t-i-C ' ^ 1o

A COMPENDIOUS GREEK GRAMMAR.

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 A COMPENDIOUS

GEEEK GEAMMAK
FOR THE

USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

AV» ov^ BY

^ '
< W. D. GEDDES, M.A., LL.D.,
PRUJCIPAL, LATE PROFESSOR OF GREEK, IN THE UNIVERSITY OP ADERDEEN.

New Edition^ Revised and Largely Reconstructed.

First Issue.

ACCIDENCE, ETC. \

EDINBURGH
OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.
LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO.

1888. /
THE ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS:
JOHN THOMSON AND J. F. THOMSON, M.A.

[ALL EIGHTS RESERVED.]

 PEEFACE,

The present work is an entirely new edition of the

former Greek Grammar which was originally pub-

lished in 1855, and is now largely reconstructed and
in many respects remodelled. The main hnes and
methods will be found to be still adhered to, but
the details or contents will appear on examination
not only much augmented, but also, as far as is

possible in such a manual, more fully co-ordinated

in the light of the present demands of philological
science.
The process of reconstruction now completed was
already in hand in 1884, previous to the author's
demission of the duties of the Greek Chair. The
present work may be said, therefore, to represent the
result of mature and almost life-long experience in
Greek tuition.
In accordance with his former method, he has
followed the system, which he thinks the best ex-
perience confirms as the right one, of exhibiting the
Greek verb not in fragments or clusters of tense-sys-
tems but in paradigms, representing the full array ot
each Voice visible at one simultaneous view. Nor
has he seen any reason to depart from the choice
VI PREFACE.

he made formerly of a Pure verb as the typical one to

commence vdth, affording, as it does, more easy dis-
crimination of stem and personal endings, in prefer-
ence to the complicated Labial verb (tutttci)), v^hich
used to be given as the norm in most of the older
grammars, but which did not permit so ready dis-
section of those constituents as is desirable for teach-
ing purposes in the verb first presented to the pupil's
view. The which has thus been
particular verb
chosen has the unique advantage that,
{viz., iravco),

besides being at once remarkably regular and com-

plete in other respects, it affords at the same time,
better than any other pure verb that can be named,
good extant models for the important group known
as the second or Strong tenses. The only other verb
that presents similar facihties is \v(o, which is the
favourite in French Greek grammars, but, apart from
the circumstance that any attempts at second or
Strong tenses would involve in this instance creation
of forms purely fictitious or imaginary, the awkward
change of quantity in its Perfects and Aorist Passive
from that prevailing in the other tenses, renders it,
as a model, doubly inconvenient, and inferior there-
fore for purposes of tuition.
It is mainly the Accidence, that is, the Accidentia
pertaining to the Greek tongue, that is here dealt
with, and hence the absence, which many no
doubt
will regi-et, ofany full treatment of the Syntax,
which it has been found inadvisable to attempt on
the same scale within the compass of the present
volume. That department of the subject must be
reserved for a subsequent but companion volume,
and it is owing to a sense of the high importance of
 PREFACE. VII

the subject and of the valuable educative results,

more appropriate to a later stage, flowing from the
study of Greek Syntax in its niceties and subtleties,
that that section has been reserved for separate
treatment, which, however, will not probably be
long delayed.
In constructing the present work, the author has
to acknowledge obligations, not only to the gram-
marians and philologists of a former generation, but
also to many now or recently living, including such
transatlantic scholars as Goodwin and Hadley, as
well as the famous names of Curtius, John W.
Donaldson, Kiihner, Kriiger, and Veitch, as also
the newer names of Kutherlord, Brugmann and
Gustav Meyer. Special thanks are, however, due
to an interesting group oi rising young scholars
among his own former pupils, who have given him
the benefit ol their insight and experience. It is a
pleasure and a duty to name in this regard, Mr.
Kobert A. Neil, Fellow of Pembroke College, Cam-
bridge ; Mr. James Adam, Fellow of Emmanuel
College, Cambridge Mr. John Strachan, Fellow of
;

Pembroke College, Cambridge, and Professor of

Greek in Owens College, Manchester; Mr. John
Harrower, late Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford,
now Professor of Greek in Aberdeen and the two;

Rectors of the Grammar Schools in Aberdeen and

Old Aberdeen, Mr. Moir and Dr. Dey all of whom ;

have severally contributed valuable and important

aid.
In a work of so many minute details, it is rather
to be wished than expected that immaculate
for
accuracy should be found attained, but at all events
Vlll PREFACE.

no pains have been spared to produce a treatise

which should form a convenient manual for tuition,
and be at the same time fairly abreast of the present
requirements of scientific scholarship.

University of Aberdeen,
June, 1888.

* Besides the Syrdax referred to dbove^ ichicli would form

a separate volume complete in itselfj- a short Praxis to
the present volume of Greek Accidence, may Uh&wise
he issued.
 INTEODTJCTION.

DIALECTS, ETC.
The Greek Language, the treasure-house of the genius of the
old world, and the mother of the mightiest intellectual and
moral influences in the new, was anciently spoken, not only
in what we now call Greece, but in the South of Italy and
in Sicily, in the sea-coasts of Asia Minor, and generally
along the shores of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean.
It is a conspicuous branch of the great stem of Languages
called the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, which stretches from
the Bay of Biscay to that of Bengal, and it claims kindred,
in nearer or more remote degree, with Sanskrit, old Persian,
Latin, Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavonic. While the Greeks were
remarkable for the contempt with which they regarded the
non-Greeks or Barbarians, as well as for their devotion to their
own national name of Hellenes, by which they designated
themselves in the historic period, they were notably distin-
guished from the Romans and other ancient nations by their
spirit of individualmriy and their aversion to centralisation.
For, whereas the Roman Empire knew but one form of Litera-
ture, and one seat of Power, to which the whole world was
to look, and did look long, for literary and political law, it
is instructive to observe how strikingly the Greek world was
the reverse of all this —how, resisting all centralising tenden-
cies, it severed itself, on the one band, in regard to politics,
X INTRODUCTION.

into a host of little communities, each independent of the other,

though glorying in their common
name and on theHellenic ;

number of dialects and

other, in the field of literature, into a
styles, each with its own peculiar laws and forms of literary

achievement, but each fundamentally Hellenic. The leading

Dialects^ were accordingly three, corresponding to the three
leading divisions of the Hellenes The -^ouc," the least
; I.

cultivated but, in area, most widely diffused. Of this dialect

very few literary remains have come down to us, the principal
being the Lyric fragments of the two Lesbian poets, Alcaeus and
Sappho (prose almost non-existent). IL The second branch,
closely kindred to the iEolic, but still independent in type,
was the Doric, which was the broadest,^ and most full-toned,
spoken by the Dorians, those mountaineers from Doris who
seized the Peloponnesus, and whose most powerful people was
the Spartans. It was also largely diffused by colonies to East
and West, especially in Caria and in Sicily. It supplied
the form for Choral Poetry, as in Pindar and the Tragedians,
and for Pastoral Poetry, as in Theocritus. (Prose very
limited, only in mathematical and philosophical treatises.)

III. The Ionic, the softest of the dialects, was chiefly spoken
in Ionia* in the West of Asia Minor, and was the early
prose-language, as in Herodotus and Hippocrates, who, though
born in Dorian communities, are the chief representatives of
the New Ionic. (Prose largely developed.) The Old Ionic is

mainly poetic, and is nearly identical with the Homeric form

^ These were known as (1) ^ AioAi(, (2) Awpis, (3) 'Ia«, with its daughter

- Under the ^olic, of which the Lesbian was the most important, were

classed certain minor dialects, such as Thessalian, Cretan, Boeotian, etc.

3 Hence the reproach of TrAaretao-M-os.
4 The name Ionia, as rooted in Asiatic soil and as the out-
interest of the
post of the Greek race eastward in later times, is very great. It can be traced
liack from the form, in the historic time, 'Iwi/es, to the ancient Homeric laoi-e?,
and thence, by digamma, 'lafove?, whence came, as the oriental name, applied,
not to a part only, but to the whole of the Greek race, the Javan of the Old
Testament and Yavana of the Hindoos.
 INTRODUCTION. XI

of speech, and consequently is the vehicle of Epic poetry. As

a daughter of the Ionic, we have to rank the Attic, which was
a more manly and nervous form of the soft Ionic, and was
spoken by the original lonians who remained in the country
of Attica, and entered later than their Asiatic brethren on the
paths of literature and culture, but who, under the name of
Athenians, brought literature both in prose and verse to
the summit of perfection. The speech of these Athenians
in Attica afterwards became the standard for the hook and
court language of all the Hellenic peoples. Previous to this
wider diffusion, there were two periods of the Attic dialect,
viz., the Old Attic, represented by the Tragedians and
Thucydides the historian ; and the New Attic, represented

by Xenophon, the Comedians, and the Orators. (Prose, in

the Attic dialect, abundant, in full equipoise with the dramatic
forms of poetry by which the Attic period was distinguished.
After the fall of Greek independence at Chaeronea, the Attic
faded away into the common Dialect or kolvi], losing its
brilliancy but gaining in area of diffusion.)

Besides these dialects, which had a reference originally to

Geographical Locality, there was the Epic Style, which was
the form adopted in the Homeric poems for Epic or Ballad
Poetry, and thereafter became consecrated to the narrative
species of poetic composition, wheresoever or by whomsoever
pursued. In the Epic, we find a blending of elements, drawn
from both iEolic and Ionic, the latter, however, having far the
preponderance. The Hellenistic stylo arose in the decline
of Greek Literature, when Alexandria, rather than Athens,
became the centre of learning, and Greek was imitated by
many of the Easterns, who were, therefore, said eWrjvi^eiif,
to affect Hellenic. A Greek scholar, while aspiring to an
acquaintance with all periods of Greek Literature, not under-
valuing the Hellenistic or even the modem Romaic, will make
it his chief ambition to become pre-eminently an Atticist,^

> Dr. Joha W. Doiudd«on, Greek Onun, p. 4.

 ; ;

Xll INTEODUCTION.

imbued with the spirit of the culminating period of Hellenic

thought.

HISTORY OF GREEK ALPHABET.

Although the Greek language is Aryan in its structure,

the symbols or characters by which it is represented are

mainly of Semitic origin.

The extent which the Greeks were indebted to the

to
Phoenician Semites is still visible from a comparison not only
of the shapes or figures,* but especially of the names and the
order of the letters, in the Greek and Hebrew alphabets.
Tiie latter alphabet consists of twenty-two letters, every one
of which can be accounted for as having in some form in-
fluenced the existing Greek alphabet. They are as follows :

Aleph = Alpha ; Beth = Beta Girael = Gamma Daleth = Delta He =

; ; ;

Epsilon Vau = ; Vau (Digamma) Sain = Zeta Chet = Eta Tet = Theta
; ; ;
;

Yod = Iota Kaph ; = Kappa Lamed = Lambda Mem = Mii Nun = Nil
; ; ;

Samech = Xi Ain ; = O Phe = Pi Zade = San (from its place after Pi

; ;

thence called Sam-Pi, c/. p. 73); Koph = Koppa; Resch = Rho; Shin = Sigma;
Tail - Tail.

Divergences op Greek from Hebrew Alphabet.

( 1 ) Of these, the following became entirely vocalic instead
of being, as in the Hebrew, consonants or semi-vowels :

Aleph He^ Tod, Ain, and,

J later, Vcm and Chet,

became, respectively, the vowels

(2) One of the two Semitic gutturals, Koph and Kaph, was
reckoned superfluous, and Kaph, after the two had co-existed
for some time, was victor and remained in the shape of K
the sign of Koph {Q, p. 73) being retained only as a
numerical symbol = 90.

1 It will be found that the figKres in the Greek alphabet are in

general the
Phujnician ones reversed, to suit the different direction of their mode of writing.
 INTRODUCTION. Xlll

(3) One of the two Semitic sibilants, Schm (San) and

Samech (Sigma), was dispensed with, the former supplying
name and figure for the now single surviving sibilant as used
by the Dorians, while Sigma was the name given by the lonians
(Herodotus The lonians, through their literary ascen-
I. 139).
dency, stamped the Sigma on the sibilant, although it bore
title

the figure of the Dorian San. The sign anciently representing

Samech, thus set free, was appropriated to the complex sound
fi, being the guttural double consonant.
(4) For the other two double consonants. Sain or Zain
of the Hebrew was used for the dental, viz., Z, and a figure
for the other or labial double consonant, viz., the labial ps,
was found in *•, added near the close of the Greek alphabet.
(5) A very important change was that affecting the sixth
letter of the Hebrew alphabet, viz., the semi- vowel Vau.^
The history of this letter divides itself into two parts accord-
injito its function as a vowel or as a consonant. As a voweh
it came up transformed as Upsilon (Y), and in this form was
added on to the alphabet after T, with which the Phcenician
series closes, so that Y marks the first, in order, of the five

Hellenic additions appended to the Semitic alphabet. As a

J It is now regarded as certain, on converging evidence of all kinds,

ir^scrip-
tions, coins, etc., that the sixth place of the ancient Greek alphabet was
occupied, as in the Phoenician, by a letter called Vau and known by that name
to Didymus, the Greek grammarian of Alexandria, and that the ancient shape
of Vau seen in the letter F of the Roman alphabet, where it maintained
is still
its place aa the sixth letter. From the re.semblance of that figure (f) to the
Gamma (r), it came to be styled the double (Jamma or Digamma. (The name
is not a happy one, as it may suggest false affinity to the guttuml, instead t>f to
the kindred labial, series of letters.) Even under this name it had a restricted
existence, droppe<l out of the Ionic-Attic alphabet, and survived longest in the
less literary i*>»lic dialect, whence it came to be known as the i*k)lic Digamma.
On the coins of Klis, an .*k»lic community, the figure of it can, however, be seen
lasting down into the historic time. The liistory of thi.s letter constitutes a kind
of romance in philology, and the investigation is not yet completed as to the
conditions of ite i^ypearing or vanishing, since it is both present and absent
capriciously in seemingly contemporaneous documents. Thu.s, aeiatftaroi olvof,
without the Digamma, whose insertion would here mar the metre, api>ears in
Bplc to co-exist with such as nt\if)i*a fou'oi', where its presence is re(|uired,
but perhaps it may be found that the phenomenon is not more abnonnal than
that in Milton's line ' Over the wilderness and o'er the plain ' (Par. Rtg. 4. 343).
XIV INTRODUCTION.

consonant, it early dropped out and disappeared, and its re-dis-

covery by Bentley ^ is one of the triumphs of modern Philology.

(6) Lastly, besides a symbol for the long O or Omega, which
was appended at the close, there were added two specially
Greek characters for the labial and guttural aspirates, viz., ph
and ch (as in Scotch loch), in the shape of * and X.
The chief alterations in the alphabet were vaguely attri-
buted to Palamedes and Simonides, the latter of whom was a
native of Ceos, and contemporary with Miltiades and the
actors in the Great Persian War (B.C. 490-79). The tradition
as to the former belongs to the pre-historic time, and the
statement as to Simonides that he was the first to introduce
the two double consonants S and ^, and the two long
vowels H and Q, is not consistent with the evidence of
inscriptions. It was not till the Archonship of Euclides,
B.C. 403, that the Alphabet, in the complete form in which
it has descended to us, was nationally adopted at Athens.
The smaller or cursive style of the Greek Alphabet is of
comparatively recent origin, not appearing in manuscripts
before the eighth century : hence the ancient Greeks em-
ployed solely the capitals or uncials not only in inscriptions
but in common writing.
Originally the Greeks wrote from right to left, like the
Hebrews and Phcenicians, from whom they borrowed their
alphabet: afterwards they wrote from right to left and left to
right alternately, which was called writing ffovaTpo(f)T]B6v,
as oxen turn at the plough. Herodotus, however, speaks of
the Greeks in his time (b.c. 450) as writing universally from
left to right, in contrast with the Orientals (IL 36).
1 was owing to the frequency of certain hiatuses, persistent and recurrent
It
before certain words in the Homeric poems, that the great critic was led to
suspect that some consonant, now lost to the eye in the written form, had been
present to the poet's ear when these poems were composed. He farther ob-
served, that many of these words needed only the introduction of v or the like,
to make them all but identical with their Latin representatives. The leading
examples are eop or ijp, spring, as frjp = rer llov, saio, fidi eiKoo-i, twenty,
; ;

riginti; ecrjrepos, evening, vesper; 'n, force, vis; oTkos, dwelling, ricus; oli/o?, wine,
rinum.
 —

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I. PHONOLOGY.
SECTION PAGE
1. The Alphabet, 1
2. The Vowels, 2
3. The Diphthongs, 3
4. The Breathings, 3
The Consonants, 4
5.

6. Euphony within Words

Contraction of Vowels,
: I. of Vowels, ... 5
5
7. Euphony within and at end of Words : II. of Con-
sonants,

8.
Assimilation, Dissimilation, Metathesis,
Euphony between Words,
... 7
7
11
Elision, Insertion {v e^fX/tvort/coi/), Crasis, . . . 11
9. Specialties as to the Spirants (2, f, and Yod), . . 14
9a. Tabular View of Consonants in their affinities, . 16
Labialism and Dentalism, 16
10. The Accents and Punctuation Marks, . . .17
PART II. MORPHOLOGY.
Preliminary as to Roots, Stems, Words, ... 18
11.

12.
clension,
The Article,
........
The Noun (Substantive); General Rules as to De-
18
20
18. The First (or A) Declension, 20
14. The Second (or 0) Declension, 24
15. The Attic Second Declension, 26
16. The Third or Consonantal Declension General, . 27
 .. .

XVI CONTENTS.

SECTION PAGE
17. The Third Declension— Liquid Stems, Mute Stems, . 28
18. —
The Third Declension Spirant Stems (Nominatives
in OS (foy), evs, to, etc.), . . . . ,

19. Sub-classes of Consonantal Stems, . .

1. Liquid Stems in p — syncopation of €,

Liquid Stems in p — dropping out of j/, .

2. Mute Stems modified (Nominatives in ay, aros

<os, and (Op),.
wTos ; ap
20. Vocalic Stems (with vowel t or v),
21. Cases under Third Declension— Nominative Singular,
22. ,, „ Genitive, .

23. „ „ Accusative,
24. ,, „ Vocative, .

25. „ Dative Plural,

„ .

Vocabulary of Examples under Third Declension,

26. On the Case-endings in the Three Declensions,
27. Sporadic Case-endings,
28. Anomalies in Declension I. By Defect, — .

29. Anomalies in Declension II. By Redundance, —

30. List of Substantives having irregular or peculiar De-
clension,
31. Gender of Substantives, . . . .

32. Adjectives. J. Of Firstand Second Declensions,

33. „ II. Of Second Declension solely, .

34. „ III. Of Third Declension solely,

36. „ IV. Of First and Third Declensions,
86. „ V. Of One Termination,
37. Irregular Adjectives, noXvs, fxdyas, etc.,
38. Comparison of Adjectives — Ordinary,
39. „ „ Special or Peculiar,
40. „ „ Defective or Redundant,.
41. Comparison of Adverbs,
42. Numerals,
Numerals and Distributive Pronouns,
43. Indefinite
44. Pronouns.
45. ,,
Personal Pronouns,
Reflexive Pronouns,
....
46. „ Reciprocal Pronouns,
47. „ Possessive Pronominals,
 CONTENTS. XVil

SECTION
48.
49.
Pronouns. Demonstratives, ....
Interrogative, Indefinite, Relative,.
.

.
PAGE
78
80
50. Correlative Pronouns, . 82

The Verb.
51. General, 83
52. Inflection of Thematic Verbs (Verbs in Q), . . 86
Paradigms of Thematic Verbs, Act., Mid., Pass., . 88
53. Supplementary exaanple of Second or Strong Aorist
with syncopated Future, 96
54. The two Conjugations— Characteristics of Stem, . 97
55. Nexus of Stem Characteristic, 99
Paradigms of Liquid, Dental, Guttural, and Labial
Verbs 100
56. Inflection of Perfect Middle or Passive, . . . 104
57. Contracted Verbs, 108
57a. Contracted Verbs in Dialects, 109
58. Non-thematic Verbs.—Verbs in MI, . . . .110
59. I. Non -reduplicating Verbs in fit {dfii, eifit, (firjfxi), . 112
w
60.
or va {ta-rq^i, etc.),

Paradigms of Verbs in fit,

......
II. Verbs in /xi Reduplicating, and III., Inserting
115
120
61. Paradigm of trjfii 121
62. Anomalous and Defective Verbs {oi8a, ij/iat, KUfiai), . 123
68. Archaic Aorists, . . . . . . . . 12o
64. Archaic Perfect, 127
65. Impersonal Verbs, 129
66. Deponent Verbs, 129
67. On the Personal Endings of Verbs, . . . .132
68. Notanda on Verb-forms of Active Voice, . . . 138
69. Notanda on Verb-forms of Middle and Passive Voices, 185
70. Laws of Augment, . . . . . . . 186
71. Reduplication in Perfect, 138
72. Special or Attic Reduplication in Perfect, . . 140
78. Reduplication in other Tenses than Perfect, . .141
74. Augment and Reduplication in Composition, . Ml
75. Formation of Tense -Systems, 11 :>
76. Present Tense -Stems, Ml
b
 .

XVm CONTENTS.

SECTION PAGE
77. Formation of the Future (Active and Middle), . 144
78. Special Kules as to Vowel-Nexus of Future, 147
79. Variations of
80. Perfect (Weak
Future in Dialects,

81. Perfect (Strong or

or First) Active,
Second) Active,
.....
149
150
151
82. Perfect Middle or Passive, 155
83. Variations from Type of Perfect Middle or Passive, 156
84. —
First or Weak Aorist Active and Middle, 157
—
85.
86. First or
87. First
Weak Aorist Passive,
and Second Future Passive,
....
Strong or Second Aorist Active, Middle, Passive, 159
162
163
88. Future Perfect, Middle, and Passive, 163
89. Verbals in t6s and reosj 164

The Indeclinables.
90. The Particles— Adverbs, 164
91. The Particles — Prepositions, 167
92. —
The Particles Conjunctions, 174
93. Interjections, 176

WORD-BUILDING.
94. Formation of Words General,— 176
95. Formation of Substantives, 176
96. Formation of Adjectives, . 179
97. Formation of Verbs, . 181
98. Composition of Words, 182

PART III. SYNTAX (ABRIDGED).

99. Laws common to Greek and Latin Tongues :
—
Section 1, Concord, 1S4
Section 2. Government, 188

APPENDICES.
Appendix I. Accents.
100. General Laws, 194
101. Accentuation of Nouns, 194
 CONTENTS. XIX

SECTION PAGE
102. Accentuation of Nouns (in Oblique Cases, etc.), . 196
103. „ of Verbs, 197
104- „ in Contractions, 198
„ in Prepositions, 198
105. Atonies or Proclitics, 199
106. Enclitics, 199

Appendix II. Prosody.

107. General, 201
108. Nouns— First Declension, 201
109. Nouns— Third Declension, 202
110. Verbs, 203
111. Indeclinables, 203

Appendix III. Metre.

112. Metre. (A.) Dactylic Verse, 204
„ (B.) Trochaic Verse, 206
„ (C.) Anapaestic Verse, 206
(D.) Iambic Verse, 207

Appendix IV.
113. Grimm's Law, . . . . . . . .211

Appendix V.
114. Irregular Verbs, 212
 CONTRACTIONS IN OLD TYPOGRAPin

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EdcTibiayh. Oliver^ Boyd:

 —

GREEK GRAMMAR,

PART I. PHONOLOGY :— Sounds and Signs.

§ 1. The Greek alphabet consists of the followin< 24

characters :

Character. (By -fonn. Name. Sound.

A a ak^a alpha a (long or short)
B/3 ^ ^rjTa beta b (v in Eomaic)
Ty ydfifia gamma g (hard, as in gas)
AS heXra delta d
Ee eyjriXov e psilon^ e (inet, only short)
Z? ^rjTa zeta z (dz or f?/)
Hv i)Ta eta e (long = a in fate)
ee & df]Ta theta th
I t Icora iota J (ee, long or short)
Kk /caTnra kappa k
A \ Xcifi/BBa lambda 1

Mfi fiv mu m
Nv vv uu n
Ef ft xi X
Oo 6 fiLKpov u micron -
(only short)
n-TT Tff 7rl pi P
Pp pw rho r
^ (7(9 final), c alyfjLu sigma s
, Tt rav tau t
Tv y -^/rtXoV u psilon 5
tlFr. (long or short)
4>ct> <^Z phi ph
Xx X^ chi ch (as in Sc. loch)
V^ •i^r psi ps
flo) (i) fieya omega* (only long)
1 i Bimple. 2Iittl • .-.. . . short. 3u slmi le. * hitf 0. i.f. loPK.
These four are n - : most of the tliors. an far n» t incluhlve,
«

are of Semitic -
11. the hitrcduct icn of the alphabet being
as-ri(>i<l tu lUv 1
 —

2 LETTERS — VOWELS. [§ 2.

1. Sigma has two forms, s at the end, o- in all other paits of a

word, as aaxras. (The crescent c anywhere.)

o- may be final by elision, as &s elnova airier).

s may be in the middle, where the first part of a compound

ends with it, as €ls-<j)epo}. But f tV^epco is also allowed.
2. y, K, r, are always sounded hard, even before i, as TaXaria^
Galat-i-a, not Galasia, ^eoXoyia, KiXiklu.
y standing before another y, or Ijefore k, x, I, has a ringing
sound like that of n in ring, rang, rung; ayyeXos, angelus (g
hard) "Ay/cwi/, Ancon or Ancona ; 'Ay^iV?;?, Anchises Xdpvy^,
; ;

lyrjTix.
3. V (originally like Latin or Italian tt, cf. /xuk =
mug-ire, Silo
= duo), was in tlie best j)eriod sounded thin, like the French ?t
in fut, or the German ii '
m
MUller,' or oo in South Scotch as in
shoon. Hence it is transliterated in Latin by y, not by u. (The
natural u, i.e. Engl, oo, is properly ov ; bull /Souy.) =
4. The above is properly only the Attic Alphabet of Greek.
For traces of a fuller Alpliabet, including letters no longer exist-
ing in Attic, such as Digamma or f, see § 9. 2.

§ 2. Of the twenty-four characters seven are vowels,

Two always short, e, o, as TroXeyuo?, with their cor-
responding longs, 7j, (o, as 7r(Jt)XrJT7J<; ;
And three douhtful, i.e., variable, long in some
words, short in others, a, i, v ; as ^co/cpdrr]^, but
cLKparo^i ; and even in the same word, variable,
as AcaA.6? (-Kpic), Kd\6<: (Attic).
1. The number of vowels is, as in Latin, properly five, but
the Greek diverges from the Latin in introducing in two of them
a double form tluis, € and t] represent really one vowel, and o
:

with 0) another. There are properly only three primary voAvels,

a, I, and V (soundinj' originally ah, ee, and oo as in boon), and the
6-sound is intermediate between a and t, just as the o-sound
stands midway between a and v. A
diagram will show their
relation :

2. I and v are called thin or close ; the other vowels hroad or

o'pen.
3. Some philologists make frequent use of what is called the
splitting of the a-sound, whereby a primitive a can come up as
e and as o. Thus t and o in yivos, yiy ova, etc., are thought
§ 3, 4.] DIPHTHONGS. 3

to be developed out of a primitive o, retained as a in Sanskrit.

But the newer pliilology rejects this, and claims e and o to be
contemporaneous with, not subsequent to the a sound.

§ 3. From the vowels the diphthongs are formed by

subjoining either of the thin vowels, i or u (postpositives)
to any of the other, or broad, vowels (jyi'epositives).
1. L and u, after a short vowel, form proper or ordinary
diphthongs,
°'
with d with 6 1^' with o -!
I'*' yevj yov,
\avt
having full fusion of both sounds.
2. t and v, after a long, form improper diphthongs,
with d \^ with t? J ^ with w {^
yavj \7)v, ywvy
having imperfect fusion of sounds.
r}v and <ov are chiefly Ionic, but r)v occurs in augments, and
1.
<avin crasis, even in Attic. Other combinations than the above,
such as eo) in Genitives, are not really diphthongs.
2. In a, ,7, o), the iota subscribed is not now sounded. After a
capital it is w'ritten on the line or adscribed, as "AtSiyy, Hades,
but, without capital, abr^s.
There is a proper diphthong, ut, formed of the two 'post-
3.
posUives. It is, in Attic, only before vowels, as fivla, or final.
4. oi becomes in Latin ae —
aWrjp, Eether. Rarely ai, as Al'a?, Aiax,
(later Ajax), iv (if from at /^), as eXaia,
oliva.
ft „ I —
or e Aapeiosy Dar-ius or -eus ; before
consonants, I, as NeiXoy, Nilus.
ot „ —
oe OiTT], Oeta.
VI „ — ElXeldvia, Ilithyia.
yi
a „ d— SpaKTjy Thrace (HoR.).
]j „ «or — Qprjacra, Thressa or Tlireissa.
ei

^ „ and earlier — ode, but rpaytodosj

cc wSiy,
tragordus.
ov „ Uj Motifra, Musa
(but Mvaia «= Mysia).
av and tv „ au and eu a vowel, av and ev)
(l)efore
rXavKOs, Glaucus, (*Ayavj;, AgSve :)
fuyt, euge, (but Evios, Euhius).

Jj
4. Every initud vowel or diphthong lias either the
roiirjfh breathing (' ) or the smooth ( ' ).
1. The rough has the sound of H and
(or h) in Latin,
was originally of the same form ; tlie smooth has prac-
 —
; ;

4 BREATHINGS — CONSONANTS. [§ 5.

ticallyno distinguishable sound, but merely denotes

the absence of the rough.
Thus <opa = hora, but a>pa is sounded ora.

V and p at the beginning of a word have regularly

2.
the rough breathing, as (J/xro?, /lymnus pyjrcopt vhetor. ;

1. pp, in the middle of a word, has usually, for the

first p the
smooth, and for the second the rough, Ilv/juof, Pyrr/ius.
2. The marks of the breathings (as also of the accents, see

§ 10) stand over a small vowel, before a capital vowel, and, in the
case of a diphthong, over the second vowel, as dyrj, 'Ayrj, avyt].
3. The original rough breathing was H, as it still is in the
Latin alphabet. When this letter was appropriated to represent
eta,abbreviations of it when bisected were retained to indicate
the two breathings, and is a reduced edition of I, an<l of d.
'
'

§ 5. Of the seventeen consonants, one is a sibilant,'^ 9

Three are douhle or composite, sir, f, f
Four are liquid'^ \, p., v,
p
The remaining nine are mutes, viz. ;

Ist Order, 2n(l Order. 3rd Order.

First grade, temies^ . . tt k t
Second grade, intermediates^ ^ y 8
Third grade, aspirates, - 4> % f*

Thus each tenuis has its own intermediate and aspi-

rate,and the three together form one order of mutes,
pronounced by the same organ of speech. Hence
TT, /3, ^, ip, lb, iph, lip sounds, are called Labials.
K, 7, %, iJc, ig, ich, throat sounds, „ Gutturals.
T, t, 6, it, id, ith, tooth sounds, „ Dentals.'*
The sibilant added to any mute of these orders producer

1 i.e.. The hissing letter. It is also called a sinrant, see § 9.

2 The fjUding letters, so called partly from the readiness with which they
fuse and combine with mutes, partly from the ease witli which the sound of
each can be prolonged by the vocal organs, and hence they are the letters
oftenest doubled, and v belong to a group of nasals by themselves, being the
fj. fj.

labial nasal and v the dental nasal. A. and p, which are the liquids proper,

make another group of trilling sounds, often interchanging.

3 Tenues are by some called hard, and intermediates are called soft mutes.
4 The physiological order places Labials last and Gutturals first. Tlie thront-
sounds are no doul)t deeper than teeth or tongue and lip-sounds, and hence, for
greater ease, are often transformed into Dentals and Labials. In the above
series, however, Labials may have precedence, as the earliest words, on the lips
of infants, are characterised by Labial sounds, as nd.nnoi,jath(r, etc.
 —

§ 6.] EUPHONY OF VOWELS — CONTRACTION. 5

a double cousonant, which is but an abbreviation in the

written form :

77?, /39, (t>^ = ^fr ; /<:9, 7?, ^9 =^ ; 89 or crS == ^}

§ 6. Euphony within Words. I. Of Vowels.

The Greek tongue is not averse to harmonious com-
binations of vowels {e.g., toetSea), but avoids unpleasing
concurrences of them by Contraction {a-waipeai^)}
1. A short vowel meeting itself contracts into its
corresponding (graphical) diphthong ^ (et for e, ov for o).

ee = ei ; oo = ov ; <^t\ee = (jilXec ; BrjXoofJiev = Brj-

Xoiifiev.
But of dual into 1;, as rpirjpef
ff =
Tpi-qpr], to distinguish from
Dat. in ; also in some Epic forms as o-ttt/i for o-Trcei, 0iXi7-
ei

^(i/ai, and usually in auijnients also in fjdrj for fjdef.

; In Doric,
fjxou for (Ixov, and a> in Doric Genitives for 00 of II. Decl.

2. A short before the other short into ou.

€0 and 06 = ov, as <l)L\€Ofiev = (f)L\ovfiev ; BrjXoere =
BrjXovre.
€0 in Ionic and in later Doric often into fu, as a-to into aev for
Attic aov ; eKaXeCi/ro, etc. (But o + e in Xom. Du. of II. Dec. = w.)

1 As in 'A0i^va^t for 'Afl»ji'«o--Sf In peneral,

. however, f arises out of yy, (</".

a^o^at), and 6;/, as in Zev?, out of Dyatts.

- In Attic, contraction is almost universal in termination* and in inflectional

forms (yet -v« in Datives in Attic, where Epic has -vi and -vi), but is lax as regards
tifnu. The Ionic, however, contracted the intericir of stem* and left ((i-minationt
open. Contrast Attic i<p6? and i/3o^0*i with Ionic ip6?, ipdiOtr. Sometimes in
Epic and Ionic, euphony is attained by simply dropping one of the concurring
vowels, as ir»rotfo for iiroitto.
Contraction in its simplest form is simply the removal of sign of Diaeresis
(itaiptait) ["], as in Dative of III. Decl., rpiripti becomes rpiripti. In such words
there is rmly a slight graphical change to indicate the diphthongal pronuncia-
tion, but in many instances there is a change of form in the resulting vowel or
diphthong, which change also goes by the name of Synjeresis. The older
(irammarians, perhaps more correctly, called this second species cratis, a name
now limite<l to union of vowels in dijuint wonts.
Contrahitur—
1. Ilrevis ante se, in Ruam diphthongura. Sed c« dualis in ij.
2. Hrevis ante alteram brevem, in ov.
3. Itrevis ante a, in suam loncuni.
.Sed ta purum, et p*a prima* inn.
4. Semper in nominibus, pleruinquo in verbis, ejicitar brevis ante Tel
longam vel diphthonguw.
5. a ante o vel w, in w.
a non ante o vel u», in a.
6. Si prior vocalis est i vel v vol lonca, van«'srit senindn sonipor. .^foor'sGr.Gr,
3Strictly speaklns, not a real diphthong but only grapbically so, as a mo<le
of reT>res«nting tb« OOM
and < sounds. 1 hus ^iA«( of Attic ^(Ai) in Doric. =
 —

6 CONTBACTION. [§ 6.

3. A short before a into its own long.

ea = 7} = as rpLtjpea -=
; oa (o, rpLJ]prj ; opea = opr) ;

alBoa = alSo) avKea = ; av/crj ; eaXwv = rfKwv.

Excep. But (1) pea, in the singular of the first, (2) ea and oa^
in the dual of the first declension, and neuter plural of the second,
and (3) generally ea jnire {i.e., preceded by a vowel), into a.
(1) Nom. sing, dpyvpea apyvpa. =
(2) Noni. dual, avKea =
avKu ; dnXoa = &Tr\a ; Nom. plural of
neuter, oarea oora. =
(3) vyiea =
vyia, also vyirj ; X°^'" ^^ X°° » Heipaiea Ueipaia. =
1. — fas of Acc. PI. and eis alongside of are co-existing forms it
of different origin. So /Soar and f:iovs. On such as peiCoas be-
coming peiCovs, cf. § 32. ea of neuter plural of adjectives iu vs
remains usually open.
2.
xP^^^^^ of ^^^^ S. becomes, by above, ^^puo-J}?, while xp^'
(Teas of Acc. Plural becomes ;(pu(ruy. Similar differentiation in
parts of &7r\6os.

4. In nouns always, and in verbs generally, a short

before a long, or before a diphthong, is rejected.
ov =^ V } ^= V'} €ou = ov; 00) = (p.

aifkoT] =r. uTrXr} ; (piXerjre = <f)L\iJTe ; ')(pvaeov = XP^'

aov ;
;)(;pU(Teat = y^p^^^"^ '> Trkoco = ttXo).
Excej)t in verbs, where eat =d or ei, as rvTrreai = ti/tttci or
Tvrrqj.
= OT] CO as drjXoTjTe brjXaTe.=
Also oydoTjKovra = oydoiKovra, €,ior)a-e = e^coae, in Ionic.
and = 017 oei 01, but ofi in infinitive on. =
(See Contracted veii)S.)
oeis in adjectives being for oevs, becomes ovs, but oet becomes
0) in such as rpoxofeibrjs rpoxoi^^s- =
a before o or o> becomes o) a 7io^ before
5. ; o or a>

becomes d.^ (i, if displaced, is subscribed.)

[ J Tifidofiev = rifjLOjfiev.

I
* *
'

\ ri/jLuoifjL€i> = rifj.(v/xep.

r a.
^V J
I
9" '\

I T^A'"^^
'

= " ^
TL/JLCl."

1 i.e., a prevails over < or »j, but is itself assimilated by or w.

2 As to by contraction for d in Coiw, etc., see Contracted verbs,
T) aeipw and
deixia become alpm and aiKia, but aeiow and doi&>;, become a£(o, (>>o>j.
§ 7.] EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 7

6. If the first vowel is t or u or a long, the second

disappears, leaving the first vowel, if formerly short,
now long.

le = 1; V6 =V ; 776 = 77 ; coa = co ;

vl of Datives becomes vc (if vi, then ut), but in Opta-

tives, etc., VL must become v, when standing
before a consonant, § 3, n. 3.

§ 7. Euphony within Words. II. Of Consonants.

The Greek tongue is not averse to accumulation of consonants, as, e.g..
eiktcrpov, but these" consonants must be conibineil according to certain laws of
Euphony, (If four consonants concur, the first and last are liquids).

1. No aspirated mute is ever doubled; of the inter-

mediates only 7;^ TT and k are seldom so. The conso-

nants often doubled are t, the sibilant, and the four
liquids.

2. A\Tien two mutes of different orders come together,

the second must be a dental,^ and requires the first to
be of the same grade with itself Thus the root
ypacf)- before a temcis . (-t&)) becomes ypdir -ro).

„ „ an intermediate (-Brjv) „ ypdiS -Brjv.

pair- „ an aspirate (-^et?) „ pacp-Oei^.^

3. A rough breathing following the tenues mutes

(tt, tc, t), raises them to their corresponding aspirate ((/>,

X, 0) (Assimilation), but does not affect intermediates

(A 7, 8)-
ovK efo) becomes ov-^ efw ; vvkt 0X771/, vvyQ^ 6Xt)v (but
ovB' efw) ; also in composition, dirb and irjfjLi = cKpiijfiL.

X. — Tliis
was not a law in tlie Ionic dialect, hence (by yj/^iXo)-
(Tis, or (Iroj)pin^ of aspiration) an ov, Ionic for a0' ol. Sucli words
as .UvKiniros, oin-ijXtof, etc., occurring in Attic, are inheritances
from the Ionic

1 Soeb M ififii, tUiivtr are not Attic.

• Except In compounds of <«, as iiti^^uxw and forelpi worda QXyfiiTava).
The only attempt at doubllnK an
> aspirate is preflxing its <>wn uniooth.
Fence Zaw^, not Xo^^^ Ihr0«v«, nut ; II.(>0<v< (MoMoiof U not Uellvnic).
 — : — ;

8 EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. [§ 7.

4. When two consecutive syllables commence with an

aspirate, the first descends to its corresponding tenuis
{plssimilation, common in Eeduplications).
becomes tv(I)u) ; (f>e(^l\'qKa becomes ire^yiXTjKa.
dvcf)(o
ede-6-qv becomes iredrjv ; diVrjfit becomes ridrjfic.
So an initial rough hreothing, with an aspirated mute
opening the second syllable, often passes into the
smooth breathing —
€\((o = ex^y ; €a6t]<; from stem ecr- = icr6ri<;.

1. In one formation, the second aspirate that is modified

it is
while the first remains, viz.^ in Imperative of 1 Aor. P. as a-wdrjn
(for a-oiSTjOi). Yet aa>Br]$\ oaov yf, etc.
2. Wlienever, by any inflectional chanj^e, a second aspirate
disappears, aspiration is communicated to a preceding tenuis.
Irora stem Tp((f)' arise rpo^r}, Tp((f)Q}, but Opfirros, Bptp-fia,
6p(y\r<ii.

From stem rpt^- arise gen. rpixoi ; dat. rpi;^i, but nom. 6pi^^
(lat. plural, Bpi^i (xs becoming «?, wlience |).
From stem e^- compare present exto, with future f^w, noun
«^tf- (' 7- Ionic Kiddiv for x^'r<i>v, by alternation.)

Excep. 1. If a consonant intervenes immediately before

the second aspirate, there is no change, BiaOai, tdpecpOijv
(but, without intervening consonant, iTpa<l>r)v).
Excep. 2. An aspirate in the inflectional ending^ cr in the
second part of a compound, drtes not always afifect a fore-
going contiguous aspirate <\)a6i (stem <j)a, endinrj 6C)
:

fXv6r)v ; doubted)
(Tedd<f)aTaL compounds, opvidodrjpasj
;

diJL(f>i(f>op(vs (although €K€-xftpia for (X€-x(ipia). In these,

the component elements are treated as independent.

5. A dental before another dental, and usually before

fi,^ becomes 9 (Dissimilation) before a itself or k, it ;

disappears :

•^evh- H- drjvat, + /icr = yfreva-drjvai,, ^^evafia,

^jrevS- + (TO) = ylrevcTco.

So Triirecd -\- Ka = jreirecKa.^

1 In some poetic words and in the dialects, we find irorfxo?, ISntu, and in
Attic, oLTfioi, araeixo^. etc.
ol&iia, Hence some deny the transition of dental
before a* into
«, and express the phenomenon in other form.
2 r/". Latin ed-t 1 ceo nine a-t (eats); pen(?-sum becoming pen-sum ako ;

Gothpel becoming Gospel, o- between two consonants in medio-passive endings,

is dropped :—
ifyytX. + <T9aLi = riyyf\9ai TtTpin -f &6e = T(Tpi(t>9e.
§ 7.] EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 9

6. fl changes a Roots. Endings.

labial before it into /i. ^Xerr-^fjua = /SXe/xfia.
(/uftural „ 7. TrXeK + = irXiy/jLa.
fjua

dental „ a: aS -^/la = aa/ia.

1. f/c remains, as, eKfioXdv. Except, also, aKfiij, uK^oiv, alxfj-r),

oTfios, Spaxftrj, ^adfios, and tlie Epic dxaxfJ-fVOSi KeKopvOfifvos, etc.

2. If yyfi or fififi thus arises, y/x or /x/i is accepted ; as in nefxTroi
{ne-Trcfin-fiai, 7rf-7re/i/x-/iai), 7re-7re/x-/xai.

7. Vy before a labial, becomes /jl} iv+fievco = i/jufievco.

So cruf/-, iraXiv- become

crvfi-, TTaXt/jL- before
TT, /3, 0.
„ guttural, „ 7. iv -{ KaXeco = iyKaXeco.
So o'L'i'-, TraXti^- become
criry-, iraXiy- before

„ dental, remains,^ as evhov, evro^;, etc.

„ liquid, is assimilated. eV + Xelirco --= iXXei-
TTft), (Tvv -^ pdiTT(o (This = a-yppdirTOi.
isAssimilation backward or regressive,
but 6X-vv-fjLL becoming oXXv^l, is by
assimilation forward or jyrogressive.)
Excep. The preposition «V remains before
p, as €V + pairrui = ivpairroi.

„ the sibilant, is dropped. Zaiyuov -f crt = 5at-

= K€(rT6<;.

Excep. 1. 1/ is not dropped before

2nd persons singular o- in
of the Perfect and PI up. Pass, from some verbs in -va>,
as from (f)aiva>, n(<l)av(rai, an<l 7r<0ai/(ro. Cf. the noun dno-
(^avaii, though also aTrck^ao-ts- also the ancient Tlpvvs. ;

Excep. 2. (V remains before o-, 0) p^or ( avv drops v before ;

o- (-) with a consonant or before C> but assimilates v before

a (') with a vowel.

—
N. When p and a dental together are both droppe<l before <r.
then, tf) preserve the preceding syllable of the same prosoflial
length as i>efore, the preceding vowel, if doubtful (a, t, v), becomes

1
M being the labinl liquid. '<< v being the dental liquid.
10 EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. [§ 7.

naturally long ; if naturally short (e, o), it passes into the corre-
sponding (graphical)^ diphthong (ft, ov).-
avTs = as, CUTS = eiy, ivBs = = ous, vrrs = vs.
is, oj/ts
Tvy\ravrs = Tvyjrds ; TxmivTai = rvTrftat eXfiivdai = ; eXfiTa-i
rvuTOvTcn = Tvirrovcn ; ddKvvvrcri = So crnevd +
Setici/vcrt. crca ^
;

(TTTf t'cro), 6J/S = eis. In Noni. S., such as rvTrrooj/, if out of rvTrrovr-s,
is peculiar.
8. Any mute of the labial or guttural series before
a is absorbed with it into the corresponding double con-

sonant. XetTT+cro) = \et>|rft) ; Xey-^aco = Xe^co.

9. Harsh concurrences are softened by inserting auxi-
liary consonants to render transitions more easy, or by
other modifications.
The following combinations of liquids with liquids
were not allowed, fip, /xA,, vp, v\, vfi. If (1) the con-
currence arose from the meeting of liquids in the process
of compounding words, it was modified by assimilation,
as in vp passing into pp, e.g., avv pdirro) becoming +
cruppaTTTO), and similarly with v\ and vfM becoming W
and fi/x. But (2) if the concurrence was in the interior
of a stem, euphony was produced by the insertion of an
auxiliary consonant, whence for fip comes pL^p, etc.
Between //, and p (or yx and \) is inserted fi? ya/xpo^
becomes rya/ji^p6<i ; p^earj/jLepia, by syncope of e [jiecrT}-
PpLo], becomes p,€a7)p,ffpLa. Cf. numerus, number. Also
[p^epXcoKo] becomes p.ep,ff\coKa.
Between v and p is inserted 5. dvepo^, by syncope
of €, dvpo^ = dvBp6<;. Cf. tener, tenfZer.
Between cr and X is inserted 6. eVXo? Doric, is in
Attic i(jdX6<;, fiu is not tolerated, as e.g., a-eff-vo^ has
to become aepLvo^, and ^va-yo-piaL (woo a wife) pLvdop,aL.
10. In the case of the liquids (\, /x, v, p), sometimes
a shifting of position takes place {p^erdOeai^), as 6dpao<;
and Opdao^ occasionally with lengthening of quantity,
;

as from e^akov, ^i-^Xrj-Ka. (Metathesis). —

1 Cf. § G, fn. 3.
2 Compare the similar treatment of the vocalisation of the I. Aorist in Liquid
verbs, as fKpiva. for iKpiv-<ra, eareiAa fer i<TTe\-<Ta.
3 Sometimes a /3 thus formed displaces, at the beginning of words, the ^l
which it was introduced to help as na\aK6<s becomes (through ti\a^, ft-ft^^),
;

cj. /3A.«o(r»tw, /SpoTOS, ^Xc'ttw, from stems /uloA, /xop, /xeAcT.

/3/\.dJ;
 ,

§8. EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 11

11. The vowel t has frequently been raised to form

part of an antecedent syllable {cf. Fr. histoire out of L.
historza), especially in connection with v or p, as reivw
from T6V-LCO, st. rev-. iXavvw for iXa-vv-co appears to
be a similar instance with v. — (Epcntlicsis).

12. A Greek word must end either in a vowel or a

semi-vowel, and therefore no Greek word (apart from eV
and ovk'^) ends in a mute or with a consonant, except
with one of the three semi-vowels v, p, or (^, -y/r);^
Any consonant, other than v, p, a, happening to end
a word, is therefore dropped from the end of the stem,
as
T in fieki (honey), stem fieXir-, G. yueXtro?.
acjfia (body), stem o-co/jLar-, G. (Tco/iaTo?.
7)crav (were) for rjaaur, Cp. L. eraut.
KT in dva (0 king), for dvaxT- from dva^, dvaKTOf;.
yciXa (milk), stem yaXaKT-, G. yd\aKTO<;.
—
N.B. Tlie tenues and aspirate Mutes, with s (|, are known >//•),

as surd {i.e. sharp or abrupt-ending sounds) the otlier consonants

:

as also the vowels are sonant (i.e. Jiat, as allowing after-murmur.)

Table of Chief Ewphonic Clianges of Consonants.

comes comes comes comes comes

From any labial with TT T <f>6 flfM
From any guttural with K T y 8 7 M
From any dental witli (T T — ^<re
§ 8. Euphony betweex Wokds.
Hiatus is the harsh concurrence of two vowels not
forming a diphthong (such as in English a ox). Such

» «« and ovi« adhere OBually so closely to the following words that

the k
in them is rather medial than final. .So with itii 6*.
2 Such a word as Bn« (Egyptian Thoth) in seen at once to lie non-Hellenic.
Efen M. though a semivowel, h:ui when final given place to v, an in AccuHatives,
pivf against mnreiit. and in 1st persons of verbs, as iiiivy for ililtfi, cf. 8kt
adadam, and L. daoam.
* No instance of this combination in Attic. HaUixrai, Kpfc. * Doubtful.
 — —

12 EUPHONY BETWEEN WORDS. [§ 8.

a concurrence was in Greek usually avoided, and speci-

ally in the Attic dialect.
In Attic there w^ere three ways of avoiding hiatus
between words — elision, insertion, and crasis.

1. Elision is the striking off of a slioi^t final vowel (in-

dicated by the sign (') apostrophe, in Gr. airocrpocfios;) :

Tavra eliTe into ravr elire ravra evpe into ravO^ evpe ;

(6 for T by § 7, 3). (Elision of at, ot rare and only poetic.)

But no elision of
1. V anywhere, or of
2. a, t, o in monosyllables such as fid (except pa in Homer),
or of
3. I in TTfpt, (iyph fifXP*» ^''*» or -at in dative plural of third
declension, (ot in Attic is only for ore, not art.)

Any preposition may have its end- vowel elided in composition,

except TTfpt and np6.^ {npo with either c or o = Trpou-, by crasis.)
Prodelision or Aphiuresis is elii^ion of a short initial vowel
(chiefly poetic), as eyw *<f)dvT]p for f(f)dvr)v.

2. Insertion of a moveable consonant {/c, 9, v).

1. (k.) Ov, stands before a consonant, but before

not,
a vowel becomes oxjk, before an aspirated vowel,
ov')(^ as ov ct^^t^ctg), ovk e;^G), 017;^ efoj.
:

So oi) 4- fTi = ovKiTi ; on the same analogy, p.r] + ert

= p.T)K(Ti, 110 longer, ovk probably from ov-kI, and
Ki = Ti, whence it is = no-whit = not.

2. (?.) Ovrco, thus, before a consonant, sometimes also

oi;t&)9 in prose,but before any vowel, regularly
ouTO)? as ovTQ) ayrjaei, but ovtw<; €^€1 and efet.
;

In Ionic, which allowed hiatite, ouro) even before vowels.

— (If ovTcas is older than ovro), $• may be claimed as
no real insertion.) — 9 in p-f^pis, (ixpf-s, also moveable.

