.1 is a short review of the basic methods of statics and their
MEMBERS OF A application to determine the forces in the members of a simple structure con-
STRUCTURE sisting of pin-connected members. The concept of stress in a member of a
1.2A Axial Stress structure and how that stress can be determined from the force in the member
1.2B Shearing Stress will be discussed in Sec. 1.2. You will consider the normal stresses in a
1.2C Bearing Stress in member under axial loading, the shearing stresses caused by the application
Connections of equal and opposite transverse forces, and the bearing stresses created by
1.2D Application to the Analysis bolts and pins in the members they connect.
and Design of Simple Section 1.2 ends with a description of the method you should use in
Structures the solution of an assigned problem and a discussion of the numerical accu-
1.2E Method of Problem Solution racy. These concepts will be applied in the analysis of the members of the
1.3 STRESS ON AN simple structure considered earlier.
OBLIQUE PLANE Again, a two-force member under axial loading is observed in Sec. 1.3
UNDER AXIAL LOADING where the stresses on an oblique plane include both normal and shearing
stresses, while Sec. 1.4 discusses that six components are required to
1.4 STRESS UNDER
describe the state of stress at a point in a body under the most general
GENERAL LOADING
loading conditions.
CONDITIONS;
Section 1.5 is devoted to the determination of the ultimate strength from
COMPONENTS OF
test specimens and the use of a factor of safety to compute the allowable load
STRESS
for a structural component made of that material.
1.5 DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
1.5A Determination of the Ultimate
Strength of a Material 1.1 REVIEW OF THE METHODS
1.5B Allowable Load and
Allowable Stress: Factor of OF STATICS
Safety Consider the structure shown in Fig. 1.1, which was designed to support a
1.5C Factor of Safety Selection 30-kN load. It consists of a boom AB with a 30 × 50-mm rectangular cross
1.5D Load and Resistance Factor section and a rod BC with a 20-mm-diameter circular cross section. These are
Design connected by a pin at B and are supported by pins and brackets at A and C,
respectively. First draw a free-body diagram of the structure. This is done by
detaching the structure from its supports at A and C, and then showing the
reactions that these supports exert on the structure (Fig. 1.2). Note that the
sketch of the structure has been simplified by omitting all unnecessary details.
Many of you may have recognized at this point that AB and BC are two-force
members. For those of you who have not, we will pursue our analysis, ignor-
ing that fact and assuming that the directions of the reactions at A and C are
unknown. Each of these reactions are represented by two components: Ax and
Ay at A, and Cx and Cy at C. The three equilibrium equations are.
+⤴ Σ MC = 0: Ax(0.6 m) − (30 kN)(0.8 m) = 0
Ax = +40 kN (1.1)
+ Σ Fx = 0: Ax + Cx = 0
→
Cx = −Ax  Cx = −40 kN (1.2)
+ ↑ Σ Fy = 0: Ay + Cy − 30 kN = 0
Photo 1.1 Crane booms used to load and
unload ships. ©David R. Frazier/Science Source Ay + Cy = +30 kN (1.3)
 1.1 Review of The Methods of Statics 5

d = 20 mm

600 mm

A
50 mm B

800 mm
30 kN
Fig. 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN load.

We have found two of the four unknowns, but cannot determine the other two
from these equations, and no additional independent equation can be obtained
from the free-body diagram of the structure. We must now dismember the
structure. Considering the free-body diagram of the boom AB (Fig. 1.3), we
write the following equilibrium equation:
+⤴ Σ MB = 0: −Ay(0.8 m) = 0   Ay = 0 (1.4)
Substituting for Ay from Eq. (1.4) into Eq. (1.3), we obtain Cy = +30 kN.
Expressing the results obtained for the reactions at A and C in vector form,
we have
A = 40 kN→  Cx = 40 kN←  Cy = 30 kN ↑

Cy

C
Cx

Ay
0.6 m
Ay By

B
Ax A
0.8 m Ax A B Bx
0.8 m

30 kN
Fig. 1.2 Free-body diagram of boom 30 kN
showing applied load and reaction Fig. 1.3 Free-body diagram of member
forces. AB freed from structure.
6 Introduction—Concept of Stress

FBC FBC Note that the reaction at A is directed along the axis of the boom AB and
causes compression in that member. Observe that the components Cx and Cy
5
30 kN 3 of the reaction at C are, respectively, proportional to the horizontal and ver-
4 tical components of the distance from B to C and that the reaction at C is
FAB
B equal to 50 kN, is directed along the axis of the rod BC, and causes tension
FAB
in that member.
These results could have been anticipated by recognizing that AB and
30 kN BC are two-force members, i.e., members that are subjected to forces at only
two points, these points being A and B for member AB, and B and C for
(a) (b) member BC. Indeed, for a two-force member the lines of action of the result-
Fig. 1.4 Free-body diagram of boom’s ants of the forces acting at each of the two points are equal and opposite and
joint B and associated force triangle. pass through both points. Using this property, we could have obtained a sim-
pler solution by considering the free-body diagram of pin B. The forces on
pin B, FAB and FBC, are exerted, respectively, by members AB and BC and the
30-kN load (Fig. 1.4a). Pin B is shown to be in equilibrium by drawing the
corresponding force triangle (Fig. 1.4b).
Since force FBC is directed along member BC, its slope is the same as
that of BC, namely, 3/4. We can, therefore, write the proportion
FAB FBC 30 kN
= =
4 5 3
from which
FAB = 40 kN  FBC = 50 kN
Forces F′AB and F′BC exerted by pin B on boom AB and rod BC are equal and
opposite to FAB and FBC (Fig. 1.5).

FBC

C
FBC

D
FBC
F'BC
B F'BC D

FAB A B F'AB B F'BC

Fig. 1.5 Free-body diagrams of two-force
members AB and BC. Fig. 1.6 Free-body diagrams of sections of rod BC.

