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Science
Introduction to Science
The word "Science" is derived from the “Latin” word "Scientia," which means "knowledge."

Definition of Science
Science is the systematic study of the natural world.
Or,
Science is the knowledge which is gained through “observation” and “experimentation/experiment”.
Branches Of Science
Physical Science
It is the branch of “Science” that deals with the study of “Interrelationship” or “ Interaction” between “Matter" and “Energy”.

Chemical Science
It is the branch of “Science” that deals with the study of Structure, Properties, Composition, Reactions of “Matter”.
Note
Observation An experiment is a “Practical Or Test Or Trial” conducted to
It means to notice what's going on through your senses. investigate something or to find out how something works by
Or, controlling variables and observing the outcomes.
Observation is the “Act Of Knowing And Recording Example: Experiment: Dropping objects of different weights
Something” by the help of “sensories”. from the same height to see which falls faster.
Example: Observation: Observing that heavier objects fall
faster than lighter ones. Phenomena
Phenomena refer to “Observable Events Or Occurrences In The
Natural World”, such as the motion of planets, chemical
reactions, or the behavior of animals.

Mixing Or Cast Together

Mixing or casting together means combining different things
into one.
Experiment
Chemistry
Introduction to Chemistry Definition of Chemistry
The word “Chemistry” is derived from the “Arabic word” It is the branch of “Chemical Science”. Chemistry is the study
“Al-kimmiya Or Khemeia” which means “Cast Together Or, of “Matter”, its properties, composition, structure, and the
Mixing”. changes it undergoes during “Chemical Reactions”.

Branches Of Chemistry
1. Organic Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon-based compounds (Hydrocarbons and their
derivatives), including those found in living organisms. Example: Hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes), aromatic compounds
(benzene and its derivatives), functional groups (alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, amides) etc.

2. Inorganic Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that focuses on non-carbon compounds, such as metals, minerals, and salts.
Example: Formation of rust (iron oxide) on the surface of iron in the presence of oxygen and moisture.

3. Physical Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that investigates the fundamental principles governing the behavior of matter and
energy in chemical systems. Example: Boiling water and freezing ice.

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4. Analytical Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that is concerned with the identification (quality) and quantification (quantity)
of chemical substances. Example: Testing pH with litmus paper and measuring sugar content in soft drinks.

5. Biochemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that explores the chemical processes and substances occurring within living organisms.
Example: Digesting food in the stomach and photosynthesis in plants.

6. Environmental Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of chemical processes occurring in the
environment and their impact on ecosystems (Living Things). Example: Testing water quality in a pond and studying air pollution from
car emissions.

7. Industrial Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of application of chemical principles to large-scale
production of chemicals and materials. Example: Making plastic bottles and refining crude oil into gasoline.

8. Medicinal Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that involves the design and synthesis of pharmaceutical drugs. Example:
Developing painkillers like aspirin and antibiotics for infections.

9. Theoretical Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that uses mathematical and computational methods to understand chemical
phenomena. Example: Using a computer to predict how molecules react and modeling the behavior of gasses.

10. Agricultural Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that focuses on the chemistry of agricultural practices, including fertilizers,
pesticides, and soil composition. Example: Fertilizing soil with nitrogen-rich compounds and testing soil acidity for optimal crop
growth.

11. Quantum Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that utilizes quantum mechanics to understand the behavior of atoms and
molecules at a fundamental level. Example: Understanding how light interacts with molecules and studying the behavior of electrons in
atoms.

12. Polymer Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the studies of the synthesis, structure, and properties of polymers,
large molecules composed of repeated subunits. Example: Making synthetic fibers for clothing and manufacturing plastic toys.

13. Forensic Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that applies chemical principles to analyze evidence in criminal investigations,
such as drug analysis or arson investigation. Example: Analyzing blood samples for DNA evidence and testing substances for illegal
drugs.

14. Green chemistry: It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of processes and designing products, which are composed of
less hazardous substances. It is also known as “Sustainable chemistry". Example: Biodegradable Plastics: Developing plastics that break
down naturally, reducing environmental pollution.