1 In the poets we find elision of a sliort vowel even before a consonant,

viz., in the d of opo, ava, Kara, and jrapa, becoming ap, av, KOLT and nap. (Tliis
is calJetl Apocope. It rarely occurs with ano and vn-o.) KeLr in composition or
close unittn undergoes euphonic changes, (1) assimilation, as in Kdn^reaoy for
#caT-7re<roi', xajS^oAe, KaS fiui-a/Liii', (2) ejection before two consonants, as KaKravt
for KaTf-KTave, but remains before ©as KdrOave for KareQave. ai'(for a»'a)also
becomes dfi before m and the three labials, as onirenaXtjv. Some traces of
apocope in Imperatives, as -rrav for trait ; and certain Epic forms of nouns are
reduced by apocope, as Kpl for Kpi0rj, fii for fiwfxa.
 —

§ 8.] EUPHONY BETWEEN WORDS. 13

So U {— Latin e), out of, before a consonant, but be-

fore a vowel orend of its clause, ef ; as
at the
eK TOVTOV, ef viro-^ia^ or v7royfria<; ef.
N.B. €v6v and evSvs, av6i and aZBis differ in sense.
dvTucpv Epic, liuTLKpvs Attic, differ in dialect.

3. (u.y Attached to—

(a) Third persons singular in e. hxn^rev ifie, but
ervyfre ere.

^u ^€v = end with e supposed latent, has, (with

=
exp^v) V attached before consonants as well as before
vowels. The 3rd Sing. Pluperf. in ft is sometimes f «/,
as fjbeiv, noverat; also, in Epic, the Imperf., as rja-Kfiv.
V i^fkK. is not attached to a long vowel except it has
resulted from contraction, rjr^v seems the sole ex-

ception.

(/8) The termination whether in dative plural

-ai,
of nouns, or in third persons singular and plural
of verbs, or in locative adverbs, or the numeral
et/coai, also irepvaL, iravTairaat,. (t dcmoiistrati-
vum may have v, but only where a- precedes.)
TiOrjCTLV ifie, but Tidrjai, ae, eUocnv, ovt(D(tlv,
1. and the Epic suffix ^t, admit v before a
vvy K(, i/oo-^i,
vowel. Adverbs in -dep (not odev, noOev, etc.), may
drop V in poetry, and irpocrde appears even in Attic
prose.
2. 1/ appears in the poets, even before a consonant, so as
to make position and obtain a long syllable, as
oTTjdfo-a-iv Xaaioiai. etrcri in 2nd person, not with v.
3. In f)p.lv and vplu, the v, if originally moveable (as in
a/i/xi), has become fixed.

4. If a final vowel admits of the addition of v, it doe:<

not elide in prose.-

3. Ckasis (Kpdatfi, mixiny), is the fusion of an end-

vowel (or diphthong) witli an initial vowel (or diph-
tliong) following, so as to form one long syllable. It
is indicated by the coroiiis ('), when the resulting word
opens with a consonant, as
' iv called r <^Ajrv<rriic6f, attumnhle (or pornrrofrir) v. The Tnnic
of i ^\» not ftTerae to hiattui and diHcnnknl this v. The* oritiiii uf
t)i; ' >l, and tome deny that it was oriKinally a retiiLKly a^raiiiHt imiiut.

-nly exception \»i<rti (I^atin t$t), which luayadiiiit four forms. 1. «<rTt
rriv o<7rif 3. «Iir«p ior irt 4. oh' iv^' 6 <rw<rac.
 ;

14 THE SPIRANTS. [§ 9.

TO ovofia = rovvofia ; to dyaOov = rdyadov oi

cii^Bp€<; = avhp€<;}
;

1. Crasis takes place especially in words between which there

exists a close connection, as between the article or the inteijec-
tion i, and the nouns before which they stand. Besides these
two instances, it is especially common with Kai and 7rp6, and o
and a of the relative.
2. When the second word has the rough breathing, a tenuis
in the first word rises to an aspirate after crasis, as to. onXa =
6a)7rXa kol ootis
; =
x<2o~''iy (chieHy in poetry). But in Ionic,
TovvfKo, though from tov eveKa (cf. § 6, 3, n.). In erepos under
crasis,a emerges, as rh (Tfpov, Qurepov.
3. An
end-diphthong drops its second vowel (t, v) before crasis
hence no i subscribed appeai-s unless the second word supplies an i;
as Koi eya> Kayo) =
but koi flra = kuto. Frequently the whole
=
;

of an end-diphthong is dropped, as tov avrov ravrov, koi

ei = /Cf t, roi Ap =^ TciVj ra dv8pi = Tovhpl.
4. Synizesis is crasis in poetic pronunciation merely, and not in
scription, as Bfoi^ ordinarily dissyllabic, but often requiring to be
pronounced as one syllable, etc

§ 9. Specialties as to the Spirants (J, F, and Y).

The Spirants, as they are often called, viz., the sibi-

lant 2* and the sounds answering to our and V Y
(consonantal as in yonder), have special peculiarities.
1. H or the sibilant disappears or is modified in cer-
tain instances.
(a) When
initial, it passes frequently into the rough breathing
or ('), as vs (swine)^ coexisting with the fuller and older o-Oy.
The form with o- is older, as in Latin sus and our soiv. In other
words, the rough breathing has superseded the initial o-, as eWa,
seven, against L. sept&ra, eirofuu, follow, as compai'ed with L. sequor,
etc.2
(3) "WTien between two vowels, it is often dropped out,' as in
declension of neuter nouns in oy (stem in €s) and in certain verb
formations, especially 2nd persons singular.
Stem. Forms of Genitive.
1. Nouns in as : ycvos yei/fv- (yevea-os) yivfos yivovi.

1 Coronis (which means ciirred sign), is omitted where it would conflict

with the sign of the rough breathing, as here.
- Where retained as an initial before a vowel, it is frtund that the root
o- is
began with more than s, as e.g., adrToi from a root svaff, aaAoy, from seal, &c.
3 Same transition (as in (a)), viz., by passing into h or ', but the interior
breathing was not graphically represented and so was lost.
§ 9.] THE SPIRANTS. 15

TVitli ycv€cr-os, compare Latin gener-is. Similarly, by assimi-

lation, (j)aea + vos = (f>a€vv6s in ^Eolic, <^aeti/6y in Ionic ;

(TKOTfivos is for (TKOTfCTvos = (TKOTepvoSy etc. Words like

Tfipeaiasy (raKcanakos, dpta-^ios, come down from a time
when this cs was still surviving and clearly discernible.
2. Second Persons : (eVvTrxfo-o) irvtmo irvTrrov.
irv'^ao
(fTvylracro) irvy^roi.
So ^(^'X.rjat Epic for ^f^Xrjo-ai. In verbs in fit the o- in certain
circumstances remains more stable ; thus, rideaai^ iri-
Bea-o ; yet 3ov, 6i5oto, like tvtttoio.
3. In futures of the type of [ufvfo-oj], rAeo-o), into /xei^co, reXco.
4. In fem. of Peps. Perf., as [rexKC^uo-ia] rervc^vla.
5. In stems of verbs, as ve'ofiai (t(.»r veaofiai), and hence gene-
rally uncontracted. [ifet a stands in fidaos, roa-ost &c.]

(y) "When it meets another o-, it sometimes disappears, leaving

no trace, as in aTr]6((r-(ri becoming arrjOean, while in Nominatives
like aXrjOrjs, stem dXrjdfs + y (f as Nom. sign), there is a compen-
satory lengthening of the vowel.

2. The other two spirants are only each an eidolon,

surviving in a certain influence, but not present in
bodily or consonantal form.
(a) The spirant, corresi^onding in many respects to our V, is
known to have existed as the Digamma, with a form p, like the
Latin F, and occupying, like it, the sixth place in the oldest form
of the Greek alphabet.^ This Digamma disappeared almost en-
tirely in the historic time, surviving longest in the ^olic
Dialect, whence it is sometimes called the JEolic Digamma, and
appearing in Inscriptions of an early period. Thus the genitive
of /3oCf, viz.j /3ooy was at one time ^of^os, a step nearer the Latin
bovis. The influences of the lost Digamma are very marked in
the oldest form of Greek (cf. Achui prehistoric as against the
historic Acha«i), and are percejttible even in the Attic, as e.g.
preventing contraction, as in Trvf to, oy 8oos for oyfio/^os, cf. L.
octarus.

(3) The spirant, answering to our Y (in j/onder) has no

graphical sign and has been tmnsformed.

1. Between vowels, it is dropped, as d + &v for €y -i- av,

now <av.
2. When initial, it is either lost or rejdaced by the rough
breathinL', as Skt yushme, =
ye ajjpeai-s in Greek as
C'Ufnt (jEiAic) and vfitU. &pa (season) our ycar^ =
German jahr.

1 Compare Fait ooenpyliiK th« fame place etill in the Hebrew alphabet.
16 THE SPIRANTS. [§9a.

3. When preceded by a guttural (K-sound), the y blends

with it into aa (Xe\v Attic tt), and similarly when pre-
ceded by a d (occasionally by y) blends therewith into (.
(Comparatives in -cai/, and Present verb-stems in -aao),
and ^(0.)
Stem (f)v\aK + ya> passes into 0vXoa-o-&) or -drTO).
„ ArrtS + 2/0) „ (XniCoi.
„ fjLfy + yoiv „ yLiC<^v (Ionic), less cor-
rectly fifl(<ov (Attic).
„ Aa;( „
-f- yap
ikaacrcjv.
4. With a foregoin<^' the y as.similates ; with a foregoing p
X,
or p, it is vocalised, and appears by epenthesis^ § 7, 11, as t
in the previous syllable.
X. (iX-Tjos (L. alius) aXXos (Cretan atXosj Gaelic eile).
p. Tfp(p-ya Ttpeipu.
f).
boT(p-ya boTfipa.
So t in yvvat^, original of yvp-i]^ has come from hypocoristic
stem yvpaKi- by epenthesis.^

§ 9a. Tabular View of Consonants in their Affinities,

Labials. Gutturals. Dentals.

TT K T Tenues.
I. Mutes. a y d Intermediates.
X e Aspirates.

II.Semi- /* y{=ng) p Nasals (Liquid)

vowels.
F^ (y) Spii-ants.

X and p not belonging to a special Liquids

vocal organ, but nearest to dentals. Proper.

1. The vertical order exhibits the consonants of the same

organ. The horizontal order indicates the series forming the

1 The occasional duplication of p can often be explained by the disap-

pearance of a fonner spirant, as ipptov, anoppfw, from simple p«'w, having stem
SRU, so that pp = <rp after a long vowel, evpp-, also evpoo? tppdyr/r-, anop-
; ;

prjyvvixi, where pp seems to stands for Cp, if its cognate is L. /rango. Also the
apparent neglect of contraction in Attic is frequently due to remembrance of a
vanished spirant, as jrXeu> for jrA«7w. Thus eppeof (= Skt. asravam) shows loss
of tiro spirants.
2 V has a close affinity with the lost spirant f and i stands in a similar ,

relation to the latent spirant y or yod. Hence. 1°, their firmness, generally,
against elision (§ 8, 1) 2% their presence, though vowels, in the Consonantal
;

Declension.
§ 10.] ACCENTS. 17

souncls in tlie same plane of gratlation. The Lal)ial column

might have been continued so as to include its kindred vowel,
viz.j V, and the Guttural column might similarly terminate in
its cognate vowel, viz., i, the sister of y, which again has an
affinity with Gutturals such asg, or Palato-gutturals, ;, etc.
2. The Gutturals
require the greatest force for their articula-
tion (§ 5, footnote), and hence are sometimes modified for greater
ease of enunciation. Thus the stem oc (of oculus) comes up in
Greek as ott, e.g., in oyjrofiai. and coquo =
nfrr, by a change called
Labialism. Also k of primitive interrogative (= quis in L., co in
Gaelic, ko- in Ionic Greek) comes up as n's- in Attic Greek, by a
change called Dentalism. Compare rio-o-apes and its cognates.

§ 10. The Accents.

1. There are two accents, the acute or sliarp accent ('),
and the circumflex or lengthened accent (").
The acute may stand indifferently upon a long or a
short syllable the circumflex can stand only on a
;

syllable which contains a vowel long by nature. Thus,

Tv(f>€, but TVTrre, because in this last, v is long only by
position, and not, as in rvcpe, by its own nature or
quality.
Any syllable without either of these is supposed to
have, or to be capable of having, the grave or negative
accent (').

2. The acute may stand on any of the last three

syllables of a word on the antepenult, however, only
:

when the end-syllable is short, as acjfiaro^;, but, with

end-syllable long, it descends a step, as in acofiaTwu.
Ons.— Apparent exceptions are oi and at in end-syllables of such as avOpM-
woi, and the w of Attic dialect in such as iroAews, avJjytuv.

3. The circumflex may stand on either of the last

TWO word on the penult, however, only
syllables of a :

when the end-syllable is short, as Xva-du, but Xu<Td<;,

TTpd^U, but TTpd^et^.
Ons —Conversely, we can often
accent. Thus in <i>v\iucas, edXavaa.
in xutpa, ofTwpa, it in long. Also in
•hort, for if I were long, they would
discern the quantity of vowels from the
nt\*Kvt, trpofi?, the end Hvllablo in sliort,
such as t(V(«, i9i, the penult must be
be rlvtf, 16*. (wrongly).

4. Tlie acute on an end-syllable, not followed by a

point or a pause, is reversed into the grave accent.
 18 DECLENSION. [§ H.
(This is the only ordinary occurrence of the sign of the
grave accent.)
Thus, avrjp aya66<;, but arfa6o<i avrjp.
Except in the interrogative t/?, tl, ivhat ? which
has always ', as rt? e(t>7j ;
The circumflex is a union of the acute and the grave, as is
shown by its ancient form (^), as opdofxfv opcjfifv, aedXov = =
iffXov. Thus 7roi(€t becomes Trotet, but noUe = Troi'et.
Punctuation Marks.
Comma (,J. Colon (•). Period (.). Interrogation (;).
Some critics insert the modem point of exclamation (/).

PART II. MORPHOLOGY :— Inflection op Word-forms.

Lanpna^e, when analysed, resolves itself into groups of words capable of
being clHssified, under different categories, as Parts of Speech. Of these parts
of speech the most important in an etymological point of view are the Noun,
the I'ronoun, and the Verb, each having" its own series of inflections. Both the
Noun and the Verb rest on a common basis of ultimate elements called Roots,
which, like fusible metal in the hands of the moulder, develope on the one hand
into Noun-stems and on the other into Verb-stems, both capable of inflection,
and so made serviceable for articulate speech. Inasmuch as the Verb, by its so
called pronominal endings, presujiposes the Pronoun, and as the Noun is simpler
in its inflections than the Pronoun, it is proper to begin with the Noun and
its Article, and first of the

Noun (Substantive).

§ 11. The inflection of the Noun is specially called

Declension.
The Declension noun (Substantive) consists
of the
which a noun undergoes
in the inflection or alteration
in order to express the various relations of Case and
Number (and in the noun Adjective the additional
relation of Gender). In the process of Declension, three
parts of the noun haveto be closely observed.
1. Stein,^ the fundamental part which remains un-
changed or only eupliouically modified.

1 The Stem of verb or noun (also called 'Base* or 'Theme'), being the
adapted Root, is rarely identical with the Root, which is the Primitive ele-
ment distantly discernible, in general, behind the stem. Thus, in SiSufxi,
660-1;, 5a>poi', Sd.vo<:, the stems are many (6i5o-, Soo-t-, SCipo-, etc.), but the root
is one, viz., da (give), which has undergone these adaptations in the form of
stems, but fia- does not occur in Greek as itself a stem. In tim^, ticjij, timo«,
we find similar modifications of a root rt* or »«•, but this happens also to be
itself a stem, as in a-ri>To-$ from nw.
§ 11.] DECLENSION. 19

2. Termination or case-suffix, which is the variable

part appended to the stem.
3. Character, the last letter of the stem, by which
the stems are classified.

There are in Greek three Declensions of nouns (in-

cluding adjectives and participles).
1. First Declension, a stems.
2. Second Declension, o stems.
3. Third Declension (a) Consonantal stems.
()Q) Thin vowel stems (in t or v).

General Rules of Declension.^

1. The vocative, for the most part in the singular,
and always in the dual and plural, is like the nomina-
tive.

2. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative,

accusative and vocative alike in all numbers, and these
cases in the plural end always in a.^
3. The dative can never be without l? and, in the
singular, always ends with it, either subscribed or ad-
scribed.

4. The genitive plural ends in wv^\ the accusative

plural, of nouns not neuter, in 9.

5. In the dual the nominative, accusative, and voca-

tive are alike, and so also are the genitive and dative.
1Greek declension differs from Latin in two respects.
1. In Greek there is no a1)lative, the meaninps of that case being distri-
buted between the ptnitive and certain uses of the dative.
2. There is a separate number for vnirs of tilings, called the dual number,
(absent however in i^olic Dialect, and almost vanished in I^tin).
Tlie oblique cases are the Uen. Dat. Ace. The Nom. and Voc. are not eaten
strictly speaking, but are known as cntun recti. Ca»ua is a translation of the
Greek irrw«-i<, and Accusative and Genitive are bad translations of the much
better Greek terms atrian«i) (caumUce case) and y*vi.ic^ (gemric or case of a
genu$).
3 Except in the Attic Second Declension in *»v, and after contraction, as
ir/iTta = «i>T7) a« cete, aw\a, etc.

s Except in .£oUc and in some foreign words in ovc ; see 1 16, n. 8.

* Except in Doric senitives plural in ay.

20 FIEST DECLENSION. L§ 12, 13.

§ 12. The Akticle.

1. The article, or distinctive pronoun, is declined with
forms combining those of the 1st and 2nd Declensions.
Being originally a demonstrative pronoun, it has no vo-
cative.^ (The sign of the vocative is the interjection w.)
2. The scheme
of its declension unites two stems 6-
and the former supplying the parts denoting a
TO-,
personal (or pro-personal) subject, the latter the objective
or non-subjective parts.

8. In the genitive plural of pronouns, the feminine is

ordinarily like the masculine, and is often so in the
whole of the dual

Singular. Plural
M. F. N. ]\r. F. N.
Nom. 6 ?; t6,2 the Nom. 01 at rd
Gen. Tov^ rr]<; tov, of the Gen. twv tcov twv
Dat. Tft) Ty Tco, to the l)at. toI^; ral^ tol<;

Ace. TOV Ti)v TO, the Ace. tou? Ta«; t'u

Dual.
M. F. N.

Nom. Ace. TO) TOO (ra) TO)

Gen. Dat. toIu Tolv (jalv) TUiJ

§ 13. The First (or A) Declension.

Has four terminations, as in Latin, two feminine, t), a,
two masculine, t;?, a?. The endings of the dual and
plural are alike for all, and have a for their chief vowel.

1 ol, etc., seem to be almost vocative.

Some uses of Ar. Ach. 64, 824 etc.
2 no indefinite article in Greek, apart from n? = some (genei-ally put
There is
after its noun), and els = one, for which see Pronouns, etc. t6? and n) do not
occur, but find an analogy in avrd? and o5to?. In the plural toi and rni sur-
vive in Epic and in Doric. Dialectic forms are G. toIo for tov, G. F1. F. raui-
and rav. These peculiar forms are really true danonstrativea.
With the enierpfing of t in the inflection, compare the similar introduction
'i

of the corresponding tk in its English congener, the Anglo-Saxon article. M. te.

F. »c6, y. that, G. thi^g, etc. The older form of 6 in Greek was «a, transformed
to 6, accortling to § 9, 1.
§13.] FIEST DECLENSION. 21

except in the Genitive plural, which is in wj/, from doDv,

and therefore circumflexed.
Tj in the singular is a modification of an original a. This Declension answers
to the 1st and 5th of the Latin tongue.

(A.) FeMININES — 7) AND a.

1. rj has 7) throughout the singular a pure ; (i.e., pre-

ceded by a vowel) and pa have a throughout.
2. a, whether pure or impure, has always av in the
accusative but, in the genitive and dative, a impure
;

{i.e., preceded by a consonant) takes rj}

Noun in rj.

TlfJLlj, Jio?ioiir.

Singular. Dual. Plural

Nom. ?; TLfi rj. Noni. rtfi a. Nom. rt/u, ai
Gen. Gen. TLfjL aiv. Gen. TLfJb (OV.

Dat. Dat. ri/jb alv. Dat. Tt/JL at?.

Ace. TC/JL rjv. Ace. Tt/Lt a. Ace. TL/ii a?.
Voc. TI/jL Tj. Voc. TLIM a. Voc. Ti/M at.

Nouns in a,

a pure. pa. a impure

Sing. (always short).
N. V. J7 aKcd, shadow, rj 6t]pd, hunt. 77 Bo^d, glory.
n
G ^-
(TKia<;.
n.c
6)]pa^.
^if
D. aKia. 61] pa.
A. (TKidv, Brjpav. Bo^dv.
Dml
N.A.V <TKid. 6rjpa, B6^a.
G.D. (TKialp, drjpaLV, Bo^aiv,
Plur.
N. (TKiaL drjpau Bo^aL.
G. (TKIOJV. drjpcov. Bo^cou.
D. (TKiaU. 6tjpai,<i. Bo^a/s.
A. CKLd<;. 6/]pd<;. Bo^d^.

1 In accnsatfTO « Ninper habet ov ; se'l in g?nitiTO et datiro, a imparnro

adJiciKit I).
22 FIRST DECLENSION. [§ 13.

N. 1. Doric words taken into Attic, retain a in Gen. and Dat.,

even though in a impure^ as aXoXa, slogan or war-cry^ Gen. ay,
and proper names having a long, as At^So, *tXo/i/yXa.
2. Impure contracts from pure originals likewise retain a in
Gen. and Dat, as ^va (from /xvao), a mina G. /xj/as D. /Ava (but ; ;

avKeay Jig-tree, trvKfj, G. (tvac^?, ctvk^, etc.) ; (from ^Adrjuda),

^Adrjva
Minerva G. 'Adijvds ; ; D. *A6r}va, etc. Doric 'A^d»/a, G. -i/ay, in
the Tragic poets.

Examples.
1. ?;. 2. a pure and pa. 3. a impure.
KOfiT), hair. house.
otKt'a, yXworo-a, tongue.
^0)1/^, voice. dvpa, door. fit>/ra, thirst.
<o8rj, ode. €8/ja, seat. jrelva, hunger.
yrj, eaith. oToa, porch. fiiXio-aa, bee.
ve<f>f\r], cloud. ayop2{, market. ^oXao-o-a, sea.
^povTT}, thunder. uyKvpdy anchor. pi(^ root.

(B.) Masculines—?;? and a?.

Masculines in t;? and a?, follow, respectively, the

1.
feminines in i) and d in the three oblique cases except
the Genitive Sing., which they form in ov.
The Genitive in -ov is based by some upon the Homeric -ao,
thence by Ionic influence -eo or -eo), and from -fo, by ordinary
contraction, -ov. Examples exist of -ao and -eeo, but of -eo only
inferentially. Some consider -ov a transference direct from
Second Declension.
2. The Vocative from a?, is normally in a long ; the
vocative from t/? is mrely in rj, usually in a short.

KULE. —Nouns in tt}^ ^ compounds in tt?;? na-

; ;

tional names in and compounds in 779 affixed

r;?,

to the stem of a verb, have d in the Vocative.

Kptrrj^, judge ; Voc. KpcTu. Kvvco7rrj<i, dog-faced ; Voc.

I!kv07)<;, a Scythian Voc. HkvOu.

From stem uLcrpe — ;

yeco/niTp-qf;, geometer Voc. a.

—
;

From stem rpi^ TraiBorpt^T]^, sclioolmaster Voc. a.

;

But individual names, not being in T779, and patrony-

mics in 779, retain 7} in Vocative.

1 TTjs habet a vocativi, sic ttij?, nomlna gentium,

sic juncta radici verbi, sed neciue propriutu nee patronymicum.
)j«
§ 13.J FIBST DECLENSION. 23

Patron. '-^rpe/S?;?, son of Atreus Voc. 'ArpelBr]. ;

Individ. JTepo-T/v, Perses Voc. Ilepa-Tj {Ilepar,'^y a

;
^

Persian, has of course Voc. Ilipady and Uepad is its

dual.).
But Qepdlrdy ^LXoKTtJTd, ^Opeard, from Nom. in tt;?.
Sing. Son of Atreus.
N. 6 napaf;, tiara. «prT7;9, judge. 6 'ATp6lB7]<;,
G. Ttapou. KpiTOV. 'ArpelBov,
D. Tta/aa, KpL-rfi. ^ArpeiSr}.
A. ruipav. Kpiri]V. 'ArpelBTjv.
V. Tidpa. KplTCL. ^ATpetBrj.

i}««7.
N. A. V. Tidpd. KpLra. ^Arpelhd.
G.D. Tidpaiv, Kpnatv. 'ArpeLhaiv.

P/«7'.
N.V. Tiapat. Kpirai. 'ArpelBai.
G. Ttapcov. KplTWV. 'ArpeiBwu.
D. TidpaL^. Kpurah. ^ArpeiSaL^.
A. Ttapa?. Kpird^. ^ATpelBd^.

Examples.
ay. T/y. rjs.

pfovias, a youth. noirjrqs, a poet. vavTTjs, a sailor.

fiouias, a solitary.
! TroXirns, a citizen. TTpC>(t)T]Tr]s^ a prophet.

Tufiiasj a Steward. apor?;y, 1 i ploughman. fiat^i]TT)Sy a scliolar.

'Ai/^pe'ar, Andre\\. rf;(»/2ri;f , an artist. v7roKpiTr)Sj an actor.

X. 1. The
.Eolic Norn, in -ra resembles that of the Latin poet^,
80 that vavra is .Eulic for vavTrjs L. nautSi. =
2. The Ionic Genitive in -ea appears in Attic only in proper
names as Trjpto) (pronounced Teryo, diss.), from TT]pT]s. -€<o of
Gen. in Homer and Hesiod, is always 'pronounced in one syllable
(fynv.esis)^ § 8, 3, 4, hence not under § 10, 2 for accent, and,
after a vowel, is written as w. Cf. G. UriKriiatuo with G. Alvdoi.
3. The Doric genitive in a appears in Attic chiefly in foreign,
and especially Doric, proper names, *AI3poK6fias ; G. a or ov. In
fiop/>as, irarpaXoiaSj firjrpaXniai, and opvidodrjpaSy the genitive is
always Doric. X. iioppas (from ftopias) ; G. ^op^a ; D. ^op/5^ ;
A. jiophav ; V. fioppa.
4. The Attic pods a<lmit ato-t as well as my in the dative plural.
S<»me consider an abbreviated from mo-t ; others consider mo-t as
])roi)erly a locative, and an as an instrumental case, formed on
onalogy of on in Second Declension.
24 second declension. [§14.

Dialects.

Sing. .^olic, Doric. Ionic.

in Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc.
Nom. a a as n r]s

Gen. ao as a r]s CO), 0>

Ace. ay av av T]V fa, late.

Plur. ^olie. Doric. Ionic.

Gen. doiv av ((OV
Dat aia-i, Tjs, Tjcri

Ace. ais as

§ 14. The Second (or 0) Declension

Has two terminations, o? and ov (Latin its and um), of
which o? is usually masculine, sometimes feminine, and
OP always neuter.
N.B. — The os makes the Vocative in f, as
Nominative in
ventus; avefif, rente. (Chief instance -where o of
(iv€fios,
stem subsides into f.) But 0f dj, Deus, has 2) 0f df o ,

Deus.^
N. The Attic had a tendency to assimilate the Vocative to the Nomina-
tive ; heuce often S> <|>iAos, for u> <t>i\e.

09, Masculine. 0?, Feminine. ov, Xeuter.

Singidar.
N, X07 09, word. 7; 6S6^, way. TO Bojpov, gift
G. X07 ov. . 6B0V. Bwpov.
D. Xoy (p. 65a). Bcopw.
A. X07 ov. oBov. BCopuv.
V. \6y €. oSe. Bcopov.
Dual.
N. A. V. \o7 (o. 6B(o. B(i)pa).

G. D. \o7 oil/. 6B0LV. Boopoiv.

Plural.
N. V. \6y 01. 6B0L. Bwpd.
G. \oy cov. oBcjv. Bcopcov.
D. \o7 0/.?. oBoi^. B(t}poL<;.

A. \o7 Of?. oBov^. Bcopa.

1 In Matt, xxvii. 46, 0(€. 'A(i<^i9(e, in Ar. Ach. 173, is a proper name.
§15.] ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. 25

Examples.
Off, Masculine. Of, Feminine, OV, Xeuter.
^rjfioSf the people. n/iTTfXoff, a vine Sei/(^pov, a tree.
Kvpios, a master. v^(ros, an island. $v\ ov, stick.
avBpcciroSy a man (homo), voaos, disease. ottA.ov, a weapon.

adcX<^dff, a brother. (TTToSdy, ashes. opyavov^ instrument.

viotj a son. 7rap^€i/off, a virgin. cpyoj/, work.
oyyfXof, a messenger. /3t'/3Xoff, a book. p.^\ ov, apple.
vnfiosj law. TTpO^arov, a sheep.

Contracted Nouns.
Singular .

N. TrXooff, TrXovff, voyage. OO-TfOV do-roCi', bone.

G. ttXoov, ttXoO. oarrtovj otrroC.
D. ttXog), ttXo). oareeo, do^r<u.

A. TrXc'tov, ttKovv. oa-Tiov. ocrTovi/.

V. TrXof, [ttXoC].! oaTfov, do-TOVJ'.

Dual
N. A. V. TrXo'o), ttXo). OOTfCOy doTO).
G. D. TrXooiv, 7rXot»'. oaTfOiv, do-roij/.

Plural.
N. V. ttXooi, ttXoT. oaria. doT-a.
G. TrXdcof, ttXwj/. ocrrioiv. do-reov.
D. TrXdoiff, TrXotf. oa-Tfois, doTOtff.
A. TrXdouff, TrXoOff. oarea. doTo.
So decline vdoff = vovsy mind ;
/5dos = povs, d, stream. Also
adjectives in oos and foj.
Obs.— In compounds like <<«wXovs, the accent is kept on the same syllable
as in the contract Nom. Sinjr., thus G. exwAov direct from Norn. e>crrXous (not
through cKirXdov, which would give iKirKov).
DialfCtf.
Srnrndar. Gen. in Epic, oio, oo in Ionic, tu>, doubtful in Doric, w.
; ;

/'!/</ Gen. and Dat. ?^pic, otiV.

I'loral. Gen. toiu (Ionic) Dat. oio-i (Ionic, also in Attic poets) Ace. ws
; ; (in
poetry o«) in Doric.

§ 15. The Attic Sfxond Declension ^

Puts 0)' in a few nouns for o throughout ; in the cases

1 The contracted vocative in ov is not found. 'AXiciVoe in Odyu. So 2> KtXtt,

Ar. Aek. 58.

'Thi« { a variety of the Secf>n«l Declension, applicable chiefly to a few

nouns with itpecial treatment in Attic and sometimes in neo-Ionic. It is not to
be inferred tnat nounii in oc are not Attic also thus Xa6t occurs alongside of
,

A«w«. but the former is not peculiar to Attic, while the latter is so jire-emi-
nently.— Observe tliat an i short is not modified, but a long d or usually »j

paiee into c before mt. (l\tut is therefore properly from an original i\dof, by
mttathtti* of quantity.)
* This « being for o, is treated aa for accentuation purposes short, and
doet not come under 1 10, i.
 —

26 ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. [§ 15.

where t follows o, the i is subscribed ; in those where v

follows, the V is ejected. Vocative is always like nomi-
native. Even the nominative plural neuter is in eo for a.
Singular.
KV. 6 \a>y C09, hare. TO av(oye(ov, dining-room.
G. Kay CO. dv(oy€(o.
D. \ay w. auwyew.
A. Xay (OP. dv(oy€(oif.

Dual
N. A. V. Xay (o. dvcoyeo).
G.D. Xay wv. avdyecpv.
Plural.
N.V. Xar/ (p. dvwyecD.
G. Xay (ov. dvdayeoiv.
D. Xarf w?. dvcoye(p<;.
A. Xay 0)9. dvcoyeco.

Examples.
peacock.
TaS)s, Masc. Xcoby (for Xdos), people. Masc.
KaXas, a rope. „ Mei^/Xfcor, Menelaus. „
vfcis (tor vaos) temple. „ aX<os, threshing floor. Fern.

1. The V of the Ace. Sing, (in nouns not neuter) is sometimes

dropped \aya>s, Ace. Xayo) and Xaycjv
: especially in proper ;

names, Kiy, Cos, accusative K«. (Cf. Livy's ad montem Atho.)

2. morning, is thus declined.
fa)f, ^, the
N. V. eas G. €0) D. €o> A. €<o.
; The Ionic and Epic form
; ;

rjws is of the third declension {cf. § 18, 7, 1).

3. Allied to the Attic form of declension is the half-developed
inflection for foreign words and names, in which the vowel or
diphthong of the Nom. is retained throughout.
N. G. D. A. V.
Attic decL as. 0), «» £01/, a)Sj

Foreign decl. as. a. «. ca>, as Qafias, Thomas.

a,

VSy »;» Vy r)v, as Mavaao-^s, Mcovo-^y,^ etc.

rj,

ovs, ov. ov, ovv, ov, as *Ir](rovs, Jesus, but Xpiaros,

being a Greek word, is regular.

N.B. point may be introduced, at the pleasure of the

At this
teachei; Adjectives in as, ij, (a), ov, and others of the types according
to § 32, for exercise either singly or along with nouns of the foregoing
two Declensions.

1 Sometimes as of third declension, Mwuotjs, -eoj?, -er, -ea.

 . ;

§ 16.] THIRD DECLENSION. 27

§ 16. The Third or Consonantal^ Declension.

This Declension includes all nouns not belonging to

either the First or the Second. It

1. Has seven terminations, a, l, v, neuter.

CO, feminine.
V, p, 9 (^, yfr), of all genders.

2. The genitive ends in o? (or ew?), and the stem is2

generally^ found by dropping the 09 (or w?) of the

genitive.

3. There are two great classes of stems, those which

end in a consonant before 09, and are called consonant
stems those which end in a vowel before 09, and are
;

called pure or vocalic.

4. Consonantal stems are subdivided into liquid, mute,

and s]nrant stems, according as the consonant before 09
is a liquid, a mute, or a spirant.

5. Vocalic or pure stems consist chiefly of thin vowel

stems, whose character is l or v.

as <j>\o^ (Jr. 9X07 09, name.

1 i>/i^^e, ;
q
[spirant, as /3oi}9 ; G. ^oFo^, ox or cow.

Vocalic f Thin vowel stems, as av^ ; G. av 69, boar

Stems. \ kopi^, G. k6vl 09, dust.

1 n»e great majority of its stems will bo found to end upon a consonant, and in
nmay caaeM wlierc tJie stem now seems vocalic, it had been orijfinally conso-
nantal, R"' -or hv<t6<:, rf. I^it. vuu, murw). It is convenient, therefore,
M even t >,.] Uvn near n-Iation to consonants, (see S 9a/>(. 2), to desig-
nate thi- IS the Consonantal.
I. !- yllable more than the nominative. Hence the third
1

de< Ml.' (illed the Imimrisvllabic, whereas the other two are
'

cail<.. w„4hic, or K'j.'.a-iyUuUf.l.

i. This third declension of the Greek
answera to tiie third and fourth of the Latin tongue.
SNot always, becaane the exiNtin«; genitive now in use is sometimes not in
its primary form, as f.\). in vocalic stems in v, where the existing genitive is
now In «, as ittto\ (for iti*fos) from the stem i^Jrv.
28 THIRD DECLENSION. [§17.

§17. Consonantal Stems.

1. Liquid Stems.

N.B. —The liquid before o? is chiefly v ov p: once it is

\ ; 6 aX,?, aXo^, salt (17,sea) ; no example of fj,.

fjLrjv, a month, Masc.

Singular. Dual. Plural

N.V. 6 ^rjv. firiv 6. firjv 69.
G. fjLTJV 0? flTJV olv. fJLTJlf (OV.

D. fM^ L firjv olv. fiV 0-t.^

A. fiTJv a. fMTJU €. firjv 09.

air,
Sing. thief. deity. speaker. comb.
climate.
N. 6 0d)p. 0, ^ BaifKov. c; pnrap. 6 KTfis. r>
i arjp.
G. (fxopos. 8aip.ovos. prjTOpos. KTCVOS. dtpos.
D. (fxapi. Salfioui. priTopi. KTCvi aipi.
A. <po)pa. Baipova. prjTopa. KTeva. dfpa.
V. (p<i>p. 8a7pou. p?ITop. KTfls. di)p.

Dual.
N. A. V. <})a>p(. 8aipovf. pr)Topf. KTfVf. aip€.
G. D. <f>oipo2v. daipovoiv. prfTopoiv. KTCVoiv. dipoLV.

Plural
N.V. (pwpts. 8aipov€S. pT)TOp(S. KTfVfS. dtpes.
G. (jicopfov. Baipovmv. prfToptov. KTeVOiV. dipoiv.
D. (fxapai. daipoa-i. pr)TOpai. KTfcri. dfpai.
A. (f>S)pas. haipovas. prjTopas. KTfVaS. dipai.

Ohs. —Epic neuters in wp are only in Norn, and Ace. See § 20 fi.

2. Mute Stems.
filr, f in three cases,
ILabfals, n
fT.^r.T^ o
Gen. tto?, /5o?, J.
<^o9,
'^

(a)
^Gutturals, Gen. ko,, 709, xo^\
y I

^ . '

Sal plur
(/3) Dentals, Gen. Dental dropped in
to<;, So?, ^oc.

three cases, Nom., Voc. sing., Dat. plur.

1 For V dropped before <r, see § 7,

§17. THIBD DECLENSION. 29

(a) Labial aiid Guttural Stems.

Siiif/ular.
K. V. 6 7m/r, vulture, o /c6\af, flatterer, o 6vv^,u^i\{2mgicis.)
G. ryVTTO^. K6XaKo<;.
D. yirrri. KoXafCL
A. KoXaKa.
Dual,
KA.V .yvTre. KoXaKe.
G.D. yvTTolv. KOXUKOLV. ovvxoiv.

P/?fm/ .

N. V. 71)776?. KoXaKe^.
G. JVTTCOV. KOXUKCDV. ovvx^yV'
D. KoXa^L.
A. KoXaKu^,

(P) Dental Stems.

1. 2, 3.

Non-neuters in With Gen. in Neuters with

Tosy 80s, 60s. V-TOS. Tos in Gen.
Singular
K 6 epco^, love. 6 Xicov, lion. TO awfia, body.
G. epcorof;. Xeoi/TO?. acofiaro^.
D. epCOTL XeovTL acofiari.
A. epcora. Xeovra. acofia.
V. epw?. Xeov. acofjua.

Dual.
N. A. V. €p(OT€. Xeovre. (r(OfiaT€.
G.D. ipCOTOlP. XeovioLV. aCJfJLUTOLV.

Plural.
KV. 6pft)T69. Xiovre^i. aoifiara.
G. ip(t)T(i)U. XeovToyv. cwfidrwv.
D. epwa-i} Xeovac.^ acofiaai}
A. epeora^. Xioi/Ta<^. acofiara.

1 ria dropped before «, according to S 7. S,

* For the rationale of this fortuation. consult S 7,
30 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 18.

§ 18. Spirant Stems.

(a) Stems in Sibilant or a,

Nouns of this type have their a greatly obscured

except in such forms as aaKea-<p6po<;, etc. (Cf. on the
spirants in § 9, 1.) Their Nominatives end in t;? and
09 mz. 7/9 masc. or fem.
; 09 neuter. When 779 ends an
;

adjective, its neuter is 69. The Genitive is in -eo9 (for

ecr-o9i).

Singular.
N. TO 761/09, race. rj rpcijp 7/9, trireme.
G. [yev€cro<iY yiveof;, y€vov<i. rpLijp 609, rpirjp 0U9.
D. [yeveai,] yevel, yei/et. Tpn^p el, Tpu'^p ec.

A. 761/09. '^pi'VP ^^» Tpujp 7J.

V. 761/09. TpLTjpef;.

Dual
N. A. V. [yeveae] yevee, yevrj. rptrjp ee, rptrjp rj.

G. D. [yeveaoLv] yevioLv, yevolv. rpirjp eoLv, rpirjp otv.

Plural.
N. V. [yeveaa\ yevea, yevrj. rpi-qp 669, rpLijp et9.
G. [yeveacov] yevicov, yevtav. TpLr}p ecov, rpujp cov.

D. yevecTL Tpirjpecn.
A. [7ei/6cra] yevea, yivr). Tpi'VP ^^?» TpLi]p ei<;.

Similarly to o/?o9 (hill, N. PL oprj), to lelxo^i (wall), 6

evyevrj^ (the noble one).

rpiifpTjs is properly an adjective, with vaw? understood. The stem is pro-

perly TpiTjpeo--,containing iptr, the crude form of ipeavm, to row, and (y", L. j'a«w.

1. fa 2>wre, whether singular or plural, is usually contracted

into a, as vyifjSj healthy ; Ace. singular masc. and Nom. plural
neuter, vyiia =
vyid ; xXfoy, glory ; Nom. plural xXe'ea icXca, =
but sometimes less regularly /cXca.
2. The Gen. plural is sometimes left uncontracted, as reixfcov.
avOioiv is better than avdiov from avOos^ flower, {dvdav = 'pcip. florens).
3. The compounds of kXcos in Attic contract tivice in the da-
tive, once in the other cases, as

1 The forms wiUiin brackets are not extant.

§18.] THIRD DECLENSION. 31

Attic Epic.
N. 'HpaK\(r)Sj -Kkfjs. -tjs.

G. 'Hpa*cX(for, -k\(OvSj -ijos,

D. 'Hpa/cXe'fi', -KXe'et, -/cXfZ, 'tji.

A. 'Hpa/cXf'fa, -<Xc'd. -^a.

V. 'Hpa^Xff y, -Kkfis. -fis (Iliad, 1. 337).

Voc. interjectionally, *Q "HpaxXf ?, mehercule. Ace. sometimes,

thou^li rarely, contracts doubly, 'HpcucX^. In plural, oi 'UpaKXees,—
Tovs HpaKkdas.

(/8) Stems, originally in F or Bir/amma, now with

DiplUJiongs {ev av ov) in Nom.
In these a Digarama has been more or less perceptibly at work, as in vav?,
/SoOs, compare Latin tiavis, bos, bovis. Sometimes the Digamma has vanished
so that even the Nom. shows no v, as Xa? (a stone) for A.a/? (cf. Aeu-w), declined
like ypavi, but without the v of the latter. Stems in ev form the Ace. sing.
in a, and this d in Attic usually long, and contract in the Dat. sing, and
Nom. and Ace. pL Stems in av and ov form the Ace. sing, in v and contract
only in Ace pi.

Stem in ev. Stem in av. Stem in ov.

Singular.
horsemaii. old woman. ox, cow.
N. llTTTeV'^. rj ypav<;. 6 7] /8ou9.
G. iTT'i! eo)?. ypdof;. l3o6^.
D. iinrei — el. ypdi. fiot
A. nrired. ypaijv. fiovv.
V. iTTirev. ypav. Pov,
Dual
X.A.V . iiriTee. ypae.^ 006.
G.D. ITTTrioLV. ypaolv. ^oolv.

Plural
X.V. i7rTre€<; = el<i and ->)9. 7pae9. ^6e^.
G. iiTTrioov. ypacov. ffocjv.
D. linrevcn. ypaval. /3ovaL.
A. (7r7rea?(= et?, late). {ypda<;), ypav^. (ffoa^), 0ov^.

1. In tliesf. words the v of the dii)htlion},' represents the Di-

;^mnia, and holds its ground as v before case-endinps opening

with a consonant (<r or
"
A
Wliere, however, the case-ending opens
witli a vowel, there the Digamma, finding itself between two
vowels, drojjped out
2. Sterna in av and ov are verjr rare, vavs (ship) is the other
meet inipoitant example in av, wliile, besides /SoCr, there are only
 32 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 18.

xovs 6 (pitcher) and ^ovs f] (sumach) with same inflections, ovi

(ear),obovs (tooth), and -novs (foot), belong to dental stems.
3. Nouns in cu? are very numerous, expressing personal agency
and official position, e.g.^ ypa^futrevs (scribe), etc. Note regarding
them, 1°, That they alone in the third declension have for the
most part a long d in Ace. sing, and pi., in compensation probably
for loss of Digamma. 2°, When fvs is pure (i.e., preceded by a
vowel), they may contract in Gen. sing, and Ace. sing., as EvISoevs,
G. Ev^oas for -oea>s (an Euboean), Ueipaifvs (Piraeus), G. -mays,
A. -aia. 3°, The Epic^ form is notable, giving -rjos in Gen.,
and being otherwise complete, -^i, -^a, Dual -^f, -r)oiv, Plural,
-TJfs, -rjav, -rjecrcTi, -^as.

(7) Steins with obscure Spirant, chiefly in o and w

(resting on oi).

Sinfjular.
N. T) TrecOco (persuasion).
G. (Tret^o-o?) 7r€Ldov<;.
D. {iretOo-l) ireiOol.
A. (7rec96-a) ireLOo).
V. Treidot

—
N.B. The uncontracted forms within brackets are
not now in use. Dual and Plural, where they exist in
such nouns, are supplied from the second Declension.
Thus 77 Xe;^(w (woman in child-birth) has pi. Xexoi
Of. also 7) Tjxco (echo).

Singular. Dual. Plural.

N. 6 tJ/oo) -9 (hero). rjpoa -€. rjpo) -6?.

G. "^pCO -09. f)pC0 'OLV. 7}p(t) -cov.

D. i]p(o -L, i]p(p. 7]p(o -at.

A. t]p(o -a, rjpco. ripoD -a?, )]pco<;,

V. ijpco -<?.

1.After the form of Trei^o), decline also 17 al8d)s (shame), G.

60s = ovs. Ace. is al8(o (more regular in accentuation than Ace.
TTfiOo)). Also the Ionic rjasy' f] (morning, Aurora). (As to Attic

1 The Epic seems to compensate for vanished Digamma by lengthening

the e into tj. Acc, therefore, in Epic has d short, as otherwise double com-
fensation would be given. The Attic, on the other hand, in conformity to
he tendency shown in Attic metre, appears to give the compensation in such
a way as to suit Iambic rather than Dactylic verse. Cf. the similar
'
Meta-
thesis of quantity as between Epic Ados and Attic kfu<s.
'

2 spirant latent here is probably

The s, from same stem as vso (whence uro,
Aurom), and still retained in «ios4)6pos.
§19.] THIRD DECLENSION.

fojy, cf. § 15, 2.) Like decline 6 Bas (jackal), but without
rjptasj

contracted forms ; oXco? (threshing-floor, halo), with varia-

also 17

tions as if from second declension, G. oXcooy, also aXw, A. aXcoa

and Skbiv.
2. Many proper names of females follow the declension of
TTft^ti), as (Sappho), 'iw (lo).
2a7r(t)a) A
remarkable form in this
last is the Ionic 'lovv, etc., as Accus. in Herodotus. Voc. in ol is
based upon a Nom. in o), of which traces occur. — rop-yeb, which
forms a plural, has Ace. pi. Topyovsy and, from v stem, Topyovas.

§ 19. Sub-classes of Consonantal Stems.

1. Liquid Stems Modified.

(a) Liquid Stems in p.

rjp -epos.

In certain stems with p, syncopation of e takes place, inducing

certain variations.
Afew in rjp, Gen. epos, drop e in three cases. Gen., Dat. sing.,
and Dat. plur., making the e in the Dat. plur. appear by meta-
thesis as an accented a after p.^

Singular. Dual. Plural.

N. naTTjp. N. A. V. irarepe. N. V. narepes.
G. {iraripos) narpos. G. D. Trarepoiv. G. naTepoiv.
D. (Trare'pt) Trarpi. D. Trarpda-i.
A. TTorepcu A. irarcpas.
V. narep.
So mother 6vyarr]p, daughter ycurn^py stomach A»;-
fiTfrrjp, ; ; ;

p.riTr]p, but avr^p, man (vir), except in Voc. sing., drops e

Ceres ;

throughout in Attic. (The forms within brackets chiefly Epic.)

Singular.
N. wnip. N. V. (ovf'pfy) avdpfs.
G. {avtpos) dvdpos. G. (dj/epa)!/) di/fipeoi/.

D. (dvf'pi) av8pi. D. dudpaai.

A. (dvfpa) dpdpa. A. (ai/^par) avhpas.
V. A/cp.

Dual.
N. A. V. {avipt) avbpt. G. D. (m/f'poti/) dvhpo'iv.

For ttM inMrUon of « In okiJo, see 5 7, 9.

1. ». « i.

2. Epie DO«U ijDCopate anywhere or nowhere according to the metre ^v-

yaWpcc or fiyterptt, irarrfpi or warpi, avipts OX ivSpit. The Ace. sing., how-

1 So Bopp. Tb« newer philology explains the pa as the Greek form of a

primitiTe vocalic r (akin to r in Fr. notre, and rf. Skt. ddr^am Gk. iSpojcoy), =
i^ypeMlng in corresponding case^forms in Skt. and producing the ejection of «.
o
 ;

Si THIED DECLENSION. [§ 19,

ever, is not syncopated in irarrip, /aijrrjp, vao-r^p, for there is already, of First
Declension, a narpa fatherland, ^^rpa= womb, yavrpa =
belly of a jar =
but in poetry Ovydrrfp and Arffirjrqp may syncopate even in Ace, there being
no words with which they might be in danger of being confounded.—ao-Tijp (sta^
syncopates only in Dat. plural, aarpaai.

O) Liquid Stems in vA
Some Comparatives in cov drop v in certain cases, and then
contract : see Adjectives of Third Declension (§ 34).
1. A few substantives in wv drop v chiefly in Gen. and Ace. sing, and Ace.
plural, and then contract. aTfiw*', nightingale Q. -di-o? (-60?), -ovi D. ovi (-61),
; ;

•01. So xtKiSmv, swallow t'lKMu, image G. -ofos (00s), -ou? A. -ofa (-6a), •&>
; ; ;

A. plural, f'lKovai (-6as), -ov? (on this contraction, see § 6, 3. n.)

2. 'AiroAAw;', Apollo, and rioo-<i6a»i', Neptune, usually have the Ace. sing,
in Attic without -ya; Ace. sing., 'AiroAAw, noo-(i5w.

2. Mute Stems Modified.

(a) Neuter Dental Stems in t Variable.
A few of these have double forms coexisting, either dispensing
with r between vowels and then contracting the concurring
vowels, or retaining t in the structure.
N.B.—These stems are by some regarded as properly a- stems in a<r-.

Singular. Plural.
N. A. V. (to) KpeaSf flesh. Kpiara {-aa)y Kpia.
G. Kptaros (-aos)) Kp4a>s. Kp(aT(ov {-dcov), Kpeuiv.
D. Kptari (-at), Kpiau Kptaai.

So Kfpas, horn, -aros or (aos) -as (with a in Attic, a in Epic).

Hpaij prodigy, aros (has not r in plural).
But ovasj ear, -utos (poetic for owj, wrdy, r6\ retains r, except
in Dat. plural. (Dual in Kpeas not found.)
1. jtpe'ai for Dat. rather than xpia, but Ktpq. where its a is long (</. § 8, 1).
2. The rest of the neuters in d? rarely occur beyond Nom. and Ace, and, if
with Gen., have it in ao?, as yepat, reward yTJpa?, old age (Gen. aos and on) ; ;

6«'ira?, cup Kvt4>af, gloom

; <r<'Aas, gleam
; VKtira^, covert tri^e'Aas, footstool.
; ;

Except y^pa?, these seldom contract unless where a or ai can result, as D.

sing, fierrat N. plural <r<'Ad.
; The poets sometimes shorten Nom. and Ace.
flural, as Kpia, with elision Kpi, troika, etc. Epic Dat. plural Sen-deo-cri and
e'lracro'i.
8. The some of these by « in place of a K«peos for (ce'paos or
Ionics declined ;

Three always follow the Ionic declension, even in Attic :—

ice'pws.