Knowing the forces at the ends of each member, we can now deter-
mine the internal forces in these members. Passing a section at some arbi-
trary point D of rod BC, we obtain two portions BD and CD (Fig. 1.6).
Since 50-kN forces must be applied at D to both portions of the rod to
keep them in equilibrium, an internal force of 50 kN is produced in rod
BC when a 30-kN load is applied at B. From the directions of the forces
FBC and F′BC in Fig. 1.6 we see that the rod is in tension. A similar pro-
cedure enables us to determine that the internal force in boom AB is 40 kN
and is in compression.
 1.2 Stresses in the Members of a Structure 7

1.2 STRESSES IN THE MEMBERS

OF A STRUCTURE
1.2A Axial Stress
In the preceding section, we found forces in individual members. This is the
first and necessary step in the analysis of a structure. However it does not tell
us whether the given load can be safely supported. It is necessary to look at
each individual member separately to determine if the structure is safe. Rod
BC of the example considered in the preceding section is a two-force member
Photo 1.2 This bridge truss consists of
and, therefore, the forces FBC and F′BC acting on its ends B and C (Fig. 1.5) two-force members that may be in tension
are directed along the axis of the rod. Whether rod BC will break or not under or in compression. ©Natalia Bratslavsky/Shutterstock
this loading depends upon the value found for the internal force FBC, the
cross-sectional area of the rod, and the material of which the rod is made.
Actually, the internal force FBC represents the resultant of elementary forces P
distributed over the entire area A of the cross section (Fig. 1.7). The average
intensity of these distributed forces is equal to the force per unit area, FBC∕A,
on the section. Whether or not the rod will break under the given loading
depends upon the ability of the material to withstand the corresponding value
FBC∕A of the intensity of the distributed internal forces.
σ= P
F A
FBC σ = BC A
A
A

Fig. 1.7 Axial force represents the

resultant of distributed elementary forces.

Using Fig. 1.8, the force per unit area is called the stress and is denoted P' P'
by the Greek letter σ (sigma). The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A (a) (b)
subjected to an axial load P is obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the Fig. 1.8 (a) Member with an axial load.
load by the area A: (b) Idealized uniform stress distribution at an
arbitrary section.
P
σ= (1.5)
A
ΔF
A positive sign indicates a tensile stress (member in tension), and a negative ΔA
sign indicates a compressive stress (member in compression). Q
As shown in Fig. 1.8, the section through the rod to determine the
internal force in the rod and the corresponding stress is perpendicular to the
axis of the rod. The corresponding stress is described as a normal stress. Thus,
Eq. (1.5) gives the normal stress in a member under axial loading.
Note that in Eq. (1.5), σ represents the average value of the stress over the
cross section, rather than the stress at a specific point of the cross section. To
define the stress at a given point Q of the cross section, consider a small area
ΔA (Fig. 1.9). Dividing the magnitude of ΔF by ΔA, you obtain the average
value of the stress over ΔA. Letting ΔA approach zero, the stress at point Q is
P'
ΔF Fig. 1.9 Small area ΔA, at an arbitrary point
σ = lim (1.6) in the cross section, carries ΔF in this axial
ΔA→0 ΔA
member.
8 Introduction—Concept of Stress

P In general, the value for the stress σ at a given point Q of the section
σ is different from that for the average stress given by Eq. (1.5), and σ is
found to vary across the section. In a slender rod subjected to equal and
opposite concentrated loads P and P′ (Fig. 1.10a), this variation is small
in a section away from the points of application of the concentrated loads
(Fig. 1.10c), but it is quite noticeable in the neighborhood of these points
σ
(Fig. 1.10b and d).
It follows from Eq. (1.6) that the magnitude of the resultant of the
distributed internal forces is

σ ∫ dF = ∫ σ dA
A

But the conditions of equilibrium of each of the portions of rod shown in

Fig. 1.10 require that this magnitude be equal to the magnitude P of the
concentrated loads. Therefore,
P' P' P' P'
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.10 Stress distributions at different
(d)
∫
P = dF = ∫ σ dA
A
(1.7)
sections along axially loaded member.

σ P
C in the various sections of the rod. The actual distribution of stresses in any
Fig. 1.11 Idealized uniform stress distribution
implies the resultant force passes through the
cross section’s center.
P when we assume a uniform distribution of stresses in the section, it fol-
C However, if a two-force member is loaded axially, but eccentrically, as
P'
Fig. 1.12 Centric loading having resultant
forces passing through the centroid of the
section.
which means that the volume under each of the stress surfaces in Fig. 1.10
must be equal to the magnitude P of the loads. However, this is the only
information derived from statics regarding the distribution of normal stresses
given section is statically indeterminate. To learn more about this distribution,
it is necessary to consider the deformations resulting from the particular mode
of application of the loads at the ends of the rod. This will be discussed fur-
ther in Chap. 2.
In practice, it is assumed that the distribution of normal stresses
in an axially loaded member is uniform, except in the immediate vicinity
of the points of application of the loads. The value σ of the stress is then
equal to σave and can be obtained from Eq. (1.5). However, realize that
lows from elementary statics† that the resultant P of the internal forces
must be applied at the centroid C of the section (Fig. 1.11). This means
that a uniform ­d istribution of stress is possible only if the line of action
of the concentrated loads P and P′ passes through the centroid of the
section considered (Fig. 1.12). This type of loading is called centric
loading and will take place in all straight two-force members found in
trusses and pin-connected structures, such as the one considered in Fig. 1.1.
shown in Fig. 1.13a, the conditions of equilibrium of the portion of
member in Fig. 1.13b show that the internal forces in a given section
must be equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid of the section and
a couple M of moment M = Pd. This distribution of forces—the corre-
sponding distribution of stresses—cannot be uniform. Nor can the dis-
tribution of stresses be symmetric. This point will be discussed in detail
in Chap. 4.
†
See Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russell Johnston, Jr., Mechanics for Engineers, 5th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008, or Vector Mechanics for Engineers, 12th ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2019, Sec. 5.1.
 1.2 Stresses in the Members of a Structure 9
The units associated with stresses are as follows: When SI metric units P
are used, P is expressed in newtons (N) and A in square meters (m2), so the
stress σ will be expressed in N/m2. This unit is called a pascal (Pa). ­However,
the pascal is an exceedingly small quantity and often multiples of this unit
must be used: the kilopascal (kPa), the megapascal (MPa), and the gigapas-
cal (GPa):
P d
3 3 2 d
1 kPa = 10 Pa = 10 N/m C M

1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2

1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2

When U.S. customary units are used, force P is usually expressed in

pounds (lb) or kilopounds (kip), and the cross-sectional area A is given in
square inches (in2). The stress σ then is expressed in pounds per square inch
(psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi).† P' P'
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.13 An example of eccentric loading.