15. Nuclear Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that investigates the properties and behavior of radioactive elements, as well as
nuclear reactions and their applications in fields like medicine and energy production. Example: Generating electricity in nuclear power
plants and using radioactive isotopes in medical imaging.
Importance Of Chemistry In Our Daily Life
1. Cooking.eating and digestion of food are purely chemical processes.
2. Construction. clearing and washing of our homes are dependable on chemistry.Chemistry is utilized in the formulation of paints,
coatings for protecting surfaces, and preserving wood.
3. The production of fertilizer. glass. polymers, petroleum products, soaps, and detergents are based on chemistry.

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4. The disease is transmitted through impure drinking water as typhoid. Skin and eye infections can be controlled with the help of
chlorine treatment to kill the pathogenic organism to obtain pure water.
5. Chemistry helps pharmacists create drugs that treat illnesses and relieve symptoms by understanding how molecules interact with our
bodies.
6. Chemistry is involved in creating cosmetics and personal care products like shampoo, soap, and toothpaste.
7. Chemistry is crucial in the production and optimization of energy sources. From fossil fuels to renewable energy sources like solar
panels and batteries.
8. Chemistry is involved in dyeing fabrics, creating synthetic fibers, and making clothes more durable and resistant to wrinkles and stains.
9. Chemistry aids in creating fuels, lubricants, and materials for vehicles, enhancing efficiency and eco-friendliness.
10. Chemistry is vital in producing semiconductor materials for computer chips and batteries for electronic devices.

Miscellaneous Terms For Chemistry

Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass. Plasma is also considered the 4th state of matter.
Example: Water, air, iron, etc.
State:
Matter occurs commonly in the physical form called “State.”
Fundamental State Of Matter
Matter is broadly classified into three fundamental states on the basis of Intermolecular Forces of attraction and Intermolecular Space
between its particles.
01. Solid State 02. Liquid State 03. Gas State
1. Solid: Particles are tightly packed together with strong intermolecular forces. They have a fixed shape and volume, with little
intermolecular space between particles.
2. Liquid: Particles are close together with weaker intermolecular forces compared to solids, allowing them to move past one another.
Liquids take the shape of their container and have a fixed volume, with more intermolecular space than solids.
3. Gas: Particles are far apart with very weak intermolecular forces, allowing them to move freely. Gasses fill the entire space of their
container and have neither fixed shape nor volume, with the most intermolecular space among the states of matter.
4. Plasma: A state of matter where particles are highly ionized, consisting of freely moving ions and electrons. Plasma exists at very high
temperatures, like in stars or lightning, and has negligible intermolecular forces with particles widely spaced apart.
5. Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC): A state of matter formed at very low temperatures where particles behave as a single quantum
entity. BEC has extremely weak intermolecular forces, and particles are tightly packed together, occupying the same quantum state, with
minimal intermolecular space.

PLASMA BOSE EINSTEIN CONDENSATE

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Substance: Any matter with a uniform and definite composition. Example: Salt (NaCl), sugar (C6H12O6), and oxygen gas (O2).

Atom:
Introduction To Atom
A great philosopher “Democritus” first suggested the existence of Atoms later, Atom was discovered by “John Dalton” in the 18th
century.
Definition Of Atom
The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. Or, The smallest particle of a matter which takes place in the
chemical reaction is called “Atom” Or, The fundamental unit of matter is called an “Atom” Or, The building block of a matter is called
an “Atom”.
Example: Hydrogen atom (H) consists of one proton and one electron.
The fundamental particles of an atom
1. Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
2. Neutrons: Neutral particles also located in the nucleus.
3. Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in various energy levels.

Quick Facts

Atom is so small that one gram of hydrogen contains about Six hundred two sextillion two hundred quintillion
(i.e. 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 Or, 6.22×1023) atoms.

Atom is composed of more than 100 subatomic particles. Such as: Electron, Proton, Neutron, Antiproton,
Neutrino, Hypron, Neutrino, Antineutrino, Quarks, Leptons, Gauge Bosons, Higgs Boson, Mesons, Baryons,
Antimatter etc.