/3pera9, image Gen. eo? N. plur. Pperea = PptTff xias, fleece Gen.
; ; ; ;

eo5 N. plur. #cw«a D. plur. Kutai

;
oS5a(, the ground Gen. «05.
; ; ;

4. All in as, having otos, aos, or eos in Genitive, axe -neuter, except Aaas or
Aas, stone, masculine G. Ados D. Adi Ace. Adav da. Ade plur. Kaotv, Adcacri.
; ; ; ; ;

O) Masculine Stems in or dispensing vnth t.

Some masculines in at, aros dispense with r in a few cases,

1 These stems of comparatives, now in v, must have been originally in s,

cf. meliosem, for later meliorem. The Sanskrit -yans, of the comparative, ex-
plains the mutual divergence of the Greek and the Latin forms (uov and icr).
§20.] THIRD DECLENSION. 35

chiefly in Epic, epas (love), yiXas (laughter), I8pa>s (sweat) ; have

Gen. (OTosy but admit o> for an in Dat, w and av in Acc.^

(y) Stems in apr.

Certain dental stems in apr are noteworthy as Bdfxap. Also,
j^x :

a few neuters, which drop p in all cases but N. A. V. sing., in

which last cases o sometimes takes the place of a of the stem.
8dfiap, T] (spouse). uSa)p,- to (water), rinapy^ to (liver).

Singular. Stem 8dp.apT. Stem v8apT. Stem rjTrap

ddpLGp. v8a)p. rjrrdp.
G. ddfJUipTOS. v8dTOs. fjudTOS.
D. ddfiapri. v8dTi. TJTraTi.
A. SdfiapTa. v8a>p. rJTrap.

Dual.
N. A. V . 8dfJUlpT(. v8dT€. TjnaTe.
G. D. dafidpToiv. v8aT0iv. T]7raT0iv.

Plural.
N. V. ddfiapTfs. v8&Ta. rJTraTa.
G. dafxdpTcov. vSfJro)!/. TjiraTOiv.
D. hdp.ap(Ti. v8a(ri. rjnda-L.
A. Sdfiapras.

§ 20. Vocalic Stems.

Stems with Vowel, l or v.

(a) Masculines and Feminines.

Of these, some
are in i, v, others in I, v. Those with t, v short,
modify i and v into f (t) and e(u) and thence into c, before vocalic
case-endings ; those with t and v long, retain i and v, but shorten
them before vocalic case-endings.
With vowel retained. With vowel niodijied to e.

Sing, (weevil) (swine) (city, civitas) (forearm)

N. 6 kU. 6, 7) <TV<i. T) TToXt?. 6 'irri-)(y<i.

G. k16<;. O-1/09. TToXeo)? (-€09). 7n]'x^eco<;.

D. kIL avt. TToXet (-et). '^^Jx^i' (€-(.).
A. kIv. avv. ToXtv. irriyvv.
V.

I Some deduce thi forms from byfonns in oc, as ipot, or from analogy
of aiitit.

Like vJwp is vKtltp TO (dung), stem vKopr, Gen. axorrfj,

3

Like 4»«p l» *p«'ap t6 (fountain), stem

•'
^ptfapr, Uen7
-...— y,^,~.., ^wM. ^^,.,v,,
<i»piirot but with
bTforuM, Epic ^ptUroK, Attic <^p«droc V«pi r6 (day), oAci^op, t6 (ointment),
abo on Um modal of ^vap.
36 THIRD DECLENSION. [§20.

N. A. V. /cte. o-J5e.^ iroXee. TT^^ee.

G.D. kXoIv. avoLV. iroXeoLv. TTTJ-X^eOLV.

Plural.
KV. Kte<;. true?. iroXeL^ (6-69). TTTjxec^ (e-e?).
G. Kccbv. ava)u. iroXewv. 'Tn]')(e(Dv.

D. Klai. aitai iroXeat. 'm]x'^aL.

A. KLa<;. (Tva^, o-O?. TToXeL^ (e-a?). TnjxcL^ (e-a?).
1. Like KLs, decline 6, 17, ois (sheep = ovis\ G. o'ios, N. pi. oUs,
A. oias contracted oii. Hence Attic N. sing., oh, G. olos, D. ott,
A. oiv, N. pi. oiff, oicoi/, otVt, 0*09 contracted decline
ois. Like o-vy,
)us (oa
(ohk;, lydvs (fish), G. with v, as tlo?, dual, Ix^v, as well
6 tvaj
i), o
-^
as -i;e. Epic D.Pl.
D. PI. of avs is avforai. v'L of Dat. sing, is contracted
only in Epic, as n\r)6vl for ttXtjOvI. Monosyllables retain open
form even in Epic, as avt. Traces of G. pi. in vj/ {'Epiuvv, iEsch.)
for v(ou.
The above is the declension of noKie in Attic. In Ionic it
2.
is declined like kis and then retains t throughout. Nouns in ij,
such as TToXtf, are, tlierefore, regular in Ionic Sing. G. ttoXios :
;

D. TToXu, contracted ttoXi dual TroXie, iroXloip

; plural ttoXk?, ;

contracted TroXty, ttoXicoj/, TroXto-i, TrdXiay, contracted TroXiy. There

is also an Ionic Genitive noXtos adopted by the scenic poets, and,
in Attic, TTiiXews and an Epic ttoXt/os, rj'i, T]a.
;

3. On the peculiar relation of eas to eis in Ace. plural, see

§ 6, 3 n.

(/9) Neuters.

With vowel retained. With vowel modified to e^i) e(y).

Sing. (tear) (mustard) (city, urhs).

K A. V. TO hcLKpi). TO aLVCLTTL. TO darv.
G. hcLKpVO^. (TLvdireo^i. dareof;.
D. BaKpVL. (TLvdlTeL darec.

Dual.
KA.V. hcLKpve. (TLvdiree.^ daree.
G.D. haKpVOLV. aivairioLV.^ doTeoLV.

Plural.
KA.V. hcLKpva. aLvdiTT} (ea). doTT) (ed).
G. haKpv(DV. (Tivairicjv. darewv.
D. hcLKpVdi. (TLvuTreai. dareai.

Traces of G. atrreas in Attic, but questioned in a neuter noun.

§ 21, 22.] cases of third declension. 37

§ 21. The Nominative Singular.

The Nom. sing, of 3rd Declension stands closely related to the
stem, and in Neuters is generally identical with it, as in Sa«pu,
fxfXav, aXr^Ofs. But Neuter stems in r either drop r, as o-oj/xa (for
a-afiar), or modify it to s in Nom., as Kpias.^

In masculines and femi nines, the sign of agency or personality,

viz. Sj is appended to the stem with the needful euphonic changes,
hut in dental stems, if without there is no compensatory j/,

lengthening for loss of r, d, 6, in Nom.^ Even where the s is not

now present, its influence is perceived in a compensatory length-
ening of the stem vowel as ^f ip for x^ps (found in Doric), and
;

aXT}6r]s for akrjdfs (stem) + s (Personal sign). But nouns in rrjpy

fjifov are by many regarded as lengthening vowel of stem-suffix in

Nom. without the influence of s.

§ 22. The Genitive.

I. If the Nominative ends in a vowel, add ros to form the
Genitiv^e. aafxa, body, (Tci)p.d-Tos ; /xe'Xi, honey, fifXi-ros.^
But yoAa, yiAoucTo?, milk ; yvvri,* yvvaiKo^, woman. <o has (60s =) 0O5 ;
V has eo?, as in adjectives in v?, and in acrrv, nCjv.
But yoio;, knee, S6pv, spear, have aros ; 5a#cpv, tear, fiiBv, wine, vaw,
mustard, have vo?. Foreign words in t (jre'irept, aivim), have los
modified into cos.

II. If the Nominative ends in a consonant, drop s^ where it

occurs, and add os to form Genitive.
aks dXdf, salt ; rjpas -tooy, hero Tirav -avos, a Titan. ;

So $ and 1^ drop ?, and form Genitives by adding os to the stem, icos,

yos, xo« ; ""OS, /3os, <f)os.
0pi(, hair, has rpcxos, and two in f have -ktos, vvf , night, and ai/af , king.
1. Before vos and pof, rj and o) of Nominative generally appear
in the Gen. as their corresponding short vowels (f, o) ; as noifirivj
Gen. TTotfifvos, shepherd ; prjTapj Gen. ^T)Topos, speaker.

Examples of Exceptions.
Excep. 1. Monosyllables (but <t>priv, d>pt.
v6t, mind ; x^o"©?. earth).
x^'*'»'. month.
firiv, fiTji/os,
Excep. 2. Verbal derivatives in rijp. ApoTTjp, Tjpos, ploughman.
Excep. 3. All in Hv, wctos. Ktyo(l>uiv, tufTos, Xenophon.

Excep. 4. Local derivatives (=etara, ( iirjTcii',ucos, CQuile.

lie
•< iXaiiav, uii/os, olivetum.
in Latin) and nicknames in w. yavrpiuv, wi'os, big-belly.
i

!{.<., if «p«at is taken as resting on

a r stem, but </. f 19, 2.
• wow seeins the only exception.
In Perf. participles in ws with or in Geni-
tire,a suffix is at work accounting for the lengthening of w in Nora. Masc.
* SufBx of Gen. really os, for t belongs to stem, fitKir-, yaKtucr-, cj. lact-\%.
* 9"'y """° *" '^ o' '^'"'^ declension, except the Ionic ri Kipti (for <c«p«).
Genitive «dpi7Tot. the head.
» « *•,**« co«-sign of Nominative in most muculine and feminine stems,
and so disappears in Genitive.
 ; ;

38 CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. [§22.

Excep. 5, Various, a.s'E\Kr)v, Greek ; Aeixijv, lichen »cij<^jj»', drone,; etc.;
aAwf, bam-rtoor AaKu>y, Lacedsemonian /uijjkwi', poppy, etc.
; ;

2. All participles of the third declension have -vtos in Geni-

tive, except those in as, which have -otos.
Tvylrds, -avros. rvneis, -euros ; but r€TV(f>d)S, -otos.

3. These masculines in av have -ovros, on analogy of parti-

ciples, «ica)v, javelin ytpap, old man
; ; bpoKOiv, snake ; Ocpdnav,
attendant ; Xewi/, lion ; Hvav, sinew.

4. s, where o- is preceded by a vowel, are very

Nominatives in
various in the formation of their Genitives.

Terminations of Terminations of
Nominatives. Genitives. Examples.
as, Neuter, aros aos KVf(f)as, aos, gloom ; Kpeas, aros, flesh.
Of, Fern., ados, Xafinds, ados, torch.
as, Masc, avTOs, yiyas, avros, giant. 0:^* Except two
adjectives, p.4\ds, duos, black ; ra-
\ds, duos, wretched.
aiff, aibos. Tratf , nai86s, child. QC^ Except dais,
feast ; arais, dough, -airos.
aos, ypavs, ypaos, old woman. The only
other in avs is uavs, G. ufus (Doric
vaos) ship.
«ff, (VTOS. All adjectives and participles in as, as
Xaplfis, -euros, graceful. (Stem -eur,
whence Nom. eur-s = eis, by rule.)
But els, one (with its compounds ov-
dels, fxTjbeis), and Kzeis, comb, have
-euos from stem -eu- K\eis, key, Kkeidos.
;

^aaikevs, ea>s, king.

(epos), Attic eas.
f Substantives, if proper names, as loiKpd-n^s
(ea-os, wh. {eos =) ovs, Socrates.
(

eos = ) ovs,\ Adjectives, if with neuter in es, as da-deufjs,

\ neuter es. Gen. {eos =) ovs, weak.
V^j
r Substantives not proper names, as Xe^rjs,
J TjTOs, caldron, /Sapv-nyy, -tjtos, weight.
rjTOSi
j
Adjectives not with neuter in es, as those in
I ^Xrjs, dfXT}s, 6ur)s, Kfiijs (from verb-stems).
tos, Ionic ; eos, poetic ; ecos, Attic ^ noXis (toy), (eos) eas,

ITOS, X^pi^s, iTos, grace

idogj eXnls, idos, hope
iBos, opuTs, Wos, bird.
wos, , aKxls, luos, sunbeam.
{ecr-os, wh. eos =) ovs, re^xos (eos =
) ovs, wall. (JC^ Ex-
cept neuter participles in os, Gen. otos.
§23.] CASES OF THIKD DECIiENSION. 39

Coos, Three. jSoCs, ox or cow xoO?, pitcher ; ;

sumach.
pou?,
ovs. ovrosj Participles in ovp, and one substantive,
odovs, tooth, old pep. eater. OCf* Ad- =
jectives in ovs (= oftr), have ovvtos.
o8os, One. irovs, ttoSos, foot, and its compounds.
f vos ; in some f fxvs, fjLvoi,', mouse ; irrjxvSi forearm, Attic
fo)s, Attic. Genitive, -ea>s.
cloak /copvs, vBos, helmet.

vdos. ^
X^^afivsj vbos, ;

Adjectives in vy, with fem. in eia,

have (OS some in vs, with fem. in vy,
;

have voj, as aboKpvs, tearless. Parti-

ciples in vs have vvros.
was, ^opKvsy vvos. One has vpo?, [idfyrvs, vpos,
witness.
f 6a)Sj 6oi6s, jackal. Two have (60s =)
ovs, aldasy shame, and the Ionic ^(or,
the morning.
(OTOSj -yAo*?, a>Tos, laughter ; also <f>a>s 6, man,
<l)S)s TO, light, bothwith (fxaros.^ So
participles in a>s, from a<as, like earas.
OTOS, All participles in as, not from aa>y, as
\e\vKOiSi -OTOS.

§ 23. The Accusative

Ends in a usually. But these four, is, vs, avs, and ovs, if the
Genitive is in os or (os pure, form Accusative by changing s of
the Nominative into v ; i.e., by adding p to the stem.^

From noKis, city, Ix^^Sy fish, ypavp, crone, ^ovs, ox,

(Genitive i-os {fa>s), v-oy, af-os, of^-os),
the Accus. is nokiv. Ix^^v, ypavv, /Sow.

N. 1. So Xaa? 6, stone, O. Xooi/ (Xia i.s late).

A,aoc, has Ace.
2. The same analogy as to »- in Ace. is followed in Attic by i? and v?, even
with the Genitive in to?, «o?, «o«, impure, but in this case the last syllable must
not have the acute accent (i.e. t«, vs must be Baryton, i.e. with grave (fiapw)
tone or accent), as <>«.
Attic. Less common.
cptf, rSof, strife; cpiio.
opm, iflot, bird ; opi't»'. opi'itfa.
80 x«P*«. 'Tot, favour ; Xapti'. XipiTo.

Bat Xoptf, a proper name, one of the Graces, has always Xaptra.

I ^wf , man »
Skt. bhavat a being, from item ^v =- 6«. But i^, Ii'pU »
»
^of^K, a neuter like y^yof, O. ^af-ia-os, whence G. is rightly ^acov, thence
^iov%. Ite Genitive ^«»r6« is abnormal and late.
« Therefore the Towel-declensions ^A and O, including i and v stems of
Third) reeemble each other in having v in Accusative singular. (Both forms
{y and a) are reallj the lame, I 26. 1. 4.)
 : —

40 CASES OF THIKD DECLENSION. [§24.

If the last syllable has the acute (t's, w?, Oxyton), the Accusative must be
in a. But whenever, by any process, the accent happens to be raised, the
stem will be treated as Baryton, and so become capable of v in Ace.

Oxyton. Baryton. Attic. Less common.

eXn-c?, -tfios, i\iriSa hope. But ev«A7ri?, eveKiruv, eveAiriSa.
TTov?, iroSoi, noSa; foot. But SiTTovs, Siwovv, BinoSa.

Except Kktit, key, having K\eii> as well as KktlSa.

§ 24 The Vocative.
A. The Vocative is like the Nominative
1. In all Liquid stems, having acute accent on last of
Nom. sing, (oxyton) S) fjyf^civ, Ma/cfScoi/, noiixrjv, 8f\-
;

(l>is, 2aXa/iiy, al6r)p, drjp. (But rraTTjp and dvrjp are

excepted and raise the accent, Voc. Trdrep, avep.)
2. In all Guttural and Labial stems 2) Kopa^, 7^"^- ;

3. In mu6t Dental stems (with t, 8, B, but not in vt) ; 2>

epats, Xa^iTTos, irovs, and the solitary 68ovs. nais, how-
ever, has 2) Trat, and a few in Is tfior, as 2> rvpawi,
dxpi, narpi (also 2> naTpis) ; so "Aprf/xt, vfcivi.

4. In nouns in as having aos, as Si TJpojs.

5. In all participles of Third Declension.
B. In almost all other instances, the Vocative (being rather
an interjection than a noun-case, and so taking the stem in its
simplest form), is the same as the stem of the word, subject to
such changes of the final as the laws of euphony require.
-OV-OSy deity, V. baipov.
Liquid stems,
-Op-OSj speaker, piJTop.
not being
1 peiCuiVj -oi/-oy, greater, ptl^ov.
Oxyton.
\ pcXds, -av-osj black, pfXav.
Cylyasy -avT-oSi giant, yiydv (for ylyavr,
and thence yiyavv).
Dental stems Ajax, Aidv (by-form Aia).
-{ Alas, •avT-os,
in VT.
I
X«P*"f> -fvT-os,graceful, XapUv.
ly(p<ovj ovT-os, old man, yepov.

Stems with ( tra^r^s, e-os for €(r-os, clear, (Ta(j>es.

elided s. \2(OKp(iTT]s, -e-oy for (a-os, Socrates, Soxparey.

Stems in /- C ^ao-iXfvs,
"
-f/^-oy, king, ^acriXev.
' -
forming •< ypavs.
' -a -OS, old woman, ypav.
Diphthongs, i^^ovs, -of-os, ox, cow, ^ov (prob.).

/ TTft^d), '6-os, persuasion, neidoT.

Stems in \ Ar^rci), -6- OS, Latona, Ar^rol.

o (or os). al8<as, -6-os, modesty, alhol.

I
\ TjOiS, -6-os, Auroia, f}o7.

1 Kviav, dog, has for stem in this regard k-Oop (instead of its ordinary kvv),
whence Vocative kvov.
§25.] CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 4i

CnoXis, -i-osy city, TToXi (also 2) noXis).

Stems in
-< nirvs, -v-os, pine, niTv.
t and V.
(^ yXvKvs, -f-of, sweet. yXvKv.
1. The occnrrence
of v in Accusative from a vocalic stem, or of a long in
Accusative, generally indicates a Vocative formed by simply dropping 9 of Nom.
Except in yp»jv of Odyssey, evidence as to separate yocativcx from vaix; and /3ov?
is rare, (/Sou being rather a heteroclite Genitive), and in Skt., as well as in
Latin, the corresponding words have Voc. like Nom.
2. When the Vocative is of a form distinct from the Nominative, there is a
tendency to raise the accent high, 1°, in comparatives in uv, in baryton com-
pounds, and in words in kAtj?, 2°, in oxytons in i7p, as in Tranjp, avrip.
Cp. Vocative /SfXriov, tvSaifxov, Arj^iioa-flei'f?, evrjfles, TTepiVAei?, in which
the accent stands a syllable higher than in the Nominative.
Also, Vocative avtp, ndrtp, in which the accent is similarly high.
3. Three nouns are remarkable as shortening the vowel in the end syllable,
and so allow this raising of the accent in Vocative.
'AirdXAwi', no<rei6w»', o-wrrjp (saviour), though with long stem elsewhere,
take a short stem in Voc., whence Voc. *Ano\\ov, noo-eiSov, <ru>Tep.

§ 25. The Dative Plural.

1. The Dative plural is formed by adding o-i to the stem, with
the ordinary euphonic changes. It is obtainable from the Dative
singular by inserting cr before i, and dropping before it any of
the dentals t, 8y 9 v {v as being the dental liquid).
($ and ^ will appear in Dative plural from guttural and
labial stems.)

Liguid, Labial and

Guttural stems. D. S. D. PI.

prfTOip,speaker. ^JTopu prjTopa-i.

KTjpv^j herald. KTJpVKL. KTjpv^L {kcTi).
yvyjr, vulture. yvrri yv-^i {na-i).
vvi, night vvktI. vv^L (= i/vAc(r)(ri).

rr dropped aSypci, body, a-apaTi. (Tcop-aa-i.

AttiV, hope,
1 J 5 „ fXnia-i.
1
helmet, Kopvdi. Kopijai.
\v „ Xt/nji/, harbour. Xi/ifi/i. Xi/ic'tri.

2. €Uf, aw, and ovs, make fuat, avo-i, cvai.

^aaiXfvs, (iaaiXfvai ;
ypavs^ ypavai ; oBovs^ o8ov<Ti ;
^ovs, ^ovvi
N.— But irov«, Dative noli, has »ro<ri
foot ; ; and oCs, ear ; Dative wti, has
M<ri ; both, as being dental stems, under Rule 1, above.

3. avTi makes ao-t, ri/rt from PARTICIPLES eto-t, oj/ri, ovaiy and
vvTty v<Ti. See § 7, 7, n.
D. 8. D. PI.
ylyas^ Ri&nt, yiyavri. yiyacn.
TVTTUiy struck, TVTTfVTi. Txmflvi.
X(ci)i/, lion, \iovTi. \(ovcri.
flfua/vty showing, dtiKvvtrrt. fitiKvixri.

N.—«vrt, from ADJECTIVES, has <rt, xapitit, gmceful, x«>p(«i^». x*P«»»»-

42 CASES OF THIED DECLENSION. [§25.
5. Syncopated nouns in 7/p have aai.

irarrip {irarcpos =) Trarpos. Dative plural naTpda-u

N. 1. yaa-rrjp, belly (yao-repos =) yao-rpos, has both yaarpacri and yao-Trjpo-i.

2. The normal endingof the Dative plural is thus -at, but dialectic varieties
are found in Epic. 1°, >\liile at. is normal in consonant stems, aai appears in v
and I stems, as TriTvero-i, Ipiaai. 2°, taat., rarely eo-t (as in Iv -eo-i, sinews), is
found added to consonant stems, as in ttovs, stem iro5, iroSeaai, along with the
regular noaC and its older form noaai [iro5«n']. =
This -taai. is supposed to be
an extension of the analogy of Datives plural from stems in «s, as the Epic m
hpta-ai, where it is normal.

Examples op Nouns of Third Declension.

1. Liquid Stems.
6 "Eicrap, -oposj Hector. 6 TToiprjv, -€vosj shepherd.
6 6r}p, drjpos, wild beast. T] ;(fXrfift)»', -ovosj swallow.
6 (T<tiTr)p, -rjpos, saviour ; Voc. ep. f) nightingale.
drjdciVy -Svos,
6 "EXXj;!/, -tjvos^ Greek. 6 rjyepoiVf -ovos, leader.
6 aXs, dXosj salt. f] d/crt'r, -Ivosj sunbeam.
TO TTvp, TTvpdy, fire ; D. plur. ots. 6 aWrjpf -€posj ether.

2. Mute Stems.

T} ^Xd|, -yosy flame. 6 dpdKCiv, -oi/Tor, serpent.

fj 6pl^, rpixoi, hair. (§ 7,4,n) 6 TTovSf noBosy foot.
f] aXoinrj^y fKoy, foX. 17 (Xttis, -iSof, hope.
17 frarpis, -tSoy, country.
Tj VVi ^'"i^ night. ^ eaOrjiy -^oy, dress.
17 ^caKOTj^y, -T/Toy, ^vickedness.
Neuters. j/fdr?;y, -rjrosy youth.
^
appa, Tchariot. d, 17 opj/ty, -idosy bird.
irpdypa T05,-< affair. ^ fpiy, -1809, strife.
ovopcL, 4
daKpv, vof, tear.
(^name. Tj

rj
Kopvs, -v6os, helmet.
xdpis, -iror, grace.
^Trap, dros, liver. TJ Kkds, -fi86sy key.
<f)p4ap, arosy well 6 ^ (TTTJXvs, -v8os, stranger.
-ydi/v, arosy knee. 6 17 diTTovs, o8osy two-footed.
<5 c
bopvy arosj spear. 6 ^ TToXvTrovff, 0805, many-
footed.

3. Spirant Stems.

(a) Elided Stems in a.

Genitive (eoy) ovs.

Arjpoadfvrjs, Demosthenes. rh yevos, race, birth

' Api(TTo<f)dvr)Sy Aristophanes, TO TTc'Xayo?, sea.
d €VT)dr]s, fool. TO oi/^os, flower. (G. pi. /Bewv.)

17 nfvTr)pT]s, quinquereme. TO oposi mountain.

 —

§ 26.] CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. 43

(j3) Stems in p (avr, evs, ovs).

Besides ypavsy only vav?, fem. ship. Besides ^ovs, chiefly pavs
and xoOy (see § 22, 4).
evs. Genitive fojy. All masculine.
^aatXfvs^ king. dpopevs, courier.
iepevsj priest. a-vyypacfyevs, historian.

(y) Stems in o and a. Gtenitive ©os.

6 ^po)?, woy, hero. MiVcos-, toos, Minos.

6 8/xa)r, (Boy, slave. TpoDs, cody, Trojan.

Certain have (Jenitive in {oos) ovs. All feminine.

T]a>s (Ionic), morning. Ar/ro), Latona.
TTft^o), persuasion. Sott^o), Sappho.

4 Vocalic Stems in i and v.

(a) With vos preserved (toy is chiefly Ionic).

6 ^m-pvs, grape-cluster. rj p^f'Xv?, tortoise, lyre.

6 j/<Kur, corpse. t] dpvs, oak.
6 /ivr, mouse. 17 Trtrvy, pine-tree.
6 /idj/rtr, soothsayer (loj Ionic). 6 Trocnr, lord, husband (G. los).

(/3) With Modified Vowel. Genitive eas.

6 iTfXfKvs, hatchet. 6 o(f)is, serpent.

6 p.avTis, soothsayer. rj oyj/is, sight.
fj <f)v(TiSf nature. 17 v^ipis, insult, insolence.
f) To^ii, order, rank. rj Trdo-ty, beverage.
17 Trpo^iff, action. to rravj -€os (like aarv), flock.

N.B.— As examples illustrating all Three Declensions and capable of being

declined side by side :

Army, arparia, orparos, <rrpdTtvfi.o,

£/0U8e, olxia, olxof, olicriijia.

§ 26. On the Case-endings or Suffixes in the

Three Declensions.
The case-endings are clearer and more easily separable from the
stem in the Third Declension than in the A and Declensions.
In these last the vowel of the stem often blends with and thence
obscures the case-ending, but, ai)art from this, there is a large
measure of «imilarity between all these Declensions.
The following are the most notable points, philologically :
44 CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. [§ 26.

I. Singular.

1. Masculines liave s^ for sign of Nominative (thence called

sigmatic Nom.), or else a lengthening of the vowel of stem-sufl&x
(non-si gniatic Nom.). In feminines, the presence of such a s is
less uniform. The Nom. of neuters is the simple stem, but in
the Declension v appears in Nom. as the sign of dependence,
indicating that such words express no proper personality, ov of
Nom. neuter seems therefore an assimilation to the passive or
object state indicated by ov of the Accus. of non-neuters in oy.
2. The Genitive singular is formed in the Third Declension
by OS, cf. Latin -is. In the ADeclension a s appears in Genitive
of feminines, but has been obscured in masculines both of A
and
Declensions, as well as in neuters of the O Declension. The
Genitive of 0-stems is specially notable. Originally o-a-yo, an-
swering to Skt. Gen. a-sya, it became olo, thence oo, whence by
contraction ov. oio and oo co-exist in Homer, and it is thought by
some that the adjective drjuocrios is based upon this ancient o-a-yo
Genitive. The Genitives in ov of the A
Declension are supposed
to be an extension of the analogy of nouns, and the Epic
UfTftoo seems to be the o-ayo Genitive adapted to nouns in as.
3. The Dative answers in form to a locative of the Sanskrit,
and is distinguished by i. MapaOcovi is an example of a true
locative and in a locative sense ; yepovri of a locative which has
passed into a Dative. In the First and Second Declensions,
the case-form bears a greater resemblance to a true Dative, such
as exists in Sanskrit, and we have in these declensions also loca-
tives surviving separately from the Datives. Cf. oXkoi (older
o'lKfi, cf. exei), locative as against the proper Dative oi/cw, and in

First Declension xafiat alongside of such as x^P?* Only 'in and

A stems, therefore, have we traces of Locative' and Dative being
discriminated.
4. The Accusative was originally in /x (of which a trace sur-
vives even in Greek in the initial /x of the pronoun ynv, originally
i/i-tfi, whence both ynv and viv). Since /it, as an ending, whether in
nouns or in verbs, displeased the Greek ear, it was either changed
into v, as in Ace. of all vowel stems, or modified, as in consonantal
stems, such as 7roS-/i, whence TrdSa, by transforming p, into a
vocalic nasal and thence into a, or, according to the older phi-
lology, bysupposing Trob-nfi to have been the original like peaevif
whence ii came to peel off as by ecthlipsis, leaving noda.
5. The Vocative is as nearly as possible the simple stem.
Feminines generally have Vocative same as Nominative, except
yvvr) having Voc. yvvaif and proper names in eo. vvfi(})a, however,

1 The origin of this s, the sign of personality, is probably the same as that

of the cr which is at the base of the Article {cf. § 12). Various of the pronouns
dispense with this personal ?, as €7uj, av, oSe (cf. Latin ist€ for istus); also, .in
its first syllable, the duplicated oStos.
§ 26.] CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. 45

isremarkable in A
Declension, as having in Homer a separate
Vocative from its Nominative vvficprj.

II. DiuiL

1. The Nominative (Accusative and Vocative) dual has been

reduced in Greek to e, which is retained in Third Declension.
In the and A Declensions, this e has been fused with the stem
vowel, whence o + « = w (by an archaic contraction), as in Xo'yco,
a + e = d, as in Kptrd.
2. The Dative dual is supposed to have originally ended in

<l)Lv, thence ti/, whence e.g. l-rmoiv = i7nro-(j)iv. The Third De-
clension followed, in this respect, the analogy of the Declen-
sion, whence -oiv and Homeric -ouv. This form in iv from (f)iv,
originally Dative, seems to have been transferred to serve for the
Genitive dual also.

III. Plurol

1. The Nominative plural in nouns not-neuter of the Third

Declension has the sign €s. Some take it for acs, since sas is
found in Vedic Sanskrit, and aes expresses plurality by repeating
s of the Nominative singular = sa + sa. The plurals in oi and
cu (originally pronominal as in ol^ al, etc.), are by many thought
to have had a similar origin, but the traces of proof, though some-
what clearer in Latin, are, in Greek, obscure.
2. The Genitive plural is normally in <ov^ as in consonantal
Declension (Doric ap of First Declension is for dav). The ulti-
mate form in A stems is believed to have been -asam, whence
-sam and -am^ Hellenic -wi/, from which the older Greek forms
-ao)!/, -60)1/, are adaptations embodying a and e of stem. In these,
the a- has been dropped which appears as r in the Latin equarum.,
etc. In stems, tue o of the stem has become absorbed without
leaving any trace in form or accent, whence mirmv (not iTnrwj/,
as we might expect from Latin equorum).
3. The Dative is in -ai^ retained more clearly in Third De-
clension^ abbreviated in First and Second. Originally a locative,
akin to the Sanskrit locative plural in -sm, cf. such as 'A6j']vr)<Ti,
which some claim as the true locative, while 'Adr)VD<Ti is founded
on a disturbing analogy from -aiai and -cus.
4. The Accusative has for original type -vsj formed by adding
f to the Accusative singular in v (/*). In most instances v was
dropped in the Ace. pi. of Third Declension without compensa-
tion, uut in A
and Declensions witli compensation by lengtnened
rntity. In Cretan, tmrops was in actual use. In Doric, the
usative in A and Declensions was without compensation
for loss of If whence such as x<»>pay ^"'l tmros in Accusative
plural.
46 case-endings of nouns. [§ 28.

§ 27. Sporadic Case-endings.

1. Relics of case-endings are the adverbial suffixes -di, -6eu,
-§6,^ of local relations ; also the Epic -0i or -^o/, etc.

(a) -6l, denoting wherej aXXo^t, elsewhere^ oikoOi, also oUoij

at home.
-Oev, denoting whence, aXXo^cj/, from elsewhere, oUodev, from
home.
-de (-o-f , -^f ), denoting whither, as Mc'yapaSf, to Megara ;
oLKovde, and, as if from Third Declension, oiKoSe, home-
ward ; eKcla-e, 'AOrjva^e for ^AOrjvas-de.

0) -01 or '(btv, as a li^^ng form, only in Epic as an old

case-ending, allied to the Sanskrit instrumental of the
plural -hhis, having the sense sometimes of an Abla-
tive Genitive, once of a true Dative as II. B. 363, and
often of a Dative in its instrumental and locative
senses. It has these functions in both singular and
plural It is attached to the simple stem, as, First De-
clension, ^ir](f)L from /3iJ7, (Epic for /3ia) = with violence;
Second Declension, deoipi, along with Gods ; Third De-
clension, vavcfn, in napa vav<f)i = from beside the ships ;
op((r(f>L, on the hills, from stem opes of opos, hill, etc.,
t^i, loith might, from Is.

2 surviving only in adverbs, usually regarded as a

(y) -cos
relic of an Ablative, akin to early Latin form of that
case in -d, appearing in and A
stems, as -ad, -od,
whence cito{d) = 6o<os (as to termination).

(d) -a or -t;, in such as Kpv(f)fj, apxi (Doric ifia), iravraxrj,

TrdvTT], ^, a relic of a lost instrumental, and so
rrfj, etc.,
not needing to be written with i subscript.

2. In a few instances, even the case-terminations have been

obliterated as in the locatives dopcv for 86p,€vai, aUv (akin to aloiv).
:

§ 28. Anomalies in Declension

Are of two kinds ; either defects arising from partial develop-
ment of the form, or varieties arising from over-development of
the form.

1 -01 allied to Locatives, -Oev to Ablative Genitives (c/. <rf9(v in pronouns), St

suffixed to Accusative forms.

2 The newer school of philology takes a different view and regards this ?
as a suffix of the same kind as the 5 in ef, ai^ =
ow-s, or eyyv-s, and so not
allied to Latin -d.
 : ;;

§29.] ANOMALIES IN DECLENSION. 47

Anomalies by Defect.
(a) Defectives in Number.
Chiefly limited to Sing. Only Dual and Plural, i Only Plural.
Abstract qualitUs arul oo-o-e, pair of eyes ; Gen. Festivals, as ra Ilavafljj-
essences, as oo-o-wf, Dat. oo-o-ois. vata.
riSrinii, sweetness, etc. oXATJAoti', each other ; G. |
Town nxnnes in ot, ai, a.
Unique existences, as plural, I
as AeA.(^oi, 0»j/3at, AeC-
yi^, earth :also iriSov, etc., j
KTpa.
and usually aldrip, ether. So ot 'ETTjo-iai, monsoons
I
rd eyKara, entrails.

(/3) Defectives in Case.

"With One Case {Monoptotes, irruxm = casus).
Ace. vufta, snow AcVo, oil ^pa, plea-
; ;
1 Voc. ^A«, fool i /me'Xe and m rav, good
;

sure. (Some take ^pa as Ace. PL). | sir ; arra, anna, papa.

With Two Cases {Diptotes).

Nominative and Accusative.

Epic neutere in wp and many in ag, as, So «e>as, build of the body i55os, plea- ;

a dream vnap,
aXxap, aid, ofop, sure fle/uii? (= fas), what is right
; ;

waking vision. o<^eAos, advantage.

With Three (Tripfotes) without Nom. With Four (Tetraptotes) without

; ;

and Voc. Vocative.

oC = sui. The reflexives e/iauToO, etc., All demonstrative pronouns.
and the reciprocal aWriKoiv. So in All relative pronouns.
sing., without Nom. and Voc. G. All interrogative pronouns.
apvot, lamb, D. -i ; G. <rTtxo?» rank.

{Aptotes) with no special form of case, but one moveable form for all cases.

1. Cardinal numbers, from 2. Foreign names not 8. Inflnitives used as

6 to 100 inclusive. Hellenised. nouns.
nivrt to iKarov. BaaX, 'I(oo^<^, to a\^a, G. rh ^iyei-v, speaking ; Gen.
(Yet traces of declension TOU aA<^a. (But aiyfjia TOU \ty(iv, of speaking,
in Alcaens, as irc'fiirwv, mar/ have decl., -arcs.) etc. So TO xpeojf, ne-
G. plural.) cessity Genitive rou
;

Xpewi', etc.

§29. Anomalies in Declension by Eedundance.

(a) Variants, with more than one form in use.

(Redundants.)
as masculine, Genitive or/corov,
Some nouns belong to two de-('
Dative -y, etc., of Second Dec.
clensions ; as orK&rost dark
neuter, Genitive o-Karovsy
uess
Dative -€i, etc., of Third Dec.
Proper names in i/r, «of, admit an Accusative of First Declen-
sion, OS 2aKpaTj}s Gen. -ovs Dat. -<i Ace. -i;i/, of First Declen-
; ; ;

sion, or -T] ol Third Declension Voc. 2a>*tpar«r. Reversely, ;

Irptyl^ialirjt of First can have as Voc. iTofyjriadfs of Third. Tto-o-a-

(f>(pyr]Sj Gen. -our, has Ace. -i/v and -7, Voc. -»;. Cf. ol Apiarfxfxiuai. *
48 ANOMALIES IN DECLENSION. [§ 30.

A few neuter plurals come from Nominatives in os.

Bea-fioi and -d, chains. KeXevBoi and -a, ways.
8i(f)pot and -a, seats for two, gigs. KVKkot and -a, circles.
Bpvfioi and -d, oak thickets. XiJ;^i/oi and -a, lamp.*.
lot and -d, arrows, pvTToi and -a, filth.
arTaSfioi and -d, lodgings, quarters.

Keversely, o-rdStov, a stadium, may have ordStot as well as

oT-dSto. The following Datives are by-forms from stems other-
wise perished, but sometimes metrically convenient oKki oXktJj : =
dvSparroBfcrcri =
-dSoty, biudpeai -pois, KKadi and KXddecri =-So), =
-8oty, TTpoxovcrip = 7rpo;(dois', xxTfiivt -vrj. =
Also Kpivecri, Trpoaca-
naai for Kpivois, irpoa-anois, but these have also Nom. plural
Kpivca, 7rpo(ra>na.Ta.

O) Variants, with only one of two possible forms in use.

o (tItos, corn ; in plural only ra o-tra. 6 Tdprapo?, Tartarus ;

plural Tdprapa.
TTiJp, TO, fire, in plural passes into the Second Declension, and

likewise nouns in d) and d)f, with genitive oosf when they happen
to have a dual and plural.

§ 30. Irregular or Peculiar Substantives.

Hades, Gen. -ov, in Attic, has great richness of form in Epic.
'AiStj?,
Nom."AiStj?, Gen. -ao or -«w, -v. -vv, also (as if from a Nom. Ai?), Geu.'Acios,
'.\i6t also Nom. 'AiSuvtv^. In Euic, its o appears to be a negative (= un-seen) ;
;

in Attic, aspiration has supervenea.

fjy king, lord.

aj/a|, 6, Gen. avaxros, etc. Voc. ai/a|, sometimes
ava, but the latter only to a deity. {"AvaKcs -atv = Dioscuri,
Castor and Pollux.)
dvr]p, 6, man (= in meaning to vie), syncopates € throughout.
See § 19, 1.
'AttoXXo)!/, Apollo ; Gen. -o>vof, etc. ; Ace. 'AttoXXw (rarely
'ATToXXcoi/a) Voc. "ArroXXoj'.
;

"Aprjs, Mars ; Gen. -ecoy, -f os (not contracted) et and et rjv or ; ;

1] ; Voc. "Apfs (also ''Ape in poetry) Epic, "Aprjos, -rji., -rja. ;

aarrip, «po?, o, star (STELLA), syncopates only in Dative plural, avrpivL.

(iorpov, collective for constellation, is regular.)
—
APN 6, w, lamb. Gen. dpi^o; ; Dat. apvi Ace. apva. PI. apve^, apvuv, apvaai
;

(Ep. apve<ra-i.v), apca;. Nom. sing, supplied by oftvoi, Gen. ov. [prjv], surviving in
TToXuppjjf*?, is a possible Nom.

^ovs, 6, T), Bos, ox or coir. See § 18, /3.

-ydXa, TO, milk (Epic -yXdyoy, Lac, LACTIS) ; Gten. -aKros, etc. ;

Dat. pi. ydXa|t.

ya(TTT)p, T], belly. See § 19, 1.

ycXwy, 6, laughter ; -wto? ; -ojrt, Epic -co ; Ace. -a>Ta, Ej^ic yeXo),
Attic and poetic yiXov.
§ 30.] IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 49

youv, TO, knee (genu), yovaros, etc. ; Dat. pi, yovaa-t. (Ionic
yovvarosj etc. ; Epic G. sing, yovpos, pi. yovva, yovvcov, yovvfaai.)
Stem yow + ar = yovpar, whence by dropping F, the Attic vovoto? also, ;

by transposing f and then vocalising it, the Ionic •yovi'ATos ana by assimila- :

(Some account for v not by epentbesis, but by compen-

tion, the JEolic yovyaro^.
satory lengthening after assimilation through [-yofvos etc.].)

yvvf}, 17, woman^ wife.

(From root yfv, as if yf ava (Curt.), whence Boeot. /Sara, <y. Gaelic bean, and
Saxon cwen.)
Singular yvinf, yvvaiKos, yvvaiKi, yvvaiKa, 2) yvvai.^
Dual yvvaiKe, yvvaiKolv.
Plural yvvalKfs, yvvaiKaPf yvvai^i, ywaiKas.

Sfvdpovy TO, tree, Ionic d(v8pfovj regular. Also by-form SfVSpor,

with frequent Dat. plural dfvdpcai.
AT}fir}Tr)p, T), Demeter, Ceres. See § 19, 1. By-form -rpavj in
accusative. Vocative Arifxip-cp.
dopvj TO, spar, spear; 86paros, etc. Epic
(Ionic dovparos, etc. ;

dovpw, -pi, dual dovpf, plural 8ovpa, Also sometimes

-a>v, -eaai.)
in Attic dopos, 8opi, and, on analogy of aarv, dopti, with Nom.
pi. 86pT}. (Stem dopv + ar, treated as in yopv.)
tap, TO, spring (Lat. VER, Aryan vesar), eapos, etc. ; or, con-
tracting, ^p, ^pos, rjpi. Ace. rjp.
(yxeKvs, 17, eel (anguilla). In the singular, like Ix^^^i Gen.
vos, etc., Reg. In the pi., like Tr^yuy, Nom. cy;^Aeis', -eatv, -eaLv.
Zfuy, o, Zeus, Jupiter, Aios, An, Am. Vocative Zcv. Poetic
Zt}v6s, Zr)ui, Zfjva, and Zfjp. Bcuotic Aevs. Ai for Ati in Pindar.

Two forms of one stem in the Greek Z«v?, a shorter one = Aif whence Ai6s for
,

Aifot, p falling out between two vowels the longer one ; = Aieu = Sjev = Z«v.
eoAijt, 6, Tholes, eiiAew, SaAj), eoATji'. Later also eoAou and ©olArjTOS,
TfTt, -TJTO.
Sffjiis, ii, right ; Acc. Bifiiv, but. with substantive verb, it is indeclinable
6ifu< iari, Bifti.^ elt'ou. As a proper name, 17 0<Vxtf, 6c/uii5(>9, etc., -if, Voc. -i,
also Epic ©<>- or fl«>.- kj-tos, Doric -ctos, Ionic -los ; pi.
fle/xtore?, -as (ordinances).

Bpi^, 17, hair ; rpixos, etc. ; Dat. pi. Opi^L See § 7, 4.

thydrqp, f), daughter. See § 19, 1.
Kipd, rh, head, the only neuter in o, F^pic form (copTj. In Attic it forms, 1%
N. A. V. xSpa, Dat. Kap<f 2°, from a stem Koar (Nom. #cpas only Grammarians),
;

Oen. <r<>aTO<, Dat. icpiri, AcC. Kpara plural. Gen. Kparutv, Acc. Kparat,
; This
tern (No. 2) mostly fem., sometimes masc. 3', to Kpara in N. A. sing, and to
Kpara in Acc. pi. I he laat is natural, being descended from a possible Kpdara,

but the anomaly remains, l* as to icpira in Acc. sing, if from a neuter, and 2°,
an U> TO gp^ra having startedf up as a Nom. and neuter.
In Epic the prevailing form is sing., Nom. Acc. Kipjf, Gen. (tXprjTo? and
vap^arof, xpliTot, Dat. Kaptfri and KopTjaTi, xpiari, Nom. pi. Kaprtara and Kapd
(from Kapaa). The obliaue ca«e.s of the plural are drawn from the stt-ni »tpaT,
which l)eMides giviiuc in the sing, xpdTot, pari, as in Attic, supplies phinil (ten.
it

KpSrw, Dat. Kpiffi (also, from an extended stem, «cpart<ri^t), Acc. xpara. Add

1 Vocatire is the only part in which accent falls on the v. (Accent of Voc
in Aryan primitive nouns is higlu) As to the origin of its stem, see I 9, 2, 4.
4
50 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. [§ 30.
(cdprji/o, -vutv, generally plural, from kindred stem, also the epic KprjOtv and
perhaps »taTa»cpi7?. In later time, traces of Kaprj as in First Declension, Gen.
KapT)«, etc.
(cA«i?, 17, key (CLAVis), KkeiSoi, etc. Accus. K\el6a and k\€Iv plural K\tiSf<:, ;

Ace. K^eifias and xAeis. Ionic kXtjU, old Attic kAtjs, -Tjfios, KkrjBa (never kXjjj').

KVQ)v, o, 17, dog (cANis), (v always short).

Singular icvaVf Kvvost kvvI, Kvva^ Kvov.

Dual Kvj/e, KwoTi/.
Plural Kvvfs^ Kvva)Uf Kvai (Epic /cwfcro-i), Kvuas.

fiaprvs, 6, rjj witness (late fidpTvp), Gen. -vpoy. Dat. plural in

Attic, fidprva-i. (Acc, also, p.dpTvv.)
p.r)TT)p, 17, mother (mater). See § 19, 1.
vavsy 17, ship (navis).

Attic. Singular i/aGf, vcwj-, vi^i, vaCi/.

Dual (vrJ€\ V€01V.
Plural v^€s^ j/fcoi/, vavaij vavs.
Epic and Ionic (new Ionic chiefly in ve).

Singular vrfHi and vrju?, wjos and v«6s, «"7t, »^a and i/e'o.

Dual (»"i«)f I'toiv.

Plural vriti and vets, vrjii' and vtStp, vr^va-i, vrjtvcn and i/e'eao-i ; also
vav4>iv, >^a$ and via^.

Doric. Singular vaut, vtwJs, vat, etc., with d throughout.

Thus the Attic inflection may be said to combine Ionic and Doric forms.
Nom. plural faOs, only bite.
voo?, contracted voCs, o, mind; Gen. foow := voO. Regular. Late writers
declined it of the Third (like ^ous). Gen. voo?, Dat. vot, Acc. v6a.

night (nox).
i/v^, ^, Gen. i/v/croy, etc. Dat. plural vv|i.
OtSiVour, 6, (Edipus ; -080s, -oSt, -o8a and -ow ; Voc. -oup and
-ov. Gen. also OtStTrou ; Epic -68do ; Doric -odd Acc. -dScu/. ;

oiff, sheep. Se3 § 20, a, 1.

ovap, r6, dreim, only Nom. and Acc. sing., makes up complete form with a
stem which has all cases except these two ; sing, ofciparot, 'an, plural -oto,
-oLtwv, -io-t. ofcipos, -ov, 6, Regular.

opvii, o, 17, bird, Wor Acc. Ida and iv Voc. oppi.

;
In plural ;

Regular. By-forms opvfty, opveo)!/, opi/ti? also opvi? (besides ;

the regular opviOas). Gen. opvi^or, etc., is Doric.

oo-o-f, eyes (for o/rt/f). See § 28.
ouf, TO, ear (auris), regular (but, as if from Doric Nom. S)s),

viz., Gen. a>rd?, etc. ; Epic ovas, Gen. -arcs, etc.

naTT)p, d, father (pater). See § 19, 1.

Uvv^, i), Pnyx, assembly ; Gen. Uvkv6<:, -i, -a. Late forms Uvvko^, etc

TToXij. See § 20, a.

Iloo-ftScov, d, Poseidon {= Neptune), -uvos, -wi/t, -a>i;a, better
-a> ; Voc. ndo-fiSov, § 24.
 ;

§ 31.] IBREGULAR DECLENSION —GENDEB OP NOUNS. 51

npta-fivf, 6, old man, has in this sense only Ace. nptafivv, and Yoc. npea-pxl,
and is compared, npea-fivrtpo^, elder ; Trpeo-^vraTos, eldest Uemaining parts
supplied from npea-pv-nj^, -ov, 6, old man.
The peculiarly Attic forms, Gen. npia-pfta ; irpeV/5eis, -tiov,-tai, are
borrowed by irp«o-^«uT^?, -oO, 6, and have the sense of ambassador.
Sing. N. 1rpeo•^evT^?, ambassador. Sing. N. np€<rfiv<: and -^iJtijj, old man.
G. npta-ptvTov and iFpe'(7'^ew9. G. nptafivTov.
D. npea-pevTji. D. irpta^vt^,
A. irpftrPfvrriv. A. nptafivv.
V. irpfa^fVTa, V. irpia^v,
Plur. N. npeafifii. Plur. N. irpeo-/30Tot.
G. irpeV^ecoi'. G. np«TfivTiitv.
D. npia-fif<Ti. D. »rpe<r/3uTais.
A. irp«<r/3ei5. A. Trpea/Swra?.

TTvp, rd, ^irg, Trupdff, etc. Plural ttu/xi, TrupaJi/, nvpois.

(tItos. See § 29, 4. oTaStoi' and ara^/ior, see § 29, a.
rav in i Tai/, 28 O)
^rood sir, c/. § and § 44 obs.
vdtop, TOj toater, vdaros^ etc., Regular Dat. pi. vdaau ;

vlosj oO, o, sow. Regular, of Second Declension.

Also, from stem vU- come, of Third Declension,
Sing. vUosj Viet, (vlia only Epic), '\
More frequent, especially
Dual vif'e, vUoiv. f in the plural, than the
Plur. vlusy viftoi/, vlfCTL, vleh. i forms of vlos in Thuc,
(Xom.i/teuronlyinGrammarians.)/ Plato, and the orators.
These are only Epic, Gen. sing, vlos, vu, via ; ul< ; vT«s, uiacrt, vlas.

</)&>?, 6, TTuin, ttnyii ; Gen. ^cards', etc.. Regular, as a masculine.

<P<oi, TO, light ; Gen. 0<urdf, etc., Regular, as a neuter. Two
poetic by-forms, 0da)? and (^dos^ t6^ Gen. <l>d€oi^ plur. 0dfa, etc.
Gen. ^ySdr, chiefly plur., ^oJSfr, etc.
^a)f, ^, blister;
Yet'p, ^, handj but Dat. plur. x^P^^ (Epic v^ipea-a-t
;(fipdr, etc. ;

ana ;(ftpf(ri). The poets and Ionic writers drop i else\vnere at

pleasure, except in Nom. sing., as Gen. x^pos"? ^tc. they also ;

admit xeipolv for more usual ^fpolv. (On Nom. x<ps in Doric, see § 21.)
Xov«, o, o pitcher, liquid measure. Regular, like ^oO?. By-form from xoe-
Gen. ;jo«« ; Ace. Yoa ; plural Ace. x*>«5. (Also written x6u><:, x°<h xo"-^-)
xow?, o, funp of earth. Regular, like ^oO?.
XP^wf, TO, fie<»«, only Nom. and Ace. Supplemented by ; Gen. xP'ov? xpw
pluiul^pcd ; Gen. xP*"**- Datives and dual iire wanting.
XPttK, o, ikin, -wTot, etc. Regular, except in phrase iv XPV> ««"»• Ionic and
Epic xpooff XPO'. Xpo*-

§31. Gender of Substantives.