Concept Application 1.1

Considering the structure of Fig. 1.1, assume that rod BC is made of a steel
with a maximum allowable stress σall = 165 MPa. Can rod BC safely support
the load to which it will be subjected? The magnitude of the force FBC in the
rod was 50 kN. Recalling that the diameter of the rod is 20 mm, use Eq. (1.5)
to determine the stress created in the rod by the given loading.
P = FBC = +50 kN = +50 × 103 N

A = πr2 = π(
2 )
20 mm 2
= π(10 × 10−3 m) 2 = 314 × 10−6 m2

P +50 × 103 N
σ= = = +159 × 106 Pa = +159 MPa
A 314 × 10−6 m2

Since σ is smaller than σall of the allowable stress in the steel used, rod BC
can safely support the load.

To be complete, our analysis of the given structure should also include

the compressive stress in boom AB, as well as the stresses produced in the
pins and their bearings. This will be discussed later in this chapter. You should
also determine whether the deformations produced by the given loading are
acceptable. The study of deformations under axial loads will be the subject
of Chap. 2. For members in compression, the stability of the member (i.e., its
ability to support a given load without experiencing a sudden change in con-
figuration) will be discussed in Chap. 10.
†
The principal SI and U.S. customary units used in mechanics are listed in Appendix A.
Using the third table, 1 psi is approximately equal to 7 kPa, and 1 ksi is approximately equal
to 7 MPa.
10 Introduction—Concept of Stress

The engineer’s role is not limited to the analysis of existing structures

and machines subjected to given loading conditions. Of even greater impor-
tance is the design of new structures and machines—that is, the selection of
appropriate components to perform a given task.

Concept Application 1.2

As an example of design, let us return to the structure of Fig. 1.1 and assume
that aluminum with an allowable stress σall = 100 MPa is to be used. Since
the force in rod BC is still P = FBC = 50 kN under the given loading, from
Eq. (1.5), we have
P P 50 × 103 N
σall = A= = = 500 × 10−6 m2
A σall 100 × 106 Pa
and since A = πr2,
500 × 10−6 m2
r=√ =√
A
= 12.62 × 10−3 m = 12.62 mm
π π

d = 2r = 25.2 mm
Therefore, an aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter will be adequate.

1.2B Shearing Stress

The internal forces and the corresponding stresses discussed in Sec. 1.2A were
normal to the section considered. A very different type of stress is obtained
when transverse forces P and P′ are applied to a member AB (Fig. 1.14).
Passing a section at C between the points of application of the two forces
(Fig. 1.15a), you obtain the diagram of portion AC shown in Fig. 1.15b.
Internal forces must exist in the plane of the section, and their resultant is
equal to P. This resultant is called a shear force. Dividing the shear P by the

A C B

P'
A B (a)
A C P

P'
P'
Fig. 1.14 Opposing (b)
transverse loads creating Fig. 1.15 The resulting internal shear force
shear on member AB. on a section between transverse forces.
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father Æneas, already the chivalry of Troy are flocking
in, and stretching themselves here and there on coverlets
of purple. There are servants offering them water
for their hands, and deftly producing the bread from the 15
baskets, and presenting towels with shorn nap. Within
are fifty maidens, whose charge is in course to pile up provisions
in lasting store, and light up with fire the gods of the
hearth. A hundred others there are, and male attendants
of equal number and equal age, to load the table with 20
dishes, and set on the cups. The Tyrians, too, have
assembled in crowds through the festive hall, and scatter
themselves as invited over the embroidered couches.
There is marvelling at Æneas’ presents, marvelling at
Iulus, at those glowing features, where the god shines 25
through, and those words which he feigns so well, and at
the robe and the veil with the yellow acanthus border.
Chief of all, the unhappy victim of coming ruin cannot
satisfy herself with gazing,[116] and kindles as she looks,
the Phœnician woman, charmed with the boy and the 30
presents alike. He, after he has hung long in Æneas’
arms and round his neck, gratifying the intense fondness
of the sire he feigned to be his, finds his way to the queen.
She is riveted by him—riveted, eye and heart, and ever
and anon fondles him in her lap[117]—poor Dido, unconscious 35
how great a god is sitting heavy on that wretched bosom.
But he, with his mind still bent on his Acidalian mother,
is beginning to efface the name of Sychæus letter by letter,
and endeavouring to surprise by a living passion affections
long torpid, and a heart long unused to love.

When the banquet’s first lull was come, and the board
removed, then they set up the huge bowls and wreathe the
wine. A din rings to the roof—the voice rolls through 5
those spacious halls; lamps[118] hang from the gilded ceiling,
burning brightly, and flambeau-fires put out the night.
Then the queen called for a cup, heavy with jewels and
gold, and filled it with unmixed wine; the same which
had been used by Belus, and every king from Belus downward. 10
Then silence was commanded through the hall.
“Jupiter, for thou hast the name of lawgiver for guest and
host, grant that this day may be auspicious alike for the
Tyrians and the voyagers from Troy, and that its memory
may long live among our posterity. Be with us, Bacchus,[119] 15
the giver of jollity, and Juno, the queen of our blessings;
and you, the lords of Tyre, may your goodwill grace this
meeting.” She said, and poured on the table an offering
of the wine, and, the libation made, touched the cup
first with her lips, then handed it to Bitias, rallying his 20
slowness. Eagerly he quaffed the foaming goblet, and
drenched himself deep with its brimming gold. Then
came the other lords in order. Iopas, the long-haired
bard, takes his gilded lyre, and fills the hall with music;
he, whose teacher was the mighty Atlas.[120] His song[121] is of 25
the wanderings of the moon and the agonies of the sun,
whence sprung man’s race and the cattle, whence rain-water
and fire; of Arcturus and the showery Hyades,
and the twin Bears; why the winter suns make such
haste to dip in ocean, or what is the retarding cause that 30
bids the nights move slowly. Plaudits redouble from
the Tyrians, and the Trojans follow the lead. With
varied talk, too, she kept lengthening out the night, unhappy
Dido, drinking draughts of love long and deep,
as she asked much about Priam, about Hector much; 35
now what were the arms in which Aurora’s son had come
to battle; now what Diomede’s steeds were like; now how
great was Achilles. “Or rather, gentle guest,” cries she,
“tell us the story from the very first—all about the stratagems
of the Danaans, and the sad fate of your country,
and your own wanderings—for this is now the seventh
summer that is wafting you a wanderer still over every
land and wave.”
 BOOK II
Every tongue was hushed, and every eye fixed intently,
when, from high couch, father Æneas began thus:—