Symbol: In chemistry, a symbol is a shorthand way to represent an element. It typically consists of one or two letters, often derived
from the element's name in English, Greek or Latin.
For example, "H" represents hydrogen, "O" represents oxygen, and "Na" represents sodium.

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Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, determining the element's identity. Example: Hydrogen
(H) has an atomic number of 1.

Mass Number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Example: Carbon-12 has a mass number
of 12, indicating it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element is now taken as the average mass of a natural mixture of isotopes which is compared to
the mass of 12 parts of one carbon atom. Example: The atomic mass of carbon is approximately 12.01 atomic mass units (amu).

Atomic Size: Refers to the overall size of an atom, typically measured as the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron
shell. An atom gets larger as the number of electronic shells increases. In general, the size of an atom will decrease as you move from left
to the right of a certain period and it increases when we go down a group.

Atomic Radius: It's half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms when they are joined by a chemical bond. In general, the
atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right in a period and it increases when we go down a group.

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Molecule: Molecule is the general term used to describe any atoms that are connected by chemical bonds. Every combination of
atoms is a molecule. It can be composed of atoms of the same element (like oxygen gas, O2) or different elements (like water, H2O).

TYPES OR KINDS OF MOLECULES

Element Or, Elemental Molecules: An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down by any physical or chemical means
into simpler substances. An element is made up of the same kind of atoms. Example: Oxygen (O2), carbon (C), and gold (Au).

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Compound Or, Compound Molecules : A compound is a molecule made of atoms from different elements. All compounds are
molecules, but not all molecules are compounds. Compounds can be composed of molecules (molecular compounds) or ions (ionic
compounds). Example: Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sodium chloride (NaCl).

Chemical Formula: The representation of the full name and ratios of a compound is called “Chemical Formula”. It is sometimes
also called “Formula”. Example: H2O represents water, with two hydrogen atoms (H) and one oxygen atom (O).

Types Of Chemical Formula

1. Molecular Formula(M.F): The molecular formula of a compound represents the actual number of atoms of each element
present in the compound. Example: The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is H2O2, indicating that each molecule
contains two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms.
2. Empirical Formula (E.F) And Simplest Formula (S.F): The empirical formula of a compound represents the simplest
whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present in the compound. Example: The empirical formula of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) is HO, indicating a 1:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms.

Molecular Mass: Molecular mass (molecular weight or molecular formula mass) refers to the sum of the atomic masses of all the
atoms in a molecule. Its unit is “Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u)”. Example: The molecular mass of water (H2O) is approximately 18.02 amu.

Formula Mass: Formula mass (or formula weight) represents the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in an ionic compound.
Its unit is “Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u)”. Example: The formula mass of sodium chloride (NaCl) is approximately 58.44 amu.
Numerical Related To Molecular Mass Formula Mass

Molecular Mass Data

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Given Formula Mass
Hydrogen = H = 1 amu Data
Sulphur = S = 32 amu Given
Oxygen = O = 16 amu Magnesium = Mg = amu
Required Chlorine = Cl = 35.5 amu
Molecular Mass of H2SO4 = ?
Solution Required
Molecular Mass = (1 × 2) + (32 × 1) + (16 × 4) Molecular Mass of = MgCl2?
Molecular Mass = 2 + 32 + 64 Solution
Molecular Mass = 98 amu Molecular Mass = (1 × 1) + (35.5 × 2)
Molecular Mass = 2 + 71
Molecular Mass = 73 amu
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q) Calculate the molecular mass of the following:
H2O H2O2 C6H6 C2H6O
Q) Calculate the formula mass of the following:
KNO3 Al2O3 CaCO3 NaCl

Mole: Mole is the terminology which is used to measure the amount of substance. One mole contains approximately 6.02 x 1023
particles. It is denoted by “n” and has a unit “mol”. Also it have formula:

Given Mass Of Substance In Gram

Number Of Moles = n = — ——————————————
Molar Mass

Mass Of Substance = Number Of Moles (n) × Molar Mass

Numerical Related To Moles

Carbon Dioxide
Data Sodium
Given Data
Mass of CO2 = 100g Given
Molar Mass of CO2 = 44g Mass of Na = 50g
Required Molar Mass of Na = 23g
No. of moles of CO2 = ? Required
Solution No. of moles of Na = ?
Given Mass Of Substance In Gram Solution
Number Of Moles = n = — —————————————— Given Mass Of Substance In Gram
Molar Mass Number Of Moles = n = — ——————————————
100 Molar Mass
No. of moles = n = ——— = 2.27 mol. 50
44 No. of moles = n = ——— = 2.173 mol.
23

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q) What is the mass of 10 moles of Aluminum?
Q) What is the mass of 20 moles of Lithium?
Q) Find the no. Of moles in 20g and 60g of CH4 and Au respectively?
Q) Find the no. Of moles in 120g and 10g and 90g of Ag and Ne and Carespectively?

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Molar Mass: Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance and is expressed in grams per mole (g/mol). It is calculated by
summing the atomic masses of all the atoms in a chemical formula. For example, the molar mass of water (H₂O) is approximately 18
grams/mol. This means that one mole of water molecules has a mass of about 18 grams. It may be three kinds:
I. Gram Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is called “Gram Atomic Mass”. Its unit is gram per
mole (g/mol). For example, the gram atomic mass of carbon (C) is approximately 12 grams/mol.
II. Gram formula mass: The atomic mass of the formula unit (ionic compound) expressed in grams is called “Gram Formula
Mass”. Its unit is gram per mole (g/mol). Used for ionic compounds like NaCl (58.44 g/mol).
III. Gram Molecular Mass: The atomic mass of a molecule or compound expressed in a gram is called “Gram Molecular Mass”.
Its unit is gram per mole (g/mol). For example, the gram molecular mass of water (H₂O) is also approximately 18 grams/mol.
Numerical Related To Molar Mass

Molar Mass
Data Molar Mass
Given Data
Iron = Fe = 56 amu Given
Oxygen = O = 16 amu Sulphur = S = 32 amu
Required Required
Molar Mass of = ? Molar Mass of = S8 ?
Solution Solution
Molar Mass = (56 × 2) + (16 × 3) Molar Mass = (32 × 8) Molar Mass = 2 +
Molar Mass = 112 + 48 Molar Mass = 256g/mol
Molar Mass = 160g/mol
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q) Find molar mass of the following compound?
CHCl3 CH3COOH CS2 CuSO4 Na2SO4 NaHCO3 MgCO3

Ion: An ion is an electrically charged particle formed when an atom or molecule gains or loses one or more electrons.
Types of Ions
Cations: Cations are positively charged ions formed when an atom loses one or more electrons. They are typically formed by metals.
Example: Na+ (sodium ion), Ca2+ (calcium ion), Al3+ (aluminum ion).
Anions: Anions are negatively charged ions formed when an atom gains one or more electrons. They are typically formed by nonmetals.
Example: Cl- (chloride ion), O2- (oxide ion), S2- (sulfide ion).
Polyatomic Ions: Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms stuck together with an electric charge. They can be positive or negative.
Examples include sulfate (SO42-), ammonium (NH4+), carbonate (CO32-), and phosphate (PO43-).
Molecular Ions: Molecular ions form when molecules gain or lose electrons, getting charged. For example, in ethanol (C2H5OH), the
molecular ion is C2H5O+, made by losing a hydrogen atom and gaining a positive charge.
Hydrated Ions: Hydrated ions are ions surrounded by water in a solution. Water sticks around them because of the attraction between
water and the charged ions. Examples include hydrated magnesium ion (Mg2+) and hydrated chloride ion (Cl-).

Free Radicals: Free radicals are molecules with unpaired electrons that make them highly reactive. They can cause chain reactions in
the body, sometimes helpful but often harmful if too many accumulate.