(o) By Si(;nification.

1. Names of living
^INO beings
BEINGS are, according
according to sex, either mas-
culine or feminine.

fiwrtXfvSf d) king ; /Sacr/Xecof 17, qxuen.

 ;

52 GENDER OF NOUNS. [§ 31.

Except diminutives^ as dvdpiovj to, manikin, and three

words =
child, ^pi<l)oi, rUos, t4kvov, neuter by their
termination.
A few have common gender, and are 6, rj, as /3o0?, ox or cow,
6(05, etc.
Many names of animals have a standing form of gender
common to animals of both sexes.
(Epicenes.) Thus, a fox in
Greek and Latin was reckoned feminine vulpes, feminine, ;

aXd)7n/^ rj whereas a hare was reckoned masculine ; lepus, mas-

;

culine, XayoiS 6.

2. Names
of Months, Mountains, Winds, Rivers, are generally
masculine ; names of Towns or Cities, Countries, Islands, Trees,
are generally feminine.
Srvf and At^Ot), Styx and Lethe, though Rivers, are feminine also AItioj, ;

KuXAijioj, OcTTj, 'Oo-o-o, though Mountains, are by their termination feminine

so ij ilapvrii, -Tjdos.

But, Names of Towns in as amos, ovs odvros, and oi plural, are

masculine, as in Latin.
„ „ ov and a plural, are neuter, as in Latin.
Thus :

Masc. Taras, 6 Tapas, avros ( = Tarentum) ; Opus, Opuntis,

6 ^Oirovs, ovvTos Delphi, ol A(X(f>oi. ;

Neut. Rhegium, to 'Pqyiov Leuctra, to. Aevicrpa. So neuter,

;

Ai'gos, to "Apyos.

3. All indeclinable nouns (§ 28 /3) are neuter ; e.g., the names

of letters, to ii\<f)a.

(/S) By Termination.
In the First Declension a, rj, always feminine as and ijs, ;

always masculine. (But Epic Noms. in Ta for tt]s are masc.)

In the Second Declension os, as, usually masculine, some-
times feminine ^ ov and a>v, always neuter.
;

Except diminutives from proper names of women, as 17

TXvKfpiov, Glycerium, i.e., " little Glycera ".
The foUo^ving are most of the feminines in os.
Nouns implying the notion of
1. Earth (yrj) or Stone.
17 Ai'flos, feminine, precious stone ; (masculine, ordinary stone).
So apyl\o<:,white clay. Kpvo-TaAAo?, crystal (6, ice).
ia4)oATo?, bitumen. fwAro?, red earth.
/SiAos, clod. feci?, new-trenched land.
pd(ravo<:, touchstone. irAiV0os, brick, tile,
vvi/'os, chalk. x*P<^os. terra firma.
eprj/xo?, desert. i|fa|x/«,os and a^/xos, sand.

fjireipos, mainland. )/'n<j>oSi pebble, vote.

1 Feminines in O stems are common to Greek and Latin, but belong to no

other Aryan tongue. Originally O stems seem to have been all masc., but a
 ; —

§31.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 53

So Koirpo?, dung. oTTofios, ashes.

2. Thorough/nre :—
il *05<K, way, always feminine, and often oVos also.
So its compounds, etc., as ^7 7r«pto5o?, etc.

ttTpaTTo?,path. KfkfvBoi, road.

dfiafiTos, carriage way. rpipoi, pathway.

8. Vetul or rectptacle:—
i) KipwToj, chest. Xtjvo?, trough, winepress.
Kafiifo?, furnace. aopo^, cofl&n.
KapSonoi, kneading trough, xd^pos, ditch.

4. Vegetable pi-oducts, as tj j3u<ro-os. cotton, etc.

5. Three in o-os, 6p6<ros, dew ; iWjo-os, island ; votrof, disease.

6. Various, as—
pipk(K, book. Sikroi, tablet Soitd?, beam.
yvoBoi, jaw. itaA.t»cTos, dialect. 66Koi, vaulted roof,
iccpxos, tail. pdfiioi, wand.

In the Third Declension masculines are

av, rjVf w.
€VS, TJPj (op. .•
. .

^/r, tor carof, coi/ avoSi ^^^ Genitives in -irror.

Except
these in Feminines. Neuters.
71V <t)p^y, <f>ptv6^, mind.
ijp yaa7-/ip, -fpo^, belly. »njp, »f»jp6?, fate, ^p, spring, and Kiljp, heart, are
(tfirydnjp, M'^Pt etc., fem. by meaning.) from tap and Ktap.
vSiop, water, and o-Kwp, filth,
both Gen. in dros. Epic
words in up, as e'Awp, prey.
itoTT)Xi\^ (<fro?),roof ; <^Aft// 036?), vein
j(^tpvi\p Oo?), lustral water.
XaiAai//, storm ; ot^, voice ; wi/', face all ;

with wos.
(/rj?, (^wtos, light (p. 3d, n. 1).

Feminines are o), oji; oi/o$-.

^, as adui.
Tr)s TT]T0Sj ty, uy, and aur.
Bxoepi
lllfgQ^ Matculinet Excepted.
MT oKot. anvil ; fipaxiuv, arm ; Kavuv, rule.
dx/iiMi/,

rTjT(K. All in ns not )»teeded by t (tVdi??, dress, alone is feminine).

All with a LO.VG vowel before <co?, as also d/3af an abacus av0pa(, , ;

coal 3d»'af reed

; iriVaf , tablet (although all with &ko<:)
, ; ow}, ;

nail (= un{/ui»)sharp edge (both with

; (tt6vv(, (iJenitive xo?).
wt. ^«>Tpvv, grape-cluster ix^vs, fl»h »tdf 6vs, doublet
; ; ; m«'«. mouse ; k'kv?,
corse ff-rdxyv, ct»rn-ear (all with vo«).
;

WAcKVf, axe injxvt, foreann (both with «*»«).

;

Neuters are a, ar, ap.

. t, V, Of (for ff), op.
But Xar or \aasj Geii. Xoor o stone.

tendency to treat them a* fem. aroM, 1* from analogy, as *j Spd<ro«, to resemble

the clearly fem. «o(n), t^" from tjHcUt following it« gtnu$, as n Kopti^of, to crm-
form to iroAif, h* from direct adaptation, as ^ iiirirot, y\ 9t6%, alongside of 6
lvK9%, sic.
 ;

54 ADJECTIVES. [§ 32.

No Guttural or Labial stem is ever Neuter, nor is any-

Liquid stem so, except some few in p.
N.B. —Single words not included in the above lists.
Masculine. Feminine.
o oAs, (zAof, salt. 1^ oAs aAdf, sea.
6 »cT«is, KTfPOi, comb. r) SaCi, Sairos, feast.
6 irovs, 7ro56$, foot. ii alStJi, (609 =) -ovi, shame.
Tj rimt (60s =) -ovs, morning.
Tj x«iPi -poi, hand.
Neuter.
rh oC?, WTO?, ear. rh nip, injrpos, Are. TO o-Tai's, (TTOLTOi, dough.

§ 32. Adjectives.

Of the four divisions of adjectives, the

First belougs to the First and Second Declensions ;

Second „ Second Declension solely ;

Third „ Third Declension solely

Fourth „ First and Third Declensions.
N.B. —The feminine
of the adjective, whenever it has
a form to itself independent of the masculine, belongs
always to the First (or A) Declension.

Adjectives of the First and Second (i.e. Vowel)

Declensions.
(Answering to Latin tcs, or er, a, U7n.)

M. F. N.
The feminine is in rj, as (f>L\o<;, (piXr], <f>i\ov, dear.
But o? pure and po? liave in feminine a and pd\
<f)LXco^, friendly^ feminine (fnXid ; i')(6p6<i, hostile, femi-
nine exOpa.
N. — ooy, however, has »;, as oyboos, 67, oov, eighth ; but poos
has a, as dBpcos, 6a^ 60V, dense.
OS Impure. as Pure. pos,
Si)ifjukir.
M. F. N. M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. (f)t\-0Sy -r}f -ou. (f)L\i-os, -a, -ov. ixOp-U^ -a, -6v.
G. <f>iX-ov, -T)Sj -ov. (f)iKi-ov, -as -ov. (\6p-ov, -ay, -01;.
I). <f)iX-<Oj -17, -to. (f>iXi-a>j -a, -qj. e;(^p-<w, -a, -«5.

A. (piK-ov, -TjVj -ou. (f)iXi-ovj -dv, ou. €\$pi.Uj -aVj -cv.

V. 0tX.-f, -7;, -OP. 0iXi-f, -a, -ou. €xdp-f, -a, -ou.
 J2.] ADJECTIVES. 55

M. F. N. F.
Dual. N. A. V. a>, -a, -0). G. D. otj/, -atv, -o«/.

Plural. N. V. oi, -at, -a. D. otff, -ois.

G. 0)1/, -0)1/, -cov. A. ovs, -a.

Examples.
Fem. ?/. Fem. a.

aya^of, good. ayioy, holy.

Kokos, beautifuL dUaioSj just.
aocposi wise. f\ev$(poSi free.
<l)avXos, vile. fiKpoj, small.
KGicoy, bad. HaKpos, long.
N.B. — Participles in or, »;, o»', follow declension of cjilXos.

Contracting in os.

Adjectives in tos expressing matei-ial of which anything is

composed, and adjectives in oos answering to the Latin multipli-
catives in -plex, contract everywhere. The majority, however, of
adjectives in oos are compounds from a substantive such as voosy
ttXoop (voyage), and therefore (by § 33) have no feminine differing
from the masculine. Otherwise they contract like dnXoos, except
in Neuter plural, where cvvoa (not fvva).

KB. — Contract fa in the singular into rj, unless p precede, but

in the dual and plural into d.

Xpv(T€os, golden ; dTrXooy, simple.

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. ypuo- -f Off ) - -<a 1 - -f 01/ 1 ^
AnX -oos r^^' •6r, P' -oc r'''
G. XPv<r -€Ov \ - -(as \- '(ov ) «
Stx -oou r^' -6^: b^' .^ov h"-
D. Xpva- -(CO \^ -f'a )- -((o 1 .
AnX -6c|) r*' -6t) C' -oo) )*«*•

A. ypuo- -(ov \ . -<ai/ ") - -tov 1 .

V. (xpuo-<€) -/a 1 ~ 'tou \ .

|°»"'-
(rirrX -(if) .6r,
P' -ooi.

N. A. \'. ;^pv(T -/« 1 , -(a > - .f(o ) ,

liTrX -cio) r* -6a P' -6<o p-

G. D. xpvo" -iouf \ . -imv \ . ./oiv I .
"*"'
AirX -ooiy -6aLv
r'"' f -ooiv T*"-
56 ADJECTIVES. [§33.
Plural.
N. -(a
lot,
dyrX -dot -dai -6a
G. XP^^ -fdv -60)1/ -(0)1/
>&)V
dnX -00)1/ -00) J/ -00)1/

D. xpvcr -(oii -('atf -coiy

^OIJ ^Otl
dnX -oois -fiats -doty

A. XP'^^ -€OVS -eas -€a

AttK 'Oovs -oas -6a

But pfo, singular feminine, into a ; as, from dpyvpeos, silver^

Nom. dpyvpta, -pd^ Gen. dpyvptas^ 'pds, dpyvpfq, -pa, dpyv-
fern,
piavy -pdv ; elsewhere like xp^^^°^' ^'^ accent of xp^^^^^i out
of xpyo'^oPj see injra on Accents.

§ 33. Adjectives of Second Solely.

As in the Second Declension of substantives, o? was
sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine, so, in certain
adjectives, o? serves for both of these genders. These
are known as adjectives in o? of two terminations.
It is especially in compound adjectives in o? that the
feminine is the same as the masculine (the burthen of
composition seeming to impede the free movement of
the entire word), as </)/\o?, 77, ov, but 6e6(l>L\o^, 09, ov ;

hvvaro^y J], ov, but dBvvaTOf;, 09, ov.

N. 1. Some few non-compounded adjectives, e.specially in
Attic, have feminine in or. These end mostly in -toy, -t/xoy, and
-pos, as (fipoutposy sensible.; ^dp^apos, barbarian rffiepos, tame. ;

2. All comparatives and superlatives in 05 have three termina-

tions. In various words, however, poets consulted convenience of
metre, and hence oXodyTaros 68p.r) and dOavcn-r) nfjrrjp in Homer.
Obs.— Some adjectives in os have both fonns, with or without separate fem.
Thus, <^iAto?, <Jii\id, i^iAioi', as well as «^iAio?, (^I'Aio?, (fti^iof, fnauUy, and so with
yoOpo?, haughty, fem. yaupos or yavpd. Such belong, therefore, to § 32 as well
as to § 33.

€uBo^o<;, glorious.

Singular.
N. €vBo^o<; -0? -ov or 6, //, €vBo^o<;. to, evBo^ov.
G. ivho^ov -ov -ov or tov, rif;, rov, ivBo^ov.
D. ivB6^(p -ft) -"ft) or Tft), TTJ, Tft), evBo^cp.
A. evBo^ov -ov -ov or rov, r^v, to', evBo^ov.
V. evBo^e -6 -ov or w evBo^e, cj evBo^ov.
§ 34.] ADJECTIVES. 57

Dual.
N.A.V. ivBo^co or
rco, rd, ray, ev^o^co (Voc. w).
-ro -co

G. D. ivBo^OLV -OLV -OLV OP TolVy ToXVy TOLV, ivho^OlV.

Plural.
N. V. evBo^oL -01 -a or ot, at, evBo^oL, rd, evBo^a,
(Voc. ^).
G. evho^wv -cov -(ov OT T(ov, rcov, rtav, ivBo^cov.
D. eVSo'fot9 -ot9 -ot9 or tol<;, rat?, rot?, eVSofot?.
A. iv86^ov<; -ov<; -a or toi;?, ra?, ivSo^ov^, rd, ei^Bo^a.

Examples.
aOdvarosy immortal. /3a<rtXfioy, royal. eijKoa-fioSi elegant.

Adjectives in as, a>v. (Like Attic Declension in o), cf. § 15.)

Singular. Plural.
M. &F. N. M.&F. N.
N. V. €vy€a>s. evyaovy fertile. fijyew. exjyea.
G. cvyf(x>. evyecou.
D. (uyeo). fiJ-yeo)?.

A (iJ-yfO)!/. cvycas. evyfco.

Dual. N. A. V. evyeo). G. D. fiJyfwi/.

Examples.
rXfcof, gracious. f/nTrXtcos, full.
—
N. wAcfc)?, full, has a separate fem. (though its compounds, in general,
have not), and is declined, »rA«aj5, irA<a, v\t'tov. Gen. v\tia, rrAe'as, n-Acco, etc.
Nona. PL neuter jrAea, but «#c7rAtw.

§ 34 Adjectives Solely of Third Declension.

iV.^. —
In adjs. of Third Declension, the Voc. sing.
masc. and Nom. sing. neut. are alike, being each the
simple stem.
Singular. Plural
N. €v(f)p(av evcppov, cheerful. ev^pove^ €ij<t>pova.
G. €V(f>povo<i (M. F. N.) €V<t)p6v(0P.
D, €V<l)pOUL ( „ ) ev(j)poaL.
A. ev<f>pova^ evSpov. €ij(f)pova<;, ev(f>pova.
V, €V(f>pov. I
€ij(f)pov€<i, €ij(f>poifa

Dual. N. A. V. €i/(f>pove. \ G. I ). evcfypoi'OLu.

 —

58 ADJECTIVES. f § 34.

Examples.
(ra)<f)p(iip, ov, prudent, ^tXoTroXts-, t, patriotic.
a(f)pa}v, oVf imprudent. eveXms, t, nopeful.
fvbaifjiuiv, Of, happy. (vxapii, t, charming.
uppTjv, €v, male. G. €vos. i8pis, t, intelligent.

adaKpvs, V, tearless. G. vos. Ace. w.

Tpimixvs, V, three cubits long. G. eos. Ace. w.
rp'movsy ovj/, three footed. G. obos. Ace. ow or oba.
N. Compounds of rroAtv in their natural sense, as names of cities, have
1.
«w?, as Nedn-oAi?, new city (= Naples) Gen. ew? when they change their sense
; ;

and become epithets of men, then usually Gen. i6o(, i5i, if anu i5a, etc, as
0tA6troAt?, "imtriinic man.
2. Compounds of 6a»cpu in v?, rarely occur beyond the Nom. and Ace. sing.
Supply the other cases by the forms in vtos, 6, ^, thus Gen. of iroAv5axpvs =
irokvSaxpvTOv.
3. Compounds of tttjvu?, cubit, may contract where it contracts.
4. Traces (in Odyssey) of ytp^y taken adjectively, with neut. ytoov (aa.Ko<s).

II. Comparatives in oyv.

Comparatives in cou decline like ev<\)p(ov or positives

in (OV, but they admit of a syncope and contraction
foreign to these, in four cases, viz., in the Ace. sing, and
Nom. Ace. and Voc. plural i.e., they dispense with v,
and then contract, in those cases where the neuter has
a form unlike the masculine.

fiei^cov greater, like ev<f)p(ov, but

M. and F. N.
Ace. S. fiei^ova {pa =) fiei^co, fiel^ov.

Y pi \fi€L^ove<; (oe? =) fiei^ov^, fiei^ova {pa =) /xet'fo).

A. PL fj,et^ova<; {oa<i =) fiel^ov^, fjLei^ova (oa =) /^etfo).

N. 1. Contraction of oa? into ov« is probably through assimilation to the

Nom. pluraL— These contracted forms are believed to come not directly from
the V fonnation, but from the older form of comparative with s suttix, as
fieiCoa =
/xfifoo-a, cf. majorem =
majosem (o- in 7rp«'o--/3vs is still a trace of this
in Greek, for npii-fiv^ =
np(ii-yv-<; (Cretan), i.e., prius genitus, or j>;-i«-cu3).
2. nkeiov or irKfiotv, more, besides the contractions as above, has also some
forms in ei» with interior contraction even in Gen. sing., as nKeivo^, etc., and, in
Epic, Nom. plural irAc'cf and Ace. plural irAcas.

III. Contracts in 779, e?, or Elided Stems in o-.

A
very numerous class of adjectives, solely of Third
Declension, is that in 77?, e?, contracting with every con-
currence, and following type of 761/09, § 18 (a).
§35.] ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 59

Sing^dar.
K oXtjOi]^ aXriOk, true.
G. aXf^deo^ = d\r)dov^ (M. F. N.)
D. akrjOel = d\r]6eL. » ( )

A. dXTfOea = aXr}drf, dXrjOe^;.

V. dXr]6e<;.

Phcral.
N. V. d\r]6€e<s = aX7;^et9, dXrjOea = dXr]6P].

G. dXrjdewv = dXrjdwp.
J). dXrjOecn.
A. dXr)dea<i = aXTy^et?, dXrjdea = dXTjOij.

Dual.
N. A. V. dXrjOie = aX?;^?). |
G. D. dXrjOioLV = dXrjOolv.
rjs 'pure has a preferably to 7; in Ace. sing, and N. A. V. plural,
s cVSfijr, <V8fa ; vyirjs, vyw, also vyt^. C/". § 18, (a) 1.

So €vyfvTjSj 4s, noble ; da-devrjSj «, weak ; fiiae^rjs, «'?, pious.

§ 85. Adjectives of First and Third Declension.

TerminatioTis,

Adjectives. Participles.

1. a? atvd dv. a? flMJa au.

avo^ aiV7j<i avo^t etc. avTO<i a(nj<; ai/TO?, etc.
(Oaly two. fieXd<;, black, (So,though adjs., 7ra<? ^ (all)
TaXa?, wretched.) and its compouuds.)
J. €t9 €cr<7a 61/. €t9 €tcra ev.
6rro9 iaarj^ evTO<;, etc. evTo<; ela-rjt; kvro^.
(<y Dat plural, eat.) (l^T Dat. plural, elaL.)

3. 0V9 oucro-a oOz/. 0U9 ova a ov.

ovin-o<; ovacTjf; oOi/to?. 61/T09 ouc7?;9 0VT09.
(Contd. from oet9of 2d form.)

4 1/9 €ta ^9 Oo-a vi/.

€09 6ta9 €09. uirro9 i5<r?;9 uirro9.

In daclining va%, take jm^ (I 4S) for Dual.

60 ADJECTIVES AND PAETICIPLES. [§35.

0. 7JV eiva ev. av ovaa ov.

€vo<; eivTj^ evo^. ovTO<; ovarjf; ovTO<i.
(Only one, ripT)v, tender.) (So, two adjs. eK(aVj wilKng,
Fern, ending. aK(ov, unwilling.

OCt* fiva = cv + la. 0:^ civ (contd. from aav) has

aitfa = atf + la. cocra, Siv, G. coi/roy.
(La + la. (f for fpy av (contd. from ioiv and oav)
i.e., fv from has ovaa, ovv, G. ovvtos. So
every future participle Act.
ecra-a = €VT + ta = fvcra = in CO V of liquid verbs.
f (Ttra Assim.
But eicra = €VT + ta = cvcra =
Ho-a Compens.
6. rj<; rjaaa rjv. (09 via ^ 09.
T]VTO<; rjaar)^ rjvTO<;. 0T09 fta9 0T09.
(Contd. from Tyet? of 2d form.) G)9 (in archaic Peps.),
oxra, G)9,or 09, G. ©T09, etc.

Adjective in as. Participle in as.

Singular.
black. standing.
N. fi(\dSi /le'Xaiva, fifXdv. (TTas, crrdo-ay (rrav.
G. fXfXavos, fjicXaivrjS, fjifXapos. arduros, arda-Tjs, (rrdvTOs.
D. HfXavi, fifXaivrjy fifXavt. crrdvTi, ardcrrj. ardirri.
A. fiiXava, fifXaivau, fjifXdv. aravra. OTatrdv, OTOV.
V. fifXdvy p.fXaiva, fJLfXdv. ards. arda-ay (rrav.

Dual
N.A.V . /iAove, fifXaivdy fieXopf. orai/rf, aracrdy (TTOVrf.
G.D. fi(\avoiv, fifXaivaiv, fifXdvoiv. ardvToiv ardo-aiv, ardpToiv.

Plural
N.V. fieXavfSi fxeXaivai, fifXava. crrdvT€S, crracrai, aravra.
G. /ifXai/coj/, fieXaivwv, p.(Xdv(i)v. ardvTav, OTacriavj OTavTOiV.
D. (MfXaa-i, fifXaivais fifXdcri. ardcn. arda-aiSy ardcri.
A. fieXavds, fifXaivds, p.(Xava. trrdvTds, (rrdads. OTavra.

Adjective in eis. Participle in fis.

Singular.
graceful. placing.
N. Xapf"^. -foxra, -fV. TlOflS, -fT(ra, -€V.
G. Xopiei^oi , -€(T(7»7S, -CVTOS. ridfvTos, •fla-rjSy -evTOS.
D. XapUvTi, -fcra-fj, •fVTL. TlOivTl, -fla-ji. -ivri.
A. Xapicvra, -fcraavy •cv. TiOfvra, -fio-ov, •iv.
V. XapUv, -fo-a-ay -€V. TiOeiSf -et(ra. -ev.

1 via, usually explained as for for-ia, whence po<r-ia, then by v, arising out
of fo, vo-ia, and by dropping intervocalic o-, via. But the question is obscure.
§J56.] ADJECTIVES. 61

Dual.
N. A.V XaplfVTCy -ea-ady -ei/Tf. TiBivTf, -elady
G. D. XapifVTOiv, -eaa-aiv. 'ivTOLV. TlOeVTOlVy -eia-aivy -evTOiv.

Plural.
N.V. XaplevreSy -ea-o-aiy -evra. TidevTfSy -e7(Tcay -evra.
G. XapifVTcoVy -eaacjVy iVTOiV. TlOeVTOiVy -€l(TCi)Vy -ivTcov
D. XO-pUai, -€ai. TiBflai, -fiaraiSy -6tO-t.

A. Xapifvrdsy -((TO-dSy -evra. TiOivrdsy -eiadsy -ivrd.

VSy eUly Vy Partially Contracted.

Singular. Plural.
N. fidvsy -euiy -V. fjh(cs = fiiy -etat, -ia.
G. Tj8(os, -dasy -eos. TjhiaVy -ei(ov, -€(OV.

D. ^gf7 = ft, -eiay -fi = ft. rjdeai, -ei'aiy, -€<Tl.

A. fj8vvy -ftav, -V. fjdfds = 61?, -fidSy -ia.

V. rj8v, -cla, -V. f)8e€S = elsy -elaiy -ia.

Dual.
N.A.V. .jSe'e, -fid, -ie. G. D. f]8€Oiv, -eiacv, -ioiv.

Examples
yXvKvsj sweet. fvpvs, broad TJfiio-vs, half.
^advs^ deep. o^vs, sharp. BfjXvs, effeminate.

N. 1. 7j for fo. in neuter plural of adjectives in vs is rare i)it.L<n\ occurs, how- ;

ever, and even T\tii<Tov% in Genitive singular.

2. cia is in Ionic ia and Gen. ^j? ; Dat. «tj Ace. iav and ^i/.
c'tj ; ;

3. The poets take two licenses with adjectives in v?, (1) giving «a for in w
Ace. sing., and (2) making masculine forms serve for feminine, a&ia. xairaf,
loxurioua locks, for aitlav ; Tap<^vs 9pi{, bushy hair, for Tap<i>ela.

§ 36. Adjectives of One Termination.

Some adjectives, applicable chiefly to persons, have

only one termination for masculine and feminine, which
is occasionally joined, especially in the Gen. and Dat,
to a neuter noun.^ These are,
1. Compound adjs. ending upon unchanged substs.
From -naii ; 6, i], anaiSy -8osy childless, ^j^ Except compds. of
rrovsy 68ovs ; iro-
From Ytip ; 6, n, fiaKpoxftpy -pos, longhanded. Xtr, x"P*^5 etc. ;
From d^, o, 1^, aoylry -nosy eyeless. which have a se-
parate Norn. neut.
Cf. § 34.

As ip Wmirt vM/MTt, Ear. Elect. 876, iw^^vU <9rca. H«rod. filL 73.
62 IKREGULAR ADJECTIVES. §37.
2. Personal adjs. in as ddos, is tSo?, vs v8os, |, yjr, and those
with Gen. in r]vos, rjros^ aros.

6, j), (f>vyas, fugitive. 6, j;, verjXvs, new comer.

6, ^, (ipaXKiSj pithless. 6, ?;, ^oii/i|, purple.
6, 17, TreprjSi poor, labourer. 6, »;, dyvwr, unknown.

3. Various, as fiaKap, apos, happy

dKdp,dsy avrosy unwearied ; ;

also "EXXtju and 'EXXas, when taken adjectively.

N. — Some of these have occasionally a separate fem., as yLciKap,

fioKaipa ; Such feminines formed according
(1>o'lvl^, <bolvi(T(rcL, etc.
to § 9, 2, — Some in u,
(/3) 4. are only in feminine, as
ibos^ avfifia-
xis (nokis), and narpis, -I'Soy, »;, is originally a fem. adj. like^Ja^na.

§ 37. Irregular Adjectives.

Two adjectives are irregular, ttoXu? and /jL€ya<;, each

forming on the basis of more than one stem, but with-
out du2)lication of parts, and these parts chiefly from
TToWo?^ and [fieydXo^].

no\v<;, much or many.

Stems iroXv and ttoWo, i.e., iroXfo.

Sing. N. TTOXU?, TToXXlj, TToXv.

G. iroWov, TToWf;?, TToXXov.
D. iroWw, iroWfj, TTOWCO.
A. iroKvv, iroXKrjVy TTOXv.
V. iroXvt TToWrji TToXv.

Dual N. A. V. [ttoWw,
. TToXkd, ttoXXq)].'^
G.D. \iroXKoli>, iroWalv, TTOXXOLV].

Plur. . K V. TToXKoi, iroWaLy iToXXd.

G. TToXXoJVy TToWiov, TTOXXCOV.
D. TToWoU, woWaUy 7roXXoL<i.
A. iroWov^, 7roWd<;, TTOXXd,

1 In the Ionic, n-oXXds actually appears fifyi\o<: as Nom. appears nowhere,

;

though we find w /xf-yaXe Z(v, JEsch. Sept. 824. In Homer, n-oXv? nas a few forms
on the rjSvi type, TroXeo?, iroXe'e?, etc., not to be mistaken (observe accent) for
parts of irdXts {city) also a Nom. and Ace. ttovAus and ttouAvi/,
;

2 Dual of iroAvs seems not to occur.

§38.: COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 63

Meya<;, great.

Stems fjLeya and ineyaXo.

Sing. N. fieya^;, fieydXrjy fjieya.

G. fieydXov, fi€yaXT]<i, /jLeydXov.

D. fieydXcpt fieydXy, fjbeydXo).
A. fiiyav, fieydXrjv, fieya.
V. fieya} /jLeydXrjy fjbiya.

Dvxil. N. A. V. fieydXcDf fieydXd, fieydXco.

G. D. fjLeydXoLv, fieydXacv, fieydXacv.

Plur. N. V. fjieydXoL, fieydXat, fieydXd.

G. /jieydXcov, fieydXcou, fjueydXcou.
D. /ji€ydXoL<;, fJL6ydXai<;, fieydXoL<;.
A. fjL€ydXov<;, fieydXa^;, fieydXa.
N. 1. Asimilar mixture of forms is seen in npao^, meek, and <r<os, safe, n-paos
(often »rpao?) borrows the feminine throughout from Trpav?, ela. v, also the neuter
plural ana masculine Genitive plural, o-ws is supplemented by o-dio?, which is
complete. The Homeric is o-oos or o-ij, croij, Ace. M. <r6ov, Nom. plur. o-oot, a-oa.

fl-pio?, meek. (rw(, safe.

Singula]- Singular.
N. irpao? TTpaeitt irpaov <rwo5 ando-u; a-iooL, o-ws au)Ov, (Tuv.

G. irpoov irpacia; irpaow auiou aiiia^ <ruiov.

D. npdif irpa«i<f irpacf. (TbJb) Cua 0"oio>.

A. irpaoK irpaeiav wpaoi/ <rwov and criiv (Titioiu (TUOf, adtv.

V. npM vpacia irpiov

DucU. Dual.
X.A.V irpaw
. wpaei'd npiu, <r<i>to (Tiiic. (TWIO.
G.D. wpaotv irpociaiv n-pdoif anitoiv (Tuaii/ auioij'.

Plural. Plural.
N.V. irpaoi and jrpaet? Trpacieu irpata o-wot and O-is Vmax (Toia, o-o.
G. npaiiou npaeiiitv npaitav <ru>uv (Tttxov (TMUtV.
D. and npaiari npatiait rtpaiai.
jrpaoit trtiioii (Tuai; o-uois.
A. vpdovt and irpocif irpa«ta? ITpat a <r<oovt and o-w$ o-wd? cdia, 70.

2. The epic ^i^« or <i:>9 (good) is found chiefly in Nom. and Ace. singular mas-
culine and neuter, as v^y, rfji. A Gen. «^o?, is probably by metathesis of quan-
tity for Tfiot. Traces also of a Geu. plural feminine iauiv.

§ 38. Comparison of Adjectives.

There are two modes of forming the Comparative
and Superlative.
The first or prevailing mode gives a formation
(a)
resulting in repo^, repd, repov as ending of comparative,

» SooMjpnftr as Voc. ^^a*. m

in Eur. Rhes. .^SS, but syntax U disput«d,
and ^. Sopb. O. C. 1471 others take ^MydA* (soe p. G2X
;
 ;

64 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES, [§ 38.

in TaTo<;, rarrj, rarov as ending for superlative. These

are affixed to the simple stem of the masculine with
some euphonic changes.
In o-stems with penult syllable long,^ simply add
1.
Tepo<iand TaTo<; to the stem, but if penult is short, raise
the o of the stem to o).-

Kov(f)o<;, light (stem Kov(f)6), Kovt^oTepo^;, Kov^oTaro';.

6p06<;, just (stem opdo), opdoTepo^;, opOoTaro^;.
opdio^iy steep (stem opdlo), opOtcjrepof;, opdidiTaro^.
ao(f>6'i, wise (stem Gb(f>o), o-ocfxoTepo^;, o-o(j)a)TaTo<i.

N. 1. Ktyoi and <rrtv6^ generally retain oTepos, etc., from the influence of
the Ionic oreu'os and «n'6«. Epic poets lengthen or shorten the vowel as
suits" the metre, hence in Homer Aapos, sweet, XdpwTtpo? olfos ; oi^iipos, sad,
WTCpOf.
2. ^Mien a mute and a liquid allow the quantity of the penult to be comnum,
simple adjectives take o, compound adjectives usually u>.

irvKvoi, thick. OT<pos, etc. fivo-jror/xo?, illfated, Ev<nrortLu)rtpoi.

itiKp6<:, sharp, orepo?, etc. tv7tKvo<:, happy in children, fvreKvuTtpo^.
Contracts in «os first compare and then contract. irop</>up«o?, (ewrepos =)
3.
u>Ttpoi, etc., purple.Contracts in oo^ first contract and then compare, {arrkoos
—) dn-AoOs, aiT\ovaTtpoi, etc. (probably for owAo + «'a-T«pos), timple. Yet such
forms occur as *vnvouTtpot, evxpowrcpot.

Similarly in adjectives, not in o-stems, et? drops c

2.
ap, a?, ?;?, u? add repo^; and raTo^ to the simple masc.

stem, and those in tjp, cov insert a strengthening syllable

€9 betwixt stem and these endings.

et? 'xapieL^, graceful (stem 'xapiem), 'xcLpUcnepo^;}

ap fid/cap, happy (stem /xa/cap), /na/cdpTepo^;.

a? /jLeXa<;, black (stem fjueXav), /xekdvT6po<i.
T)^ (eo?) da(j)a\7]<;, safe (stem acrc^aXe?), dcrtfyaXearepo^.
1^9 evpv<ii broad (stem eL'pf), evpvT6po<i.

7]v Teprjv, tender (stem repei/), repeveaTcpo^.

Q)v au)<l^poov, prudent (stem (T03<f)pov), <rco<ppove<Trepo<i

1 The vowel may be short in itself, yet made long by position, as « in

ia6\6i ; therefore -orepos
The lengthening into
2 is by a rhythmical law (favoured by Epic metre),
ij

so as to avoid an accumulation of short syllables. C^'. inj'ra in Attic Bedupli-

cation.
3 Properly xopK''''''-'»'*po5, whence by § 7, 5, xap«o-«po«- (Some explain
it as under direct analogy to such as d<r^aA>};.) roAfi^et$, bold, contracts into
TOAflljO-TaTOS.
 — .

§ 39.] COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 65

N. viotv, fat, forms only in orepo?, as wioTepoj, etc., and so occasionally

ivikri<rnu>v, oblivious ; ec»c6?, likely, has tiKorepov ; compounds of x^pis in -itw-
T«po?, as eiri'xapis, agreeable, ejrixaptTWTepos. ireVijs, poor, though with sten
irenrr, forms iTfvtaTepoi.

In the second and rarer but older form of com-

(/3)
parison, the Comparative is in icov, teovy lov ; the Super-
lative is in tcTTo?, 7}y ov}
These terminations are added to the root-form as it
appears in its oldest Grecian shape. ^
In prose, this form is chiefly confined to two (other-
wise regular adjectives) in v<; (all the rest in 1^9 having
uTepo9, etc., under § 38 (a) 2, above).

iJSu?, sweet, Comp. '^Sicov, Super. tjSktto';,

Tdx^^> pwift {Td)(^icov =) 6d(TaQ)v, new Attic OarTcoPy

Ta;^tcrT09.

In some Comparatives in uoi/, the i (originally y) with a pre-

ceding guttural (<, 7, x)i or dental (r, ^), is changed into aa or
C.' C/.§9,2,3.
{(\axio>v =) «Xa<rcra)j/. {Kpcrioiv =) Kpeiaaav. raxiav =) ddaaiov.^
(f^KtW =) i)(T<T(av. (jJLeyicoi/ =) fiei^av.

Similarly Xo-o-oi/ (for ciyxiov § 41, n. 1), nearer^ and /xaXXov

(for /ioXiov, of which traces occur, more, i.e., meliusy
from /ioXa, much).
In some of these comparatives there occurs a lengthening
of the stem syllable, as in fiaWov, though from fiaka. The t in
fjLfiCav and Kpfla-aoiv, is unexpected, perhaps produced by analogy
to x^^P^^ i hut the Ionic fieCwVf KpiKratov are regular.

§ 39. Special or Peculiar Comparisons.

These arise chiefly from alterations in the stem of the positive,

or the assumption of new stems, as from double comparison.
1. Some adjectives in os form in tW, torop, attached direct to
their root, and so assume a form as if from cognate substantives.

1 imv hM
1 long in Attic ; this i la short in Epic and Doric, like the tor of

the Latin oompftnttive.

s Hence Henu need to be divested of their end-vowels and other accretions,
before we reach the basis of the root-form for forming the comparative in iuv.
s ^arises, when y is in root, ad in i^iya^. whence y^i^Mv : ^Aivot, wh. oAi'^wf
(No example of a dental root ending in I, although tcptivvutv and (I)or.) pdavt^v
are from roots containing r, 9. ppdvctnv is a c«mp. of /Spaxvf (short) rather
than of fifitivs (slow).
4 For the change of r into 0, see f 7, 4. note.

5
66 COMPABISON OF ADJECTIVES. [§39.
—
N.B. The apparent resemblance to the cognate substantive
results from the dropping of the j/, p, X, which form the charac-
teristic part of the aajective suffix. koKos is the only one in
which this explanation does not hold. The antepenult in the —
superlative of each is long, but a special lengthening takes place
in two, KoXXtaTos and fifjKioTos.

ta" R. affixed implies that the adjective may also be regiUarly compared.
oXyf £j/dy, distressing, aXyiooj/, nXytoTOff ; ak-^o^^ toy, to, sorrow.
alaxpos, base, ato-;(icoj/, ala-yioTos ; alaxosy eos, to, shame.
fx6p6s, hostile {inimi-
cus), 6^^*°^°^ > ^X^°^> f°^> """Oj hatred.
€xOi<op,
/eaXd?,^ beautiful, KakXiav, koXKkttos ; <aXXos, cos, to, beauty.
K(p8a\4os, gainful, R., Kepbiotv, Kipdiaros ; Kepdos, fos, to, gain.
KvBpos, Kv8d\ip.os, glo-
rious, (Epic, chiefly), Kvbiov, kv8i(ttos ; kv8os, (os, rd, glory.
IxaKpoi, long, tall, R., fidaaoiv, fxriKiaTos p^^Kos, fos, to, length.
',

olicrpos, pitiable, R, olktiotos ; oiktos, ov, 6, pity.

v\/rT;Xdy, lofty, R., vyjricov, vyjricrTOs ; {J>//oj, eos, to, height.

2. These drop o of stem and have + aiTcpos + aiTaTos.^

Four in atos.^ cv8t-os, sunny,
y€pai-6s, old. ja-vx-os, quiet, R.
7raXat-d?, ancient, R. ifii-os, private, R.
TTcpai-of, beyond. ta-os, equal,
(TxoXal-or, idle, R. H€(T-OS, middle. .

opdpi-os, early. nkriai-osj nigh.

oyjn'Os, late. 7rpQ)i-os, early.
(f)IX-os, dear.

So one in av, triTT-aiv, ripe, ireiral-Tepos, TrcnaiTaTos.

3. These have 4- caTepos + ea-TaTos.

atSoI-off, modest, R. a<l)Oov-os, ungrudging, R.
uKpdT-oSf unmixed. eppayptv-os, Stout.
afiop(fi-os, misshapen, R. o^i-os, late.
dvidp-6s, sad, R. anovbai-os, busy, R.
(inov-os, toilless, R. vyirjp-osj sound, R.

1 But the compound (fnKoKoXot has, on the later mode, <^iAo(caAu)Tepo«.

2 Based not on stem but on locative or dative /em. case. Cf. /LtvxoiVaTos from
locative masc.
3 But apxaios, pe'^aios, Sucoioc foUow the Ordinary rule, -6t«pos, etc. For
<Tjrov6aios, see 3 iryfra.
§ 39.] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 67

4. These have + larepos + KrTaros.

^

aXaCavj 6v-oSi impudent, R. \dyv-0Sj lustful.

apira$, ory-or, rapacious. Xtik-os, talkative.
^\d$, UK-OS, dull. oyjrocfydy-osj epicure.
K\(7rT-T]s, thief. 7rT(ox-6s, poor, B.

5. With various or peculiar stems.

"dfifiuoiv.
(apeicoi/, Ep.). 8pi(rros.
/SeXri'coi/. ^eXricTTOs.
((SArtpos-, Ep. ^fXritros, Ep.)
dya06s, good. ^ KpflaauiVy Kpeirrcov. KpartoTos.
(Ion. Kpiacroav, Dor. Kappcav) {KapTiaTOs, Ep.).
I

Xcuo)]/ {XcoiTcpos, Ep.). Xcpo-Toy.

I {(pfprcposj Poet.). <l>4pTaTos, (fytpiaros.
[_ {(f)(pTi(TTOS, Ep.).
CKOKioiv (KaKcorepoff, Ep.). KaKtoros".
MKOSy bad. < x^ipoiv. ;(eiptoToy.

(^ (;(f peiW, x^P^'^oT^po^i x^'-P^^P^^i Ep.).

p.(yasj great. p-ei^cov (Ionic pe^cop). peyia-ros.
piKpos, small, R. ('Aacrcroji/, eXarrcoi/. eXdxtarTos.
(0\dAtt.(TpiKp6s)-< T]<T(ra)v, fjTTav (Ion. ea-acov). (TJKtaTOs)Ady. rJKiara.
oXtyof, few, little, (^/iei'coj/, vTr-o\i^a)v (oXft^-). oXiytcrros'.
j'c'of, new, R. vearos (latest).
TToXvf, much, many. TrXficoi/j^ nXfcov. ttXcIo-tos.
(as if from a stem nXe-).
Neut nXfov, also nXeh (i.e. abbrev. of nXeiov, adv.).
pa^diosj* easy. pacoi/. paa-ros.

<PikoSf dear. 1. (piXTepos. <^iXraros (common).

2. (piXairepos. <jf)iXairaros (frequent).
3. (piXiKov (rare). (piXiaros (doubtful).
N. 1. —dyado? and are very rarely found with the compar. and superl.
<>i'Aos
in .wrtpof and -wraTo?. a-yaflo« (apparently with euphonic prenx as in ao-xTjp,
ttar) seema to contain the same root as the Germ, ;/u^ and our good, afjitiviov,
akin probably to Latin nulior. apiaro^ =
mnxt suitable, from stem op suit : =
in oUler derivation, most martial, from 'Aprj?, Mars. /3eATiwi/,< etc., are doubtful,
probably from fiovKofiai or /SoAo^ai, wuA (<y'. 60«A6c and o/3oAd«), TTiore desirable.
KfMivKTiav, etc., from (tper- byform of icporvs, Ep. strong, or Kparot, «o?, to,
strength : Kt^mv^ from Aa», for Aa*>, Doric, irwA, more desirable ; Auoro?, Tno«< (Z€*ir-
a«»^ (= nj>-timus, from Hame root as op-to.); ff>tpi<rTOi, most tennceable or produc-
tiPCf from ^«'pM in ita Mnse of bear, prodvxe.

1 Double oomp*r. = skt -jans + tara, <if- L. xainister, sinu^er.

* wknirtpoi ss fuller, is from
Epic wAcio?, /u«.
irA«o?,
* J in Af ttof. Epic pi7{<io« belongs to suffix, the original stem being [pa-io-t].
Hence Epic adverbs, without i, as pda, pta = easily.
4 r in f^Krimv, etc, hai crept into stem, from /S^Arcpoc.

> Cortioi takes from Aaf (gain), whence Zavema, etc

 :

68 COMPABISON OF ADVERBS. [§ 40, 41.

2. x«(po}v based on Ep. xeprji, »jos, inferior, perhaps from xeip, ftand, <j/". hand-
maid (q/'. x«tp<>w)-
3. ekaa-auv, from the rare eAaxvs (only Epic) (=
L. levis, i.e., leg-vit), tmall.
i^a-aiov (from same stem as ijxa, gently ; some identify with Lat. itquior), usually
weaker, hence it is assigned by some to (toxos.
4. Substantives and even pronouns sometimes develop comparatives and
superlatives. Cf. Kkenrrj^ above in § 4 ; ^aolAeus, king, -evrepo?, a greater king,
-evTaro? ; kvidv, dog: KvvTfpoi, Kx/VTaroi, 77ioreand most iiniyudent. auros, meaning
ipse, has avToraTos (comic), as in ipsissima verba. So /uioj'wTaTo?, from jadco;
Xoiodos =
{a$t, is by some taken as Superl. from Xoin-of.

§ 40. Defective and Redundant Comparison.

In these the positive is wanting, though the root is traceable
in a kindred adverb or preposition, etc.
{ayxov^ near.) ayxortpos^ nearer, ayxtaros and ayxorrarov.
(livcoj up.) dvcjTepos, Upper, duayTaros.
(e|to, on the outside.) c^arfposy outer, e^uraror.
(e|, prep, out.) taxaros^ utmost.
(rjpffuij quietly.) rjpffifOTfposy more quiet, TjpffieaTaros.
(*cdro), down.) KaroiTepoSy lower, KaTotraTos.
(oTrto-^f , omaatf behind.) umorepos, later (rare), oma-Taros (Epic).
{npoj before.) irparcposf former, Trpwroy, first.
{wpovpyov, serviceably.) Trpoupyiatrepoy, more useful, TrpovpyiatVaros.
(vTTe'p, prep, above.) lirfprepos, higher, vTre praros, vTraros.
Out', old prefix, up.) vcrreposj^ later, vototos, last (a- for t, as in
§ 6, 5).

N. 1. There is also a mode of comparison by means of ^JAAov, more, ttakKxra,

mott, as fii^Xos, plain, £17X0$ /xaXAof, etc.
2. Double comparatives and superlatives are, such as p^eiporepos worser, =
from xeipuv, worse, so neioTtpo^ ; cf. ao-aorepw, adv. ; /rpwTKTTOs, .first of all,
from TrpcJTos ; eaxaTwrepo?, extreme of all, from eoxaTos. So ftdXAoi' is added to
what is already comparative, as oiptTutTepov naXkov.

§ 41. Comparison of Adverbs.

1. The positive of a regular adverb may be reached
by changing cov of the Gen. plur. of the corresponding
adjective into ft)?.^

KB. —The neuter Ace. sing, or plur. sometimes serves

as adverb, whence ev, iroXi) and nroXkd, jjieya, etc. Cf.
also Homeric adverbs like o-d(j>d.^

1 KUhner retains the old derivation from viro.

2 As to the genesis of this w?, see § 2T.

s a or a in some ancient adverbial forms is by some taken as relic of an In-
strumental case, as in raxa, and, irdvrri, etc.
 —

§ 41.] COMPAKISON OF ADVERBS. 69

2. The comparative of an adverb is the Ace. sing,

neut. of comparative of adjective.^

3. The superlative of an adverb is the Ace. plural

neut. of superlative of adjective.
Sup. Comp.
ao<f)co<; (,~i>^^)f wisely. -raTa.
ao<f>wTepov
<Ta(j)co<; {-4>V^)f clearly. aac^ea-repov
-rara.
aa)<f)p6vci)<i {-pcop), prudently, awtfipovearepov -rara.
Xapt€irrco<; (-tet?), gracefully, ^^apteorrepo^' -raTa.
Ttt-^ect)? (-^?)> quickly. Odcro-ovOTdaTTOVjTd^La-Ta.

nafjL6Lvov aptara,
ev (adverb to dya- fieknov ^ekTLara.
d6<;, good), well. Kpet(T(Tov Kp&TLara.
XSov Xcoara.
I KuKLov KaKcara.
KaKco<;, badly, {
IX^''P°^ ;;^eiptcrTa.
/fa\w9, beautifully. koXXlov KaXXtara.
fiaXUy much. /xdWou /jLaXtara.

fxeya and fieydX(o<;, greatly. /jLel^ov, -01/0)9, fieyLO-ra.

oyfre, late (Lat. sero.). oyjn-aLrepov -alrara.
irpwi't early. irpayL-alrepov -alrara.
TToXv, much. irXeov, Att. irXelv irXetara.
770 WaACt9, often. irXeovaKL'; irXeiardKif;.
paBuo(;, easily. paov paara.
aafLtvitt^, gladly, has SaperL aa-fuvaiTaTa and aa-ntviaraTa.

N. 1. Prepositional and primitive adverbs compare in Ttpa

and rdru).
avci), up. avbiTipuiy avfjUToroi. Of, dnartpoif -raro).
fKas, far. f<aoT<pa), (KaardTa.
So f^oi), without, eo-o), within, /cdrw dowTi.
cvdov, within. (i/dorepa>, So rrjXov (St, rrjXo) far
cj/5orar<a.
away.
ayxovf near, has iaaov {daaoTipat^ a Double Comp., Epic).
dyxoTOTUi and ayxiOTa.

tyyvsj near, has three forms :

tyyvTtpa>t fyyirrarw ; ('yyvrtpoPy tyyvTara ; cyyioi/, fyytora.

1 Tmoea alto of oompar. In «^, aa x<^«<n»T«'p«iK, Tbuc. IL 60, i\aa<r6vmt, etc

 —

70 NUMERALS. L§42.
2. Adverbs are also formed occasionally from Participles, 8ia-
(jiepovTois, XeXrjOoTcos, reTayficVwy, but mthout comparison except
by fiaWoPf etc.

§ 42. Numerals
Have an affinity partly to the adjective, partly to the
pronoun. They are either definite or indefinite. The
definite numerals are either cardinal or ordinal. The
leading cardinals, from irevre five, to eKarov hundred,
are indeclinable.^ All the otlier cardinals are declinable,
and all the ordinals are adjectives, declinable mainly in
the singular number.
The first four are thus declined :

One. Two.
Attic. Ionic.

N. eh fiid ev. hvo (of all genders) Bvo).

G. kvofi fjLLd<{ kvo^. hvolv (Bvelv, fern.) Bva)v.
D. hi fiid kvL SvOLl^ hvolai
A. eva fJLldv ev. Bvo hv(D.

Three. Four.

N. Tpet? T/oel? rpicL Tecr(Tape<; reaaape^ reaaapa.

G. TplSiV TpLOiV TpiWV. reaadpwv reacrdpcov.
recradpcov
D. TpLai Tptai rptai. reaaapai reaaapai reaaapat}
A. Tpeh Tp6L^ Tpld. riaaapa^i r€aaapa<; reaaapa.

Like e?9 decline ovhei^ and firjSel^iy no one, as ouSei?,

ovSefjbia, ovhev, G. ovB€p,Ld<i, ouSei'o?, etc. These are not
confined to the singular. Plur. N. ovBeve^, etc.
Like Bi)o, decline N. A. (tco, rd, rco) dfKpco, G. D.
dfjL(f)o2v, both, ambo.

By-form aft^orepot, at, a, chiefly in the plural, except that

a/i^orepoi/ is in use as an adverb. {s^P" dva> (less clearly 8vo),

0/100) and ofcTo) are properly dital forms.

N. 1. The first numeral used to be explained as jxeis, fila, fiiv,
whence might come fxrjv, month or unit ot the year, /xcj/, the par-
ticle = on the one hand, in the first j)lace, and so fih and fieis
(stem fifv) would stand to fxovos as our one to only. But it is
1 Yet, traces of inflection in iEolic, <;r: § 2S, /3.