“Too cruel to be told, great queen, is the sorrow you

bid me revive—how the power of Troy and its empire
met with piteous overthrow from the Danaans—the 5
heartrending sights which my own eyes saw, and the scenes
where I had a large part to play. Who, in such recital—be
he of the Myrmidons[122] or the Dolopes, or a soldier of
ruthless Ulysses’[123] band—would refrain from tears? And
now, too, night is rushing in dews down the steep of heaven, 10
and the setting stars counsel repose. Still, if so great be
your longing to acquaint yourself with our disasters, and
hear the brief tale of Troy’s last agony, though my mind
shudders at the remembrance, and starts back in sudden
anguish, I will essay the task. 15

“Broken by war and foiled by destiny, the chiefs of the

Danaans, now that the flying years were numbering so
many, build a horse of mountain size, by the inspiration of
Pallas’ skill, and interlace its ribs with planks of fir. A
vow for their safe journey home is the pretext: such the 20
fame that spreads. In this they secretly enclose chosen
men of sinew, picked out by lot, in the depth of its sides,
and fill every corner of those mighty caverns, the belly of
the monster, with armed warriors.

“In sight of Troy lies Tenedos, an island of wide-spread 25

renown, powerful and rich while Priam’s empire yet was,
now a mere bay, a treacherous roadstead for ships. Thus
far they sail out, and hide themselves on the forsaken
coast. We thought them gone off with a fair wind for
Mycenæ. And so all Trojan land shakes off the agony of 30
years. Open fly the gates; what pleasure to go and see the
Dorian camp, and the places deserted, and the shore forsaken!
Yes, here were the troops of the Dolopes; here
the tent of that savage Achilles; here the ships were drawn
up; here they used to set the battle in array. Some of 5
us are standing agaze at the fatal offering to the virgin
goddess, and wondering at the hugeness of the horse;
and Thymœtes takes the lead, urging to have it dragged
within the walls, and lodged in the citadel, either with
treasonable intent, or that the fate of Troy had begun to 10
set that way. But Capys, and the men of saner judgment,
bid us send this snare of the Danaans, this suspicious present,
headlong into the sea, or light a fire under and burn
it; or, if not that, to pierce and probe that hollow womb
that might hide so much. The populace, unstable as 15
ever, divides off into opposite factions.

“Throwing himself before all, with a great crowd at his

back, Laocoon,[124] all on fire, comes running down the steep
of the citadel, crying in the distance, ‘What strange
madness is this, my unhappy countrymen? Think you 20
that the enemy has sailed off, or that a Danaan could ever
make a present that had no treachery in it? Is this your
knowledge of Ulysses? Either the Achæans are shut up
and hiding in this piece of wood, or it is an engine framed
against our walls, to command the houses and come down 25
on the city from above, or there is some other secret trick.
Men of Troy, put no faith in the horse. Whatever it be,
I fear a Greek even with a gift in his hand.’ With these
words he hurled a mighty spear with all his force against
the beast’s side, the jointed arch of its belly. It lodged, 30
and stood quivering; the womb shook again, and an echo
and a groan rang hollow from its caverns; and, then,
had but heaven’s destiny and man’s judgment been unwarped,
he had led us to carry sword and havoc into the
Argive lurking-place, and Troy would now be standing, 35
and thou, Priam’s tall fortress, still in being.

“Meanwhile, see! some Dardan shepherds are dragging

with loud shouts before the king a young man with his
hands tied behind him, who had thrown himself, a stranger,
across their way, to compass this very thing, and thus
let the Achæans into Troy—bold of heart, and ready for
either issue, either to play off his stratagem, or to meet
inevitable death. From all sides, in eager curiosity, 5
the Trojan youth come streaming round, vying in their
insults to the prisoner. Now then, listen, to the tale of
Danaan fraud, and from one act of guilt learn what the
whole nation is. There as he stood, with all eyes bent on
him, bewildered, defenceless, and looked round on the 10
Phrygian bands, ’ Alas!’ he cries, ‘where is there a
spot of earth or sea that will give me shelter now? or what
last resource is left for a wretch like me—one who has no
place among the Danaans to hide my head—while the
children of Dardanus no less are in arms against me, 15
crying for bloody vengeance?’ At that piteous cry our
mood was changed, and every outrage checked. We
encourage him to speak—to tell us what his parentage
is; what his business; what he has to rest on as a prisoner.
‘All, my lord, shall be avowed to you truly, whatever 20
be the issue. I will not deny that I am an Argive by
nation; this to begin with. Nor if Fortune has made a
miserable man out of Sinon, shall her base schooling
make him deceiver and liar as well. If haply in talk your
ears ever caught the name of Palamedes, of the house of 25
Belus, and his wide-spread renown—his, whom under
false accusation, an innocent man, charged by the blackest
calumny, all because his voice was against the war,
the Pelasgians sent down to death, and now, when he is
laid in darkness, lament him too late—know that it was 30
as his comrade and near kinsman I was sent by a needy
father to a soldier’s life in earliest youth. While he stood
with his royal state unimpaired, an honoured member of
the kingly council, I, too, enjoyed my measure of name
and dignity; but after the jealousy of false Ulysses—you 35
know the tale—removed him from this upper clime—dashed
from my height, I dragged on life in darkness and
sorrow, and vented to my own heart my rage at the disaster
of my innocent friend. Nor did I keep silence—madman
that I was! No, if ever the chance were given
me—if ever I came back with glory to my native Argos—I
vowed myself his avenger, and my words stirred up
bitter enmity. From that time my ruin began; from that 5
time Ulysses was ever threatening me with some new
charge, ever scattering abroad words of mystery, and looking
for allies to plot with. Nor did he rest till by Calchas’[125]
agency—but why recall this unwelcome story with no
end to gain? Why waste your time, if you hold all Achæans 10
alike, and to hear that is to hear enough? Take the
vengeance you should have taken long ago. It is just
what would please the Ithacan, and earn a large reward
from the sons of Atreus!’[126]

“This makes us burn, indeed, to explore and inquire into 15

the reason of his tale, not knowing that crime could be so
monstrous, and Pelasgian art so cunning. He resumes, in
faltering tones, spoken from his false heart:—