Ions Free Radicals

Charge

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Ions have a net electrical charge, either positive (cations) or Free radicals are electrically neutral but contain unpaired
negative (anions), due to the gain or loss of electrons. electrons, which make them highly reactive.

Formation

Ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons during chemical Free radicals are typically formed by the homolytic cleavage of
reactions, resulting in a full charge on the atom or molecule. covalent bonds, resulting in the generation of species with
unpaired electrons.

Stability

Ions are often more stable than free radicals due to the Free radicals tend to be highly reactive and less stable due to the
attainment of a full valence shell or electronic configuration. presence of unpaired electrons, which makes them prone to react
with other molecules to achieve stability.

Reactivity

Ions can participate in various types of chemical reactions, Free radicals are highly reactive species and can participate in
including acid-base reactions, redox reactions, and precipitation radical reactions, initiating chain reactions, and influencing
reactions. processes such as polymerization and oxidation.

Examples

Common examples of ions include sodium ions Common examples of free radicals include hydroxyl radicals
(Na+), chloride ions (Cl−), and hydroxide (•OH), methyl radical.
ions (OH−).

Isotopes: An isotope is a variant of a chemical element that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in its
nucleus. For example, carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon; they have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.

Relative Atomic Mass: It is basically the average mass of naturally occurring isotopes, compared to carbon. It is denoted by “Ar”
and has the unit “Atomic Mass Unit” with symbol “a.m.u”. It's formula is as under:

Average Mass Of One Atom

Ar = — ———————————————

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1
/12 × Mass Of A Carbon Atom

1 a.m.u = 1.66×10-24 g

AVOGADRO'S NUMBER (NA): One mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 particles. This constant member is called
“Avogadro's Number”. It is denoted by NA. 1 mole of any substance =6.02x10" particles (atoms, molecules or ions).
Atomic Form: 1 mole of C = 12g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
1 mole of S = 32g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
Molecular Form: 1 mole of H₂O = 18g = 6.02 x 1023 Molecules
1 mole of NH = 17g = 6.02 x 1023 Molecules
Ionic Form: 1 mole of Na = 23g = 6.02 x 1023
1 mole of Cl = 35.5g = 6.02 x 1023 Ions

Valency: It is the combining power of an element with other elements. It depends upon the number of electrons in the outermost
shell.
Or,
The number of electrons gained or lost by an atom during chemical reaction is called “Valency”.
Example:
Hydrogen (H) - Valency: 1 Sodium (Na) - Valency: 1 Scandium (Sc) - Valency: 3
Helium (He) - Valency: 0 Magnesium (Mg) - Valency: 2 Titanium (Ti) - Valency: 2, 3, or 4
Lithium (Li) - Valency: 1 Aluminum (Al) - Valency: 3 Vanadium (V) - Valency: 2, 3, 4, or 5
Beryllium (Be) - Valency: 2 Silicon (Si) - Valency: 4 Chromium (Cr) - Valency: 2, 3, or 6
Boron (B) - Valency: 3 Phosphorus (P) - Valency: 3 or 5 Manganese (Mn) - Valency: 2, to 6, or 7
Carbon (C) - Valency: 4 Sulfur (S) - Valency: 2, 4, or 6 Iron (Fe) - Valency: 2 or 3
Nitrogen (N) - Valency: 3 or 5 Chlorine (Cl) - Valency: 1 Cobalt (Co) - Valency: 2 or 3
Oxygen (O) - Valency: 2 Argon (Ar) - Valency: 0 Nickel (Ni) - Valency: 2 or 3
Fluorine (F) - Valency: 1 Potassium (K) - Valency: 1 Copper (Cu) - Valency: 1 or 2
Neon (Ne) - Valency: 0 Calcium (Ca) - Valency: 2 Zinc (Zn) - Valency: 2

Chemical Reaction: A chemical reaction is a process where substances change into different substances through the rearrangement
of atoms and the formation of new chemical bonds. It may be two types:
1. Reversible Reaction
2. Irreversible Reaction

Chemical Equation: The representation of a whole chemical reaction (Reactants And Products) through symbols and formula is
known as “Chemical Equation”.

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