2 Epic T€Tpo<ru
§ 42.] NUMERALS. 71

best explained as from a root s{a)my whence the Greek form = ifi
and iv (c/. sem of semel ), so that ev + s =
els, and fi of fiia is from

€fua for samia or ^T/iia, so that j/ of fVor and fi of /xi'a are really
the same. Traces of sam occur in AirXoos, dna^, and a^ia, com-
pare simplex, seritel, and smul ; so that ana is from same stem as
simul, cf. e| = sex, (irrd = septem. {Of. § 9, 1.) From a different
stem comes the Epic ta, l^s, Ifi, lav, one, always fem. except tw.
2. There are non-Attic plural forms to bvo, viz., G. bvSiv, D.
duo-t. Sometimes bvo and a/x^o) are treated as indeclinable, bvolv
may be a monosyllable. Svelv is now doubted in good Attic.
3. The ordinals, as expressing severally the highest of a given
series, are, generally, abridged superlatives in form (cf. -imus, -tus
in Latin ordinals), except devrepos comparat. They are accented
on the last syllable, from eiKoa-Tos, twentieth, onward.
4. A
cardinal number may appear in the singular, if joined to
a collective noun, as da-irls fivpia /cat rcrpaKoa-ia (Xen. An. I.
7, 10), a body of 10,400 men-at-arms. Compare in English, a
hundred horse.
5. In the intermediate numerals, if Kal (and) is put in, the
smaller number usually precedes, as, e| koI cXkoo-i, but eiKocnv e^.
6. The twenty-four letters, distinguished by a stroke above,
represent, with the help of three obsolete letters (as to which,
see Introduction), the nine units, the nine tens and the nine
hundreds. To express numbers above 999, they commenced the
series again, writing a stroke helow for thousands, as Qt'ovd = 1851,
afi)7fe = 1885 [chiefly in MSSl.
7. Another notation was by the leading numbers,
initials of
1 = I (perhaps initial of la, orie), 2 = II, etc.,
5 = n (IlfVTf), 10 =
A (AfKa), 100 = H {HeKorov, old way of writing eKarov), 1000 = X
(XtXtoi), 10,000 = (Mvptot).M n, i.e., irevraKis, placed crver these
numerals, signified Jive times as many, as f^ = 50, [h] = 500,
|X] = 5000, etc. [chiefly in inscriptions].
8. In the higher grades of a series, it was sometimes found
easier to express the sum by subtraction, rather than addition.
Hence for ' eighteen,' * nineteen,' it is common to find '
twenty
wanting two' or one,' as vfjfs bvelv or fiias Beovaai ftKoai, i.e. 18
'

or 19 ships. Similarly for 28, 29, etc., counting dovm from next
decimal. Compare tne Latin duodeviginti, etc. 19th (year) =
iv6s tiov tiKooTov (tTOi), Thuc.
9. Half is tjfuavs, fta, v. To express a half after a whole
number, substantives compounded with fnxi- were used, as rpirov
rjfu-TaXatrrov = 2^ talents, (lit.) the third item being a half-
talent (cf. sestertius), Hraprop f]ni-TuKavTop = 3i talents, etc.
10. tUoai may be
originally a feminine abstract (like tvoais)
petrified in its singular stem, or a relic of a dual neuter, of which
traces in Skt. The other words for the tens are petrified neuter
plurals {-Kovra). At the end of the tens conies an abstract neuter
in ov, viz., Uarov (cf. -urn of Latin cen-tum).
 NUMEBALS. [§42.

Ca +3 o 5 I ^-^ u oo
' t- 9

2-1 •C
At
2-^
TfOOt^QOOSOOOOOQQ
^ Ol « -^ O O Q

^ s
». y o o

o »
C3 "

11
v£ «o
II
*c ''o i. t- b v;i -<». <<5 «-S

p t-

el-
's i-K
® *" ^•
c «-b b 3
-^ £ S 2 .V rfe
B O

3-^ b P - B = 3 C
2 2
I ^ ^

>8^^?Oo'w\5o,>c.^.-^V^ ^ ^:sW5'^-«^5
1—ll-ll—ll-H f-H p-4rHp^i-Hi-H>»(M
 §42.] NUMERALS. 73

s ^ .
Si
o S

is?
1+3 *s -7^.^

^H CO .^ S-l O ^
55
-S^i^.
_ B :-if? -s
9
^ C ° S «" S .§1-1
" o °
PL.
S «\2
Q_ v:
"«"
O
fe K o J? r*
• 2 a^
aj
^2
^a t-
s
r»
s
b ,2 §
,o Q.t2 a r^
&^~g.rgl-J
2 ^ ? S
t-H «0 I. <SO

(N eo o

II

li^
ii
>< a.

lis
*0 *0 Ca

o o b

m II
, 5"

b^s « s b ?felO b K
t?
o "
o
II iir?-ife^^
- ^b-
Peg. b b w b o o b b/<
o S
a o o « -* O o -* a
P * Jt^ V
•O
b b
»-
S C"*^ ''o i >c3 iS C/< b _ ^
•O -* -w «0 X*o
^5 .H'TSctf

S S
-• o 2 s s

> "4.** V**o 'b 0"^*b V -3 VxV'3 ^ e.<^ *, -, X, s^ «^

S$S8^SS8
-"'f'»'2'Sg'8""i
74 pronouns. [§ 43, 44.

§ 43. Indefinite Numerals and Distributive

Pronouns.

n/i^ci), N. A. (G. and D., d/x^oTi/), both, "^

each of two taken together, )^^
^'
dfjL(f)6T€post d, 01/,

iKarepos, a, oPy each of two (taken separately) (a compar.),

uterque.
€KaaTos, T), 01/, each (of more than two) (a super!.), quisque or
ginguli.
€T(pos, a, ov, the other of two, alter. 6 erfpos becomes arepos
(cf. § 8, 3, n. 2).

aWos, Tj, o, other (of three or more), = cdiuSj ol aXXot = ceteri.

nas, naa-a, -nav^ all, the whole, every.

TToXvy, TToXXij, TToXv, much, many a. PL many.
oXtyof, -q, oi/, navpos, a, oi/, little. PI. few.
TTOTfpos, a, ovy which of the two ? Uter (i.e., cuter, cf. Ionic
KiSrrepos).

Tiff, Ti'y, rt, which (of more than two) ? Quis.

(rtff, ris, rt, any, some, after et, etc., like quis after si, ne, num.)
ovdeis, ovdffiia, ovbev, no one, nemo,
ovdirepos, a, oj/, neither, 7i€wicr.
fiijdfTfposj a, OJ/, let neither, (if) neither, n€ it^er.

fiTjdfis, fir)8fixia, p.r)hiv, let no one, (if) neither, ne g'wis.

cvtot, ai, a, eOTiv oi, a?, a, some, nonnulli.

Note. —Of the poetic ot^riy, ^17x1?, na one, only the neut. ovn,
pLT]Ti is used in prose not at all.= oidflsy pjiBels late forms.

§ 44 Pronouns

Are either substantive or adjective. The former are chiefly the

personal and reflexive pronouns, the latter the possessives and
demonstratives.

Personal Pronouns.
The personal pronouns proper, of which there are
three, are remarkable as being without sign of gender.
§44.] PRONOUNS. 75

Pronoun of Self
Singular.
or Samenesp.
Ist Person. id Pers. 3rd Person. 1st,2nd, or 3rd
(Reflexive.) Person.
Ego. Tu. Sui. Ipse and Is.

N. eyo) avTOS -Tj

G. (fJiOV, ^/iOV aov *(oJ),2of himorher avTov -TJs -ov.

D. avr«5 -TJ -0).
A. ffie, */ie *(e) avTou -r}v -d.

Dual.
N. A. I/O) ((T(t>a)€ only in Ace.) avTO) -a
G. D. v<ov a(f>Sv (<r^<»li/) avTOLV -aiv -Oil/.

N. f)fi(lS VfJicls acpe'is (neut. a<Pea) avToi -ai -a.

G. avTcov -S>v -0)J/.

D. Vfllv (r(f)i(n avTols -als -oTs'.

A. rifias Vfxds a-cfias (neut. (r<pea) avrovs -as -a.

—
N.B. The forms within parenthesis hardly occur (ex-
cept ov, € in Plato) within Attic prose. Those with an
asterisk are, in accent, Enclitic.

N. 1. airros (unaccompanied by the article) when it stands in

the Nominative or when it has a noun in apposition, answers in
meaning to the Latin Ipse; when it stands in any other case than
the Nom., has no noun in apposition, and does not open a clause
or sentence, it answers in meaning to the Latin 7s. Thus avrbs
f<brf =
IjJSe dixit, avrol (<f)au€v =
Ipsi diximus ; avrov ^aaiXea
(idov =
Ipsum regem vidi ; but tlbov avrov Eum vid% ^aaiXta =
avroiv fidov = —
Regem eorum vidi. Hence the English pronoun He
is thus represented in the singular Nom. ovros or o5f or (Kdvos:
;

G. airrov D. airr^ A. avrov, or in Attic poetry viv.

; ;

2. On avrirroTos, cf. § 39, n. 4. Traces of a duplication, aCrav-

Tos = Lat. ipsipsus.
3. 6 avr OS = Idem, the same. Where the article ends with a
vowel, crasis (§ 8, 3) may occur.

i Aiso Vocative.
s Generally reflexive, 'of himaelf, herself'.
$ y...^ .,,„g
In ^
iijjg neuter in o, aAXo?. avT<J?, 5c, oCto«, iKtlvttt. The
atMM : r'linary p connectA ititelf with tlio preHonco, in the same pro-
noon iiffues, of a dental, e.'i., <i in I^tin intu/, aliu<i =
£AAo (3 sur-
iviuni III .i/,/v.-„-airo«, wi)i-aw6t), but a dental could not close a Greek word. But
mitrit And oirot admit v in compoHition, as in 6 avrov, neut. ravT6y and ravT6 ;
rewvTOf, neut. roo'ovroi' and ro<rovro.
76 PKONOUNS. [§44.
[§

Singular.
N. 6 avTos or rj avrf] or t6 avTo or
avTos aVTTJ TavT6{v) [seldom -d],
G. ravTOv TTJS avrrjs TaVTOV.
D. ravra ravTTJ ravra.
A TOP avTou rfjv avTTju ravToiv).

Plural.
N. avToi or 01 avToij etc., avrai ravrd.
G. TOiv avrSiVy etc.
D. Totf avTois Tois avrais to7s avrois*
A. Tovs avTovs ras avrds ravrd.

Dual.
N.A. rauTui ratra raxrra). G. D. TOLV avToiv, raiv avraiv,
roiv avrolv.

Obs. 1. The loxic dialect presents varieties in the inflection of these pro-
nouns. The following scheme exhibits the forms common to both forms of the
Ionic, those within parenthesis being peculiar to the older or Homeric (which
also admits some .£olic forms), and not appearing in the new Ionic of Hero-
dotus.

Sing. N.
G.l ifttVj from ifi-io, /xev weto, artv (to) tv.
(ifit io, ifiiOtv) (<r«Io, <re9€v) (<to, i0ev).
D. CM-oi, fioi (rot, Tot (rttv) ot (eoi).
A. c/ie, fit
Dual. N. A. (vu>L, v<o) (Acc. o-i^cDe) (not in Nom.)
G. D. (I'iti') {^<r<f>o>'ii>, <r<f><Sv) (<r<f>(otv).
Plur. N. ^AW'5 (ofjifJiei) VfitU (v{i(x«?)
G. TJ/lCWf (^/Ul«lWI') vfj.to)V (vfneiotv) a4>eo}v (<r4>tt<t)v).
D. ijtilv (au/uii) v/xii/ (vfjLfju.) a-<f>C(Ti, (T^iiv),
A. rifJLtai (aMM«) Vfxtaf (vfjifjLt) <r<f>ea^, o-(/>af ayfit. ,

2. In Doric, the most important variations are ifiCv (= «moO. K- «/«'?.

kfjiiiav, ap.iv, afj.t. tv for <rv, G. t«'o, rev?, rev, reov, D. TtV, A. re, tv ; PI. N.
vfiti, A. v/ie. In oC, traces of iv as Dative, viV as Acc. sing, and plural, also
Acc. plural »/>< for iT<f>e. Cobet gives i as Nom. to o5.
3. Two Accusative forms in the 3rd personal pronoun are remarkable : <r<t>i,
only plural and persomd (i.e. masc. and fem,) in Homer, is used by the Trage-
dians as both sing, and plur. ; and similarly the Tragedians use the Doric vtf
as Acc. both sing, and plur., and neuter as well as masc. and fem., while the
Ionic is fjLiv, him, her, it (neut. Hdt. 7. 143), but /nn' is not clearly plural until the
Alexandrine age. On probable origin of ftiv, vtv, cf. § 26, 1, 4.
4. Some poets and especially Sophocles adopt ^tuv or ityiiv, ifj.iv or v/iiV, as
well as TjiLLii' and vfiXv.

5. In oi. the Greek has developed dual and plural forms apart from the
singular, whereas in Latin and German, the singular and plural are in this
pronoun denoted by the same form.
6. With dual w
and tr^xa, compare Latin plurals not and vo$.
7. (a) Regarding 1st personal pronoun, note 1°, its Nom. stem stands iso-
lated, the Ego per ge. 2°, The oblique cases of the singular are based
upon U.0, passing into tie. 3°, There is no sign of the Acc. (and so
in 2na and 3rd Pers. Pronouns also). 4°, The Acc. plural contracts

1 Order of progression in these forms of Genitive wasprobablv e/x«-<Tyo (c/.

f 9, 1 p), ift-tlo, c^c'o, whence the double form entv and inov. Similarly in Qen.
of (TV and in oi.
§45, PRONOUNS. 77

(unlike iroAeis), out of ea? into a?. 5°, The ^Eolic plural o^/w? comes
nearest to Skt. plural stem asma-, being formed by assimilation, while
the Attic TJMfi? nas received hysterogenous aspiration. 6°, The forms
of singular with e are probably from influence of e of ryw, affecting a
stem originally different.

(/3) Regarding 2nd personal pronoun, note 1% av, although the prevailing
literary form and appearing in Epic, Ionic, and Attic, is not primitive,
confronted by Skt. tvam, Latin tu, and the Doric tv. (This transition
from T to <r had the effect of breaking down the partition between
2nd and 3rd pronoun forms, obscuring to a large extent the latter.)
2°, a-tft, in <t4ko of dual, is probably the descendant of tv in such as
Skt. tvam. 3°, The plural stem is in Skt. yuihma-, whence (by § 9, 2 ^)
vfifU aspirated and with v. (The origin of this form is obscure, as
the M-«is seems to belong rather to the 1st person.)
(y) The pronoun of the 3rd person seems to have for its stem <rfc, whence
are believed to have come on the one hand the forms with f, retained
as <f>, in dual and plural, and on the other the forms in the singular,
where both spirants have passed away, one (5) disappearing, the other
(<r) passing into ( ) the rough breathing.
'

§ 45. Reflexive Pronouns.

1. The three Reflexives are composed of the stems of the
personal pronouns, viz.y e/xf- tre- e-, prefixed to the oblique cases
of the definitive avros.
2. The third Reflexive differs from the others in two respects :

1st, In admitting a neuter form ; 2nd, In having an independent

and distinct plural form.

Singular.

Myself. Thyself Himself, etc.

N. (iyoj auTO? -tJ) {av avTO<; -r) (aVTO^ -7) -o).

G. ifiavTOV -r}<; aeavrov -r}? eavTov -^9 -ov.
D. i/jLavT(o -fj
aeavTw -fj
iavTM -fj -o).
A. i/JMVTOP 'TjV aeavrov 'Tjv kavTov -rjv -6.

Plural.

N. rffieif; axnol -al v/jl€l<; avrol -ai (avroi -at -a).

G. r)fi<tiv avTwv -(ov vficov avTOJV -oiv eavTcov -a)P -cov.
I). TjfjLLV avTOL<i -at? vfiLU avTol<i -al<; eavTol<i -at? -oi?.
A. fnicLft avToxx; -2^? u/^a? avroix; -a? eavroix; -a? -a.

N, I. The two last often throw out aavroO, iavrov

«, <T«a«»ToO =
avTOV, etc. =
itatnv, aqwcUlly in iUi plural parts, U
w.metimes used as a general Reflexive
SB •elf generally, where we should expect ifjMvrov or o-«avTow.

2.In Homer, the componentH of the Reflexives have not yet coalesced, hut
tMid •eparRt«, &
«rol avrif = later aavrti. So in Attic, <r6itv airi>y, etc., occurs
for «avTMi' in the plural
8. In the new Ionic, mv appean in tbeie reflexiTm, tut ifuuvrov, etc.
78 pronouns. [§ 46-8.

§ 46. Eeciprocal.
The Reciprocal pronoun (wanting in Latin) is used in the
case of MUTUAL action, and answers to the English expression
one another. From the nature of the relation it can have no
nominative and no singular.

Diuil. Plural.
G. D. aXKrfKoLV -oiv (aiv) -olv. G. aWi)\wv -cop -cov.

A. aXXrjXo)- -co (a) -co. D. a\\7]\oL<; -at? -0^9.

A. dWyjXovi -a? -d.
Fern, in dual often merged in masc., cf. § 12, 3.

§ 47. Possessive Pronominals.

There are six Possessives formed from the personal pronouns,

and regularly declined like adjectives in os. {fffifTepos has Voc.
Masc. in e, but e/xos has tfios cf. meus in Voc.) ;

From (fif- e'fios c/i'7 ff^ov, my, mine.

From o-e- aos err) aov, thy, thine.
(From €- €05 or os rj ov (Epic) his own, her own, its own.)
From ^fifU, rj/ifrepos -d -ovt our, ours.
From v/ifir, vfitrfpos -a -ov, your, yours.
From (T(f)('isy (T(f>(Tcpos -a -ov, their, theirs.

Obs. 1. eo? or OS (= «!n<« in origin and meaning) is not found in Attic prose,
where it has to be supplied chiefly by avroO-i^s-oO, if answering to Latin eixis, or
by tavTov, if answering to Latin suiu. Both ed? and <r0<'T«pos occur as = oicn,
applicable to aiu/ person, 1st or 2nd, as well as 3rd.
2. Short poetic forms for the three last are a/u-os (prop, nosier, but used also
for meus), vfids, <t^6<:. Homer has possessives answering to the dual, vuiUtpoi,
and iT<i>Mtrtpo<;. Ttds is Doric for ao^.
3. Remark the comparative suflBx repos appearing in those possessives which
indicate possession by two or more.

§ 48. Demonstratives.
N B.— For Definite Article (§ 12) which is originally a demonstrative
pronoun, see § 12.

The chief Demonstratives are three, one that, or =

THAT OTHER, iKetvo<;, of what is more distant, and two
= THIS, of what is more near in space or time, viz., oBe,
'
this which is going to be mentioned,' the folloioing
(prospective demonstrative) and ouro?, this which we ;
'

have mentioned,' the foresaid (retrospective demon-

strative).
§48.] PRONOUNS. 79

iKelvo^, -7}, -o (in poetry and Ionic /celvo^;)} is regular,

except that its neuter in N. and A. is eKelvo.

N.B. —Of these three Demonstratives, oSe answers usually to

On the stage, o5e frequently =^
hic^ ovTos to iste^ eKctpos to ille.
eyo), OVTOS to av. At the bar, ode often stands for my client^
OVTOS for my opponent.

oBcy rjSe» ToSe is declined like the article with -Se

appended. See § 12.
0VT09 follows the article in its variations, opening
with T or a rough breathing, where the article does so,
and, like it, having only one form in the Gen. plur. in
all genders, and one form through each case of the dual
in common use in Attic.

Observe, ov prevails in the first syllable through-

out the neuter with o or to predominating in end-syllable,
but, in Nom. and Ace. pi., where a is in end-syllable,
av appears, as Tavra.

Singular. Plural.
N. OVTO^ aVTT) TOVTO ovTOt avTat TaVTU.
G. Tovrov ravTrj^ tovtov TOUTCOV TOVTWV TOVTCOU.
D. TOVr^ TaVTT) TOVTO) T0VT0(,<; TavTaL<i tovtol<;
A. TOVTOV TaVTTJU TOVTO TOVTov<; TavTd<; TavTa.

Dual.
N. A. TOVTO) TovTw (ravTo) TOVTCO.
G. D. TovTOLv TouTOLv (javTaLv) TOVTOLV.

N. 1. So decline
ToiovTos, ToiavTTj, ToiovTo{v\^ Such (Talls), (of quality).
ToaovTos, Toa-avTT), To(roxjTo{v), Such (Tantus), {oi quantity).
TtjXlKOVTOS^ TTjXlKavTtJ,'^ Tr)\tKOVTo{v)j Such =
So old (of tt^g), OF,
80 young.

1 Doric inifot, also rifvct.

9 BMidM rotovTOf, etc., there are also Toro«, T<J<ro«, and rnXiVo? (Regular),
1(1

*\*(*y api>eHra i tht

was what kt $pote.
t NominatiT* diiffalar feminine alao rnAixoCrot— &>/>Aoc{e«.
80 PEONOUNS. [§49.
Except 1. Where ovtos opens with t, the t is, by these
pronouns, rejected.
„ 2. They prefer v in the neuter.
So decline ovroal and obi Remark, Ist, that this i demon-
2.
strative (probably same as t locative) is always long; 2nd, has
always the acute on itself 3rd, rejects a short end vowel 4th,
; ;

shortens a long vowel or diphthong before it, if no consonant

intervenes.
1. and 2. ovroai. 3. tovti ravri odi. 4. avrfjl ovroXi.

Obs. 1. Herodotus in feminine of Gen. plural (not in masculine

rovTtuiv of
and neuter) is an abnormal attempt to differentiate the feminine. auT«'wj/ from
—
OVTOS is normal, as avriuv in fem. mav arise from avriuiv. Toto-fieo-i or -«<r<ri, with
double indication of case before and after affix 5«, is Ilomeric for rola-Se.
2. rvvvoiiTOi -o or -ov = tantillus (so small), has no separate form for fem.
8. oCto? is formed by duplication of demonstrative stems o and to, much as
German die-aer (this). Like av, it has traces of a Vocative usage, without a
special form, as u o5to?, Alav, Soph.

§ 49. Interrogative, Indefinite, Relative.

I. The Interrogative is rtV (= Latin quis), with

stem TiV', and has always the acute accent upon its

first syllable.
The Indefinite pronoun is rt? t*? n= Latin aliquis,
or quis after si, ne, etc., any one. The accent of the
Indefinite is variable, being subject to the laws of
enclitics.

Interrogative. Indefinite.

Sing. N. T19 Tt9 Tl Tt9 T/9 TL.

G. t/i/09 rivo<i TLv6<^.
D. TLVL TLVL TIVL TLVL TLVL.
A. TLVa TLVa tL TLvd Tlpd TL.

Dual. N. A. rvve TLve nve TLVe TLVe TLVe.

G.D. TIVOLV TLVOLV TLVOIV TLVOLV TLVOLV TLVOLV.

Plur. N. TLve^ TtVe? TLva TLvh TLV€<i TLvd.

G. TLveov tCv(ov TIVCOV TLVCOV TLVCJV TLVCOV.
D. riat tIxtl rlat TLal TL<Tt TLai.
A. TLVa<i TtW? TLVa TLvd<i TLvd<; TLvd.

N. 1. The Attics often take tov and t6 for the Gen. and Dat.
sing, of both indefinite and interrogative, adapting the accent
 o

§ 49.] PBONOUNS. 81

accordingly ; also arra, soTne things, for the neuter plural of the
indefinite.
OBS. —In Ionic T«'o, rev for to«5 ; t«'c«» for rtS ; reuv for Tivwf ; reoicri for Ttcrt.

Another indefinite is 8(1va, quidam {Mr. so and so, to avoid

2.
naming), N. 6, 17, to Seti/a, G. SfTvoy, D. Sfii/i, A. dflva, for all
genders no dual N. pi. ol delpfs, G. beivav, D. wanting, A.
; ;

bdvas ; only masc in plur.

IL The Relative pronoun is 09, ^, o, 2^;Ao, which, or

N.B. —The
relative was at first a demonstrative used paren-
thetically. In a few stereotyped expressions, os retains its origi-
nal demonstrative sense, as in /cat os and he; ^ d* os quoth he.^ = =
Singular. Dual. Plural.
. 09 ?7 o JN.A. o) a (o N. ol at a.
G. ov r)ii ov G. D. olv alv olv G. wv (au S)v.
J), w y dt D. oI? al^ ol^.
AftOV .
rf
7]v
rt k H
A. ou? a?
tf f/
a.

The indefinite relative pronoun oarcf; (= quisquis,

whoever, and =
quis when it is an interrogative put
indef. with 5?%'.), is a compound word, with both its
parts declined.
Singular. Plural.
N. OCTTt? rfTL^ 0,TI olTiue<; aiTivef; ariva.
G. ovTivo^ rjartvo^ OVTLVO'i aypTLVcov wvtlvcou a)PTCV(ov.
D. (Ltcvi rjTivi (t)ThVL olaTLcn alariaL olarajL.
A. OVTLVa TjUTLVa 0, Tt oixTTLvwi ciarcva^ ariva.

Dual.
N. A. (OTLVe CLTLVe WTLPe.
G. 1). oluTLVOtV alvTLVOLV olvTLVOLV.
N. 1. In Attic the Gen. and Dat, are frequently &rov and orw,
oTutv and for all genders, and the neut. plur. a(Taa and cfrra
oroiff,
for &Tiva. The
Ionic sliows the same varieties as in n'r, viz.,
Srtv, etc., and aa-aa arises from 5-rta (c/. Lesbian rt'o) for ripi).
arra, for Ttva, is, by some, supposed to have arisen from such as
oXtyarra, by wrong division, as if oXiy arra, instead of 6\iya rya,

> .Some con«lcler thbi rf — mtratww i% a variety of the same stem as the article
and not iilentical with tlM ralativtt. In Skt the relative ansumee the form >cu,
different from the denonateftkiT* «, and the Greek it \m aooordingly aMumed
to have a twofold origin.
6
 82 PRONOUNS. [§50.
i.e. oXiya riva. Others take it as formed by simple prothesis of a.

{^ arra, whatever things, arra, some things.

2. Other relatives
are, of quantity, oo-os-, quantus: of quality,
oios, qualis of precision in age or size, f^XiKosy of which age : of
:

definiteness, oauep, which very one, neut orrep.

3. In Ionic the relative takes a form, sometimes adopted by

the Attic poets, N. sing, o?, rj, t6. N. plur. ol, al, rd. The rest
like the article. —
In Homer, oov, more correctly oo, and the
abnormal erj^ occur for ov, fis, and in ocrrtf (besides om, which
is relic of od-n^ cf. p. 75 fn. 3) there appear remarkable forms
OTIS, oTiva, oTivas, with case-sign indicated only in second part.

Obs.— Besides the normal relatives 5? and ootis or os rt?, Homer has, as
relatives with distinctive shades of meaning, 6, S re, and 5? t«. The last sur-
vives even in the Tragedians, and, in Prose, in such phrases as artj Sxtt*, itf>' <f re.

§ 50. Correlative Pronouns.

N.B. —Direct
interrogatives are in general characterised by
initial tt (= Ionic k ^ =
Latin qu). Prefix 6- and they become
dependent interrogatives. Remove the accent from their first
syllable, and they become indefinite, without interrogative force,
a!s ris, who ? quis ? but ei ris, siquis, if anv one.

In general, relatives open with the rough breathing. Substi-

tute T for the rough breathing, and there arises a demonstrative.

Direct Inter. Depend Interrog. Indefinite. Relative. Demonstrative.

Ti's ; (for W05.) Off-Tl?. TIS. OS (oa-Tt, 6<rnep). oStos (for Tos.)
Quigf Who? Quis (Indirect). Who. Jliquis, some. Qui, Who. Hie, Is, This.
Quicunque, Whoever.
oiroTtpot. irorepos. arepos (6 erepos)
Uter.f Which i7fer(Indir.) Which (Of Alterutfr,oneoT Alter, The one
(of two)? two). other. As above. (of two).
UUrcunqw, Whichever
(of two).
rro<ros. oirocrot. iroo-os. o<ros. (too-oOtoo-ovtos.
Quantutf Quantru (Indir.) How Aliquantus, of Quantus (as Tantus, So
How large ? large. a certain size. large) as. large.
Qtuintutcunque, How-
ever large.
iroio«. 6iro(0«. iroid$. olo?. (toios) roiovTos.
Qualis? Of Qualis (Indir.) Of what Cua^w, of a cer- QualU(Ofmch Talis, Of such
what kind? kind. tain kind. a kind) as. a kind.
QucUiscunque, Of what-
ever kmd.

N.B. —Similar series —complete in the case of tttiAucos, and partially com-
plete in irooTos and noSavoi—might also be added.

1 The interrogative base was originally »to (or ki), partially retained in Ionic,
but elsewhere becoming tto, through labialism Tne declension, however, of
'
'.

this Ko or JTO is disused in favour of (»« whence) n's, through dentalisra,' and '

the only remains of it in Greek are Ionic adverbs and derivatives, as Kort, nort ;

Kuti, 7r<is KOTfpoi, irorepos xoaos, »r6<ros ; which prove the original existence of
; ;

KOS, KTJ, k6. Cjf. § 9, 2.

 ;

§51.] VERB. 83

Interrog. Direct Indef. Interrog. Depend.

riv* fi8(s ; fj flBes Tiva ipCOTaS OVTLV flhov.
Quern vidisti ? an vidisti aliquem? Rogas qiiem viderim,
Whom did you see ? or saw you any one ? You ask whom I saw.

noaoi ioTLv 6 apros . €poiTqs onoaos eariv.

Qvantus est panis ? an est aliquantus ? Rogas quant lis sit.
How large is the loaf ? or is it of any size ? You ask how large it is
Relative. Demonstrative.
ov ei8ov, TrapcoTiv ovtos.
QxLem vidi is adest,
There is he whom I saw.

o<TOs y( x^^^ l^y ToaovTos icm. (rfifxepov.

df)

Quantus quidem heri erat, tantus est hodie.

It is cw large to-day as it was yesterday.

Correlative Pronominal Adverbs.

N.B.—Similar series, but less complete, with tt^/ios and ew?

Depend. One form in

Dii«ct Interrog., English for the
Relative. Demonstrative Adverbs,
Interrog. also three of Greek
Belative. preceding.

mv (w66i) oirov oi, ivOa Where. orcxei There.

ei/Tttu^a,
wol (jr6<n) oiroi ot Whither. tKeia-e Thither.
*60tv ow69tv 6Btv ivQtv Whence. T69tV,OT€KtlQ€V Thence.
»OTe OTTore OT« WTien. Tore Then.
nrtVLKO. oin\viKa. r\vLKa At what hour. Tt\VLKa At that time
iro<r«uc(« OTTovaictf oo-oucif How often. TocraKi^ So often.
»»? Ofl-W? w? How. (w?)l OVTW? Thus.
^ oirji a Which way. TijSe, etc. This way,
thus.

§ 51. The Verb

Is the word by pre-eminence (pfj/jLo), being necessary in
some form to the expression of any statement or voli-
tion. It is inflected by Voices, Moods, and Tenses,
which are its peculiar machinery, and these express
personaHty in its various relations by means of personal
endings, which are in the verb what the case-suffix is in
the noun, namely, a means of adapting the stem in each
to indicate relation, and so to form part of the sentence.
The other parts of the verb, viz., the Infinitive, when it
is a substantive rather than a tense, and also the Partici-
ples and Verbal Adjectives, partake of the nature of the

1 nit in Hon). Hcs. JEseh., w« (by some accented 5*%) chiefly in poetry.
84 VERB. [§ 51.

Noun and possess, more or less clearly, case-suffixes and

not personal endings.
1. There are three voices or states {Btadea6L<;) of the
verb, Active, Middle, and Passive.
The active and passive voices stand in the same relation to
each other as in Latin and English the middle, which is a
;

feature notably Hellenic, denotes a condition partly active, partly

passive (hence the middle or intermediate voice), in which the
agent acts on himselfy or toioards or for himself, so that while he
is the agent, he is also, in some sense, the siLstainer or recipient
of the action or its effects. Thus :

Act. KOTTTQ), / cut (another).

Mid. KOTTTonai. I cvi myself in
Pass. KuTTTofiaiy I am cut (by
sorrow, i.e. I mourn.
another).

2. There are five Moods ^ (eVXtVe^?), Indicative,

Conjunctive, Optative, Imperative, Infinitive.^ The
indicative expresses (or denies or questions) the objective
fact, and speaking does not express modal rela-
strictly
tion. The conjunctive and
optative are both moods of
subjective conception, or of thought coloured by wish or
will or belief, and are the true moods or modi, having
well marked modal elements. The conjunctive and op-
tative, taken together, represent for the most part the
Latin subjunctive. The other moods nearly correspond,
each to each, in the two classic tongues.
3. There is ordinarily a complement of six Tenses in
each voice, as, e.g. in the active, three presential (=
amo, amavi (have loved), amabo), and three preteritive
(= amabam, amavi (loved or did love), araaveram).
Presential. (1) Present. (2) Future. (3) Perfect.
(Called also Priwwi?'^ 7/3tt(^(w, rypdyjreo, | <y€yfjd(f)a,
I

tenses). I write.jl shall or willjl have written.

write.

PRETERmvE. (1) Imperfect. (2) Aorist. (3) Pluperffcf.

(Called also Secondary €ypd(l)ov, leypayira i^/eypdcfyrj,

or Historical tenses). I was WTiting.|l wrote. I had written.

1 Le. Modes in which a thing may be stated, declaratively, hypotheticaUy, etc.
2The infinitive in its main usages is a noun, of which it is a petrified case-
form, and it is only the eidolon of a mood, when it stands as substitute, in
oblique narration, for actual moods (Indicative and Optative). The true moods
are distinguished by the presence of personal endings.
 ;

§ 51.] INFLECTION OF VERB. 85

N. 1. This last group of tenses (the Preteritive) is distingtiished from the

former set of tenses (the Presential) by takinp;, in general, (1°) shorter per-
sonal endings, and (2°) by prefixing (or having the right to prefix) an augment
(e in the above forms) as sign of past time.
2. A future perfect (resembling the primary tenses) appears in certain verbs,
chiefly in Middle and Passive.
3. The ideal scale of tenses would be nine, three for momentary, three for
durative, three for completed action :—
Momentary. 1. I write. 2. I wrote. 3. I shall write.
Durative. 4. 1 am writing. 5. I was writing. 6. I shall be writing.
Completed. 7. I have wTitten. 8. I had written. 9. I sliall have written.
1 and 4 are not differentiated in Greek (both = ypa</>w), 3 and 6 are also the same
(= ypdi^w). The last series (7, 8, 9) is the only one complete and unambiguous,
viz., yiypai>a, <yrypd<^T}, ytypa^ia^ taofiai. >io. 2, the aorist, may sometimes
approacn in meaning No. 1, and again may occupy the ground of No. 7 and No.
8, or even admit or require a rendering in certain circumstances as No. 3 and
No. 9, whence it well deserves its name of aorist, or iiuif^finite tense. (N.B.
The plastic richness of the Greek tongue is seen in the circumstance that it has
(including two duplications) forms for ei(iht of these tenses, without any such
periphrasis as it uses once in No. 9 or Future Perfect while the English has
;

to resort to periphrases in no fewer than geven of these tenses.)

4 The Greek language, unlike the Latin, resembles

the English in having a form for the past indefinite (viz.
the aorist ^), distinct from that of the perfect definite.
What I have written I o yeypa(f)a 'ye'ypa<j>a.
have written. Perf. Definite (action of
writing defined as complete,
in relation to present time).
What I wrote I wrote. 6 eypayjra eypayjra.
Past Indefinite or Aorist,
(the simple act of writing
being alone affirmed, without
being defined in relation to
other acts or.to present time).
In Latin, however, both would be represented by one
form, Qicod scripsi, scripd.
5. In three of the tenses double forms are sometimes
found, answering to the weak and strong formations in
the English verb. Hence there may coexist in one and
the same verb,
A first and a second aorist (in act., in mid. and in pass.)
A first and a second perfect act, (generally with dif-
fering sense).
A first and a second pluperfect act (generally with
differing sense)

1 From iiptvrof. wtdifntd. from a negative and &p^^w (define), tvbenoe bpiiww
tkt koriLim—i.e. the Doanoiiig line of view.
86 INFLECTION OF VERB. [§ 52.

In general, however, there is no difference of meaning

between a first and a second amnst of the same voice.
N.B.— In the designations first and second, there is not the suggestion of
prioritybut of frequenaj of occurrence. In regard to j^riority of development,
the evidence points to the second being the first or older form.

6. The middle and the passive have each the same

number and kind of tenses as the active, except that each
has ordinarily only one perfect and one pluperfect,
while possessing sometimes three futures, a first, a
second, and a third, the last being likewise called the
pavlo-post future or future perfect.
N.B.—The second future is here the older, for there is no example in Homer
of the^r*t future passive, viz., in -«jj<roMat.

7. As in Latin, there is a class of verbs called Depo-

nent, existing only or mainly in the middle or passive
forms, with active sense. They are classified as middle
deponents or passive deponents, according as their aorist
appears in middle or passive form.

§ 52. Inflection of Verbs.

1. Each is capable of developing se-
presential tense
parate forms for the following parts, viz., indicative, con-
junctive, optative, imperative, infinitive, and participle.
Excep. The future wants both the conjunctive ^ and im-
perative. The optative of future (occurring first in
rindar) not a true optative of wish, but the oblique
is
or reported form representing an indicative future.

2. The aorist is the only preteritive tense that de-

velopes separate forms for all these parts. The other two
preteritive tenses, viz., the imperfect and the pluperfect
have separate forms only in the indicative.
3. The sufiixes indicating the various persons are in
general the same, respectively, in all the tenses of the
same voice, with this important difference in the third
persons, that
Third Pers. Third
Conjunctives and jn-e-') ^^^al.
ov
Plur.
...
ct (in mid. and pass.
,
i/ra/).
sential indicatives y :

have J
I Yet in the later time, Kav»^<ru>fiat in 1 Corinth, adii. 8.
 : —

§ 52.1 INFLECTION OF VERB. 87

Optatives and preO I>ual. Plur.

.

teritive indicativesV 771/ ^ : i/ (m mid. and pass. vro).

have J
Therefore the optative, by this association, indicates remoter
relations and suppositions than does the conjunctive, which is, by
its terminations, associated with tenses of present time.
4
The conjunctive is, in Attic, in the historical time,
characterised by the long vowels 77, cd. In the active
voice, its 2nd and 3rd persons singular have v subscribed
under their last vowel. (In the middle, and in those
tenses of the passive that are like the middle, it is only
the 2nd person that has the i subscribed.)
5. The optative is characterised by the insertion of t
(sometimes irj) betwixt tense-stem and personal ending,
from which process result the diphthongs at, €l, ol ;

at in the optative of first aorists active and middle ; ei

in the optative of aorists passive ; ol in the optative of

most other tenses.
6. The imperative has an u? in every 3rd person of
every tense of every voice.
7. Besides the various modifications of the ending, note
the following initial modifications in certain tenses :

In the preteritive tenses, as a sign of past time,

Augment (usually the prefixing of e)
In the perfect (which includes the pluperfect) and
fut. perf., as a sign of completed action, Ee-
DUPLICATION (the prefixing of the first stem-
consonant and e).
8. In the inflection of a preteritive tense, the aug-
ment belongs exclusively to the indicative, and is
dropped in subsequent parts.
9. Reduplication, however, remains through all the
parts of the perfect and fut. perfect, characterising the
whole tense-stem.
10. In one tense there may be both augment and
reduplication, viz., the pluperfect, as, stem irav-, plupcr-
Aug. Red. Stem Terrain.
feet i' Tre- irav-tcq.

1Vet ov in Srd PL of Pret«ritiTM In some placet of Uiad (aa E. 868). where

^v would apoil metre.
88 SYNOPSIS OP ENDINGS OF THE ACTIVE.

s
o o -.1 .§1 o o
•3.

b b o
^ {
Si ^3 b b b b *j
<2 -2 »»-»
'S
o o o o ^ ;3 ;> ics-a o o ,S
^
1
3 o >3-o -3-fe 'C C3 .1
.
* ^ *
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^
•2o^ O W
%- Ul
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;^ ;x *
3 3
eS
4i
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t4
sf 5
n
5 O <
;^ 1
Q ill o
III -i-ll

.Is .Is •So.

:x :^
:^
^ S-2

sll ZSs .11 'o'S'o

t
.5 « « U
O
l>
til
II
i b {^ I.

1
O
o o S 5 5 3 o o O

3-
o
3-
o i i li
*i
6
> fcc- 3
sf *j

•S
o w 3.4 H i 1 c5
ll
s . »
a & i^
I 3 1 «8 i 1
s?
« V- d
W W c w ^^ O W
£5
'0
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-
S j:>
^h
w r
-t
feb
S £
-ii
w O
*w
1
§ S w J; 1
c £ b £ b ^
1 sit sit >e >cs
;::

50 .sll a
W
o,
B> W W vu ^ 2 w S
"
3.
s
o o o- >0
1
>0 >e
1
JO w O C w o <3 'o

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£|5 1

i t
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»
1 ll 1 D
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 « «

SYNOPSIS OF ENDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 89

d P d U to u
d O
Co
S- O -^o »
I g-g
1 1 1
;i
o
1
c»
sr-
;:>
o
1
;>
O
ta
J> o p c- O
1 1 1 1

1
"S

(g

s
W§ r§
B^
?*
Wto

§ rs
^ *
§ c-§
iii
g
I^J S
o c o
^§
# e
w w ^w

C b
1 b
S

d
3
J. <gi
§ g

1111
»S v2 ^w .2
b b bvg
111
b b b i g||
s
1
5 b b
O w w ^1
4°^
o 1 4\ lb .III
o o o e 1^ rt o o o 'w w 'S

1 1^ oil 4^
Jo. o o o ^-i cs c c si •a.fe.S
o o o
.S-Jcb
www
O §
'§
§ 1 §6 O
;k^^ <1 a':t><5)
^S ^^^ :^

a. a. a.
^5 S 5 H ceo -111
o o o
1w cl-
w

<C5<c-«3
1
J^ -g rt
§ g fl
to
o w
W (.

&
1
dl
3«3-3
11 p <3 (3

54 1
dl S-e 3 afg
Hi Jl
<- .2 <»

1
gss .11
O W W 3§l b b b b b b www
^ ;^ :k :k
J «
.1^
-l-l-l i:ii Ml ^ 1

HI M 1 i
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i 3 M s H
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tb bs !!
>
§1 3 £
1
»4
II
 90 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE.

Indicative. Coiyunctive. Optative.i

Present. I am checking. (If) / may check, or be </ia< I mt^f/ii c/i€cA;,

checking. or he checking.
irav -ft) -fis -ft.
.;,
-0) -ns -71. -Ot/il -Otff -ot."

-€TOV -tTOP. c -rjTov -rjTOV. c -otrov -oiTTjv.

nav -ofjiev -ere -overt. -(OflfV -T}Te -OXTt. -ot/xfi/ -oire -oifi/.

Imperfect. / was checking.

Jhrav -ov -ey -f.

-cTov -irqv.
(nav -ofifp -tTf -ov.

Future. I shall or will check. (That)Js/i(mWc/i€cA;.

irav -o-ft) -(Tfts -o"ft. -crot/u -trots' -(rot.

-atTOv -crerov.
No Conjunctive.
e -oroiroi/ -(ToiTTjv

irav -ao^fv -<TfT€ -aovai. aoifiev -aoire -(tolcv.

I. AoRiST. I checked. (If) I m^y have (once) that I might (once)

checked. check.
iinxv -<rJi -aai -af. _^
-0-0) -tr?;r -077. -(raifit -aais -cat.
-aaTov -a-aTTjp 1 -arjTOv -aryrov. c -aaiTov-aaiTqv
fVav a-afifv -<raT€ -aau. -acififv -aT]T€ -aaxTi. -aaifiev -aaire -caiev.

XL AoRiST. I checked, (If) / may have (once) that I might (once)

checked. check.
hrr- -ov -fff -f. -0) -779 -rj. -oifit -ot? -01.

-fTOU -€Tr]V. "^ -lyroi/ -rjTOv. ^^ -oiTov -oinjv.

(ind -ofxfv -fTf -ov. -a>fJ,€tt -TJT€ -0)0"t. -UlfX€V -OLTe -Ol€V.

Perfect. I have checked. (If) 7 Tway have (now) that I might have
checked.
rriirav -kA -kcis -K€. "g -K&) -KTjS -KT]. ^S -KOiyLL -KOIS -KOl.
-KUTOV -Karov. b -K-qrOV -KTjTOV. ^ -KOLTOV -KOLTTJV
ircnav -Kafiev -Korf -Kaai. b -Ktt/xev -/«;Tf -Acoxri. b -KOlfJLfV -KOlTf -KOieV.

Pluperfect. I have checked.

fireirav-KCiv^ -kcis -K€i.

-KfiTOv -Kcirqv.
€ir€7rav-K(ifjL€v -Kftrc -Kciaav.
better -Kfaav.
1 The Optative may lose its proper force of expressing a vnxh, and become hypothetical by
2 tndov (ir. Aorist) does not occur in actual use, but is analogically formed. Cf. tKariv of
8 Better iirenavKrf (>j from Epic and Ionic ea =
e<ra, as in Homeric iTterjirea), -»nj?, -ktj ;
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE. 91

/ ch^ck.
Imperative. Infinitive. Participle.

Be thou checking. To be checking, Checking.

^^ -e -(Ta. ^g -<OV -OVTOS. M.

c -erov -€Ta>v. nav -eiv. b -ovoa -ovar]s. F.
-ere -iraaav nav-ov -OVTOS. N.
or -OVTCiiV.

To be about to check, About to check.

^» -0-0)1/ -aovTos. M.
No Imperative. nav -oeiv.
fe -aovaa -aovcrrjs. F.
nav-ffov -aovTos. N.

Check thou. To check, Having (once) checked.

^^ -oov -adra). *g -aas -aavTos. M.

c -oarov -odTo>v. nav -aai. E -adaa -ada-qs. F.
•oare -adrtooav nav-aav -aavTos. N.
or -odvTa>v.

Check thou. To check, Having (once) checked.

-( -(TO). -0)1/ -dl/TOf. M. \

*^ -fTOV -(TtOV. na -eiv. g -oOffa -ouo-iyy.F. V
-CT€ -iTiacrav -6v -OVTOS. N. )
or -6vTa}V.

Have thou checked. To have (now) checked, Having (now) checked.

( 1 -Kt -K(T<0. )* » Kwf -Koros. M.

< ,fe -KfTOV 'KtTOiV. > ntnav -Kevat. fe -<ci;ta -Kvias. F.
( £-«T« -«'r<»<rav.) b -#cdff -Koroff. N.

inMltion of if. Thns iravoi^u ay or df iravoi^ =s / tKould or K<ndd check,

matm, VtMIl «««•.
dnal HKrrar, Hctfnfr ; plaral -<tM«r, -««t«, 'tttvav. * Doubtful in Attic.
 92 PABADIGM OF THE MIDDLE.

TTavofiai,

Indicative. Conjunctive. Optative.

Present. I am ceasing. (If ) 7 m/xy cease. that I might cease.

irav -0|Jiat -ij (ei) -erai. ^^ -(Ofiat -T] -rjrai. -olfJ.T]U -010 -Giro.
Trav -ofifOou -eaSov -eadov. c -cififBop -TjaBop -rjaBop. c -oifxeBop -oiaBop -oiaBrjp.
nav -oficBa -eade -ovrai. -atfJLfBa -rjaBf -toj/rai. -oifjLfBa -oiaBe -oipto.

Imperfect. / was censing.

4irav-<J(iTjv -ov -fro.

€Trav-6^i€3ov -caBov -taOrjv.
firav-o^fOa -fade -ovto.

Future. I shall or will cease. ^That) I should ceose.

irav -<ro}iat -(TT){(Tfi)-a€Tai. ^ -aoifiTjp -aoio -aoiTO.

TTav -aofjifdop -a(<T3op-(T€crdov g -aoifieBop -aoiaBop-aoiaBrjv
Trav -ao^fOa -ataBf -aoprai. -aoifieBa -aoiaBe -aoipro.

I. Aorist. / ceased. (If)/mai/Aare(once)c«ascri that I might (once) cease.

inav-a-a\kr\v -a<a -aaro. ^ -acofiai -aaio
-ajj -aairo.
-arjrai. -aai^rjp
(Trav-ad^eBop -aaoBop-adadrjv s -aa)fi(Bop-ar]aBop-aT)aBop c -aalfifBop -aaiaBop-aaiaBrjp
cnav-adfieBa -aaaBt -aapro. -aoifieBa -arjaBe -acoprai -aalfieBa -aaiaBe -aaipro.

II. Aorist. I ceased. (If) Imayhave{oTice)ceased that 1 might (once) cease.

(*ira-<JnTiv^ -ov -ero. -a>/iai -jj -Tjrat. -oiflTJP -OlO -OLTO.

Ifna-ofieBop -eaBop -fcBrjp. ^^-oyfjLfBov -rjaBop -rjaBop. %_-oiyL€Bop -oiaBop -oiaBijv.
(eTra-ofMcBa -fffBe -opto. -a>fifBa -T]aBc -coprai. -oifieBa -oiaBe -oipto.

Perfect. / have ceased. (If) / may have (now) that I might have (now)
ceased. ceased.
ir^Trov-(iai -aat, -rat. fl-np -ris -Tj.

nfTrav-fieBop -aBop -aBop. fe -fXfPO) TJTOP Tjrop, €t -top el-TTip.

TTfrrav-fieBa -aBe -prau b -fiipoi 2)fiep TTf 2>a-i. ft -liep €l-T€ (Ifl/.

or TTfiravfiipoi elal.

Pluperfect. I had ceased.

fir6irav-}tTjv -ao -to.

fiT(TTav-}ieBop-aBop -aBrjp.
iirenav-fieBa -aBe -pro.
or TTCTravfiePoi rjaap.

Future Perfect. I shall

have ceased.
Inflected as in the Passive
(see next section).
1 See note 2 on page 90.
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE. 93

/ check myself, i.e. I cease.

Imperative. Infinitive. Participle.

Be thou ceasing. To he ceasing, Ceasing.

nav -ov -((t3(o. -ofievos -ofxfvov. M.

nav -€a6ov -dadcov. nav -eaBai. c -ofievrj -0fi4vT]s. F.
nav -taOi -(adaxrav -ojxevov -o^ivov. N.
or -iaOoiV.

To be about to About to cease.

cease.
-aofifvos -aoyiivov. M.
nav -aeaBai. g -aoyiivq -aofievrjs. F.
-ao^evov -aop.ivov, N.

Cease thou. To cease. Having (once) ceased.

nav -<rai -ada-0(a. -adixevos -aayiivov. M.
nav -aaaBov -adadav. nav -aaaBai. c -aafievT] -aafitvrjs. F,
nav -aaaSf -adadoiaav -ffafjievov -tTafxivov. N.
or -adadoiv.

Cecue thou. To cease, Having (once) ceased.

ira -ov -iaBa>. -O/lfJ/OS -OflfVOV. M. "i

nd -taBov -taBoiv. na -iaBai. ^ -OflfVT] -OfXeVTJS. F.

^
nd -eaBe -eaBooaav -ofiepop -Ofievov. N. )
or -((jBcov.

Have thou done vnth. To have ceased. Having (now) ceased.

n4nav -ao -aB<o. g -fifpos -fievov. M.

ninav -aBov -ffBuv. n€nav -cBai. t -fiepT) -fxepTjs. F.
irinav -aB( -aBa>aav £ -fX€POV -fliPOV. N.
or -aBuiv.
 94 PARADIGM OP THE PASSIVE.
TravofiaL,

Indicative. Conjunctive. Optative.

Present. I am checked (under-

going a check).
Inflected as in the Middle.

Imperfect. / was undergoing

a check.
Inflected as in the Middle.

I. Future. I shall or vnll be (That) I should be checked.

checked.
irav-0^-o-o}Mit -(TT)(fL) -aerai. 'iH -aoifjiTjv -croio -ctoito.
7rav-0r]-(To^(Oop-(T€(Tdov-afiT6ov. 3 -aoifjLfdov-aoiaSop-tToiadTjv.
7rav-6i]-a6fi(da -ataOe -aovrai. g -(Toificda -aoiarOf -aoivro.