“‘Often have the Danaans designed to turn their back

on Troy and accomplish a retreat, and abandon the war 20
that had wearied them so long; and would they had done
it! As often has the fierce inclemency of the deep barred
their purpose, and the south wind frightened them from
sailing. Especially, when this horse was set up at last, a
compacted mass of maple planks, the thunder of the storm-clouds
25
was heard the whole firmament over. In our
perplexity we send Eurypylus to inquire of Phœbus’[127]
oracle, and this is the gloomy message that he brings back
from the shrine: “With blood it was ye appeased the winds,
even with a maiden’s slaughter, when first ye came, Danaans, 30
to the shore of Ilion. With blood it is ye must buy
your return, and propitiate heaven by the life of an Argive!”
Soon as the news reached the public ear, every
mind was cowed, and a cold shudder thrilled the depth of
every heart. For whom has Fate a summons? Whom does 35
Apollo demand as his prey? And now the Ithacan, with
boisterous vehemence, drags forward the prophet Calchas,
insists on knowing what that announcement of heaven’s
will may mean; and many even then were the prophetic
mouths that warned me of the trickster’s cruel villany,
and many the eyes that silently foresaw the future. Ten
days the seer holds his peace, and keeps his tent, refusing
to utter a word that should, disclose any name or sacrifice 5
any life. At last, goaded by the Ithacan’s vehement
clamour, he breaks into a concerted utterance, and dooms
me to the altar. All assented, well content that the danger
which each feared for himself should be directed to the
extinction of one poor wretch. And now the day of horror 10
was come; all was being ready for my sacrifice—the
salt cakes for the fire, and the fillet to crown my brow—when
I escaped, I own it, from death, and broke my
bonds, and hid myself that night in a muddy marsh in the
covert of the rushes, while they should be sailing, in the 15
faint hope that they had sailed. My old country, I
never expect to see it again, nor my darling children, and
the father I have longed so for! No! they are likely
to visit them with vengeance for my escape, and expiate
this guilt of mine by taking their poor lives. O! by the 20
gods above, and the powers that know when truth is
spoken, if there is yet abiding anywhere among men such
a thing as unsullied faith, I conjure you, have pity on this
weight of suffering, have pity on a soul that is unworthily
borne down!’ 25

“Such a tearful appeal gains him his life, and our compassion
too. Priam himself is first to bid them relieve the
man of his manacles and the chains that bound him, and
addresses him in words of kindness. ‘Whoever you are,
from this time forth have done with the Greeks, and forget 30
them. I make you my man, and bid you answer truly
the questions I shall put. What do they mean by setting
up this huge mountain of a horse? Who was the prompter
of it? What is their object? Some religious offering, or
some engine of war?’ 35

“Thus Priam: the prisoner, with all his Pelasgian craft

and cunning about him, raised his unfettered hands to the
stars:—

“‘You, eternal fires, with your inviolable majesty, be

my witnesses; you, altars and impious swords, from which
I fled; and you, hallowed fillets, which I wore for the sacrifice!
I am free to break all the sacred ties that bound me
to the Greeks. I am free to treat them as my foes, and 5
disclose all their secrets to the light of day, all the claims
of the land of my birth notwithstanding. Only do thou
abide by thy plighted word, and preserve faith with thy
preserver, land of Troy, if he tells thee true, and makes
thee large returns. 10

“‘The strength of the Danaan hopes, and the soul of

their confidence in the war they plunged into, has ever
been the aid of Pallas. From the time when Tydeus’ impious
son and Ulysses, that coiner of villany, dared to
drag away from her hallowed temple the fateful Palladium,[128] 15
slaughtering the guards who watched the citadel’s
height, thenceforth there was an ebb and a backsliding in
the Danaan hopes, their forces shattered, the goddess estranged.
Nor were the portents dubious that betokened
Tritonia’s change of mood. Scarce was the image lodged 20
in the camp, when flashing fire glowed in her uplifted eyes,
and salt sweat trickled over her frame, and thrice of herself
she leaped from the ground, marvellous to relate, shield
and quivering lance and all. Forthwith Calchas sounds
the note for flight over the perilous deep, for that Pergamus 25
can never be razed by Argive steel, unless they go to
Argos for fresh omens, and bring back the divine aid
which their crooked keels bore with them aforetime over
the sea. And now this their voyage home to Mycenæ is
to get new forces and gods to sail with them; they will re-cross 30
the deep, and come upon you unforeseen. Such is
Calchas’ scanning of the omens. As for this image, he
warned them to set it up in exchange for the Palladium,
and, in expiation of injured deity, to atone for their fatal
crime. Calchas, however, bade them raise it to the vast 35
height you see, knitting plank to plank, till it was brought
near to heaven, that it might not be admitted at the gates
or dragged within the walls, and thus restore to the people
the bulwark of their old worship. For if your hand should
profane Minerva’s offering, then (said he) a mighty destruction—may
the gods turn the omen on his head ere
it falls on yours!—would come on the empire of Priam
and the Phrygian nation; but if these hands of yours 5
should help it to scale your city’s height, Asia would roll
the mighty tide of invasion on the walls of Pelops,[129] and
our posterity would have to meet the fate he threatened.’

“Such was the stratagem—the cursed art of perjured

Sinon—that gained credence for the tale; and such the 10
victory won over us by wiles and constrained tears—over
us, whom not Tydeus’ son, nor Achilles of Larissa,
nor ten years of war subdued, nor a fleet of a thousand
sail.

“And now another object, greater and far more terrible, 15

is forced on my poor countrymen, to the confusion of their
unprophetic souls. Laocoon, drawn by lot as Neptune’s
priest, was sacrificing a mighty bull at the wonted altar—when
behold from Tenedos, over the still deep—I
shudder as I recount the tale—two serpents coiled in vast 20
circles are seen breasting the sea, and moving side by side
towards the shore. Their breasts rise erect among the
waves; their manes, of blood-red hue, tower over the
water, the rest of them floats behind on the main, trailing
a huge undulating length; the brine foams and dashes 25
about them; they are already on shore, in the plain—with
their glowing eyes bloodshot and fiery, and their
forked tongues playing in their hissing mouths. We fly
all ways in pale terror: they, in an unswerving column,
make for Laocoon, and first each serpent folds round one 30
of his two sons, clasping the youthful body, and greedily
devouring the poor limbs. Afterwards, as the father comes
to the rescue, weapon in hand, they fasten on him and lash
their enormous spires tight round him—and now twice
folded round his middle, twice embracing his neck with 35
their scaly length, they tower over him with uplifted head
and crest. He is straining with agonizing clutch to pull
the knots asunder, his priestly fillets all bedewed with gore
and black poison, and raising all the while dreadful cries
to heaven—like the bellowing, when a wounded bull darts
away from the altar, dashing off from his neck the ill-aimed
axe. But the two serpents escape glidingly to the
temple top, making for the height where ruthless Tritonia 5
is enthroned, and there shelter themselves under the goddess’s
feet and the round of her shield. Then, indeed,
every breast is cowed and thrilled through by a new and
strange terror—every voice cries that Laocoon has been
duly punished for his crime, profaning the sacred wood 10
with his weapon’s point, and hurling his guilty lance
against the back of the steed. Let the image be drawn
to her temple, and let prayer be made to the goddess, is
the general cry—we break through the walls and open
the town within. All gird them to the work, putting 15
wheels to run easily under its feet, and throwing lengths
of hempen tie round its neck. It scales the walls, that
fateful engine, with its armed brood—boys and unwedded
girls, standing about it, chant sacred hymns, delighted to
touch the rope. In it moves, rolling with threatening brow 20
into the heart of the city. O my country! O Ilion,
home of the gods! O ye, Dardan towers, with your martial
fame! Yes—four times on the gateway’s very threshold
it stopped, four times the arms rattled in its womb.
On, however, we press, unheeding, in the blindness of our 25
frenzy, and lodge the ill-starred portent in our hallowed
citadel. Even then Cassandra[130] unseals to speak of future
fate those lips which by the god’s command no Trojan
ever believed—while we, alas! we, spend the day that
was to be our last in crowning the temples of the gods 30
with festal boughs the whole city through.

“Meantime round rolls the sky, and on comes night from

the ocean, wrapping in its mighty shade earth and heaven
and Myrmidon wiles: through the city the Trojans are
hushed in careless repose, their tired limbs in the arms of 35
sleep. Already was the Argive host on its way from Tenedos,
through the friendly stillness of the quiet moon,
making for the well-known shore, when see! the royal
ship mounts its fire signal, and Sinon, sheltered by heaven’s
partial decree, stealthily sets at large the Danaans, hid in
that treacherous womb, and opens the pine-wood door:
they as the horse opens are restored to upper air, and leap
forth with joy from the hollow timber, Thessander and 5
Sthenelus leading the way, and the dreaded Ulysses, gliding
down the lowered rope, and Achamas and Thoas, and
Neoptolemus of Peleus’ line, and first Machaon, and Menelaus,
and the framer of the cheat himself, Epeus. They
rush on the town as it lies drowned in sleep and revelry. 10
The watchers are put to the sword, the gates thrown open,
and all are welcoming their comrades, and uniting with
the conspiring bands.

“It was just the time when first slumber comes to heal
human suffering, stealing on men by heaven’s blessing 15
with balmiest influence. Lo! as I slept, before my eyes
Hector,[131] in deepest sorrow, seemed to be standing by me,
shedding rivers of tears—mangled from dragging at the
car, as I remember him of old, and black with gory dust,
and with his swollen feet bored by the thong. Ay me! 20
what a sight was there! what a change from that Hector
of ours, who comes back to us clad in the spoils of Achilles,
or from hurling Phrygian fire on Danaan vessels! with
stiffened beard and hair matted with blood, and those
wounds fresh about him, which fell on him so thickly 25
round his country’s walls. Methought I addressed him
first with tears like his own, fetching from my breast the
accents of sorrow—‘O light of Dardan land, surest hope
that Trojans ever had! What delay has kept you so long?
From what clime is the Hector of our longings returned 30
to us at last? O the eyes with which, after long months
of death among your people, months of manifold suffering
to Troy and her sons, spent and weary, we look upon you
now! What unworthy cause has marred the clear beauty
of those features, or why do I behold these wounds?’ 35
He answers nought, and gives no idle heed to my vain
inquiries, but with a deep sigh, heaved from the bottom
of his heart—‘Ah! fly, goddess-born!’ cries he, ‘and
escape from these flames—the walls are in the enemy’s
hand—Troy is tumbling from its summit—the claims
of country and king are satisfied—if Pergamus could be
defended by force of hand, it would have been defended
by mine, in my day. Your country’s worship and her 5
gods are what she entrusts to you now—take them to
share your destiny—seek for them a mighty city, which
you shall one day build when you have wandered the
ocean over.’ With these words he brings out Queen Vesta[132]
with her fillets and the ever-burning fire from the secret 10
shrine.

“Meanwhile the city in its various quarters is being convulsed

with agony—and ever more and more, though my
father Anchises’ palace was retired in the privacy of embosoming
trees, the sounds deepen, and the alarm of 15
battle swells. I start up from sleep, mount the sloping
roof, and stand intently listening—even as, when among
standing corn a spark falls with a fierce south wind to
fan it, or the impetuous stream of a mountain torrent
sweeps the fields, sweeps the joyous crops and the bullocks’ 20
toil, and drives the woods headlong before it, in
perplexed amazement a shepherd takes in the crash from
a rock’s tall summit. Then, indeed, all doubt was over,
and the wiles of the Danaans stood confessed. Already
Deiphobus’ palace has fallen with a mighty overthrow 25
before the mastering fire-god—already his neighbour
Ucalegon is in flames—the expanse of the Sigean sea
shines again with the blaze. Up rises at once the shouting
of men and the braying of trumpets. To arms I rush
in frenzy.—not that good cause is shown for arms—but 30
to muster a troop for fight, and run to the citadel with
my comrades is my first burning impulse—madness and
rage drive my mind headlong, and I think how glorious to
die with arms in my hand.

“But see! Panthus, escaped from an Achæan volley, 35

Panthus, Othrys’ son, priest of Phœbus in the citadel,
comes dragging along with his own hand the vanquished
gods of his worship and his young grandchild, and making
distractedly for my door. ‘How goes the day, Panthus?
What hold have we of the citadel?’ The words
were scarcely uttered when with a groan he replies, ‘It is
come, the last day, the inevitable hour—on Dardan land
no more Trojans; no more of Ilion, and the great renown 5
of the sons of Teucer; Jove, in his cruelty, has carried all
over to Argos; the town is on fire, and the Danaans are
its masters. There, planted high in the heart of the city,
the horse is pouring out armed men, and Sinon is flinging
about fire in the insolence of conquest; some are 10
crowding into the unfolded gates—thousands, many as
ever came from huge Mycenæ: some are blocking up the
narrow streets, with weapons pointed at all comers; the
sharp steel with its gleaming blade stands drawn, ready
for slaughter; hardly, even on the threshold, the sentinels 15
of the gates are attempting resistance, in a struggle where
the powers of war are blind.’