I. Aorist. I was checked. (If) I may be checked. that I might be checked.

eirav -^y} -0t}S -0rj.

^ -6S> -Oijs -Bfj. ^ -Beirjv -dcirfs -Oeirj.

-6rjTOV -6r)Trju. 2 -OrjTOV -6fJT0P. a -Belrov -OfLTrjv.

(irav -BrjfKv -Brjre -drjaav. -0a}fi€V -6rjT€ -Baxru -Belfiev -Oelre -Oelrjaav
better -ddev.

n. Future. I shall or will be (That) I should be checked.

checked.
/ ira-^ -<ropxit -(TT){(i) -aerai. c—aoifjiTjv -croio -aoiro.
•<7ra-Tj -(TofifOov-aeadov -(Tf(T0ov. c -aoLfxedov-aoiadov-ffoiadTjv.
\7ra-r] -crofieda -crecrOe -(rovrai. *^
-aoifieda -aoiade -aoivro.

II. Aorist. / was checked. (Li) I may be checked that I might be checked,

ihr& .Tiv3 -rjs -r,. -Si -rjs -rj. -firjv -61T/S -eir}.

-TfTOv -f)rr}v. ^ -i]TOV -^ov. ^ -elrov -€iTT]v.

Jnd -T}fji€v -r]T€ -Tjaav. -a>fi€u -^re -Saai. -e7fjL€v -elre -eirjaav.
better -fUv.

Perfect. / have been checked.

Inflected as in the Middle.

Pluperfect. I hadbeen checked.

Inflected as in the Middle.

Future Perfect. I shall have (That) / should have been

been checked. checked.
irrrrav -<ro\uii -aoiro.
-(r7/((rfi)-o-f rat. g -aroifirjv -croio
TTfTrav -ao^edov-fffffSov-aeaOov. b -aoifX(6ov-aoi<jdov-aoi(T6r)v.
TTfirav -aofifda -crcaOe -aovrai. b -a-oifieda -aoiade -aoivro.

1 iirav<T€riv also found. 2 See note 2 on page 90.

 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE. 95

I am checked.

Imperative. Infinitive. Participle.

To he ahout to he Ahout to he checked.

checked.
^ -6r) -a-oficvos -ofi4vov. M.
nav -Brj -(TCtrOai c -6r) -o-ofiivT) -ofxfvrjs. F.
-Off -anfxfvov -ofxivov. N.

Be thou checked. To he checked. Checked.

^^ -OrjTi -6r)TQ). -Oeis -OcvTOs. M.

c -Brp-ov -drjTcov. Trav -drjvai. 1 -Oelo-a -6([(rr]s. F.
-OrjTf -drjTccarav. -edv -eivTOs. N.
-BtVTau.

To he ahout to he Ahout to he checked.

checked.
-X] -(TO^CVOS -O'OflivOV. M. ^
ira -T) -aeaOcu. ^ -r) -o-OfifVT] -aofjifvr]s. F. y
-T] -a-ofievov -aofievov. N. )

Be thou checked. To he checked, Checked.

-rjdi -r}T(o. -CIS CVTOS. M. ^
"b -TTOV -r)Tu>v. ira -rjvai. ^ -fitra -cLar}s. F. >
-TjT€ -fiT(o<rav. -CV -CVTOS. N. )
-VToav.

To have heen Having heen about to he

about 10 he checked.
checked. g -a-ofievos -aofifvov.* M.
ntirav -o-fo^oi. ^ -trofiivrj -aofiivr^s. F.
1: -<r6fifvov -aofifvov. N.

* Critics doQbi the Participle of Future Perfect

 96 INFLECTION OF VERB. [§53.

§ 63. Example of Second or Strong Aorist in

Active with Syncopated Future.
Future Aorist II.
Pres. Impft. Syncop'd, (strong). Perf. Plup.
TJirow. pdXXw «pa\Xov paX« ^paXov p£p\T]Ka ^pCpXTJKT].

Syncopated Future Active, it. Aorist.

Ind. PaX -M ipaX-ov
-f'lTov -firoj/. erou -erryj/.

/3aX -ovfiev -fire -ovai. <j3aX -o^ev -ere -ov.

pdX 0) •VS -rj-

Conj. None. -T]TOV -rjTOV.

/3aX -a>fi€v -T)T€ -CBCrt.

Opt. PaX-otjw^ -oh -o'l. PdX -oip,i OlS -01.

-oItOV -OITIJP. -oLTov -oirrjv.

/9aX -oiyifv -oire -oifv. /9aX -nififv •01T€ -Ot€U.

P(1X c -iroi.

Imp. None. /3aX -fTOj/ -€TOiV.

/3dX -fT6 -('ratrav
or -OVTiOV.

Inf. paX -tiv. PaX -«iv.

Pep. PaX-«v -ovaa -ovv. paX -wv ovcra -ov.

/SoX -ovvTos -ovarjs -ovvros. /3aX -di/roy •ovarji -ovTOi.

Syncopated Future Middlk II. Aorist.

Ind. PaX-ovjMii -f I -etrat. 4p&X 6\ir\v -ov -era.
(iaX-uvfJL(Bov-fla6ou-€'icrdov. Ci3d\ -6fi€3ov -((t6ov -eo-6r)v.

fidk-ov^ifda -flade -ovvrau e'/3aX -ofJLfOa -eaOe -OVTO.

pdX -a))iai
-n -qTai.
Conj. None. /SaX -aficdov -TjcrOov -rjadov.
iSaX -rjcrde -(ovrai.

Opt. PaX-o£|ii]V -oto -otro. PaX -oio -Giro.

^oK-o'i^fOov -o7ffdov-ol(rdr]V, ^aX -OLfJL€$OV -oicrBov -OLcrdrjv.

/3aX-oifi€^a -olaOe -olvro. ^aX -oifieOa -oiaOf -oivro.

PaX -ov -eaOa.

Imp. None. isax -fo-Oov -icrOuiv.
Bdk -eo-^e ea-Oaarap.
or icrOoiv.

Inf. PaX-£i(r0at. PaX -^<reai.

Pc/;. paX-ovjt€V09-o»;/ie'v)y-ou/xevox/. paX -d(i€VOS -ofievT] -ofifpov.

y.B.—ln the i)as3lve, the second or strong aorist, such as ePa\riy, is identi-
cal in inflection with eiroijr', as on page 94.

1 Frequently also a form in -oCrjy, as in (f^avoir^v from ^afu, future of <f>aCyta,

§54.] CONJUGATIONS AND CLASSES OF VERBS. 97

§ 54. Conjugations.
1. There are two conjugations, distinguished from
each other by the mode of affixing the personal endings
in the present stem, according as a so-called thematic
vowel is or is not inserted between stem and ending.
These conjugations are commonly named from the ending
of the 1st person sing, present indicative, viz., one in «,
which is the more frequent, the other in ^v, which is
the older of the two. The former, called the Thematic ^
conjugation, has been treated first, as being more com-
plete and homogeneous, whereas the non-thematic verbs
or verbs in iiu have only a partial development of tenses
on the fii. formation, and, apart from the present stem,
do not differ from the other conjugation in &> over a
large part of their area.
The former conjugation is therefore distinguished by the pres-
ence of a thematic vowel, generally o or e, between stem and per-
sonal-endings except in perfect middle or passive and aorists P.
The other dispenses with the insertion of an external vowel, using
for a double purpose a vowel of the tense-stem, or dispensing
with vowel altogether. (The thematic vowel acts as a movable
pivot or socket , uniting stem with suffixes or terminations.)
2. Verbs in w may be divided into five classes ac-
cording to the class-characteristic, viz., according as the
verbal stem terminates in
Parallel Verbs in
A voivel or diphthong, either /Ltt conjugation,

(a) Broad vowels (a, e, o), (a) Broad vowel,

thence contracting, Bpdo),
<f)c\eco, Bt)\6(o. stem Be.
Class (/S)Thin vowels (t, v), and (/3) Thin vowel,
I. Diphthongs {av, ev, ov), el-fjLL

Pure or so non-contracting, rio), stem t.

Vocalic. Trauo).

(7) Vowels now divested (7) Spirant al-

of Spirants(f 9),7r\ea) (for
, most vanished,
TrXefo)), Jeo) (for feVw).
stem 69.

> So called from its haTiiw a thtmntic vnwel (appearing as «, 0) not belong-
ing to the root, aerrlng aa a pivot for inflection.
7
 98 CONJUGATIONS AND CLASSES OF VERBS. [§ 54.

II. -4 Zi^wwi (\, yLt, I/, p), . 6p-VV-fJLL

Liquid. o-reWto, aireipw, fxevco, stem op..
VefJLQ).

III. A dental {t, B,e, (0\ ^

Dental. avvrco, -^jrevBco, ireidm,

TO KO/JLl^CO {i.e., KOfjLLS-LCo).

IV. A guttural (k, 7,

x). pijy-viJ-fMc,
Guttural. ttX^/c©, Xeyw, ^pixco. stem pa7.

V. A labial (tt.IS, (t>l

^
Labial. Xe/Tro), rpifito, ypdcfieo.
N. 1. The dentals are here placed tlrst among the mtites, so as to adjoin the
ftrst two classes, which they larpely resemble in formation. On the other hand,
gutturals and labials are put last aa they form a group by themselves.
2. Under Pure Verbs may be (provisionally) included such as have become

f)ure by dropping of a spirant (f or a-) of stem, such as nktot, older nKerut, reA^u
or T«A€crw from stem tj A«<r-, ^tu from ^<<r-, -yeAdcj from -yeAao--, whence eye'Aoo'-o-a.
o- has scarcely anvwhere kept its ground in end of stems in present, except
partially in the substantive verb <i^i', e.ff, ia-Ti. Some retain <r in disguise, by
assimilation to v before the formative syllable w, as ev-i'v-fii for ttr-w-tii, tTKeSdu-
yv-fit. for a-Ktiav-wfii, etc., and these, with iari, might form a sub-class by
themselves of spirant verbs. Also, certain seemingly liquid verbs in -lyut and
•vvui, where y is assumed only in present stem, are really pures. as n-iVw, tiVw.
(f>6ivit), 6vvo), Bvvta.
3. A sub-class is formed under classes II., IV., V., by the addition of the
sibilant (<r). It is only partially developed, being chiefly in present and imper-
fect ; and such of these verbs as form a future, pass into the division of pures,
with future in -ritru), e.g., liquid base, ipcrta, Tepo-io ; guttural base, avfw, aAe'fa>;
labial ba.se, &t'\f/to, typio. (i^w (from si-sdd-mi), 60o (from ofi-yw), though not
formed by addition of <r, Conform to this analogy. Future in -^o-w.)

3. The stem in verbs in © is usually found by drop-

ping CO of the present ; and the last letter of the verb-
stem thus remaining is called the Characteristic.
N. 1. Elements that have been introduced to form the present stem must be
dropped to find the true verb-stem. Thus in verbs in -kvoi, -/xi/w -ktoj, -jttw, ;

V and T have been Inserted as helping letters hence the stem of SaKvto is Sax- ;
;

of Te^ivu), T€ix-
of ntKTO), irtK- ; of Tvirro), rvn-,
;

2. Some verbs in ^w and a-aio or ttw have for their characteristic a latent
guttural, as Kpafw from stem xpav-, rrpdo-o-ai from stem irpauc-. (C/. § 9, 2, p.)
3. The relation of these five classes to the four Latin conjugations is instruc-
tive, as showing a very different distribution.
The first conjugation of Latin, having its analogon in Greek Contracts
in d(t), and
The second conjugation of Latin, having its analogon in Greek Con-
tracts in e'u), answer only to a portion of the first division of Class
I. in Greek.
The third conjugation of Latin is the most comprehensive, as it covers
the ground occupied by many pure verbs not contracting (aa
vevut =
nuo), and oy the three classes of verbs with mute stems
(as Ac'yw = lego), i.e., dentals, gutturals, and labials.
§55.] NEXUS OF STEM-CHARACTERISTIC. 99

The fourth conjngation of Latin has no analogon in Greek, for snch as

iBUre are unconti-acted, unlike audite. On the other hand, except
in such doubtful relics as ctgrotus, Latin presents no analogon to
the contracts in d<o, for, stem domiiw, in forming its verb, passes
into the A class, daminari.
In process of time, the -ew form becomes dominant in forming new
verbs, just as in Latin the a conjugation is the type for new or
late derivatives (= German -iren).

§ 55. Nexus of Stem-Characteristic.

N.B. —Diversities
of verb-formation arise from the diverse
mode in which the stem-characteristic is modified or affected by
the various tense-endings.

I. Perf. I.Aor.
Tenses. Pres. Fut. Act. Perf. Mid. or Pass. Pass.
Jmperat.

Tense-endings, m o-w Ka or a fiat, (TO <T0U)

CLASS
LPURE V. aco V. Ka V. fiac, V. cro, v. ado)
II. Liquid Iq.co Iq. fca Iq. /juac, Iq. ao, Iq. 6co Iq. 6r]v
ni. Dental Ka o-fjLai, ao, add) adrjv
IV. Guttural Xa y/xat, fo, x^^ xOrjv
V. Labial yjrco <f>a /jL/jbai, yfro, (pOo)

—
N.B. From the above it appears that (1) a vocalic or liquid
characteristic remains, normally, unchanged before the tense-
endings ; (2) a dental is either ejected or superseded by o- ; (3) a
guttural or a labial is modified by euphony (§ 7).

Typical Verbs under the Five Classes.

Puree (type as in navat).
Ptm. Fut. Perf. Act. Perf. Pass. i. Aor. Pass,
ri'-o), honour, Tt-aco [reriKa Teri-fiai -ao -crOo) eVf-^r/i/]
Xv-o), loose, Xt-(T(t) \4\v-Ka \(\v-fiai -ao -ado) eKv-drjv
Liquids.
Tt'XX-O) Sluck, TiX-w [reViX-Ka] rinX-fiai ao -6(0 iriX-drju
axip-o). itiw, [aip-a>] aiavp-Ka a(avp-fiai -ao -6<o [favp-dTjv]
Dentals,
n(ia-a>f induce, -nd-aoi nfTrti-Ka irfTreia-pai -o -6a) (Trda-drjv
say, (f)pa-a(a nicjypa-Ka 'n(<f)paa-pxii -a -6a> €<f)pda-6T}v

Gutturals.
frX/ff-M, fold, frX/^o) 7r<7rXe;(a iriTrKtypai-^o -^6<ii €n\4x^^v
trpdaa-tot do, irpd^to triirpaxa nivpayiun-^o 'xBm t7rpdx6qu
Labials.
cut, Koya KiKO<l>a KfKoppai -yj/o -<j)6<i) (K6(f)6r)v

ypi<f>'iOt write, ypci^ci) yiypiK^a ytypappai -y^ro -(f>6(i> (ypd(f>6ijv

 1 1

100 PAKADIGM OF LIQUID VERB.

"2,
*j3 Cm
o c* o, o :(
S a.
-3
-3 a. b.S
3
1 <3 C -3 '^
^ ^c<^ fc t /< /< ^ /< /< ^
I- K l- W l- K f^ w i^

o
c
C
e b b ;i ^ c <5i
va
«3
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1- t- K h W ^ I- i< (• i- C C K P K I.

1
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b o

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^
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s O
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J 3 3;<
3
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a.
3 lit
3 3'^
a.
3
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ri
t fS
c"^ c<c< fc ^
/< /< <^

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fi.
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l-
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t1 M "r" -3 <y
^.«
lire,
Aori
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Perf Plur
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cS *^ t- - o *rr: o

s-e'?*- ^ '^'2 S S
£ )—=
P-l pt, r-i (M rH ©J <N
,=5 -g C .« ?F^ r==
Ph hi; ^ r^ CN o5 ^ ;i. fe

•aoiOA. aAiioy •aoio^ aiaaipi -aoioA. aAissv^

 b

PABADIGM OF DENTAL VERB. 101

Co
Ot
6 ^3- w

t
a.

:^ ^ > =^ ve
^3
Co
-3
«so
1
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nil
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5 -a
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3 3 c >3 53 3 3
*2» b b ^ ^ *o. b b*o Q. Q. b b
mt- <=o <'o Q.
ta.
^ 'C -3-3 a -ft. -©• -© 8
ci.

^ :i. =i. ci.^ a 3.

e- -©-S--©- t: ^ -©- ©-©-^fe b -©--©- -e--©- b b
a
6 3 3 «* b -> ^
•^
5 3 -,S'«
»^ ^b J^JJ b
b
w 3 b ^
b .^ J^ 3
-c-'c- b S b b
c w C'C 3 3 ^1 <:c ^51 V ;;:.<£:. -3 "3
s \!^ b fc «<: :i. ^ \2» b b*o ^ b b <=o <5o ^ Q.
^=^= =-©- -3 -3 ^0 3 -e- c = S c -©. ©.
fl 1
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b
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b
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b b *= o.
3 "c ^^ C- w 3 3

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6
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-©-©-

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= 5^ 5 =»- a. ?- b £
5
^H Milifl
b ^^
ar >3 ^-aI
o K-o^* b -sr-*o 3 o "3
<i>3 b-3«0*3 =5-A: =^
'= =i. S ^ S =i.-©. 5 ©-
^,t -|:.t.t-e-£ 'b-£ ^y-'w ^s"<t/ ^f-'w b "<» b
c *:
• •
s -

11 £•122 II Pk4 ^ .^ ,^ (X &1 d. &. Ce4

•aoiOA aAiioy aoiOA aaaaipi -aoiOA. aAissvj

102 PARADIGM OF GUTTURAL VERB.

o
o «- «" S a
1s
««

-3 ^1 g w w w 3.
.3- -?-^3--3-
^^
*jji
w ^C-X w b«c- xS« <^
'5i w U(

1 V ••JUlAJJl ^ /< X ^
<< ^ /< /< w w ^b
<*<

/</</< W ^ ^w -<c /<a

u/ t:
*4<

fe b b fe b t= b b b b b b b b b b

3
^'^
t
^b
?; 3 3
^'^ 3 3
'^O^
^ to
w c b ^ a
toJk c **< ^
b b b X *** ic-;c-b ^ X

M 1 l4l| 1 V
»I
/<
>jj\*jji « /<
«* •*
^ /< /<c bt
<<
b
w
><
<KtK e
X
is

/</</</<£
is
c b
'?=

b b b b b b b b b b b

o
1 « «3M;»
c o
o >»<

V
^
-MjlV /<
= b
x
1 /< /</<•«
1 -JtE e b b b b 'b b
:k
C-
«»
<«
e- a. e- o
3> 3. ;k a a a .J a.
b >? o ^ a.
3-3-3-S. ,4. .5-.3-«3- lb c- »^ b .? ?:
3-
J *ij,*j^ « /<
•Mj»

/<
w ^ <^ c- w *
^ w w c b b w w a C b
/< /</</< w «v
'i 'i'i'it £ b b b b b b b b b b b
*^
o
&

i ^ 3- ^ ^
I 3 3 3 -? -1 3 3
"^-S /<
3 * »3 i
»w '* c b
/< /< /< w
b b b b b b b b b b b b

1 3 ll^l. Ill
Mc
3i3Ai?lil V J *ij^<i ^ ^w ^b
c b'^
^^ /<'-/</< b w b 5 "»5 /< ;:5 /< /< b -,

b»£ b»5»5 b-5 b-£ b w i: "w "w i: "w b b "«» b "w b "w b "tw b

n.e.
. . . . n.e. .
.

. .
. . .

4- ^ •4-> ? CC
.
Aorist,
.
Perfect,
2u(iPluperf.,n.<?.
o - oc -- -r- .
i)
Aoiist,

Plui)erfect,
rnij)erfect,

Present, ;^^<5
Future, Perfect,

= t2 s ir
1st
2u(l 2n<l
^ i- ou ».

•aoio^ aAiioy •aoio^\ anaaij^ -aoio^ aAissv<j

 .

PABADIGM OF LABIAL VERB. 103

i«
1 4||t 1 o
1)< ^^ J^ J^ ^
C O
^ ^
O W
»< V
o o c o
V V )£ ^

£ :2
C3
-•
o
b ^ ^
^ »:£>

:^
^ a b - c b
y^ Ss.ai I t
^
>e
s JV ttH
k »< )C X
i
»<
«l
it ^ ii >i >£
e^-e- 1: ^ 5
o o c
^ W V >< V
a
a
IS ?

! I- l.-l-
1 -c -o -5 -5 :f 1.8
1 « W X H ^ V
1K )< )<

pi e
Pi
w c- *
b.B-o ^5. S
>
11 ri -f
O C C O W
-e--©-
O C O O
^ S
fe g
w
< H ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a a a U ^
W
V a< M ^ V V
»i>

>i

P3
< o
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•©-
1 J H H H H
o
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2 1
5 '^l|---
H^ -^t 1 S 2 i 2
¥»w »t »5 »* « -5 « -5

• . .
.j ...
*
«r
^t
iff .111 •c •

© »r s^-^ i- s'^'2
Cl,^ £2cSi:E.g,g
•aoio^ aAixoy 'aoio^ aaaaipj "aoio^ aAissv^j
 104 INFLECTION OF PEEFECT [§56.

§ 56. Inflection of Perfect

N,B.— Conj. and Opt. in this tense are formed by a combination of its Participle with w and elijv
Opt. in -(fiirfv and -jjm'J*'. and KCKKrinai. may have Opt. KeKArjVijv
The peculiarities of the Perfect Mid. or Pass, arise from the absence of any special connecting
of nexus. As for KiK-nifiai, etc., the.se develop a special Conj. and Opt. owing to their stem
other pure verbs, such as irtwaiStv -fiai, the vowel or diphthong is inflexible, (opwpjjrai in

IndicatiTe. Imperative.

Pure, not
S. TrfTTfip-d-fjiai, d-aai d-rat TTfTTftpa -<ro -ado)
inserting a-
D. ir€7r€ip-d-fi€6ov a-aOov a-aOov TTfTTftpa -<t9ov -crdav
(except before 6)
P. 7r€Tr€ip-d-fi€da a-adt a-vrai nerrdpa -ade -(rdcocrau
TTftpao), try.

Pure, insert-
ing 0-, S. fOTra-cr/xat -arai -arax ((rnda-o e(nrda$a)
(before p. as well D. ((rrrd-apedov -adou -crOov ecnraa-Oov icrndaQoiv
as 6) P. ecrnd-afieda -ade -apivoi flat fo-naadf ccmdcrdaxTav
draw.

Liquid, S. ea-rrap-pai -aai -rat fcrnap -ao eandp -6co

(nrcipoiy soWj D. fandp-pfdov -Qov -6ov ecrirap -6ov ecrndp -dup
(ordinary). P. fcrndp-pfda -Bt -p,€Vot ela-i ((map -6e ecnrdp -Oaxrav

Liquid,
S. TriffM-a-pai v-crai vrax TTc'c^aj/ '(TO 7re<l)dv -da>
from I/,
D. 'rrf(f)d-(r-pfdov v-6ov v-6ov rrf(f)av -Qov 'rr((f)dv -dcov
P. 7r((f>d-(r-p€$a v-6c a-pivoi elai TTe'^az/ -Oe 7r«j)dv -doxrav
(special).

S. irtireipa-a-paL -aai ^ -arm. TreirdpdcTo TrfTrcipdaBa)

Dental,
D.
u. TrfTTfipa-a-pfaov-fToov
nfiTCipd-a-pc6ov-a6ov -aoov
-crOov TrcTreipaaoov
TrcTTflpaarQov TreTreipafTo*
TreTreipdfrdcov
TTfipa^o), temjyt.
P. TTfTTfipd-a-peda -cr6c -apJvoi fieri TTfTrdpaa-de TTfTTfipdadt

S. iTfTrkf-y-fuu -^ai -ktui TreVXe^ -o TrtTrKix -0(0

Guttural,
D. TTfTrXf-y-pcOov X'Bou X'Bov Triirkfx -Bov 7r(7rX(x -Boiv
rrXf/co), fold.
P. TTfnXf-y-peda X'^^ y-p^voi elcri TTiirKfx 'Of TTfirKix -Baxrav

S. TfTv-p-pai -yjrai tt-tqi HTvyjr -o Ttrixf) -But

Labial,
D. T€Tv-p-pe6ov <f)-dov <p-Bov T(TV<^ -Bov T€TV(I> -BoiV
TVTrro), beat.
P. TCTv-p-pfOa (f)-d€ p-p4voi elal TeTv(f> -Bf T(Tv<p -Boxrav

N.B.—<r is not doubled in the 2nd person in Attic, even in perfects in -vulm ; thus ntirv<rat,
KeKKeta-fuu. One verb, now in fiai. pure, inserts a in the 3rd
' i.e. 'patrai.
 §56. MIDDLE AXD PASSIVE. 105

J^IlDDLE AND PASSIVE.

(of the substantive verb). KiK-n)u.ai, ii4fjivifij.at may, however, have Conj. in -u/mat, and
-j}o, -rjTo, etc. (These three have become virtual iVeseuts.)
vowel betwixt stem and personal ending, and hence the varying euphonic changes
ending in a flexible vowel, which admits of a certain variation, whereas, in most
11. iv. 271, is owing to bfuoptfjiai of Indic, the stem 6p- having become ope-, vocalic.)

Infinitive. Participle. Pluperfect.

€7re7r€ip-a-fj.T]u d-cro a-TO

TTf TTf tpa-o-^ai, TTfTTdpa -jUvos €Trf7rcip-d-fM(Bov a-a-Oov d-crdrjv
(aTta<ur(U/ylong,whencea) eTrfTrdp-d-fifda a-aOc a-vro

ea7rd-crp,r]v 'Cro -oto

icrOaij
€(rrraa- ecnraa-fievos \i(nrd-(T}ie6ov -crdou -(tOtjv

(a not. short, whence a) ((J7rd-ayL(6a -crde icnraa-fiivoi ^aap

€(T7rap-p,Tjv -(TO -TO

4<nrdp -Bai^ eonrap -fievos \ia7rdp-ixe6ov -Oov -$r)v
iairdp- p.e6a -de iawap -fievoi ^cav

e7rf(f)d-<T-p.T]v v-(To v-to

7rf(f)dv -daL, TTf^acr -fifvos €7rt<f>d-<T-p.€dov v-6ov v-drjv
C7r((f)d-(r- p.e6a v-6( TrecfiacT -fitvot rjaav

(TTfTTfipaff -firjv -o " -TO

TTcirfipda-Bai^ 7r(7rfipaa-p,fvos (irfirapdn -p.(Bov -6ov -6t)v
(a nat. short, whence a) le-fTTfipda -p-fda -6e TreTreipaa- -/xeVot ^<rav

\(7r€ir\€-y-fir)v -^o -*CTO

<Vf 7rX<-y-/if^a X'^^ TTfTrXey -fitvoi rjtrav

(TfTV-fX-fJLTJV -^O V-TO

Ttrv<P -Baij Trrvfi 'fUvos (TtTV-fl-fieBov (f)-6op (f>-$T}V
(TfTv-fi-fJifBa <^-6( T€TVfi -fi4voi ^(Tav

tbon^ in Epic Ww«-a'ai : hence itiKKtitLtu. has the same spelling for 2nd persons
infuiAr, rit., the irregnlu: liiuui. See Anomalous Verbs, 1 62.
S i.€. -pd90.
 —

105 contracted veebs. [§ 57.

§ 57. Contracted Veiip.s.

1. Verbs in do), <o), and dw (i.e. broad vowel stems) are con-

tracted in Attic in the present and imperfect : in other tenses they

are like ordinary pure verbs, and have no 2nd aorists or stronj^
tenses. {Thin vowel verb-stems {i.e. in -to) and -uco), do not
contract.)
2. €6), in dissyllabic verbs, conti-acts only when e meets anotlur
6 (either single € or diphthongal, as ci).

TrXeer* = TrXf trf ; likifis = TrXf tp ; TrXc'f t = TrXfi. But, where

f meets an o-sound or long c-sound, as in ttX* «, tnXfov,
7rXei;re, etc., there is no change. (Also €;(€e in 1st
Aorist of x«A b^it in Imperfect fx^'--) ^'^ ^^'^^^^ their
compounds, as e-m-nXiu) also, generally, dta and beofiat
;

= need.
Obs.— Sew, 6in<Z, isthe only dissyllabic that may, in composition, contract
everywhere, as avaiovntvm, Tbuc ii. 00, but Seu = lutd, could only have

3. ^do) live^ Biylrdo) thirst, nfivdco hunger, xP'^^H-^'- i^^) with XP^^
give the use o/, and a few such as Epic Xdco wish, witli three verbs
= rub, viz., Kvda>, a-fidaj^ ^do), contract with rj instead of a.

Cdto = (a>, fdei? = f^?, (dft = (rj.

Cdofi.€v = C^fifv, ^dere =: C^re, ^dovo-i = ^iat, etc.

In later period, after Aristotle, these verbs took ordinary contraction,

wtkv^, etc.

Obs.— 1. The Ionic, however, notwithstanding its fondness for »j elsewhere,

takes a in xpo^ ai»d xpao/xai, as e.g. Inf. xpao'Cot Ionic, for Attic xpn<''^<"-
2. ai' in Infln. arose not from attv but from dev, from the early time when e
still served for <i as well as «. Many Editors, however, retain ^v.
Epic 6pa«fitvac = Doric opdev ^ opav.
Epic i^iAc'e^fai = Doric ^tAeev = (^iXeii/,
Epic Srjkoefievat = Doric fi))A.6ei/ = StjAoOi/.

3. piYoo) stiver, and its opposite ISpou sweat, are treated as stems with long
vowel, and form with w and u> for ov and oi, as Inf. piyif, 3rd S. Conj. pi-yw.
however, generally regular in Attic, as ISpoivri in Xen. Anab. I. 8, 1.)
(ifipow is,
4. Observe those contracted forms of the Present, which are apt to be
confounded :

1. nuKtl = Srd Sing. Ind. A., and 2nd Sing. Ind. M. and P.
2. rruKtt, jreipa= 2nd Sing. Imperative A.
3. iretpa = 3rd Sing. Ind. and Couj. A., and 2nd Sing. Ind. and Co^j. M.
and P.
4. ireipJ) = 1st Sing. Ind. and Conj. A., and 2nd Sing. Imperat. M. and P.
5. TTctpci = 3rd Sing. Opt. A.
C. fiijAoi (five occurrences, and so, with three, StjXoIj, in A.) Srd Sing. =
Ind. Conj. Opt. A., and 2ud Sing. Ind. and Conj, M. and P. (X.B.—
Any union of o with a diphthong containing i, produces oi, except iu
the Infinitive.)
 §57.] CONTRACTED VEBBS. 107

CONTRACTED VERBS.
Active.

PRES. xeip-d «, try. <|>iX-^«, love. 8t|\-(Jw, slioxv.

S. -da -eo -4a -a -6a -a

-dfis -c'ei? -eh -del? -ols
'V
-dfi -a -6€t -ft -del -ol
D. -dcTOV -drop -ifTOV -flTOV -oeTOv -OVTOV
iNDia
-derov -drov -€€TOV -€LTOV -o'eroi/ -OVTOV
P. -doiMCV -wfiev -f'O/ifl/ -OVfJi€V -o'o/xei/ -ovfiev
-dfTC -dT€ -cere -firc -oere -ovTe
-dovffi -Qtai -dovai -ovat -oovai -0V(TL

S. -da -5> -la -a -6a -a

-dijs -as hs -lis -oris -ols
-dp -6p -ot
D. -drjTov -drov -(TJTOV -TJTOV -6riT0v -Q)T0V
CONJ.
-drjTOv -drov -trjTOv -rJTOv -OTjTOV -aTOv
P. -doifiev -(afiev -afiev -oafiev -afxev
-drjTf -dT€ -ir)T€ -^re -oT/re -core
-acDfft -Sxri daai -Sxri -6affi -eoffi

^
S. -doifii -ajii^ -eoifii -Ol/il -OOlfll -ot/it 2

-dots -as -€01S -o'ls -6ots -o7s

-doi -a -601 -01 -dot -ol
D. -doiTou -arov -(OITOV -o7tov -601TOV -oItov
Opt.
-aOLTTJV -<St7]V -eOlTTJV -OITTJV -ooiT-qv -oiTT]V
P. -doLfi€V -a>fi(u -ioLfxev -Ot/ifl/ -6oifl€V -Ol/ifl/

-doiTf -are -i0LT€ -otre -6oiT€ -oItc

-doKv -<0€V -€Ot€V -oltv -6oi€V -olev

S. -a* -a -€€ -fi -Of -ov

-OfTd -aro) -((Ta -eiTa -oeVo) -ovTa
D. -dtrov -drov -{(TOV -flTOV -6€T0V -OVTOV
Impeb. -atTiov -droiv -((Tav -fiTav -ofTav -ovrav
P. -d(Tf -art -d€T€ -€iTe -OfTf -0VT€
-airmaav )-dra)<rav -tiraaav -t'lTaaav -ofTaaav ) -ovraaav
]

•aoirrtov)-tavT<ov -tovTav -ovvrav -o6vTav ) -ovvrav

!

Infinitive -dtiv •av 'itlV -ftp -detv -ovv

M. -dt»» '&V -iav -av -6av -av

PCP. F. -dovffa -atra -iovaa -ovaa -oovaa -ovaa
N. 'OOP -av -iov -ovv -6ov -ovv

. 1 Formed also in •^iif, etc, of Sing. > Formed also in -oitiv, etc., of Sing.
 108 CONTRACTED VERBS. [§57.
CONTRACTED VERBS.
Middle and Passive.
PEES. ircup-donau «t»iX-^HWiui Sr]\-6o\uii,

S. -dofiai -oifxai -(Ofiai -ovfiat -do/xai -ovixai

-dp -9 -f?7 'fjOT -el -op -nl
-derat -drai -eerai -firai -ofrai -ovrai
D. -aofxfdov -a)fi(Bop -eofifBov -ovixeBou -oofifBov -ovfieBov
Indic. -dfadov -aa-Bov -ffaBov -eia-Bov -ofo-Bov -ovaBov
-d«T0OV -aa-Bov -eea-Bov -(ia-Bov -oeaBov -nvaBop
P, -aofieBa -afifBa -foficBa -ov^fBa -oo^fBa -ovfifBa
-dforBf -aaB( -ieaBe -e'laBf -ofaBe -ovaBe
-dovrai -avTOi -iovrai -ovvrai -ooz/rat -ovvrai

S. -doifiai -a>fiai -ea)fiai -afuu -cko/xat -afiai

-dp -a -^n -n -op -01
-drjTot -arat -(TJTCU -Tjrcu -orjrai -a>Tai
D. -aafJLfdov -afieBov -((OflfBoU -difXfBop -oojfieBov -WfJLfBoV
OONJ. -drjaOou -da-Bov -drja-Bov 'TJaBov -orjaBov -wa-Bov
-drja-dou -daBov -(Tfo-Bov -qaBov -orjaBov •oiaBov
P. -awfifSa -oifXfBa -fafJifBa -a>fi(Ba -ooificBa -a)fifBa
-dr}a6f -da-Be -irjaBf -ijaBf -urjaBe -wa-Bc
-do)vTai •Stirrai 'fdVTCU •UVTCU -ocoi/rat -(ovrai

^ -aoifiTfv
-doio
.(i^fxrjv

-coo
-foiflTjV
-eoio
-oifirjv
-olo
-OoiflTJP
-ooto
-oijirjv

-olo
-doiTO -OJTO -ioLTO -oIto -OOITO -oIto
D. -aolfifdov -ay fieBov -fOlflfBoV •oifxeBov -ool^fBov -OLflfBoV
Opt. -doiaQov -axxBou -(oiaBov -olaBov -uoiaBop -olarBov
-aoladijv -(mtBijv -€olaBr}v -oiaBrjv -oolaBrjv -olaBrjv
P. -aol^fBa -(pfifBa -eoififBa -oifxeBa -ooififBa -oifjLfBa
-doicrde -(oarBf -(OiaBf -oiaBe -ooiaBe -o'la-Be

-dotVTO -o)i/ro -ioiVTO -olvTO -oocirro -olvTO

S. -dov -« -iov -ov -oov -nv

-aea-do) -daBat -€€0-Ba) -fio-Bcd -oia-Bui -ovaBco
D. -dtaBov -daBov -(fa-Bov -(laBov -ofaBou -ovaBov
Imper. -afo-dcov -da-Bav -Cfo-Boiv -ela-Btov -oiaBuiv -ovaBo):'
P. -dea-Be -da-Be -ff aBe -ela-Be -oeaBe -ovaBe
-ataBaxrai')-d(TBa>aav -daBoitrav \-€iaB(i)(Tap -oiaBoaaav )-OlltTB(iXTaV
-aicrBuiv -daBcov
.
-feaBoJv -eiaBav -oeaBav i-ovaBoiv
'.

Infinitive -deaBai -da-Boi -€caBai -flaBai -6(a0cu -ovaOai

M. -aofifuos -(i)^l€VOS -fOflfVOS -ovfievos -OOjlfVOS -OVflfVOS

Pcp. F. -aonevT) -CtiflfVT} -fOfJLtPT} -OVfifVY) -OOflfVT] -OVfl(VT)
N. -a6fji€vov -a>fj.evov -eoficvov -OVfl€POV -oofievov -OVfl€VOV

1 Middle, I show vvj love.

 §570 CONTRACTED VERBS. 109

CONTRACTED VERBS.
(Imperfect Active.)

IMPF. iiTiCp-aov, ^tX^v. ^^X-oov.

-aov -0)1/ -eov -ovv -oov -ovv

-aes -as -ets -ft? -0€S -ovs
-ae -a. -€€ -« -Of -OV
-deroi/ -arov -f€TOU -flrou •oerou -OVTOV
[NDia
-airriv -dnjv -€€TT)V -eiTTjV oirrjv -OVTT]V
-doficv -eofiev -OVfJLCV •oofieu -OV^fV
-arre -dT€ -cere -fire OfTf -OVT€
-aou -(OV •eov -ovp -oov -OVV

(Imperfect Middle and Passive.)

IMPF. iircip-cuJHiilv. l<|>lX-€<$|lT1V. ^X-0<J[lTJV.

S. -aonrjv -aifiT]v -e6nr}v -ovfJLTjv -OOfMTJV -OVfJiTJV

-aov -o) -(OV -OV -OOV -OV

-QfTO -aro -f'rro -ftro -ofro -ovTO
D. -aofieOov -a>fif6ov -fOfifOov -ov^edov -ooficOov -OVflfOov
iNDia -dfo-Oov -aa-Oov -tcaOov -claOov -oeaOov -ovaOov
-aiaOrjv -d(rOr}v -etaOrjv -eia-Orjv -oeaOrjv -ova-Grjv
P. -aofifOa -oDfifOa -fOfJLfOa -ovfxeOa -oofjLfOa -ov^fOa
-dfaOf -aa-Of -f'fo-^f -eiaOe -oeorOe -ovcrOe
-aOVTO -biVTO -iOVTO -OVVTO -OOVTO -OVVTO

—
N.B, The remaining parts of these verbs, after Present and
Imperfect, are entirely normal, like those of nava.

§ 57 A- Contracted Verbs in Dialects.

VERBS IN An.

1. (a)In Epic, ordinary contraction was accepted, as rivBd for rjyiat, oparo,
ete., whererer it subserved the metre. But, »cUvo metro, contraction could be
onittt«d« M
yoioity. yairrSMty (yaitTitf would be in Epic metrically inadmis"
dbleX or the vowels were dealt with so as to produce, by assimilation, a
prolonged A sound or a prolonged O 80und. Hence ad (rarely da), frequently
oat of M or Ml, bv nrogreesive assimilatiun, where the Attic would brin^ out a
abi0» «, and om (rarely mo or **«), out of ao or am, by regressive assimilation,
where Attic would take «• (aot becoming oy).
ip^if Ep. hpi^t hpaut Ep. b(t6iu

ipitiy ,, ifi^AP atridoio ,, atT«i(tio

Doric ipatf. (iim in Epic haa only the A extension, as jd^ <, but «w^.)
 : ,

110 VEBBS IN fJLl. [§ 58*

Similarly, contracting futures in -Xo-w follow this analogy, whence 5o^d<f

ikooXTL, Epic for bofidti, eAaov<ri.
Exauiplos of assimilation of vowel, under exigencies of the verse, Ist (ia),
Hvaea-Bat, Kpic u.ria<rHai. 2nd (wo), rj^dovTei, Epic ^^ciofTfS.
(;3) In the dual of some imperfects tj appears in contracted forms where in
Attic a would be expected. ovKtjttjv, from avKda also in bpjjai, 2nd sing. Pres.
;

Mid. of opdto.
(y) ow is thinned down frequently to ew, as ixtvoiveia, optu. (Cf. Gen. PL of
1st or A. Decl.)
(5) xpewMf'o? in Oiti Ionic, where -«ui results out of -ao (c/. 'ArptCBeia and
•5ao). So frequently in New Ionic, snch as Ti/aewi/Tes.

VERBS IN Efl.
Contraction often omitted, unless where e meets another « or <i, as
2. (a)
Tappet, thence ToLpj3*i, both in Old Ionic vHomer) and in New Ionic (Herod.).
(\ et iSee open in Herod.) The contraction of eo or «ov to tv occurs in both, as
TToceuert for n-oi^ovai, especially in verbs where «w is preceded by a vowel, as
^e'o^ai, voe'w, etc.
03) Where e meets tai and eo, as in fivOitai, 2nd sing, of uvOioftai, the Ionic
has two courses, either (1) dropping t, whence fivOiat, or (2) contracting «« into
ec, whence (iv9flai : and similarly, for dnuaipteo, iwoaipto, and for at5<'eo, aiS«lo.
(y) In Old Ionic, « of stem is often lengthened into ti, as <TeAec'<To from
Ttkeut, vt^Ktioi for vnKtu). Cf. the Epic -eiui in conjunctives in verbs in »xi.^
(5) i^iretAjjTTjf and oftopDiTTji/ from verbs in «'« are Epic and so non- Attic.

VERBS IN on.
8. (a) The new Ionic always contracts, but often into eu, as iStKaievv from
oiiratota). ^In this Ionic, verbs in -out and •<£(<> are assimilated to the namerous
class of verbs in •<(•>.)
(fi) In the old Ionic, these verbs in ow also contract, except where they ^lide
into combinations in -ow or^ -i»o-, as if coming from verbs in aw, as, from apow,
ap6c>t(ri, SfjiOiuVTO from fiijiooi, iSpvoma from iSpout.

§ 58. Verbs in /tt.

In this conjugation, the chief peculiarity is, that the

person-enciings are attached directly tc the verb-stem,
which ends almost always in a vowel, and this vowel
enables these verbs to dispense with a thematic vowel
of inflection. This vowel of the stem is usually length-
ened in the Indicative singular of the Present and Im-
perfect Active. Note further regarding these verbs
1. Verbs in ut have special inflections in certain tenses, m.,
in the Present, Imperfect, and (where it exists) the 2nd Aorist.
In other tenses the inflections are not different from those of
thematic verbs in a>. The 1st and 3rd persons in Pres. Indie.
Act. end in fit, at ; their couj. is usually in S> (circumflexed, be-
cause a contraction from ao), ea>) ; optative generally in rjvy 779, »;,
etc. ; imperative commonly in $1 ; infinitive in vol participle, ;

originally in vts, now generally in s, sometimes in av.

2. Verbs in m
fall into three great divisions.

(1) Those with no reduplication in Present, and with no

formative inserted (chiefly etfii, elfiiy and (prjui).
§ 58.] VERBS IN fli. Ill

(2) Those with reduplication in Present.

(3) Those with formative syllable {w, va, vrj) inserted.

3. of these di\isions is the most notable for its

The second
importance, and contains verbs having for stem- vowel a, e, o.
To these may be added verbs having v in their formative syllable,
belonging to' the third division All these stand in a certain rela- .

tion to thematic verbs in dw, ew, ooj, vq), into which they may be
transformed, and conversely, from such thematic verbs, verbs in
/xi may be formed, by three modifications :

Prefixing a reduplication (if stem has no

added formative syllable), . (Initial change). .

Lengthening the penult vowel. (Medial change). .

Substituting /it for &>, (Final change).

. . .

Vowel-characteristic. Thematic form. Form in /xi.

a XPa«*. lendy Ki-xprj-tii.

e St. Of-], placCj
o St. 5o-], give,
V * heiK-vv'Co, show. SeiK-vv-fii.

y.B.—There isno example, under this head, of stems in i reduplicating, for

«Ij»i and KtltLoi are of aiwt/ier type. There is no complete example of a stem in
V without fonmvtive insertion traces of such in Aa^iVat.
; (In Ki-w-fjiat., ainJ/bi'.
w is formative, and probably also in ya-i'v-Mai).

4. JFhen a present tense in fii admits reduplication^ i is the vowel

employed.'^
Where the stem begins with a combination of letters not ad-
mitting full reduplication (as, with a vowel, or a pair of conso-
nants not a mute and a liquid), this t is simply prefixed, but with
aspiration, as compensation for dropped initial.

St. [c-] = i-T}-fii, hurl. St. [ora-] = t-<m;-/it, set up,

(for <rt-crr»;-/xt, cf. si-sto).

This reduplication with i l)elongs only to Present and Im-

6.
perfect, and the 2nd Aorist has simply the ordinary augment of
« as Pre.s. dt'-dw/xt, Im})erf. (-bi-bavy but Fut Sw-o-w (aonormal
;

dtdaxrco), 2nd Aor. Mid. e-86-^rju.

6. Verbs inserting a formative v after the stem (making pa or
vy after a consonant, vw after a vowel), dispense with reduplica-
tion of Present stem, whence st. Kpffi- forms as Kprjfx-uTj-ni, also
byform Kpffui-, whence Kpffidvuvni, suspend; st. fii*c-, whence Sct/c-,
and thence dtU-uv-fju, show.

» differ* from the oth-

» ;i tliis list, inasmuch as it belongs not to
the root but t^) the formii- innerted. This division of stems in w
embmcea (1) pure or vocalii ri-i tJ-jnai, ri-yv-fuii, (2) consonantal stems
a«(a) IJqnid OM-n/'Mi. oA-Avwi. .pn. ui (fi) .Spirant [vKtiav-yvfJii] ; <rKt6itvvni, =
(f f(r-Kv>AtJ =
iy-yv-m ; (y) Guttural Mute, tiU-yv-m, tlftyvwiu, irVfyi/v-M*, ax-w
Mot, etc.
3
T^9Km, from
So with moat tbenuttic presents when reduplicating, m in ii-ipivKm, n-
iteiiu <p«:, rp«».. See f 70, l.
112 VERBS IN fJLl.
[§ 59,

7. Verhs in wjii^ besides wanting reduplication with t, have

no 2nd Aorist nor forms for conjunctive and optative in Present.
These moods they supply by borrowing from the kindred form in
vo), which, after 400 B.C., supplanted /it forms almost entirely.
8. The third division of verbs in is sporadic, either frag- /it

ments of Presents Act., like bd^-vr^-yn^ or Presents Mid. with no

extant Active voice, as hvvdfiaiy ndpvdfiaL with short vowel dlCr)- :

fxai, etc., with long vowel.

§ 59. I. Verbs in fit dispensing with Eeduplication

AND WITHOUT FORMATIVE SYLLABLE (w OR m).

1. ElfiL, am. (Stem eV- as in esse.)

Pres. Indie. Conj. Opt. Imper.
S. 1. etV*(for6V-/^O W €i7}V
2. €l (eU Ion.) 279 €177? l<t6l
3. i(T-TL* V €a-T(0
^Iv
D. 2. icT-TOV* T/TOV €Lr)TOV ea-Tov
3. ia-Tov* T/Tou el7]T7)v, eirrjv ea-Tcov
P. 1. ia-^iv* io/jL€V eirjfieu, elfiev

2. eV-re* ^jre €LTjTe (elre Poet.) ea-re

earcop or
(
3. eUl* &)(7i e'lTjaap or elev <; 6vT(ov(Yaiie)
ea-Ttaaav

Inf. elvat (for ia-vai). Part, wi/ oiyo-a oj/. Gen. oi/to?, etc.

Imperf. tj orrjv tJi/, ^ada,

^toj/ or tJo-toi^, ^Tjyi/ or tjo-ttjv
; ;

or ^o-re, rjcrav.
97/xei^, 97Te
Future, eao^ac. Kegular, except 3rd sing. eaTUL (for
eaerat, which is poetic). Opt. iaoi^rjv etc.,
Inf. eaeaOai, Pep. ea6fievo<;.
Verbal, avv-eareov.

Obs. 1. An Aorist and Perfect may be supplied from ^vw, yiyvoixai', Aor.
i^vv or iytv6iJ~y\v Perf. ire(})VKa or yeyova.
;

2. The ijarts with an asterisk (*), viz., the dissyllabic parts of Present Indie,
are enclitic in accent. (The non-enclitic els is by many written tU.)
3. ^ of 1st Sing. Imperfect is from Ionic «a. Js is late and bad for the 2nd
Person, v in fiv of 1st Person may represent fi, but v in 3rd Person is the v f<^.
after t, from the archaic it, presupposed in the extant ea, ea?. rtfjLtiv an Im-
perfect Middle = rji' is late and bad.
4. Dialectic varieties are :—
Pres. Dor. «m*M'i *o'-fi, ef-n'; I , ;
j
elfiii, , evrC.
Ion. els I I
elixtv, , edo-i-
 §59.] VERBS IN ^lL. 113

Conj. Ion. «w, etc., also -ei'w in composition. Opt. Ion, eotixi, etc.
Imper. Ep. e(T-<To. Dor. itro. Inf. Ep. itt.-y.evai, (i.e.io'-fievan),
in4t(i; ifievai and e/nef. Part. lon. <w»'.

Iinperf. Ion. ea, eas, oj»', and i5'J»'i PI. (are, eaav. Fut. Ep. e<T<rotiai, etc.

5. «iM.t is for «o--Mi L. «»»* for €«-u-mO with compensatory lengthening for
(</.
loss of <r. The Epic consistently adopted «ifi<V in 1st PI. Compare eVai from
iywfii, where t is compensatory for <r. el of 2nd Person is for ea-a-i still found
in Epic, thence [<<ri] and by § 9, 1, «7. iari notable as containing both stem of
verb and personal ending in their oldest Greek forms, eio-t 3rd PI. is for icr-mi.
Coni. w is for ia-u, whence the Ionic iu. etrji/ is for itr-i-q-v (<;;'. Ti9e-ir}-v and siem
in old Latin =
sim). elvan. is for [ia-vai]. The Ionic Participle eujv is the first
change from iaotv (cf. Latin sens of ab-sens for escns, and English sooth , i.e.,
t*$tnct), but in utv, the Attic Participle, the stem «? has been entirely abraded.
In the Imperfect >} of 1st Person seems older than V- Original form 7ls-m,
thence in Greek [>jo--a], whence ijo, uiiaugmented «a, contracted tJ. 3rd Sing,
originally as-t, whence Doric ^? lor ijor. But, as in Perfects and 1st Aorists
the 3rd Sing, took f , thence [i^<r<(i')], ^f(i'), iff ; here the v became fixed and
adhered. e<rdv of Epic is nearer to Latin erant than the augment-bearing Jjo-av.
Future is for «o--o-o^ai, which exists in Homer. In the Pep. of this verb and
of tlfjLi (ffo), there is a transition to the form in cor as if from a Thematic verb in
w, but with accent retaine<l on laat (oxj't-one) as being from verb in fii.

2. Elfit, sliall go} (Stem l as in i-re.)

Pres. Indie. Conj. Opt. Imper.

S. 1. el-fiL X-w X-OLfJit, l-OL-7]V

2.6^ X-r,, X-OL^ X-di

3, el-cTL <^-v
X-OL X-rco
D. 2. t-Tov X-rjTOv X-OiTOV X-rov
3. t-TOV X-7JT0V L-01T7)P X-TCOU
p. 1. t-^lev X-a)fiev X-Oifl€V
2. r-re X-rjre L-0LT6 X-T6
3. X-aai X-ooaL X-oiev X-Ttacrav or I-ovtwv
Inf. l-i-vai. Part, l-covt l-ovaa, l-ov. Gen. l-ovro^, etc.