“At these words of the son of Othrys, and heaven’s

will thus expressed, I plunge into the fire and the battle,
following the war-fiend’s yell, the din of strife, and the 20
shout that rose to the sky. There join me Rhipeus and
Epytus, bravest in fight, crossing my way in the moonlight,
as also Hypanis and Dymas, and form at my side;
young Coroebus, too, Mygdon’s son; he happened to be
just then come to Troy, with a frantic passion for Cassandra, 25
and was bringing a son-in-law’s aid to Priam and his
Phrygians—poor boy! to have given no heed to the
warnings of his heaven-struck bride! Seeing them
gathered in a mass and nerved for battle, I begin thereon:—‘Young
hearts, full of unavailing valour, if your desire 30
is set to follow a desperate man, you see what the plight
of our affairs is—gone in a body from shrine and altar
are the gods who upheld this our empire—the city you
succour is a blazing ruin; choose we then death, and rush
we into the thick of the fight. The one safety for vanquished 35
men is to hope for none.’ These words stirred
their young spirits to madness: then, like ravenous wolves
in night’s dark cloud, driven abroad by the blind rage of
lawless hunger, with their cubs left at home waiting their
return with parched jaws, among javelins, among foemen,
on we go with no uncertain fate before us, keeping our
way through the heart of the town, while night flaps over
us its dark, overshadowing wings. Who could unfold in 5
speech the carnage, the horrors of that night, or make his
tears keep pace with our suffering? It is an ancient city,
falling from the height where she queened it many a year;
and heaps of unresisting bodies are lying confusedly in the
streets, in the houses, on the hallowed steps of temples. 10
Nor is it on Teucer’s sons alone that bloody vengeance
lights. There are times when even the vanquished feel
courage rushing back to their hearts, and the conquering
Danaans fall. Everywhere is relentless agony; everywhere
terror, and the vision of death in many a manifestation. 15

“First of the Danaans, with a large band at his back,

Androgeos crosses our way, taking us for a troop of his
friends in his ignorance, and hails us at once in words of
fellowship: ‘Come, my men, be quick. Why, what sloth 20
is keeping you so late? Pergamus is on fire, and the rest
of us are spoiling and sacking it, and here are you, but
just disembarked from your tall ships.’ He said, and instantly,
for no reply was forthcoming to reassure him, saw
that he had fallen into the thick of the enemy. Struck 25
with consternation, he drew back foot and tongue. Just
as a man who at unawares has trodden on a snake among
thorns and briers in his walk, and recoils at once in sudden
alarm from the angry uplifted crest and the black swelling
neck, so Androgeos, appalled at the sight, was retiring. 30
But we rush on him, and close round, weapons in
hand; and, in their ignorance of the ground, and the
surprise of their terror, they fall before us everywhere.
Fortune smiles on our first encounter. Hereon Coroebus,
flushed with success and daring, ‘Come, my friends,’ he 35
cries, ‘where Fortune at starting directs us to the path of
safety, and reveals herself as our ally, be it ours to follow
on. Let us change shields, and see if Danaan decorations
will fit us. Trick or strength of hand, who, in dealing
with an enemy, asks which? They shall arm us against
themselves.’ So saying, he puts on Androgeos’ crested
helm, and his shield with its goodly device, and fastens
to his side an Argive sword. So does Rhipeus, so Dymas 5
too, and all our company, with youthful exultation, each
arming himself out of the new-won spoils. On we go,
mixing with the Greeks, under auspices not our own, and
many are the combats in which we engage in the blindness
of night, many the Danaans whom we send down to 10
the shades. They fly on all hands: some to the ships,
making at full speed for safety on the shore; others, in
the debasement of terror, climb once more the horse’s
huge sides, and hide themselves in the womb they knew
so well. 15

“Alas! it is not for man to throw himself on the gods

against their will!

“Lo! there was a princess of Priam’s house being

dragged by her dishevelled hair from the temple, from
the very shrine of Minerva, Cassandra, straining her flashing 20
eyes to heaven in vain—her eyes—for those delicate
hands were confined by manacles. The sight was too
much for the infuriate mind of Coroebus: rushing to his
doom, he flung himself into the middle of the hostile force.
One and all, we follow, close our ranks, and fall on. And 25
now, first from the temple’s lofty top we are overwhelmed
by a shower of our own countrymen’s darts, and a most
piteous carnage ensues, all along of the appearance of our
arms and our mistaken Grecian crests. Then the Danaans,
groaning and enraged at the rescue of the maiden, rally 30
from all sides, and fall on us. Ajax, in all his fury, and
the two sons of Atreus, and the whole array of the Dolopes—even
as one day when the tempest is broken loose, and
wind meets wind—west, and south, and east exulting in
his orient steeds—there is crashing in the woods, and 35
Nereus,[133] in a cloud of foam, is plying his ruthless trident,
and stirring up the sea from its very bottom. Such of
the foe, moreover, as in the darkness of night we had
driven routed through, the gloom—thanks to our stratagem—and
scattered the whole city over, rally again:
they are the first to recognize the imposture of shield and
weapon, and to mark the different sound of our speech.
All is over—we are overwhelmed by numbers: first of 5
all, Coroebus is stretched low; his slayer Peneleos, his
place of death the altar of the Goddess of Arms; slain,
too, is Rhipeus, the justest and most righteous man in
Troy—but heaven’s will is not ours—down go Hypanis
and Dymas both, shot by their friends; nor could all 10
your acts of piety, good Panthus, shield you in your fall;
no, nor the fillet of Apollo on your brow. Ye ashes of
Ilion, and thou, funeral fire of those I loved, witness ye
that in your day of doom I shrank from no Danaan dart,
no hand-to-hand encounter; nay, that had my fate been 15
to fall, my hand had earned it well. We are parted from
the rest, Iphitus, Pelias, and I. Iphitus, a man on whom
years were already pressing; Pelias, crippled by a wound
from Ulysses—all three summoned by the shouting to
Priam’s palace. 20

“Here, indeed, the conflict was gigantic—just as if the

rest of the war were nowhere—as if none were dying in the
whole city beside: even such was the sight we saw—the
war-god raging untamed, the Danaans streaming up to the
roof, the door blockaded by a long penthouse of shields. 25
The scaling ladders are clasping the walls; close to the very
door men are climbing, with their left hands presenting
the buckler to shelter them from darts, while with their
right they are clasping the battlements. The Dardans,
on their part, are tearing up from the palace turret and 30
roof—such the weapons with which, in their dire extremity,
in the last death-struggle, they make ready for their
defence—gilded rafters, the stately ornaments of elder
days, they are hurling down; while others, their swords
drawn, are stationed at the doors at the bottom, and 35
guarding them in close array. The fire revived within
me, to bring succour to the royal roof, and relieve those
brave men, and breathe new daring into the vanquished.

“A door there was, a hidden entrance, a thoroughfare

through Priam’s palace, a postern which you leave in the
rear; by it the hapless Andromache,[134] while yet the throne
was standing, used often to repair unattended to her husband’s 5
parents, and pull the boy Astyanax into his grandsire’s
presence. Through it I make my way to the summit
of the roof, whence the wretched Teucrians were hurling
darts without avail. There was a tower standing precipitous,
its roof reared high to the stars, whence could be
seen all Troy, and the Danaan fleet, and the Achæan camp; 10
to this we applied our weapons, just where the lofty flooring
made the joining insecure; we wrench it from its eminence,
we have toppled it over—down it falls at once, a huge
crashing ruin, and tumbles far and wide over the Danaan
ranks. But others fill their place; while stones and every 15
kind of missile keep raining unabated.

“There in the entry, at the very gate, is Pyrrhus[135] in his

glory, gleaming with spear and sword, and with all the
brilliance of steel. Even as against the daylight a serpent
gorged with baleful herbage, whom winter’s cold of late 20
was keeping swollen underground, now, his skin shed, in
new life and in the beauty of youth, rears his breast erect,
and wreathes his shining scales, towering to the sun, and
flashes in his mouth his three-forked tongue. With him
gigantic Periphas and Automedon, his armour-bearer, 25
once Achilles’ charioteer, with him the whole chivalry
of Scyros press to the walls, and hurl up fire to the roof.
Himself among the foremost, a two-edged axe in hand,
is bursting through the stubborn door and forcing from
their hinges the valves copper-sheathed; see! now he has 30
cut out a plank and delved into that stout heart of oak,
and made a wide gaping window in the middle. There is
seen the house within, and the long vista of the hall;
there is seen the august retirement of Priam and the
monarchs of past days, and armed warriors are disclosed 35
standing in the entrance.

“But the palace within is a confused scene of shrieking

and piteous disorder; the vaulted chambers wail from
their hollow depths with female lamentation; the noise
strikes the golden stars above. The terror-stricken matrons
are running to and fro through the spacious courts, clinging
claspingly to the gates and printing them with kisses.
On presses Pyrrhus with all his father’s might; neither 5
barrier of oak nor yet living guard can resist him; the
door gives way under the thick strokes of the battery,
and the valves are torn from their hinges and brought
down. Force finds its way; the Danaans burst a passage,
rush in, and slaughter those they meet, and the whole 10
wide space is flooded with soldiers. With far less fury,
when the river, all foam, has broken the prison of its banks
and streamed with triumphant tide over the barriers set
to check it, down it comes tumbling along the corn-fields,
and along the whole country sweeps away herd and stall. 15
With my own eyes I saw Neoptolemus, mad with carnage,
and the two Atridæ on the palace-floor. I saw Hecuba[136]
and her hundred daughters-in-law, and Priam at the
altar, polluting with his blood the flames he had himself
made holy. Those fifty marriage-chambers, the splendid 20
promise of children’s children, doors gorgeous with barbaric
gold and plundered treasure, all sank in dust. Where
the fire flags, the Danaans are masters.

“Perhaps, too, you may be curious to hear the fate of

Priam. When he saw his city fallen and captured, the 25
doors of his palace burst open, the foe in the heart of his
home’s sanctuary, poor old man! helplessly and hopelessly
he puts about his shoulders, trembling with age,
his armour, long disused, and girds on his unavailing sword,
and is going to his doom among the thick of the foe. In 30
the midst of the palace, under the naked height of the sky,
stood a great altar, and by it a bay tree of age untold,
leaning over the altar and enfolding the household gods
in its shade. Here about the altar Hecuba and her
daughters, all helpless, like doves driven headlong down 35
by a murky tempest, huddled together and clinging to
the statues of the gods, were sitting. But when she saw
Priam—yes, Priam—wearing the arms of his youth—‘What
monstrous thought,’ cries she, ‘my most wretched
spouse, has moved you to gird on these weapons? or to
what are you hurrying? It is not help like this, not protections
like those you wear, that the crisis needs. No,
not even if my lost Hector were now at our side. Come, 5
join us here at last; this altar shall be a defence for us all,
or we will die together.’ With these words she took him
to where she was, and lodged his aged frame in the hallowed
resting-place.

“But, see! here is Polites, one of Priam’s sons escaped 10

from Pyrrhus’ murderous hand, through showers of darts
and masses of foemen, flying down the long corridors and
traversing the empty courts, sore and wounded, while
Pyrrhus, all on fire, is pursuing him, with a deadly stroke,
his hand all but grasping him, his spear close upon him. 15
Just as at last he won his way into the view and presence of
his parents, down he fell and poured out his life in a gush of
blood. Hereon Priam, though hemmed in by death on
all sides, could not restrain himself, or control voice and
passion. ‘Aye,’ cries he, ‘for a crime, for an outrage like 20
this, may the gods, if there is any sense of right in heaven
to take cognizance of such deeds, give you the full thanks
you merit, and pay you your due reward; you, who have
made me look with my own eyes on my son’s death, and
stained a father’s presence with the sight of blood. But 25
he whom your lying tongue calls your sire, Achilles, dealt
not thus with Priam his foe—he had a cheek that could
crimson at a suppliant’s rights, a suppliant’s honour.
Hector’s lifeless body he gave back to the tomb, and sent
me home to my realms in peace.’ So said the poor old 30
man, and hurled at him a dart unwarlike, unwounding,
which the ringing brass at once shook off, and left hanging
helplessly from the end of the shield’s boss. Pyrrhus
retorts: ‘You shall take your complaint, then, and carry