Imperfect (with endings of a Pluperfect).

Singular. Dual. Plural.

1. jja (rjeip) rjeifiev or -pfieu

2. jJ€L(T6a, Tfcrda, 7J€l<; yeirov or 17x01^ ffeiTe or fjre
3. 17c t or fi€L{v) TJeiTTjv or rjrTju jjeaav or yaau.
Obs. 1. Initial throughout, as the accent of I0t shows. The Parti-
I i« skort
ciple uiK has thematic termination, on which see Obs. 5 on uv of ei^t, No. 1.
2. The so-called Imperative in n in only in composition (as irpoo-ci from
wpiaum, for irpbattft), but may be Indicative.
8. Verbals are ir6t, ir^ot, also injWo?, chiefly in neuter, injWoi'.

I Future in Attic to fp^oMai, po. The Future meaning belongs chiefly to the
Indicative Mood, and not at all to the Imperfect jftiy.
s «Z< non-Attic, tlo^a in Epic.
8
114 VERBS IN yLtt.
[§ 59.
4. 'i€fj.ai, hurry, often taken .as Middle Voice to tills verb, is probably a
mistake for Uncu, haste, the Middle of irj/bn.

5. The
lejiRthening of tlie stem vowel c into «i is notable. It is the same
kind of lengthening as in nei6u> from stem ni.9, but in elfxi it is limited to the
singular with its lighter personal endings, and disappears before the heavy
endings in dual and plural. Cf. riflij^i with long rj only in sing, in Prea. Ind.
6. Dialectic varieties are :— Ep. Ck)nj. lonev, Inf. Ifievai, and Ifiev. Imperf.
Epic and Ionic ^ta and fi'iov, etc., and also without augment Ittji/, I^ef, laav.
Attic Optative, ioiriv, also Epic Ititiv. Epic Future clo-o/^ai, Aorist fiva^ir^v.

3. <fyrjij,l, I say. (Stem <^-, Lat. fa-ri)

Active.

Present.
luJic. Conj. Imper. Inf.

S. 1. (jyrj/xL* ^w (paOi, or (j)ddi (j>ai/at

2. d)/;? 4>V^i 6tc. (fxiTa), etc.

*
3. (fyrjai Opt Part, (hardly Attic),
D. 2. (f>dT6v* <f>alriv (^a? (/)acra (fidv.

3. (parov* ^at?/?, etc. (jxiaKoyv (commonly,

P. 1. (pa/jbiu* (paLTjfjiev and <f>aLfjL€v = alley ing).
2. a^are * <f>a('qTe
3. (pdal* (fyalev

Imperf. e<fyrjv, €<t>Tj(Tda (I^t;? rarely), €(j>rj ; €(f)dTov,

icjxiTrjv ; e<f)a/JL€v, e^are^ €<pd(Tav {e<f>dv Ep.)

Flit. <f)ij<TQ). 1st Aor. €(t>7](Ta. Conj. (pijao), etc. (except

Imperative).

Middle and Passive (rare in Attic).

Fragments of present in Epic. Ind. <j)d(T6€, Imper.

<f)do, </)ao-^a), etc. Inf. <j>dcrdac. Part. (f>dfievo^,

Imperf. icftafirjv, etc., like la-r^^rjp.

Fut, (f>i,(TOfiah (Pindar).
Perf. Trec^drat. Imper. Trecpdado), he it said. Part.
7r€(t>aa-fj,ii^o^ (may be from <l>alv(t)).

Verbals (f)dT6^, <f)dT€o<;.

Obs.— 1. The other parts are supplied from Xe'yw, elirov, tlptiKo, etc.
2. The parts marked with an asterisk (*) are enclitic. <J»|j?, a traditional
form of 2nd Person, through epentheti* of i in original 4>ri-<ri. <j>i;c is more
analogical.
§60. VERBS IN fJLl. 115

3. A fourth verb of this tj'pe not reduplicating is the fragmentary 'Hfxi (/ say,
cf. Latin a-jo). Only a few forms in use of this verb tj/xc, say I, Imperf. in the ;

Attic phrases, ^i* 6* ryci, qv/>th I, i} 6* os, said he, Homeric ^ in ^ pa.

N.B.— Under this heading, among non-reduplicating verbs, may be ranged

a few relics of verbs in /xt having long vowel throughout, as a/>j/u.i, breatht, blow,
a»)(Ti. Iijroj', aijTo. With this analogy, compare the long vowel prevailing in
- as «|3i)«'. eo-TTji', iyviav, etc., in the dual and plural (except in such as
If e^Tjtrav), as well as in singular of indicative. iXtj^«, a)u propitiovut,
\ - ; imperative lAijflt and iKaiet.

§ 60. 11. Verbs in /jll Reduplicating, and III., In-

serting Formative Syllable (i/u, va).

—
N.B. Almost every verb in /it has its present tense in the
active voice transitivej except the two verbs et/it, and also ^i^Tjfii,
iXriin, arjfu. Regarding verbs in -»;/lii, two types prevail, viz.,
1<mjfxi for stems in a, TiOrjin. for stems in e. The former has the
more numerous following, as e.g., Kixpr^yn, rrifXTrXTj^i, nifnrprjfxi, etc.,
inflected with a predominating in tneir presents and imperfects.
This group is further augmented by a group of medio-passive
verbs liaving no active, as dvvafiaij ayafxai, (ma-Tafiai. On the
other han<l, ridrffu. has no very great following except irjfii, but
the number and strength of their compounds sutfice to preserve
this pair of twins in the first rank.

ACTIVE VOICK
Present Tense.
Indicative.
Singular, Dual. Plural.
^^IUSs
charact.
(a) icrrrjfii, -rj<; -rjac aTOP -arov -afjLev -are -aac ^

(e) TidrjfML -T)^ -r)(n •€Tov -erov -€fJL€P -€T€ -ela-i^ (At.eda-c)
(6) BlBcOflL -Q)<;-a)(TL orov -OTOV ofi€v -ore -ov(Tc\At.6d(Ti)
(v) BeiKvvfjic -v<i -vat, rvrov -vrov -vfieu -vre -vat (Atvaai)

Conjunctive
taT(o -V -f)TOV -rJTOV
ri6(t) -V 't]TOV -TJTOV -ci)fjL€V -oyai
-9> -CiTOV -0)TOV -<afi€P -wre -(oai

BeiKvvco -rj<; -i;, etc., like conj. of iravco.

» ivra^, according to aome, m

cnmins direct from a primary I<rTain.
3 Tittlvi and iiAovvi, aa Srd plural, are Ionic and post-Attic.
116 VERBS IN fJLL. [§eo.

Optative.

-V -rjTOv -rjTOV I -7J/JL6V -rjTe -ev

-V -r^TOV -rjTOv -rjfiev -rjT€ -ev
-V -rjTOV 'TJTOV I
-rifxev -rfre -ev

BeLKVvoi/jLi, -0*9 -ot, etc., like opt. of iravw.

Also, without ij in dual and plural, l<Tra.lTov, etc., jLetlTov, etc., ht-holrov, etc.

Imperative.

-CLTOV -arayv -are -aroyaav or -uvtcov

{riOeri) TiOet -era) -erov -€T(t)v -ere -ercoaav or -ivrcov
{BlBoOl)^ BlBoV -OTft) -OTOV -OTCOV -ore -orayaav or -ovrwv

{heUvvdi) BeUvv -tna. -VTOV -VTCOV -VTe -VTOjaav or -vvrcov

Infiuitive.

lartivaL Tidevav BiBovai BeiKvibvai

Participle.

N. tardvT^;] lardq -daa -av G. -dvTO<; -da7)<; -dvTO<;

Tt^ei/T?] Tidei^ -eicra -ev G. -evTO<; -etcr?/? -evTo^i
BihovT^^ BiBov<^ -ovaa -ov G. -oj/to? -ovar]^ -6vto<;
BecKvvvT<i] BeLKvv<; -vaa -vp G. -wto? -varj<; -vvTo<i

Imperfect.

Indicative.

Singular. Dual. Plural.

L(TT7)V -179 -77 -aTOV -drrjv -dfiev -are -oaav

eriO'qv -7/9 -v' -erov -errjv -efiev -ere -eaav
eBlBcov -0)9 -co* -OTOV -OTTJV -ofiev -ore -oaav
iBeUvvv -v^i -V -irrov -vTTjv -v^ev -vre -vaav

1 The philological division of syllables here is properly l-a-ra-Cri-y,

2 fii'Soi as Imperative in Pindar (ter.)

3 Better -en, -ei.

i Better -ovs, -ov. See § 61, 4, C.

§60.] VERBS IN flL. 117

II. AORIST.
Indicative.
€<TT7]V^ -7j<i -rj -7)T0V -iJttjv -1J/J,€V -rjT€ -T]aav
I

[edrjv -r}<; -/;] '

-erov -irrju -e^ev -ere -eaav
[ISoji/ -0)9 -Q)] -OTov -oTrjv -ofiev -ore -ocrav
BeiKvvfjLL, by § 58, 7, has uo ll. Aorist. (ec^ui^, etc., in
§ 63, A. 3.)
Conjunctive.
OTW 0-7779 (TTTJ (IT1)T0V (JT1)T0V arw^ev aTJ]Te arcoat
eS} Ofi^ Sfi 6r)T0v drjTOv dcj/Jiev OrjTe Ooxrt
Bat §0)9 Bw 8(OT0V BojTOV

Optative.
arairjv -779 -rj -77-01^ -77x771/ rjfiev -77T6 -€V
deirjv -779 -V -7}T0V -77x771/ 7]fl€V -77X6 -ev
Soirjv -779 -V -rjTOP -tJttjv 7JfM€V -77X6 -ev
Also, without 7| in doal aud plural, trralTov, etc., dtlrov, etc., Solrov, etc.

Imperative.
arrjOt, ot^tq) arrjre aT7]T(oaap or aravroDv
$€<; diro} Oirov d€T(OP dire Oercoaav or devrcov
569 3oxo) SoTOV 86x0)1/ hore BoTcocrav or Sovrcov

Infinitive.

arrjvaL ^ Oelvat

Participle.
axa9 (TTaaa arav dei<; delcra 6ev Bov<; Bovaa Bov

Remainder of the Active Voice is like Tliematic Verhs

in (o,

Fut I. Aor. Perf. Plup.

^
(TTTJCTQ) earrjaa ecTTTjfca (6(7- or) ela-riJKeiv
OrjacD eOrj /ca Ted'ztKa iredeUetp
B(i)(T(D eBo) Ka BeBcoKa iBeBayxeiv
Bei^Q) cBec^a BeBeLxO' iBeBelx^iv

I <<rni»' haa naator mum, / ttood. The transitive mdm of PreMnt Imini is
oontinaed by ivnt^a (1st Aorist).
3 Prom [^ra-^yai, 9«<«yat, So-tfot]. Jofcfat found in Cyprian.
» Or •«!». p. ^. n. 8.
-•/.
 118 VERBS IN UL. [§60.

MIDDLE VOICE.
Present Tense.
Indicative.
Singular, Dual. Plural.

Lard/jLaL -aat -rat -fiedov -adov -aOov -fieda -ade -vrai

ridefiai -aai, -rai -fiedov -adov -adov -fled a -ade -vrai
hiBo/juaL -aat -rat -fxedov -adov -aOov -fieda -ade -vrac
BeUvvfiaL -(Tat, -rat -fiedov -adov -adov -fieda -ade -vrat

Conjunctive.
laTcofiai-fj -rjratl-cofiedov-rjadov -rjadov (Ofieda-TJade -covrac
TidcofiaL-fj -rJTacl-cofiedov -rjadov -r}adov (Ofieda-rjade -covtul
BLB(t)fiaL-Q)-(OTai\-(i}fiedov-(oadov-(oadov (jafieda -ayade-cavrai
BeiKvvcofiaL like Travoyfiai.

Optative.
iaraifi7}v -o -to -fjuedov -adov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vto
Tcdeifirjv -0 -TO -fiedov -adov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vro
hiBoifirfv -o -TO -fiedov -adov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vro
BeLKVvoifirjv like Travoifirjv.

Imperative.
laToao OTiaTu;>-dadco -aadov-daduyv -aade -dadwaav, -dadcov
Tideao or Tidov-eadco ,-eadov -eadtov -eade -eadcoaav, -eadcov
B/Boao or BiBov -oaday \-oadov -oadcov -oade-oadcoaaVy -oadcov
BeiKvvao -vadco.-vadov-vadoyv -vade-vadcoaav, vadcov

Infinitive.

laraadai Tideadai BiBoadai BeUvvadai

Participle.

iardfievo^ Tidefievo*; BiB6fievo<i BeLKVvfievo<;

Imperfect.
laTa -fiTfv -ao -adov
-to\ -fiedov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vto
eride -firjv-ao -to -fiedov -adov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vto
eBiBo -fiTjv -ao -to -fiedov -adov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vto
eBeiKvv-firjv -ao -to -fiedov -adov -adrjv -fieda -ade -vto
 §60.] VERBS IN /i-t. 119

II. AoRiST (none in huKvvfii).

[€ara-/ir)v^ -ao -to -aOov -aOrji' -fjLeda -aOe -VTO]
-fiedov
€06 -fJLr]V -(TO^-TO -fieOov -adov -aOr^v -fieOa -crOe -VTO
iBo -fiTju -ao^-TO -fiedov -aOov -adrjv -fieOa -ade -VTO

Conjunctive.
[arw-fiai -f}
-T^ravl-co/jLeOov -rjaOov -rjadov -(Ofieda -rjaOe -cjvTai]

6(t)-fiaL -r) -rjrai -oifxedov -rjaOov -rjadov -(Ofieda -rjade -(ovTat,

Bco-fiac -o5 -(oraL-cofieOov -(aaOov -a>a6ov -(OfieOa -axrde -(ovrai,

Optative.
[crrai-fiTjv -o -to -fxeOov -crdov -crdrjv -fieda -aOe VTo]
OeL-firjv -o -TO -fiedov -adov -adrfv -fieOa -aOe VTO
Bol-fi7}v -0 -TO -fieOov -adov -aSrjv -fieda -crOe VTO
Imperative.
[aTaao or otw -daOco-aadov -da6(ov\-aa6e -da-Ocoaav, da6(ov]
{deao or) Oov -€<t6(o •eadov -ead(ov \-eade -ea-dcoaav, eaOcov
(Boao or) Sov -oaOo) o<t6ov -6a6a)v\-oa-6e -oadcoaav, 6ad(ov

Infinitive.

[(TTaaOat] SeaOai hoadai

Participle.

[aTdfJL€V0<i\ 6efievo<; 86fievo<i

Remainder of Middle and Passive is like Theinatic

Verbs in o).

Mid. only. Mid. and Pass. Pass. only.

Fut. L Aor. Perf. Plup. Fut. I. Aor.

arrjaofiai iaTTjadfirjv eaTCLfiai eaTafnjv OTadijaofiat, ia-Tadrjv

Bi]aofiat idrjKdfiTjt^ TedeifjLaL eTeOelfiriv TeSriaofiai iTedrjv
Btoaofiai ihdJKdfiTfV* BeBofiaL iBeBofjLijv BodrjaofiaL eB66r}v
heiJ^ofUii ihei^dfirjv Beheuyfiai iBeBeiryfirjv Becx^V^Ofiai eBeCx'^riv

1 This ia only %pouihU II. Aor. Mid. inpiatnuv, bought (2n(l sing. «irpiw), mav
be used, if an extant ii. Aor. Mid. is required. ItA Imperative is irpiw, ana
Infinitive wpUaean (accent is higher than in ottier li. Aor. Infinitives).
s Also Mov and iiov in 2nd singular. ii6tt.r\v is cliiofly in composition, as

' Ionic and Doric (non-Attic).

« Late.
120 VERBS IN fit. [§60.

o
o o o
o
b^^ 3>

^^ b <5:i <cb
Hi
"^
\U
^^
t- h h

.1
b ^«
b
b b
1^ b b^ ^ <^ <^
(U Ol (u
t- h t-

o
ca<:b
= 5^ ^

p. cj.

I ^
5?*
4- °
O 5^"!^
P- 3- ^^ b vg- 3-
o t_ o
b
^ P* U;
<^^«:ti
<i*

<^ ^h (U (U
h h h
<u

-3

^ ;^
3 Q ^a»

|c3 § 3- 1.
tS^ «3
^
S
<^ Q^Qi
«3 (W \u
<5i h
-a

2;
•.a

1- 1
5i pC:
U; ?<5i
<« ^^^
r^?;^^^
•^
t, "U^ <^ >U* I— I t- -^ l- •'Vy ^ •(« •>«> I, "u;
^, (w t^ -!W t.

CO T O
o
II fill § CO5
o
« s^.;^ a.
^a
c a =
=j «
P-t I— rH 1— (M Ph
I I P-t

•3AI10Y •aiaaij^ 'aAissv^j

§ 61.] VERBS IN ^li. 121

§ 61. Verbs ix yttt Continued.

"Itj^l (set a-going), send, Eoot ya, Greek stem 1,^ Present
stem L-e, for yi-ye, is inflected chiefly like TidTjfxc, having
e for characteristic vowel.

Active Voice.
Pre^, InJic. Conj. Opt. Imper.
S. 1 L-rj-fic l-a> l-e-L7}v
2 T-t;-? or /et9 t-^-9 i-eir)<i [fe^/,] t-ei

3 i-Tj-ai, i-^, etc. t-eiV;, etc. t-e-ro*

D. 2 l-e-TOV L-€-TOV
3 i-e-Tov l-e-T(t)v
P. 1 7-€-/j,ev

2 T-e-re T-e-re
3 /-ao-t l-e-Tooaav

Inf. L-i-vat. Participle /-ei? (ie. i-e-U), l-elaa, l-e-v.

Imperfect. Sing. Dual. Plur.

t-T;i/ t-etl/ t-OUI/ L-6-fl€U
2 r-779 or tet? T-e-Toi/ i-e-re [in acfarjixL)
3 i-77 or i-6t l-e-TTjp i-6-aav (also r)(f>Lovv
These parta in the singular are, in prose, chiefly in compounds.

Future, rjaco, etc. Regular. 1st Aorist ^xa (except in

3rd plural, rarely beyond Indie. Sing.), (yrj/ca jec-i). =
2nd Aorist (not used in Indie, singular).
Indie. Conj. Opt Imper.
S. 1 ^-/ca
* ft) eXijv

2 ^-^a? * 179 et?;? ^?

3 ^-/ce * ]7 €M7 e-TO)
D. 2 e-TOi/ rf-TOVt etc. eCrfTOV, etc. e-roz/
3 e-T7;i/ €-TCOV
P. 1 e-/A€i/, better el/ttei/ (i.e. with augment) e-re
2 e-T€, „ elT€ e-ToxTav or
3 e-aav, „ elaav, also ^«ai/. evrcov

1 others take It as for <ri-(rr|-^t, aow, so that {•rtfc = Latin $a-tu4.

122 VERBS IN jJLL.
[§ 61.

Inf. elvau. Participle et-?, el-cra, e-v.

Perfect, el-xa. Regular. Pluperfect, eUeiv. Regular.

(Probably for ye-ye-Ka, whence k-eKa, elxa).

Middle Voice.
Pres. Indie. Conj. Opt. Imper.
S. 1 i-e-fiai, l-(o-/jLaL l-e-ifirjv, etc. 7-€-(ro, etc.
2 i-e-aai, etc. l-fj, etc.

Inf. L-e-a-dai. Participle l-e-^evo^. Imperfect, l-e-fjLrjv, etc.

Futtcre, rjcro^ai. Regular. 1st Aorist, rjKdfjiT)v. Regular,

but rare, only Indie, and only in compounds.

2nd Aorist.
Indie. Conj. Opt. Imper.
S. 1 €7-fjL7fv^ e-/M7jv (a-^ai €L-firjv
2 el-cTo €-aro, etc. 77 el-o ov
3 el-To, etc. cto rj-Tat, etc. el-ro, etc. e-aOw, etc.

Inf. e-adai. Participle e-/ievo?.

Perfect. Indie. el-fiaL. Imper. ^-ao. Inf. el-aOat,. Part.

ei-/j,ivo<;.

Phiperfect. ei-fi7)v. Regular.

Passive Voice.
Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, as above in
Middle.
Future, e-Orj-crofiai. Regular. 1st Aorist e-dr^v, gener-
ally eWr)v. Conj. kOca, etc. Verbal, in composition,
-6X09, as dipero'i.

1. Attic forms are, according to 4, 5, under, Pres. Conj. tw,

icu/iai (for IS), ia)fiai), Pres. Opt. tot/xt, ioifirjv (for ifirju, Uifirjv), etc.

2. Epic Inf. l(^€vm, 1st Aorist crjKa, also dvfo-et for dinjafi.
fif^erififvos of Herodotus for ixfOcifitvos, as if from fKrio) for
Hfdirj^i, with preposition reduphcated. A Doric Perf. is (ccoko),
whence in New Test, a Perf. Pass. d<f)((iifiai for dcfxl^ai.
3. OCt* cinrjv and cwro occur thrice in one voice.

1 Epic and Ionic.

 — —

§ 62.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 123

4. N.B. iTjixi, d(da>/i(, and riOrjfxi resemble each other so as to

form a group with these six peculiarities :

(1) The 1st Aor. Act. is in -ko, of which only the Indicative
is used, and that, too, rarely beyond the singular,
except in 3rd plural.
(2) The 2nd Aor. Act, has forms for all that the 1st Aor.
wants, but no Indicative singular, which it borrows
from the 1st Aor.
(3) The 1st Aor. Mid. ends iu -Kafirjv, but is n on- Attic,
except in rjKaiirjv from 177/ti.
(4) The 2nd Aor. Mid. is complete of itself, having sing.
of Indicative of its own.
(5) The Conjunct, and Opt. in Pres. and 2nd Aor. Mid.,
which show by their accent that they are contracted,
as e.g. rida> for rt^fo), etc., may sometimes form in
Attic like iion-contracted verbs in w, etc., hence riOoi-
fiat for the normal ndafiai, ridoifirjv for TtOeifirjv ;

avvdoifirjv for avvdfl^Tjv, npooifiT]v, etc.

(6) The Imperfect Singular Active forms often in Attic,
as if from -fo) and
especially in 3rd Person, as
-oo),
e8id-ovv -ovs -ov ; Ui, irlQei. (In Ionic this forma-
tion extends into Present, as StSoI? and bibol, and some
prefer nOfii and Wis for rt'^j^y, etc., in Attic.)

?5 62. Anomalous and Defective Verbs.

1. olhay 1 know, anciently FolBa.
An old Perfect from the stem Fi8 (= Latin vid,
English wit, wist, etc.), and signifying / ain aware, I
know, used as a Present.
Obs.— The vocalisation is very peculiar, two extensions of the i of stem, «i
and 01, beinf employed in its inflection. Besides it is notable as showing no
trace of reduplication, just like the corresponding Sanskrit rcda and Gothic
vait. It resembles the Ionic oTxa, which, however, has ioiKa to show trace of
reduplication.

Perfect (as Present).

Indie. ^Couj. Imper. Inf.
s. 1 oUa elhevat
2 olada elSfjf:, etc. tadt
3 olS€ terra)
D. 2 larov Opt. XCTTOV Part.
3 toTOV elBeiTjv, etc. larcou €t8-w9 -via 09
P. 1 l(TfJL€V {i c, fe-fiSu)^)
2 tare tare
3 ta-da-i
124 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [§ 62.

Pluperfect (as Imperfect).

Sing. Dual. Plur.

1 yheiv (less Att.) and yhrj ySet/iev
.) frfSet? „ i7S7?<?(rare) wjj wrv
•' ''
\i)0€L(Tua „ 7jor)(Tua
3 yB€L{v) Tjhr) rjBeLTT]v rjhe<Tav{rfheL(jav)

Future, etaofiat,. Thematic and regular. (elBrjo-o) and

lB/}crfi) are poetic.) Verbal lareov.
1. and other seemingly regular parts are chietly
oiSas, oi8a/Afi/,
Ionic and late Greek. The o- in olaOa and in the parts beginning
with i<T- arises from the contact of b of stem pib or lb with
another dental. io--/ifi/ is through analogy, but the more regular
tb-fifv holds its ground in Ionic, Epic, and Doric, lo-ao-i is
believed to be for td-o-ai/rt. {Cf. Attic ft^aai, (from eU-aavri) =
toiKaa-i.)
2. ibfifvai, tbfifv for Inf., and tbvta for fern. Part, are Epic.
^Olic ITTOi =
lOTCJ.
3. In the Imperfect, jjbT} has arisen out of the Ionic fjbea. The
initial in this tense is from augment, ^b- is for f-tib-, cf. Epic
rj

fidbrj, he knew. In the Dual and Plur. the archaic € is sometimes

retained, as rjbert Eur. Bacch. 1343, and sometimes dropped alto-
gether, hence such forms appear as jjcmjp ; ^a-fiev, ^are, ^croj/, also
>\rithout augment the Epic la-av.
4. The stem in olba has been
subjected to remarkable treat-
ment, suggestive of hoary antiquity. From the simple stem pib,
divested of ita p, come the dual and plural of the Indicative, also
the whole Imperative from the lengthened stem €lb the Partic.
;

of the Present, with the Imperfect from the extended stem

;

(tb(, the Coniunctive, Optative, and Infinitive. Further, in the

singular of the Present Indicative, the lengthened stem elb has
been modified to o2b (cf. stem of nfiBa developing TrtVoi^a), but
this modification, like that in clfu go, stops with the singular,
and only in later Greek finds its way, in oiba, into the plural

2. ^fjLai, sit (stem probably 770-), only in poets.

N.B. —The original a holds its ground chiefly before
rai and to.
Present.
Indic, Imper. Inf.
S. 1 ^fiac ^crOai
2 ^aat> ^cro
3 riarai i^crOco
§62.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 125

Indie. Imper. Part.

D. 1 fjfiedov ri/ievo^i
2 ^adov TjcrOov
3 ^aOov ijaOcov
P. 1 ritieda
2 ritree ^ade
3 ^vrav rj(r6(o<Taif

feet ijfjLTjv, r^ao. ^aro ; rffieOov, etc. 3rd plur. ^vro.

N. —The Prose form is KaBrjfiaiy which is similarly inflected,

except that
(a) It drops the o- in 3rd Person before rat and to, as
KoBrjTai and Kadrjro or fKadrjTo {KadrjarOj Epic).
QS) It forms Conj. Kad&fiai, and Opt. KadrjfjLTjv {Ka6oifirjp
doubtful),
(y) In Imperf. it Tnay prefix augment, as eKaBfjfirjv.
Obs.—The aspirate in finai is notable (Sanskrit is ffs, to tit), arising through
contagion from the stem of similar sense sed, in Greek iS, whence e6os, sedile and
our teat. Chief verbal parts of this latter stem are elcra, Iseated^ Epic eo-o-a, Infin.
_

iaaat ; cttrauiji', Epic iaaafirfv i<T(rofjiai. Defects supplied by ifipvw or KaOi^m.

;

3. tcel/MiL^ I lie. (In form a Present Middle.)

Present.
Indie Sing. Dual. Plur
1 KelfjbaL 1 Kelfiedov 1 KeifjLeOa
2 KelaaL 2 KelaOov 2 KelaOe
3 Kelrai 3 tceladov 3 KelvraL

Conj. Opt Imper. Infin. Pt

^ Kelcro
]

[tC€7j] [k€OLo] Keicrda) Keladai Keif

KerjraL * k€octo,* etc.

Imperfect eKcifjirjv, eKeicro, etc. Future Keiaofiai,, etc.

Note.—«ftfiai. especially in compounds, supplies seconc form to Perf.
alies a second
PaM. of Ti&mu ; thus 8iar<0ciM<u may exp: by jioxet^ou.

1 Stem «t. akin to qui-, in Latin ^uie^ro. Coioiate is kv/xti, Cuma, and our
komu. The neishtening of i to fi is pervasiTe (not partial as in «V(, go). In
CoqJonctiTe and Optative the atom glides into the thematic form with ordinary
nnion-voweL
* For Mf-mfiai.
* For Kty-infiriv.

* Only in 8nl Persons ; Epic Co^J. sometimes with $hort vowel x^rrat (whence
written as ««irat), i.e. myvrcu.
126 archaic parts. [§ 63.

§ 63. Archaic Aorists in Verbs now elsewhere

Thematic.
Some verb.s, now chietly thematic, have an Archaic Aorist,
commonly called the 2nd Aorist, adding terminations directly to
the sterrij and therefore bel«)ng in so far to the analogy of verbs
in -/At.

(A) Vocalic Stems— Active Voice— Archaic Aorists in

-avt -r]v, -vvt -a>v.^

1. (With vowel a.) Certain stems in a form an aorist in -rju,

having Conj. -St, -airjv, -rjBi, -rjvai^ -as, and so inflect like earrrju ;

e.ff. ^a (.stem of ^aiva, (jo\ 2nd Aorist f/ii?;*', went rXa = endure^ ;

fT\j]v. With p, stems have -pdi/, with a for ^, as 8pa (stem of

-St-fipd-o-KO), rim away^ only in composition), -ebpav Spci, Spas, ;

hpa ; 8palr)u, etc.

2. (With vowel «.) A few stems in € (for etr) form an aorist

in -Tjv, having -w, -eirfv, [-rjBt], -fjvaif -eis ; da a^t (stem of a-^evwfity
extinguish), fa-^T)v, vxis extinguished.
3. (With vowel v.) Stems in v form an aorist in -vu, having
Coni. -uo), -vrjv (^for •viTjv)^ -vuai, -vr, as (f)v (base of (f>vQ},
-vBi,
yroduce, grow), (<f)vv, greiv ; dv (base of Sua) and 8vv(o, sink, enter),
€dvv, saiiJc, set. (Indie. (8vu -vs -i ; -vtov, aic. Conj. dvco, Sv»/s,
dxiT], etc. Opt. 8v-T)v -rjs -1) ; -TfTov, etc., Imper. bvBi,
fiCei'. difra,
etc. Inf. fiOj/at. Part. 8vi, dvaa, 8vv ; bvvros, etG. So with €0vi',
except that Imperative is wanting.)
4. (With vowel o, a>.) Stems in o or a form an aorist -au, m
having Conj. -w, -oi'i/v (in some -(pT]v), -a>Bi, -dvai, -ovs, as yua
(stem of know), eyvau, wcis avxire, kneio, /3io- (stem of
yt-yi/w-o-KO),
/Stdo)), f^latv, /3ta), (iXa> (stem of dXt'o-KO-
^kotjv, /Sicirca, ^icovai, ^lovs ;

yxat, am taken), edkcav, loas taken, aXi, ^Xoi'j^i/, aXcai^at, SXovj, neut. -6v.
Obs.— 1. A
few vocalic stems in a have a non-theraatic aorist in dv with a
short, but this is only poetic and mostly Epic. Thus, from stem kto, from ktiu,
out of which has come KT«iyu>, has arisen tKrav, I slew, <<Tas, «<Ta, tKrafiev, tKrare,
«kt3.v ; Conj. Krtuy, Inf. KrSifjifvai and Krdntv, Pep. Kara-Krii. Also 2nd Aor.
Mid. «»cTdTo, wd-d «iain. Inf. jcTdo^ot, Pep. icra^efos. So ovrdu has fragments of
non-thematic Aor., ourd, he wounded, Inf. ovrdfitvai and ouT*Me»'. The stem of
weVo/uiai, .ff.v, in its form jtto has two non-thematic aorists, Act. (VTt]v,jlev:, Opt.
n-TaiTji', Inif. rrrrjj'ai, Pcp. ffrds ; also, Mid. eirra/ynji', Conj. TnTjToi, Inf. nrd^ffat,
Pep. nrdfievoi.
2. Among forms of 2nd Aorist from o or w stems, the most peculiar is
Pcp. of a non-thematic 2nd Aorist from n-Aoiw, Epic by-form of irKii^.
tjrurAuj?,
tVurXws disappeared before the sigmatic erriTrXevo-as.

(B) Vocalic Stems— Middle Voice— Archaic Aorists in

-dfiTjv, -ifirjv, AND -vfjLTjv — ChIEFLY EpIC.
-r)fJir]v,

1. In -dfiTjv the chief example is the isolated (irptofirjv, bought,

1 No example of stem in i in Active nearest approach is ; irl-Bi, an Imperative

cognate to emof, which is otherwise of the conjugation in w.
§ 64.] ARCHAIC PARTS. 127

already referred to (p. 119), as supplying model for the 2ud Aor.
Mid. lacking in icmjfu. Its chief parts are Indie, enpidfirjvj eTrpi'co,
enpidTOj etc. ; Conj., etc., Trpt'co/xai npialixrjv, npLa>, Trplaa-Bai, Trpid-
;

fievos The rest of its forms have perished.

Compare also u>vap.r]v, I throve, Opt. 6vaip,r)v, Inf. ovaadai,
in the 2nd Aor. Mid. of 6vivr)p.i, benefit, inflected in
Present like Hottjui and 7rt/x7rXj7/xi, Inf. ovivdvai, Pep.
ovivas, and having, from its future oi/jjo-w, a weak Aor.
avriaa transitive, helped.
2. In -f)fjiT)v an example is a by-form from the same verb
dvivijfjii, viz..Indie. (l)vr)p.T]u, 3rd person wi/r/ro, Imjjer. ovrja-o, Pej).
6vr}p,€vos. Also, from stem of mpTr\r}p.i, a 2nd Aor. Mid. enXr}-
firjv -(TO -TO, having in composition with ev. Opt. fp.-n\^p.r]v, Imper.

efin\T](ro, Pep. (fiTrXr^fifvos. There is also an Epic 677X77/171/, drew

nigh, from stem of TreXafo in its form ttXcl
{j:^* /SaXXo) is rich in strong aorists ; besides the ordinary
e^oXoi/, (^d\6nT]v, smote, it has Epic i^\r]p.r)v, was smitten,
^Xfja-Oai, etc., and traces of e^Xrjv.
3. In -ifiTju the most eomjjlete example is from (f)dia) or cpBivco^
2ud Aor. (<p3ifjir]v, perished, (f>$ia>p,ai, (^Bla-Bai, (f)dtp(vos. Relic of
stem of KTiCco, Krifjifvos, hwilt.
4. In -tp.r]v many relics, as Kkvp-evos, apL-nvvro. The most com-
plete is from x^^^ ^ 2nd Aor. of the form of [fx^M^\ whence
(\yro or x^''"* fx^*^*^' xvptvos.
X.B.— ?>om a stem in o or w, there seeiua no trace of a Middle Archaic
Aorist, except ovyyvoiTO from <rvyyiyi'<ii(r»c(ii, pardon.

(C) Consonantal Stems— Archaic Aorist in Active Voice.

None.

(D) Consonantal Stems— Archaic Aorist in Middle Voice

A few relics cmly survive.
From verb stem of aXXo/xat come 2nd sing. Sk-ao, 3rd Pers.
iX-ro, leaped, Pep. aX-ptvos ^ from verb stem of opuvpi, come
;

itp-To, he rose, Imper. op-ao. Pep. op-ptvos. So piKTo, 8(kto also ;

solitary Participles, up-p.tvos, aa-pifvos, iK-ptvos, etc.

§ 64 Archaic Forms of Perfect.

1.In an ancient variety of Perfect in -a, occurring now only
in a few verbs, the personal ending.^ and terminations are affixed
without any helping or phonetic vowel. These were formerly
taken t<) be synajpated forms, but the evidence rather jxjints to
their being independent forms, not arising from syncopation.

1 Sapeneded in the Uter time by the eigiiMtic oA^ti^. or the thematic

128 AECHAIC PARTS. [§ 64.

From the stem /^tS, we find, e.g., an ancient 1st Person

plural of a Perfect, i8-fi€v, and, only in later time,
o'id-a-fiev. The former is without phonetic vowel,
such as a appears to be in the later form.

2. No complete example of such an archaic Perfect has come

down to us in all its parts. The chief remains are in the dual
and plural of the Indie, also *A the Pluperf., with traces of Imp.
in 9i {Icr-Oi, KeKpa\-$i), Inf. in fxtp, fi(vai, d-vai (as id-fiev, etc.),
and Pep. in as. (Their Conj. in w and Opt. in aiijv and eirjv rest
on a thematic or quasi-thematic vowel.) tolerably complete A
example is the Archaic Perfect, from stem a-ra, stand, alongside
of the newer and more complete Perfect f-a-rrj-Ka.

1. Vocalic Stems.

Ai-chaic Perf. Indie. Sin^, — — —

, , ; Du. e-ara-rov, e-ara-
Tou ; PI. e-(TTd-fifv, f-a-rd-Te, c-ora-tri. Conj. eorco, -fjs, etc. Opt.
((TTairjv, Imper. earddi, etc.
etc. Inf. iardvai. Part. ioTws,
-cixra, -Q)s or -6s. G. -a)ros, -axrrjs, -ioTos.
Archaic Pluperf. Sin^j. , — — —
Du. e-ard-rov, i-crrd-Trjv
, ; ;

PI. e-ard-fiev, f-arrd-Tf, f-ard-trav. So alongside of TiBvrjKa, am

dead, ^(^rjKa, am gone,
occurs an older family of forms, riOvarov,
etc., having in Pep. -Sxra, -as or -6s, Epic -rjois
rcBvtois., but ;

/SfiStoy (Epic ^c^aa>s), like earas.

d(8ia, fear, st. fit or 81^ i (except in its singular persons, and then
not in Attic, which adopts bedoiKo), rarely forms with a or a
phonetic vowel thus :— ;

Archaic Perf. Du. 8f8iTov, dddXrov ; PI. 8e8iti€v, 8(8it€, 8e8ta<rt.

C(.nj. 8f8ia> ; Opt 8«8t€i7»/ (?) ; Imper. 8f8Wi ; Inf. SeSuVat ; Part.
8f8i<os -via -or G. -oror, etc.
;

Archaic Pluperf. D. (8(8itov -irrjv ; P. -ifiev -ire -laav (Epic

€8fi8ifi€v {i.e. €-8€-8^i-fi€u), e8el8iaav).

2. Consonantal Stems.
In consonantal stems the remains are still more sparse, avoiya,
I bid. Indie. 1st PL, civtoy-fiev. Imper. avax-Bi, -Bu>, and dvaxOc.
Stem mO (whence nfldoi and irenuiOa), ni-iTLcr-di (for ne-mB-dt.), in
iEsch. ; Plup. 1st plur. e-nc-ind-ficv in Homer. Tre-rroa-Be (Aris-

tarchus ireiraaBe) =
later 7r€7r6uBaTe, is remarkable as having Be
for re. So KtKpax-Bi from KCKpdya, I cry, and eoiyp-ev, and in
Epic tiKTov, itKT-qv, Pep. Attic eiKo)?, from eot^a, am lU:c.
Obs.—Two consonantal stems re<iuire special attention. Stems yev-, beget,
and ixtv, aui eager, develop Archaic Perfects Indie, dual Epic y-iti-aTov, PI.
: ye-jjo-

lt*v, fiefjiatiev, yeydxKTi., fjiffxaaai. Inf. yeyd/u,ef ; Pcp. ye-yaois, /xe^cuos, etc. ; Attic,
\

poetic, yeyw?, fem. -a»<ra ; Plup. dual eKyeydrriv. Alongside of these sprang up a
Perf. ytyova, fitfj^ova, supplying the singular which was wanting in the other
form, and sho\*ing tendency to develop complete forms on this new basis, as
yeyo^i), ne/Jiovevai. (HerodotUS), y«yofw5, iyeyovei.
§§ 65, 66.] IMPERSONAL AND DEPONENT VERBS. 129

§ 65. Impersonal Verbs

Have only the 3rd Person singular of the first three moods, the
and the Neuter singular and plural of the Participle.
Infinitive
They have rarely an Imperative (yet firj e^eVro), Thuc).

8*1, it is necessary.

Ind. Conj. Opt. Inf. Pep.

Pres. 8jl den Se'oi delv diov, PI. -ovra
Impf. ffict

Fut dfTjo-ei 8er](T0i 8eT)cr€iv Berjcrov

L Aor. €8(T](re derjajf derjo-ai or -€ie dfijcrat derjaav

Xpi, it is meet, necessary.

Pres, xP^ XPfl XP^^l ;(/>^vat (Poet. ;(pf)i') ;^pea>i/^ (indecl.)

Impf. fXP'i*' ^^ XPV^'
Fut. xph^fi- and 1st Aor. €xpT)<T€, especially in composition, e.g.
from aTToxpT), it is sufficienty diroxpf](r€i and anfxPW^-
Obs.— The form xP'n is by some thought properly a substantive, qf. xpJ? '(rrai
in Sophocles, for vp^i t'o-rai, there will Oe nttd. This being so, xpi" is more
normal in Imperfect than exP'J>'i which is comparatively late.

With similar array of parts, as Impersonal verbs,

do/cel it seems irpiizei it becomes

c|f(n-t it is allowed 7rpo(rT}Kci it belongs
fieXei it is a care orvfi^aivei it Jmppens
fjL€Tafie\€i it repents avfKPfpei it is of sei'vice^ etc., etc.

How far each of these is possessed of tense forms, may be seen

from any full list of Irregular Verbs.

§ QQt. Deponent Verbs.

1. These verbs, though with meaning of an Active

Voice, exhibit ordinarily only Middle and Passive
forms.
N.B.— Traces of att«mptii to develop an Active formation are stich an <Aop«ca,
Mpoxof (rum JcpKo^ot, txuxa from olxoMai* irpo-^c^oi/Aa from ^ovAofkcu.

1 XP'*'" *^^** <^ Imperativo.

9
 — — ;

130 DErONENT -VEEBS. [§ 66.

I. PcRES (Thematic). (Quasi-thematic), I. Non -thematic

(Relics).
(a) Long vowel in Fut. (a) Long vowel in-Fut.
bvvayiai, eTrla-Tafxai.
N.B. otfiai., a>/u.rj»', a
as, alridofiai, ivdvfifo-
near approach to a
fiai, KTaofiaij fiTjTiofiai. Kpt^afiai non-thematic Pure.
These two Persons
O) Short vowel in Fut (/S) Short vowel in Fut. are solitary, and the
as, albcofxai, aya/xai (cpa/iai). stem has otherwise
become thematic,
N.B.— Pures disguised :—
oIo/Ltai, with deflec-
1. Inceptive iAflur«to)xai (Fut. lAiftro^at).
tion into stem oie-,
2. Reduplicated Si^rjfiai. (Fut. fii^jjaoMoi).
whence Fut. oirjo-o-
fxai. (On Kcijixai,
fifiat,see § 62. _ Cy'.
also trevrai, o-TeOrai.)

II. Liquids. II. 3X-(ro, SX-TO ;

(a) Forming Fut. (or Aor.) consistently as oX-zxei/oy. yev-TOy

Liquids : took : St. ot eytv-
oXXo/xai, dvaivofjiai (no Fut. but Apr.) diro- To, greWj ylyvopai.

Kpivofiai, naprvpofiaif oAo(^/)o/ia(, Trevo- N B.— C/. also ip-To ;

Imper. opo-o, op-o-eo

fiai (uo Fut.). Inf. op-flat ; Partic.
(Jet. voice
op-tj^tvoi.
exists in this verb,
viz., 6p-ia;-/ii.)

III. Dentals. IIL

(a) Forming Fut. consistently as Dentals,
r. irariofxai. (stem Trar-).
8. p.T]8op.ai (oi/o/xai, Fut. opoa-crofiai as if from aa-p(vos (from
oi/oS-<rofiai). rjdofjMi, best Fut. fjcrdrja-opxii. root of TJ8-o-nai).
ry^ hy. XiVo-o/iai, dy<avi(ofjicii^ ^idCofMai, x^P^'

{,i) Deflecting into Pure stem in e (generally

T) in Fut.).
alad-dv-ofxaiy direxO-dv-opLai^ niTOfiai, 6(T<l)pcu-
vofiai.
N.B.—ax^oMai has • in Future.

IV. Gutturals. IV.

(a) Forming Fut. consistently as Gutturals. ibiy-pr^v, dfK-TO,
K, y, X- Sf'p/cofiat, iK-i/c-o/xai ; diaXeyofuii ; 84 d(x-Oai, beypcposy
Xopiaiy fvxop.(ii.. iK-p-evos.
(TO- == Ky. 8eidi(raop.ai. N.B.— Xe'itTO, counfetZ,
and XfKTo, laid him-
(/3) Deflecting into Pure stem in e (Fut with »e//,withX«fo, Ae^flai,
^°^'^)- arie forms similar,
, .
but Active exists, At-
oixofiai {ijcr- in Fut.), fidxofiai (eo-- in Fut,
yuj, and so with m'«-
whence fiaxovpui). TO.

V. Labials. V.
Forming Fut consistently as Labials.
TT, j3, <f). aK(7r-T-ofiai, en-o-p-ai : (Ti^op.ai (Aor. (No relics.)
a€\lracr6ai), p.(p.(f)- o-p.au
§66.] PARADIGMS OF DEPONENT VEKBS. 131

«•

S3 S
b
•^1 b § ^ ><
X
«o ''o -- <o

a I o ><
1
1
> ^ ^ iZ J ^ :^ ^o •4J

.u
1
* :^ » i^ 5?

C-H
>. 1
5
:&
o
O
^ ?
>< *jj> ^3 ^3-
c
1
^w eo ><
1X 5* ft rc
w
2 -^
<t<

«o ^ <o
3^
'O <so ^IK IM
<o
o* «o
j;

*c
-5 O'
..^-^ 'S
2
^
•a
u
S p
a>
^ o t4
a
5 1- i 5 <3 a.
O ^ 3
MJ> 1-
^51 3 ,-
-ri
;s ;s .1 ^ J^ «o 5

> > > :^

••
p-
1 I
i 1
2 1i11 1 *w
1

£ a..

1 1 2r -c
J f I .^ .• 2
132 ON THE PERSONAL ENDINGS. [§ 67.

§ 67. On the Personal Endings.

For a Fresential Tense of Indicative {Pnmary Forms).
(Conjunctives also follow this type.)

1. s.
D.
-Ml
1
Active.

-Toy
2
.<rt(-«a)
3
-Ti(-<ri)
-T0»'
•fiat
12 Middle and Passive.

-/leflo*'
-<rai
-((T)-dof I
8
-rat
(-(r)-floi'
P. -M«?(-M<»') •T« 'yT^(v<Tl) •fjitOa (<r)d« -I'Tou.
{•fjitaOa Poetic.)

For a PreterUive Tense of Indicative {Secondary Forms).

(Optatives chiefly follow this type.)
S. -i-copt-p -cro
D. -TOV -TJ^V 'fJitBoV <<T)9oy '(a)9r,u
p. -fjntiuiiy) -T« -i<<rav) -fjLtda -fro

For the Imperative.

s. — <ro
D. — •rov Ttav — (<t)0QI'
P. — Tt •VTUV — (-<T)Du}<rav
or -TO) <rav or (-<7)9wt'2

2.These endings seem to be frapinents of the personal pronouns.

Those beginning with M come from stem of /nov, ^oi, fit, ri-ntU, etc., and
mark the first person.
The second person has normally 2 for its distinctive mark, from <rov, <roi, etc.
The third person has normally T for its distinctive mark, from t6, tovto, etc
But the distinctive marks of the two last are often commingled, both of
these jiersdiis belonging to the Tum-tgo or objective, though generally kept
distinct from those of the ego or the subjective person.
S. Singular. The ending -fii of first nerson appears in primitive verbs, as
«t-/Lii, su-m, am; Tidij-/ii, etc., and generally in the Optative of ordinary verbs,

as TTouot-fii. The ending -o-i of second person is still ft)und in Epic ia-ai, else-
where re«luced to -? or vanished. The ending -n appeai-s clearly in « <r-Ti Lat. =
fit. Elsewhere -n has almost disai)peared, by softening into -at as in n'^o-i,
where only Doric retains the normal TiflrjTi.
Ut Perton. Of iravo/xi, the supposed original form, there is no trace, the sole
existing; form being navu, and although >x is now undiscernible in Travw, it is
visible in iravo/xai and inavofjir] v. ?nd Pe-rsnn. iraueo-i, which has been taken
as by transposition becoming Trivets. So with Srd Person. navtTi, by trans-
position Trau«cT, but T not being a Greek ending, though a Latin one, it becomes
navti. The endings of the Middle show traces of M. 2, T, approximate to the
three Persons, more clearly than the Active Voice of verbs in u). Very interest-
ing relics of personal endings appear occasionally in Epic Conjunctives singular,
as 1 i6e\u)ixi, 2 fBe\rt(rOa, 3 idiKj^ai.. (-<T€a rarely m
Optative, as KXaioia-Oa.)
i. Plural, -/bies'still retained in Doric. (I^tin -hu/;* in ^eyjmujt.) -Me>' arises
from -/aes by dropping a- and appending a pei-petual v (less probably, by transi-
tion of o- into v). ixa =
M« + «. i-f- s as sign of 2nd or Srd person, for we I =
and i/ou, or / and he. -Tt is reduced from tasi and tas, cf. legitis. -vti still
retained in Doric. (Latin -nt in legunt.) Two 3rd pis. of Perf. are in -<rdo-i, as
whence ei^aai.
olSa, ioiKa,
The ordinary Attic endings of Presential third persons plural overt, oo-t, v<ri,
etc., are from oven, awi, vwl (where o- is a softening of a prior t), by § 7, 7, n.
5. The secondary forms of the personal endings in Preteiitives are, though
shortened by curtailment, the same as the primary, except in the Srd persons
dual and pluraL The initial leugtheuiug of Preteritives by augment possibly

1 <r Bracketed as not always present, e.g. in Liquid Perfects Passive.

2 -a^uji' sole form in Homer.
§68. VERB-FOBMS IN ACTIVE VOICE. 133

led to the dropping of the final i ami thence to euphonic changes, as Ti'drjAxi,
Imper. tTi'drm, hence, as ^L could not close a Greek word, en'^rji', and so with
iTieij(T), cf. § 5, 12. In verbs in co the 1st singular and 3rd plural of Imperfect
are alike, €.<7. «>rawoi' (6i.s), but note that v in 1st person is descended of ix, v of
the 3rd person is for vr, cf. nt in erant. (Doric accordingly accented this last
cvavov.)
6. The vowel in thematic verbs at junction of stem with person-end infjs'i^ is o
before person-endinp opening with n. or r, but is e before such as open with t
or <t9. (This holds for Indicative and Imperative of Present and for luiperf. A.
and M., also with tenses following their analogy; it does not hold for such
tenses as the 1st Aorist A. and M., and Perfect A., in which appears an
euphonic a.) The same law of vowel-distribution holds in the long vowels of the
Conj., riz., (o before endings opening with /x or v, tj before those not so opening.
7. Some variation has arisen as between the two persons of the dual in the
historical tenses, resulting in interchange. In Homer are found such as fiiwKe-
Toy (11. K. 354), doing duty fur 3rd jjerson, see § 52, 3. Conversely, in Attic, tiji/
of 8rd person slipped into the place of rov of 2nd person, also for metrical con-
venience, as ti\tTr)i' ^5yj (i>pei'ai (Soph. O. R. l.")!!) =
ye twain now had sense'.
'

8. In Homer and Pindar -tjo-oi' of 3rd plural of Aor. P. often appears as -tv,
rpaxfttp for CT/Mu^f =
irpd^r^a-av.
I' Similarly in 2nd Aorists, as ifidv for i^rfaav,
ii}>iy Imperf. for i<t>4<rav. (The short forms are here the older.)
9. In the Septuagint there are mingled forms, such as t»ravo<raj/ for enavov,
and even iT€iTavKdv for irejrav»ca<7i.
Obs.— 1. Some of the personal endings given above are obscure and unre-
solved, but they appear to be in general pronominal parts abbreviated or
disguised. The appropriation of /x, a, r as the distinctive marks of the persons
is more clearly perceptible in the Middle than in the Active. Many points are
obscure, as to whether, e.g. -^f? is not made up of /xe -f <re (loe I + you), or =
whether -/x<" (<rai, etc.) of Middle is for m-<i-M', i-f^- "J^ acting on myself, and so
with <ra-<ri. (The termination -fifda is interesting as still preserved in the
Gaelic verb, in such as hriseamoid break-we '.) = '

2. The following table exhibits the personal endings of the Present Indie,
as they are treated in a few of the sister tongues :—
Sanskrit. Latin (Primitive). Greek (Archaic:). Greek (Attic).
S. bharft-mi [fero-m(i)] =fero 2 [<^«po-Mt]a <i>4pui
bhara-si fer6-s(i) =
fer-s (f»«pe-<7t «/>«pecs
bharft-ti fer6-t<i) =
fer-t <i)<p«Ti <J>«'pet
P. bhara-maa fero-mos =
feri-raus ()>«pO-fl€i ti>tpo-iuv
bharft-tha fere-tis =
fer-tis <i>ipfTt ^(pt-Tt
bhard-nti fero-ut(i) =
feru-nt <l)ipO'VTl (jbepovo-i
(for 4>€po-v<Ti).

§ 68. NOTANDA ON VeKB-FORMS IN ACTIVE VoiCE.

1. Indicative, affa appears in Attic in the 2nd singular of Present and
Imperfect of these verbs :—
olia, knoic, ol<rda ; j^Stiv or -ffStf, knew, •/fStiaBa or TjSTjada ;
^v, was, TjoBa ;

^«n', vent, rjiiaBa or j\a9a ; itftrfv, said, f(f>riada.

"Sote that in olcrtfa and ^<r0a, <j is of the verb-stem. 9a is believed to belong
pronerly to Perfects, and to have spread to other parts. Compare with o-flo
Latin tii in amavijfi, English lovedjtt. On <T%a. in Conj. and Opt., see § 67, 3.
2. The ConjxLnctive in Epic is not of so fixe<l a type as in the Attic time.
Thos, (1) The long vowels tj and a> are not_ perpetual, and * and o frequently
app6ftr, as au«(t^«rai ffir a^r(\//>}rai, lo^rc for iuiM<f, except in the endings -w, -179.
*#<ri, and -wi^ai, where the lomj vowel is permanent. (2) The open forms' of
-J,
Conjunctives of verbs in tu. and of Aorists Passive have an Knic lengthening of
the stem vowel, as iha^i\v. open Coni. JaM«-w, Attic ho.\iM, Kpic ha^ni-^a, more
probably 5a^i}w, jo/innf f oaftri«Tf ; <^ B*iu> for Sw, cTji-pv, cttjoh**' for ariJt,
oYw^f , etc.

' Inflnitfree in «'-»'oi are not included in this rule, as koi is not a ;if rnonai
ending.
s Soma dottbt the forma of let person in ^u
134 YEKB-FOEMS IN ACTIVE VOICE. [§ 68.
3. (a) in thematic verbs, the ordinary sign of the Optative, as ripnoini,
I is,
but irj also emerges. It is primarily in verbs in fjn., that n? appears, as <ba-ir)-v
.

(istem Opt. sign

(/)a. iri, sign of 1st person v), SiBo-ir)-y, etc., which analogj- is
followed by other Optatives in ->)f preceiled by a vowel, as (tofiee-iTj-c, and has
forced its way into some thematic verbs, as e.;/. <i>i\o-i-n-v, etc. But in the plural
and dual, the t? of this i>j is regularly dispensed with owing to the heavier
endings, whence diSalfjuv for 6t6oi»)/ji<i', *co(7/xTjtfeiTe for -dtiifrt, etc. Hence eKSvixev
for ««ciSutT)/ae»', because of § 3, 2, 3. In 3rd plural, -euv and -atei/ are more
common than the longer -«n7<ra»', etc.
rtvappears for -fii, therefore, in the Optative, as follows, in
I. Verbs in -m (not being Presents in -v^i)» £is laraim', orairji', TifJtirji'.
II. PUttE CO.VTRACTED VEUBS in -dw, -«uj, -ow, Tiyia.oir]v = Tiju.oirji' ->j? -i).

in Present Optative, ^lA.eoiTj;' = <^iAoi'»ji' ->js -jj.

Also Liquid Futures, because Conti-ncted, from <t>dvu.

«f>ai>oir]tf

A FEW Strong Perfects (rarely) ir«<^evyoi>}v from nttfitirYo.

Obs.— 1. Also o-xoiTjf from itrxov, 2nd Aor. Act. of <x«. 1^"^ in composition

2. 1/ in Ist singular Optative is on analogy of Imperfect, which it otherwise

resembles. Traces are found even of such as irovoii' = navoifii.

(/3) The Optative of the 1st Aorist Active often takes .-Eolic forms («i for ai
in tnree persons even in Attic : vtz., 2nd and 3rd singular and 3rd plural).
Sing. Plur.
For 2nd Person rrav(rat«, irat5(r«ia«. For 3rd Person navaaitv, navati.av.
For 3rd Person iravvai, navir«it.
Note that it is before vocalic endings that ai may pass into ei ; before conso-
nants like M and r, it stands.
4. (a) In the Imperative of Present and 2nd Aorist in verbs in -fjn, -Oi of
the 2nd i»erson is the normal fonn but not perpetual. Varieties arise, according
to some plnloUtgi.''ts, l)y contraction from (/»ui(Uic forms, as nOet irom [riSet],
etc.. as if from [Titf<w]. So (TTfiOi and fifidi have byforms ord ajid fia la cpmpo-
sition among the poets, as Karafia, irapda-rd.
N.B.—(1) Four Presents retain -Oi in Imperative, <f>rm.C sny, elfii am, eV^
<ji>, olSa Lnoir, viz., (jtadi, la^i =
6t thou, Itii, l(r0L i= L-noic thou.
(2) Four 2nd Aorists liave -s for the noiTual -flt in Imperative, viz., those
of Tidriixi, SiSuini, iij/ni, e^w, fumiing ©«, 609, is, ax*?.^

()3) The Imperative has in 3rd plural oftener -tuv than •ruxrai'. (Compare
legunto, doanto, etc)
vaveTtiitxav, iravvdronrav Z oftener and earlier iravSvrutv, nav<ravTiov.

5. The Infinitive Is a petrified case of a verbal noun, and still retains

largely the old case ending -ai (probably an old dative, cf. to, making Inf. a kind
of dative, in English). The Present Inf. of verbs in -u) has thrown off the case-
ending which the older conjugation in -/mi partially retains, as TVTTTeii' compared
•with Tiffiyai. In Epic, however, Tvirren' appears as rvnTt/Jifvai and TvjrT<><»',
whence, through [Tvn-T«,-e»'],- comes rvTrrtiv. In Aorists Passive, the Epic has
ApiBfjirfff^neyai for apiflfiTjd^t-ai. Cf. also from contracted verbs, -yojjfieiai Epic
lufin. from •yodco. <}toprjfiti'ai. and iboprivai from tfjopeu).
The Pluperfect has oftener -eaav than -eia-av in 3rd Person plural.
6.
In Ionic and old Attic the sing, of the Plup. ends in -ea -eas -<« as iTtrvita, ;

etc. (later «t«tv(^«iv) hence rjSfw (from ol5a) is later than rJSea, which in Attic is
:

contnicted tj6t). (.See note 3 "on page 90.)

7. The 1-\ture Perfect in the Active is a composite tense, appearing
mainly in principal clauses, made up of the Participle of the Perfect Act. and
the Future tense of the substantive verb.

1 (rx<'« is notable, as belonging to an otherwise thematic type, as Pep. (oc^v,

although <rxoi'>j»' approaches -^c in fonnation.—iii'<7-7r«s from ii'ttr^ and 6pe'? as
if from [irC(f>priiJLi] (byform of <J>e'pw) are two rarer Imperatives of the same type.
2 So in Bovvai, which is from [So/^eVai], cr. p. 117, 'i. 2.
 : ;;

§69. MIDDLE. A>U3 PASSIVE VOICES. 135

Indie. S. ireiravKto? ivoftai. i<rti(r)) (iatTai) ((rrai, I sJiall have c/itcked.

D. ntnavKOTt idtaSov iaeaOov
«<Toueflo*'-
P. »r<jrav*c6T<< iataOf
<<r6fi«©a eo-oi-Tou, etc.etc.

In verbs ^Wthout a Perfect, the Aorist Pep. seems to be used, as KOToxoi'oi'-

Te? e<Tf<rSf, Xen. Atiab. VII. b, 86. The nearest approach to an unconipounded
Future Perfect Active is in «<rTT/foj and T^fltTjfw.
». The periphrastic forms by the substantive verb are introduced into the
Conjunctive and Optative of the Perfect Active, as AeAocn-w? « tor XeAoiVw ;
\t\oiirutt tlriy for AcAoittoijlii (Anab. I. 2, 21).

§ 09. NOTANDA UNDER MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VoiCES.

1. 2nd Sing. Mid. and Pass. (In presentials originally <rai ; in preteri-
tives <7o.)
In theniatic verbs through all the tenses of the Middle, and of Passive
(o)
fonuinc as Miudle. exceut iij the Perfect 1 and Pluperfect, cr is simply dropped
bjji' the Ionic, which allows open forms, but contraction follows in the Attic.
Tne Epic form of the Ionic oould treat even the Perfect so, as /SejSArjai for -rjo-ai.
From ^f Ionic. Attic.

C -oMai of Pres. and Fnt.

( comes -e<rai, -eot hence rrav-ei or -17.
•z -6tir)v of Imperf. and 2nd Aor.
•.
,, •<<ro, -eo; hence inav-ov. etc.
£ ( -durit' of 1st Aor. „ -ao-o, -oo; hence iirav<T-to.
Conjunctive, everywhere. .r,<rai. •rjai; hence »rav-Tj, etc.
Optative, „ -oi<ro, -oto hence jrau-oio.
Imperative of Present and 2nd Aor. -«<ro, -«o hence nav-ov.
In Homer the open forms -«at, etc., often retained, also in Herodotus ; in
both, may contract as -*u.
-<ro

In later Attic -17 supplanted -<i in 2nd sing. Mid., except in Contrdtted Futures
in -oiift-ai, and in these t/int, /3ov'Ao/j.ai. oiouat, and ofpofxai (Fut. of 6pdu>), tohich
havt always -ei. (&ioy.ai in the best period has only -«t.)

O)In verbs in uc, o- holds its ground more firmly, except in 2nd Aor. Mid.,
1.
and always in verbs in -wm, as ibtt-Kwao. Hence better Tt^e<rat,"ert6eo-o, but
i6ov. dov. Alongside of hwaaai, ini<rTa<Tai, i7TrioTa<ro, we find £ui'^, iiriartf,
^viaru. (ivfjj is Conj. in Attic, or if Indie, it .seemp mainly Ionic,)
N.B.— In -later Greek, a- in -<rai 'of 2nd Pei^on retained in verbs in -<iw
and -oo>, KavxoLO-ai (New Testauient).
2. SrdPlur. -yToi. and -rro sometimes appear as -arat and -oto in Doric
and Ionic as irtvOoinTo tof ntvBoiyro.
:

Especially in 3rd plur. Indie, of Perf. and Pluperf. Middle and Passive
(with aspiration of the Labial or Guttural characteristic letter,
if siuli ai>i>earsin the stem). X.B.— These endings -vrai anrt -vto
are dually incompatible with consonant verb-stems, and can be
joined, without modiflcation% only toTPure or vocaUio stems.
Pure. KtKoVfjLt-arau. • -aro for »c*«co<r|f Tjt'Tai -hi'to.
Liqu. <4>0doarat -oro for i(f>dapix€vot eiari, and ^aau.
Jkn(. iaxtvaS-arai^ •aro' for iaKivhantvoi. tl<ri, lUld ifCTav/
Gut, tr«<rax'fiT(u* •aro ioT ataayfiii'oi, etc.
.

Lab. Ttrpd^-aTox .aro for T«Tpa^^«rot, etc.

Ors.— In the new Ionic of Herodotus, the tendency to the vocalic form
increaiHHl: hence, even in Present, bvvtarat, where Homet- and old Ionic tiad
only ivyayrax ; awixtaro for d4>i<coi'TO.

lA the Perfect ther^ was a rtsk of <t finding itself following a short rowel.
1

In Homer, with i;, as ^c/iA^arat, etc.

3
s i heee is of the verb-«tem. A < enphonic is thought to be {nserte<I in
Homer, in «Ai>A«i- j-aTo from cAavfw. In fppaiaroi from paiuu, the 6 may repre-
sent y of the Htem.
* *r«r«yaro from Tavvta, admitted even In Attic of Thucydides. anUaro for
a^iywcVoi fiva¥ in a iTire example of unun (») before -aro. A reluctance to use .

the composite form inuuceil h')>urtleii like 642o<cTat ^vy«i; (Kur. Buc4'}i. 1350;.
136 LAWS OF AUGMENT. [§ 70.

§ 70. I^ws OF Augment.

1. The Preteritive tenses (Iniperf. Aor., both 1st and 2tiJ),
are entitled to a prefix called augment, as sign of past time, but
only in the Indicative.
In verbs beginning with a consonant, ihife prefix is e.
In verbs beginning with a vowel, there is a lengthening
(where possible) of the initial vowel, as a substitute
for augment.

2. e prefixed is called the Syllabic^ augment, because it adds

a syllable. rvTrro), strike^ Imperf. fTxnrrov.
p usually doubled after the syllabic augment, pio>, fiow^
is
Imperf. eppcov.
(Rare and only in poetry, ipt^ov, at Imptrf. from pe^w, perform.)
Obs.— In Epic, other liquids besides p, and also <r, were doubled after the

Syllable. iWa^ov for iKafiov i^iuopov (ior i-auapov) ; ; so ia-avOnv even in Attic.
For duplication in ipptov, see § 9, 3, n. That in ikkafiov, etc., may be from a form
KiKafiov by metathtsU.

3. The lengthening of the initial vowel is called the temporal

^

augment, because it adds a time i.e., increases the quantity. —

The temporal augment changes
a, f , o, t, V, aif q, au, oi, of the presentj
into 17, Tj, a, t, V, J], ^, 17V, 0), of the preteritives.

a. dytiooiy collect, at. alpio), take. fweou {-ovv).

^yapov.
fy( ipw, rouse. 1 a. afio), sing. jjdov.
0. opvaatoy diq. apvaa-ov. av. avx^a, boast. tjv)(^(ov.

u ticrrcuo), beg. iK€T€VOV. 01. oIki^o), found. (oKi(ov.

v» v(f>aiua). weave. v<})aivov.

The other diphthongs and the long vowels remain, as a rule,

unchanged, ;?, w, i, iJ, «, ev, ov. {In Attic el and €v become often
rj and r)v.)

7- fjxft'iy sound. iJX^ov. 61. €tKQ>, yield. eiKov.

0). d}<p(\((i>, aid. o)0(\eov. fV. fvdvvaty direct. (vdvvov.
I. Idvva, direct. tdvvov. ov. oura^G), vx)und. ovraCov.

N. 1. A few in a long and in a followed by a vowel have not

T)but a as temporal augment,
[aw] glut. F. ao-o). I. Aor. aaa. aio), Jiear. Imperfc aiop, |

1 In such as i]iJLt\koy, i) is aiso to be r^i^arded as syllabic augment

- The temporal augment really the syllabic in disguise, nearly as if Tiyov,
i?
Imper. of iy« =
i-ayov, but it l>€ars traces of a time when the syllabic augment
was still o, as it is in Sanskrit {e.g. a 6no<ra um.o<ra). The *nft breathing in =
oAroCfrom aAAoAtai)is a relic of the oldest time, before the 'springing round'
of rough breathing in such as tdkuiv.
 [§ 70. LAWS OP AUGMENT. 137

2. Some verbs beginning with an f now denuded of a spirant

or other initial consonant, have ei ordinarily in place of rj,
iaat allow. Aaov = A<av. ^pYd^ofMii, u-ork\ clp7a^6p.T]v (hiscr. ^p^).
iBCl<a, accii3t07n. ctOi^ov. '^pirw and fpirvl<a, creep, dpirov, etc.
V^KWj draw. cIXkov. 6<md«, entertain, eioT-Caov.
iiro^y^ follow. ciir<$|iT]v. i
^«, have (st. <r€x, f^jO^ «^X°^*
So ipvoi pull, and eXio-crw roll, have ft in Imperf., but these may
have *» in present also, as clpva. Add these fragmentary parts :

oip^M, take (,st IX). 2nd Aor. clXov. (?ir»), am busy. Imperf. clirov.
[st. I8-], place, seat. 1st Aor. d<ra. [Iir«], say. 2nd Aor. tlirov.
(for l-o-cS-oxi). £-T)-)jLi, send. 2nd Aor. M. €l')iT]v.

From (OTTjKa,Perfect of lOTrjfii, comes Pluperf. flcrrqKr) and

€(rTrjKr}. (In Pluperf. Passive, only ia-Tdfirju.)
N.B. —
In these verbs there was formerly an initial consonant.,
now displaced. The augment by ei is therefore a relic of such
initials as ef^e- or eVf-, by extension and contraction. Thus, (6i(io
^ (rf-fOi^a), SJi€-SCO, iki<T(Toa =
f'fXiao-o), vol-U-O, enofxai ^= crdnofxai,
sequ-OT, epyd^ofiai =
rtpyd^ofuii {fipyov li'Ork), cpTro) =
aipTZoa, =
scrp-o, coTido) ^
f~€(rTid(i) (j'c<rTia Vest-a), €)(o) =(rix^t /^fX, = ^=
(ura cf. sedeo, frrco =
pfTra roc-is. =
e of l-r)p.i, as in i-c-p.€v, con-
tains y orj, c/. L. ja-c-i-o, but cf. also note on p. 121.

3. f(opxii, sit, has no augment. Imperf. iC6p.r]v. So some verbs

in fX- as e\\r)vi(a> Grecise, e\ivva> keep holiday.
4. (o, as an initial, lengthens the second vowel (' transference or
metathesis of quantity '), rjo passing into fw. Cf. p. 32, note 1.

coprdfo), ^«€;p a feast, ecipra^op. 1 f oXtto, Perf., / Ao]?«, (cAnei.^

Perf, f oua, am Ztfcc. etoKfi.^ \ eopya, Perf., irorA;, eapyet.^

5. au and
even in Attic, sometimes dispense with augment,
ot,

especially where followed immediately by a vowel naturally

long. (In Ionic, this occurred with av and oi before consonants
83 well.)
avaivw, wither. ola>vi(ofiaL, divine.

On
the other hand, three in ti and some in (v are capable of
augment. (From time of Orators much variation as to these.)
ftjcu^o), conjecture, fjKaCov (or, later, fiK-). (Also (ipn, go,
and oida (stem for PI up. being (18-) know.) fv)^p.ai,
pray, rjv\6yLr}v and later fux'* ^^ (vpia-K<o. Even
fLca =
(oiKQ, has as Plui>erf. fJKdv (3rd sing.).

These verbe, though now beginning with a vowel, yet gene-

6.
rally take sylldlM augment. (All tliese are known to have had
initial {^, still partially visible in ov and a initial, except &vbdva>,
which had vfJ)
1 Phiperfeet 8rd Person lingular.
 )

138 KEDUPLICATION IN PERFECT. [§ 71.

&Yvv}ii, break. 1st Aor. lo^a (rarely -fjla, there being another
•fi^a, from A-yw, hriiKj) : 2nd Aor. Pass, ia-yiiv.
aXC(rKO|iai, am taken. 2ntl Aor. 4SX.WV, also ijXwv. [Ipl., only t|X.J
dvSdvw, please. Iniperf, IdvSavov, 2nd Aor. ?d8ov.^
ovp^b), make urine, iovptov, iovpT^Ka.
oiQioi, push. iwBtov, Lst Aur. 'ioitra.

wveofxai, buy. i<avov[Li]v, l<avi\QT]v.

The Aorist tlBov- may come under this head, stem fi8, whence
4pi8ov, thence cISov, Conj. t8«.

7. Two' have double augment (temporal, an indication pro-

bably of lost digamma, and syllabic^
6pdci), sec, (st. popa, cf.our ware, wary). Imp. Iwpaov. (ot-yc*)

iiVoCyta, open. Imp. dv^<{>'Yov.

8. Three beginning with a consonant have occasionally 17 as

wcdl as f for augment."*

flov\o|uii, wish. 8vvap.ai, a7)i able, \U\Xuf avi about to.

mp. 4povX- or 48vv- or '/|8vv-dp.Tiv.
^PovX-<$)it)v. i|j.cXX- or ijp.cXX-ov.
(Imt ahvay.s 48vva<r6T]v).
(dir-'^Xavov from diro-Xavw, enjoy, late and doubtful.

The syllabic augment (except in Pluperfects, iterative forms,

9.
and xpri\ ^^ ahvay.s stable in prose, movaole in poetry, except in
the dramatic, in which last the augment became fixed. In Epic
and Lyric, this syllabic augment («) is removable, and even in
tho.se portions of the dramatic poets, where these imitate the
Epic, as in speeches of Mes-sengers, or adopt, as in choruses, the
Lyric style. In Epic and Ionic, the temporal augment is some-
times dispensed with (never in tpxa^iai), but is perpetual in Attic.
10. Pluperfects, and
also the Ionic and Doric iterative forms,
i'U'., a-Kov and in Imperf. and Aorist (except e^acr/coi/,
o-Kofxrjv
€^oa-Kov, etc.), usually discard syllabic augment, owing to weight
of these endings, as rvTrreaKop, 86a-Kou, etc.

.
§ 7i. Eeduplic^tion in Pekfect.
1; Reduplication is a process of emphasising an initial syllable
to signify repetition, and is a distinguishing mark of the Perfect
tense, consisting in the repeating ol the initial consonant with
f, to forni a prefix syllable. {Full or proper reduplication.)

1 Also fivSavoi; aiov, fvcLiov. Verb is chiefly .Epic and, except in Present,
hardly appears in Attic. ',.'-
3 ti here has arisen by simple juxtapositipn, not as in the cases under note
2, by contraction from e«.

3 ii\wv, with (in 6 above),may be a third also ii^vBayov.

:

* Evidence for c preponderates even in Attic. 19 in these verbs is unknown

in Homer.
§71. REDUPLICATION IN PERFECT. 139

—
N.B. Where reduplication occurs in a Present tense, t is the
prevailing vowel in the prefix syllable.
2. Verbs beginning with any single consommt except ^^ may
reduplicate, but no verb beginning with any double consonant or
pair of consonants may reduplicate, except those two consonants are
a mute and a liquid^ in which. case only the mute appears with €
in the reduplicatiou-syllable.-

nav-(i}y cJieck, ne-navKa. kottto), cut, Ke-KO(Pa,

Mute and Liq. ypdcjxii, write, yd-ypacfta. nXeKOi, fold, nd-TrXexa.
N.B.— If a verb begins \»ith an aspirate mute, the corresponding tenuis
takes its place in reduplicated syllable. <^e, x<-, ^e-. become we-, ks-, re- e.g., ;

<<pd^«ti, gailf for <t>«-<f>pajca, has by § 7 (a), nt-4>pcLKa,

3. Verbs whose stem begins with p,* a double consonant,* a

Sair of consonants not a mute and a liquid,^ or with a vowel or a

iphthong, have their reduplication the same as the augment
appropriate to them, vis., simple e before initial consonants, but
temportd augment in case of initial vowels. {Partial or improper
or half reduplication.)
I. Aorist. Perfect. Pluperf.
Initials. Present. Future. Augment. Redup. Red.^& Aug.
p. piTTTO), throw ,pi^oi, cppiy^a, €ppi(l)a, epptcfiTj
yU, I, C yl^dXXa, play. ylraXo), tyjrrjXa, e\lraXKa, €-^dXKT]
dig. aKu-^oi, (aKayj/a, €(rKn(Pa, faKacfjT)

rule, »p^<o, WX«» [vpxv]

Diph- "S
otfceo), dwell, oiKTjcra},
,
wKrjCTa, (OKTJKa,, (OKJKTJ
thongs.- {^nyfouaiy lead, r]yT]aop4ii, jjyrjadprjv. TJyTjpai, Tjy^prju
Vowel , ,v 7 , / , , « , ,

Dig. (pyaQopaL,WorK,, fpya(Topai,€ipyaa-apT]v,€ipya(rpai,€ipyaapr)v

S. 1. When augment and reduplication are the .same, there is this differ-
ence, that the vowel (or diphthong) of the mere augment disappears in the
Aorist after the Indie, while the same vowel (or diphthong) in the reduplica-
tion remains in the Perfect through all its parts.
Thus aiviu), praise, has 1st Aor. ifi'«ra and Perf. ilvtKn, but the Conjunctive
of the former is alviaut, of the latter', -nviKut. (In alpw, Lift, owing to the i belon
ing only to prttait stem, the Aor. and Perf. open with 17, although the Imper
being ba-^ed on the Present tense-stem, has, accordingly, jj.
t
'Z. yv," lies ^A, -yA, though mute and liquid combinations, often
i
!

take only ]

, (Yi'wpiKa ; PKa.VT'S.t'U}, tprnnt, i and /3e -p\d<rTrfKa ;

y\v(}>u,
ana yc •yKvtt.fiai. . (fiKdnrui and fi\aaif>-nn*ut take fit not c.)

^ . I eally Jiot finglt standing now regularly for an original <rp or Fp-
,

^imtion of this tn;;itment of the lirniid, viz., dropping it in

re*V.' .
must go t^) the (iothlc. where we nnd such as (jfta, weep,
will r. In i.Atin, stoms opening with mute and liquid Hhrank from
any •duplication.
- 1 iif r.]>ic iitpvirtufUvo^ Is formed with onllnary retluplication.
< 8t'^im»«, Kfk, akin to ^nr«w, a near appntach to reduplication with ^.
* Tracer of attempts at full reiluplication in such a combination still appear
In thd a*iHfi<-t< breathing of i-<mi-Ka and «iVtapra(.

• The »t*.'m yiia haji in Perf. •-yiw.«a with partial tedupllcatioa. In Present
~ an Attempt at fall reduplication, yi-yi^w-o-Kw.
140 ATTIC REDUPLICATION. [§ 72.

3. Two verbal opening with a pair of consonants not mute and liquid, yet
fomi Perfect on that analogy.
fiilxv^jaKu}, remind (st. /xva), has /xf'fi»^M«i» ^ remember', KTaofiai, acquire
(st. KTo.) has KeKTy]nai, I possess.
The latter in Ionic, and sometimes in Attic, is regular; viz., Mrrj/xot.
So fjLirqfjioyfvit),
4. Eight verbs reduplicate with et (for X«, fxe, or spirant with e).

Perf. Act. Perf. Pass.

Xayx&voi, get by lot, rfXiixa, riXTj-ypxit.
Xa(ipdv(D, take, €X,\r]^,
ci:XT]|jL|iai, also X^XT])ip.ai.

Xiyoi, gather, say, (-dtXoxa), {-iSXc^^\.,gathered),(ki\v{^aL\.^'

in the sense of say),
[ft«£p(i)], rt. (r)iap, divide, (el'ftap^wii), 3rd Peis. cl'|JwipTai,
il is allotted, fated.
Rt. ppc, Fut. Ip«, shall speak, tlpr\Ka., etprijiai.
[^6w], rt. o-peO, am wont, cV-wO-a.
^v-vv-fjtt, rt. p€S, c/o^A«, cl|iai, ^(r-pxii.
i!-il-Ht, rt. ?/€ [or crc], /<wrZ, ct-Ka cl-fiat.

5. The verbs with peculiar augment from Djpamnia or other cause, will also,
if forming Perfects, have similarly, peculiar reduplicatitm. Hence tlojca from
«ofc),tlpyaafJiat. from ^pyafo/nai, and apain fdya = j^i-faya, from dyi'VfJii', ta6a;
also ewo'fi.ai, ((oi^fiai, di'e(px<^< itipaKa. and taAwica, but also ijAoxca. Cj. § 70, n. 6.
6. ioiKa from fi»cu», om like, and <oA»ra, /io;7«, from tArrw, j/ive /u)pe, have,
through changes on loss of initial /= or y, only « for reduplication.

§ 72. Special [Attic] PiEDUPlication.^

Some verbs beginiiinf^ with a short vowel, a, e, o, are found
prefixing to their normal half reduplication the first syllable of
the verb as, ;

aX<o), grind, Fut. dXtao). Normal Perf. ^e/ta. Enlarged

Pert". a.\-T)\fKa.
iyupoi, rouse, Fut. fyepS). Normal Perf. {jytpKo. Enlarged
Perf. (y-rjyfpKa.
N, 1. In this form of reduplication, the first three syllables are usually so
arranged that the second or middle si/Uaijle of the three is regularbj long, while
the first and third are naturally short, even where, as in iy-qytpKa, the third is
made long by position, or, as in ap-r)p-ii)^, by incidents of inflection. Cf. § 38,
footnote No. 2, for similar phenomenon.
epei6u, fijc, is the chief exception, having ep^petxa, -<r^ou
2. The leading verbs with this so-called Attic reduplication are iyei'pw,
axoVM, aA(i<^b>, ap6o> ; cyeipcu, ikavvu, i\«yx*^, CM^^i [ccctw] for if>tp<i>, (p\o/xa(,
ttrdita ', 6^ta>, oAAvui, o/bivv/ixi, bpeyoi, opyvni, opvaaot.
3. has ^x*'. usually oyfjoxa (probably for dyrjyox*), (cf. o in 2nd
aval, lead,
Perf. or eydpw, iyp^yopa). alptu, taire, has regularly aprfKa, but in Ionic it is
reduplicated (1) without aspiration, (2) with no increment in second syllable,
and (3) with third syllable lon^, a.paipi\Ka.
4. The temporal augment is usually dispensed with in Pluperfect of verbs
taking the special [Attic] reduplication, okouw, however, has Plup. i7»cij<c6»j.

1 jre'-iTTco/ca may make a third, but its stem is properly irer. (But irroMa and
are regarded as having stem opening with
irrTjo-o-u) m, whence, with partial
reduplication, Perf. « n-Taiica and ermjxa.)
2 In the compound {i«iAcyM«i. the distinction of meanings has vanished.
3 This so-called Attic reduplication is not peculiar to Attic, but is ancient
ajid Homeric as well.
§§ 73, 74.] augment and reduplication. 141

§ 73. Keduplication in Other Tenses.

1. In A
leading feature of certain verbs of tlie con-
Present.
jugation in fit, is reduplication in the Present with i (not e) for
the vowel, as St'-Sw/xt ^ from st. So there are, however, a few
;

examples of this in verbs in <i> of the thematic conjugation, as

8tfipdo-K6), Jlee, stem Spa, dropping fit- after Present, as Fut.
Mid. dpdaofiai, etc. TiTpojcKO), woundj Fut. TpuKro), etc.
Cf. n-i-TTToo, yl-yvofxaiy etc., dropping reduplication in
their Future.

But dtSdo-Ko), teachj retains fit- throughout ; Fut. Stfid^to, etc.

So in ^L-I3d(a), pi-p(OfjLai, the reduplication has become fixed and

pervades all the tenses. (In ovlvrjfii, help, root ova [for 6v-ovT]-fii\
I appears but not initial, and so in drirfiXXo), omTrrfvay.) Although
I the prevailing vowel in reduplication of the Present, it is not
is
perpetual in thematic Presents, as Trai-TrdXXo), reTpaiva, dap-daTrroi.
2. In FiUure. Only Epic, as iremOfjaa}, connected with neiQa^
persiuide.

3. In 2nd Aorist. Apart from the peculiar fl-nov, said, the only
reduplicated 2nd Aorist usual in Attic prose is rfyayovt Conj.
dyaya, etc., a form which distinguishes this tense from parts of
Present and Imperfect of ayco, lead.
In stems opening with a vowel, the whole initial syllable is
reduplicated, as a>p-op-ou from op-w-pn. (So in aK-ax^-^'iv, d7r-a(f)-eiv,
only with the prior aspirated mute modified, as by § 7, 4.)
Many other 2nd Aorists are reduplicated in Epic Homer has ;

sometimes three 2nd Aorist, as from ireido)

forms possible for a
(stem niB), e-mdovj nidov, Trt-nidop. More notable still are such
as eTr((f)padov, fn((f>vov, frerfiov, €K€K\6p.r)v, with augment further
superinduced, from stems (f)pa8, <f>€v, rep., k(\. (The double form
of (iTTov and ((inov is by some thus explained, from ff-fcirov and
ffcffiTov respectively.)
In two verbs, (ovku) and cviirra, there seems to be a peculiar
reduplication of tne final consonant of stem, 2nd Aorist ep- or
TipvKaKovj checked, tjuinmrov, chid. (Traces also in last of ivivlnov.
ijvfyKov may be similarly for \riviveKov\ from stem cVe*-.)

§ 74 Augment and Eeduplication in Composition.

1. Verbs compounded with prepositinni insert the augment

between the preoosition and the vero. Tlie final vowel of the
prepoeition is tlieu elidfd, except iii ntpi and np6 npo, however, :

1 Cknnpare in Latin n in tl-tto, gi in gii/no, otc.

142 AUGMENT AND REDUPLICATION. [§74.
combines with f of the augment, and becomes by crasis npov-.
(The V of (p and aw returns, if it was dropped or euphonically
modified in the Present eK becomes f|.) ;

Imperfect. Imperfect.
7rf>o(r(j>(p<o Trpoa(<f)tpov Trfpi(f)cpa> n€pi(Cf)€pov
€7n<f)(p<i> fJTfCPfpoV 7rpo0epa> 7rpov<p€pov
crv/i0ep&) (Tvvic^fpov (K(Pep(i> €^€<p€pOV

2. The
prefixes dvs and fv in composition give the augment to
the second part, if (a) the second part can receive it easily by begin-
ning with a short vowel ; if not (i.e. if the second part begins with
a long vowel or consonant), they take the augment themselves (^3),
though ev sometimes dispenses with it altogether (y).

/ \ { dvaapfCTTeoif am displeased. fiv(Tqpe(TT(ov or -ovv.

i fv(py€T(a>j heiiejit. (vrjpyeTfov „
lv(rTV)((Oy fail. edvTTvxfov „
(3) am sad. fSva-aneov
I Iva-QiTTfcjy „
ivTvx((o, succeed. r^vruxfov or eur-.^
fva>x(o>, feast. tvca\(Ov or r]va>-.

3. All other compound or derivative verbs not containing a

moveable preposition are treated as an integral unity, and so,
normally, take the augment at the beginning. otKoSo/x/o), huildy
(OKodopovvj (f)i\o(ro<f)(a)y love wisdom^ i<^iKocro(^ovv ; also (vavTi6op,ai,
oppose, f}vcumovp.T]u (coming direct from fvavrlos, not from Preposi-
tion €U).

—
N.B. Compounds as in (1) are called Parathetic, the union of
parts being simply through juxtaposition. Compounds as in (3)
aire called Synthetic, being under integral union. Those in (2)
are partly Parathetic, partly Synthetic.

N. 1. Some
parathetic compounds, having largely superseded
and being thence treated as an indivisible whole,
their simples,
take the augment even before the preposition,

ap(f)icvwfii, clothe. r)p<f)i€cra. KadfCofiaij sit. €KaBeC6p.r]v.

a(f>Lr]pi, dismiss. f](f)iT]v. KaBi(a}y set. €Kddi(op.
eTTi(TTap.ai, know. T}inaTdfjir)y. Kddrjpaiy sit. fKaOrjprjv.
jca^eufio), sleep. (KaOfv^ov.

N.B. — The form dc^iriv also occurs, and so do KadeCofiijVj koS-

ICoVf KodrjfiTjPf and KadevSop (also Ka6r]vbop).

2. Some verbs appear to open with a preposition, as dpayKa^ui,

KaBalpoi, but the augment points otherwise, as ^ydy/cafoi/, iKuQaipop.

1 Rutherford allows augment of ev in Attic to be dispensed with, only where

ev is followed by a long vowel (N. Phryn., p. 245). The Ionic laxity as to augment
seems to have influenced Attic more widely, and hence the statement above.
§ 75.] FORMATION OF TENSE-SYSTEMS. 143

3. Some take a twofold augment, both at beginning and middle.

dfirrexofiai, clothe. ff^trfixoH-^v. I dvopdoa^ erect. rjpapdow.
dvixofiai^ endure. ^vfixofiTjv. cvoxXea*^ disturb. t]u6}\\ovv.
1
Trapoij/fo), insult. frrapcovovv.

Also verbs having dvri- and a/x0i- in synthetic union, as d^<f)i(r-

^rjTfOi^ dispute, T)fi(f)€(r^T]Tovv (better than r)p.cf)i(r^r)Tovv), and so with
dvTidiKid), dfi(Piyvoeco, dvTL^oXeo}(no simple liT)T€Oi, diKeoi, etc.).
Siatrdo), arbitrate, from fitatra, sydem, takes (as if directly from
the preposition Std) dii'/rqa-a and even edi^rrja-a and 6eSi7;rr;/iai.
So ffiTToXdo), sell, not from TroXdo) but from a noun efinokr), varies
between f i/f7roX7;cra and rjfnroXrjo-a.

4. Some derivative verbs follow theanalogy of parathetic com-

pounds with prepositions, and push the augment into the middle
of the word.
From (rvvcpyos, a-vvepyim, co-operate, a-vvTjpyovu (though no
epyfo)).
From (TriTrjbfSi (TnrrjdevQ), provide, (nerfjbfva-a (though no

5. Tlie treatment of reduplication in composition is under

similar laws. Thus, napa in Tzapa-^i-^X-qKa, but, with elision,
7rap-f-(rxi]-Kci- ^vs in 5iio"Tii;^fa), df-dvcrrvx^i^a, as in €-8v(ttvxovv,
but ev in (VTvxe<o variable, as tv or rjv-TvxrjKa.

§ 75. FoKMATiON OF Tense-Systems.

The tense-forms fall into two divisions according to the pre-
sence or absence of a formative verbal element, superadded to the
theme or verb-stem. Hence we have, 1st, the simple or non-
Composite tenses ; 2nd, the Composite, cx)ntaining insertions of
fragraents recognisable as drawn from the verbs of existence and
action^ viz.^ tlfil and T'i-6r)-p,u

Simple or Non-Composite Tenses. Composite Tenses.

Prei!«nt and Imperfect. Future (Act., Mid., and Pass.).
Strong or Sec(»nd A<»ri8t (Act. First or Weak Aorist (Act. and
Mid. and Pass.). Mid.).
Strong or Second Perfect and a Perfect in -Ka and 1st Aorist in
few Plunerfecte. •Ka.
Perfect (Mia. and Pass.), and First Aorist (Pass.).
Pluperfects (M. and P.). Pluperfect (Act.)
OBS.— 1. The former of th^He divisions, i-;:., the non-composite, presents the
and analogotia forms appear hIno in the sister Aryan ton^aies.
oldest featares,
The tolter or composite group is more recent in oriKin, and, althouRli forms
inrilartothe Putitre Act an<l the first or weak AoriHt appear in S^inskrit, these
composite t«nses in dr"^'^ «••»• "• <'..ii..r .i t,. i... h, ..riKin purely Hellenic.
£ As the ordtnar -uses of any verb (see I 66)
comUnea composite ^ i. ,\U>w the common arrange-

mmfrMtotlleerder ii. ;... u .^ ;.^..,vd.

 —

144 formation of the future. [§§ 76, 77.

§ 76. Present Tense-Stems.

N.B.—The classification here adopted exhibits only the broader lines of
division, but is sufficiently minute for the initial stage. The distribution is not
coincident with that of §§ 54, 55, M'hich was based on chanicteristics of the
verb-stem, and hence such a class as that of gutturals will be found apportioned
in various groups of these Present stems.

The Present stem of each verb is formed from the root (or
base) in one of seven ways, whence may be distinguished seven
groups of Present stems :

1. —
First Group Root permanent, stable bases (unenlarged).
Ex. \pC<i»t &yu>.
2. Second Group —
Base enlarged by vowel-heightening, with
strong form of the root-vowel (a, i, v), viz., ij for a, ci
for I, eu lor v. Strong-vowel bases (enlarged). Ex.
TfJKw, Xdiroi, (jtcvyci).

3. Third Group— (7'aw or T Class), t is added as a suflSx.

Bases (except viK-r-m) are labial in their characteristics.
4. Fourth Grovp—{ Vod-Class or Iota-Class), i is added,
whence come changes in sound and form (as in § 7, 11 :

§ 9, 2 P). Ex. Td<r<ru), IXir^Jw, pdXXcD, (nrcCpw.

6. Fifth Group —
{Xasal Class). Suffixes containing v are
added, generally v, av, vc, but sometimes (in certam verbs
ill (11), vv and va. Ex. W)iV(a, Oiyyavw, lKvio\uxi: also
8cCicvv)ii, 8d)i.vT]}ii.

6. Sixth Group —
{Inceptive Class). A
suffix -ck- after vocalic
base, or -wtk- after consonantal base, is added. Ex.
f|Pd(rKw, rOpCcKd).
7. Seventh Group —{Verbs in MI not nasal). Root itself,
with or without reduplication, but with certain changes
ot quantity, forms Present stem. Ex. toT-rijii, clfiC.
(8. An Eighth group is added, of Sporadic verbs, having
Present-stem confined to an undevelo)>ed base, and, there-
fore, not homogeneous with the other tenses. Thus,
({>^p<tf has a stem practically limited to Present tense, but

draws its Aorists from another stem, its Futures from a

thud stem, and its Perfects from a fourth.)

§ 77. Formation of the Future.

In non-liquid Verbs (Thematic),
(a) To
obtain the Future in verbs not liquid, change ea of the
Present into a-a, and make the necessary euphonic changes.
N.B. —Pure^ stems, if with short vowel, generally lengthen
before era) in Future, and for a generally take ij. Gruttural and

1 it>6im, ruin, is the chief exception, having ^0C<rw Attic as well as it>$t<ru) Epic.
 :

§ 77.] FORMATION OF THE FUTURE. 145

Ldbial stems absorb a into $ and >//, while in Dental stems, t, 8,

0, {C) disappear before cr. {Cf. §§ 54, 65, for stem-characteristics.)

Class I. Pures. Xv-oj, loose^ Xv-o-w, Xt-a-ofiai.

Trau-o), check, 7rav-aa>, nav-crofxat.
Pures ( fj^d-<TK(o, graiv young^ T)^j-aa> (st. f)^d).

{disg\iised)\ fu-fivT]-crK(o, remind, fxvrj-cra {st, fiva) fivrj-aofiai.

(II. Liquids. See ^, later.)

III. Dentals.^ (t) di/^Sro), finish, avvao), dvvo-ofiai.

(5) >//'fv8o), deceive, y\r€vcr<ji>, yjrevcrofiai.
{B) rreido), persuade, nda-oi, ncia-ofxai.

{C for 5y) (f)pd(o), say, ^pSo-o), (j^pdaofiai.

((TO- for ry) 7rXa<T<TCi),mouW, TrXatro), TrXacro/iat.
f'piaaoi, row, epi-aco, {cf. epcr-7;y, roofer).

IV. Gutturals {k, y, x, combining with o- of Fut. into |).

ttXck-o), /oW, [TrXcK-trto] TrXe ^o), nXe^ofiai.

(ioTyy^ KpdC<o, crij out, [Kpd^(i>], [Kpd^op.ai.]

C^OTyyy^ K\d(a>, scream, /cXd-y^o), iKXdy^ofxai.]
aa for yy rd-o-cro) or -tto), arrange, rd^a, rd^ofiai.*

V. Labials^ (tt, ^, 0, combining with o- of Fut. into ^).

rpi^w, rub, [rpi'/yo-o)] rpi>//'o>, Tpiyjrofi.ai.

Obs.-=-1. Exceptions among Pures. olo/wn, fAinX-, forms oi^o-o/xai (oloro-

fuu belongs to <^t'pw). Among DtntaU. ev5w, s/tcj), and »tTjfi<o, wz,
form in adopting a pure stem in e (traces of eiia-to as Fut. of
-Tjo-cd,
tvit> tinge). Similarly trero/xai takes Fut. nerriaotiai, also Trr^tro^at.
ax^-o/Liat, am rcxw^ has -eVo^ai. Three verbs in -^<d have a tend-
ency to form a Future, as pures, in -rja-u, viz., l^u, sit, fj-v^u, suck,
6^0), smell. Among Gutturals. otX'Ofxai, am gone, forms in -Tja-onax
(ol(ofjiai. belongs to olyu, 0]}en). ti.ax-onai, Jiyht, forms in -tcrofjiat,
contracting -ovfioi in Epic poetry and in late prose -i^o-o/iai.
:

(jj.a(ofLai belongs to ^do-troi, Imtad.)

2. As to Future of verbs like e^/w, dA«'(<o, etc., see § 64, 2, n. 3.

1 In thru verbs a nasal (f) is ejected along with a dental, and there is then a
oompenaatory lengthening of the preceding vowel (§ 7, 7, n.)
«rw4y6m, pour out, <mti<rio iravxto, tuJTer, st. wtvO, irtitronai
; xavSauu, ;

contain, st. x**^t X'^'oc"'*-

2Those In ^w expressive of the utterance of a cry (pnomatopoctic verbs) form
generally with $, as oAoAd^w, cry dAoAd, or raise the war-cry, Fut. -d^otiai, aidfui.
er^ oioi, -^m, etc. (Rutherford claims Fut. Mid. in aid^w and all such verbs of
oi^pmic Tocal functions).
> Besides «Xd<M, other two in Cw have stem in -yy and therefore -yfw in Fut.
wKd^^ Uad lerong, vXdy^w <ra\nl^ut, sound tfu
; trumpet, <Ta\niy(u.
* The followiog vacillate, being in Attic dental, in non-Attic guttural
iftwifm, fiaarA^m, rvvrd^v, irai^io. 6/. also dp^d^oi (Attic dp^Lorro)) and irit'^w be-
coming guttural outside Attic.
with Fut rltfitt, has paHNe<l into the labial class (hyform r^irrw),
* yii*t,
originally from a stem yty, of which yi^u in the relic. n«<rvu, cook (root paJc),
Is now stem ir«ir. Fut. n^^u, and iyiavu, b^fomi ivinrut, chide, Fut. it>i\^m.
labial,
rucrw, a gattiuml, has rt^o^uu, with traron of r«KOVMat in l^pic-
10
 :

146 FORMATION OF THE FUTURE. [§77.

O) To obtain the Future in verbs liquidj eject non-radical

elements from the Present stem, thereby shortening its quantity,
and add t-aoi {i.e. Future sign with connecting vowel). Hence
comes first the Ionic Future -fw, and next (by elision of a), the
Attic contracted Future in 6i.

Class II. (Liquid Verbs).

Fut. Act. Fut. Mid.
Kpiva), KplU-O) (Dual (7tov). Kphf-ovp.ai (2 Sin^ fl).

dfjLvua>j ward off (y), dfxvv-u> „ dp.vv-nvpai „

otAXo), send (y)y OTcX-W „ (TTfX-oC/iat „
show (t), „ (f>av'0vfiai „
stretch (tX Tfu-a> „ TfP'OVfJLai „
<nrfipa>y 80W{l\ (Tnep-S) „ crnfp-ovfiai „
cut (u), r€/i-a> „ T(p.-oyp.ai „
SXXvfii, destroy (vu), oX-a> „ oX-ou/xat „
Obs.— 1. Exceptions amonj; Liquids, (a) The following, thongb with stems
having liquid as characteristic, pass in their Future into the class of pures
and so form in -rt<Tit> and •ijao/xoi.
^ovAo/lat, vrith, fiiKti (Impers.), it a care,
[ipofiai], agL; fUK\ut, am about to.
ippttt, go icrong, o<t>ti.\m, owe.
9<'Aio, iOtXvt, will, wish, x<*tp<^> rejoice,
(fi) In TiVw and ^9d.vio, v is only of Present stem, and hence these are not
liquuts bat purts : Future rttrtj and <f>et<Tio. But in <{>0Lvu), v is more adherent,
and (since <^6iw has developed ^Oicru)) any attempt at Future is through a pure
stem, (^dii^<r(i>. ^aiVw has t<\it. Mid. from stem /3a.
2. TrisvUabic Futures in do'w, tvut, ia-ot, oaw, drop o- and contract like
Futures of liquid verbs.
0i/3d^w, makt walk, St^aaw, Pifio}, -ft, -f -arov, etc. Pifimixai. ;

ikavviu, drivt, cAacrw, iKij, -^t, •4ji •arov, etc.

TcAew, finish, rtktvw, TtKui, -tl^, -ei ; -tlrov, etc. TeXoOM.ai.
oixi'^w, found, oixiVw, otKiui, -eis, -ei ; -tlrov, etc. oixiovfiac.
6/uifv^t, riMar, [0^(7(0] o^ov/biai. 1

N.B.— Herodotus, although the Ionic tendency is generally to admit open

forms, goes beyond the Attic writers in contracting Futures not only from
cAavfu, but from such iUi SiKd^ut, SoKifid^u), as fined), etc.
3. Three irregular Futures, appearing in Attic, have no o- or tense-sign, and
80 look like Present:^ (reputed Conjunctives of an ancient type, with Fut. sense)
cat, Fut. l8o|iai
i<rBC<a, irCvw, drink, Fut. irCo^i
;
x^**> pour, ;

Fut. x^** (X*^**» ^•*''- X^f** Epic, 48ov|iai and iriovyjai late).
Three pure verbs have Futures which, after contraction, resemble their
Presents icaAi, -yofito), reAw (for -«<rw). Three Ivjuid verbs have Futures with
:

penult sometimes long through synaeresis, dpw from dei'pw, t/xicw from ^aeivu>,
Kpavoi from Kpaiaivut.
There are other Futures looking like Presents (such as Srjm, shall find, fitop-ai,
shall lit^e), but such are purely Epic.
4. In these four verl)s an initial aspirate springs up in the Future, through
the displacement of a final aspirate of the stem, consequent on the aflBxing of
-o-u) of the Future «x«. ^^^^ (stem <rex, o^eiOi ^^^- <f<«> (<f" >3 an adverb =
;

without) ; Tpfifxa, nourish (newer stem rpaift or rpe4>), Fut. epeypot (rpe^io is Fut. of
rpcTTw, turn) ; rpix-* (stem rpt^), run, Fut. dpc'^o^ai tvAw, burn (stem tv<I>, older
;

form 0v(i>), Fut. [dvJ'w] (tv»/<w is the Fut. of tvjttoi, strike). Compare § 7. 4, ».
5. Periphrastic Future is by mc'AAw^ intend, am about to, with Innnitive of
Present or Future (rarely Aorist), as ^tAAm Spiv or Spdtrttv.

1 Remarkable as inflecting on the -co-ui analogy : c/. btitlrai, ofxci.

§ 78.] VOWEL-NEXUS OF FUTURE. 117

(y) To obtain the Future in verbs in fit, it is necessary to

discover the stem, and according as this is found to present a
vocalic, liquid or guttural characteristic, the Future will be
formed on corresponding analogy to thematic stemc.
from stem
TiSrifii, Be, Fut. drjo-oi.

from stem
2crTT]fii, OT-a, Fut. arTrjao).

SfiK-vvfu, from stem 8fiK or S«c, Fut. dfi'lo) (Ionic d4$<o).

Obs.— Some verbs in m
do not fonn a Future as, e.g. in Attic, eTm (go)
(do-oHat only Epic). In others the stem has been greatly obscured, as, e.g. in
thoae having the spirant <r at work as ei^i (am), and all in -avvvfui and -tyvvixi,.

^ 78. Special Rules as to Vowel-Nexus of Future.

N.B.
difficulty
—owing
The vowel-nexus of the Future
(a)
to
subject to some
dialectic and other variations which
is
affect
(1)
the quantity. Thus, trovita, toil, and
long for, vacillate
7rod4(o,
between -«o-cd and -j7o-<b, the former (-e'o-o)) being chiefly Ionic.
^2) Again, within the same dialect, viz., Attic, alvioi, praise, while
forming chiefly with short vowel alveara), IjveKa, Ijvfa-a, ijvfBrjv, has
always long in Perf. Pass., Tjvrjiiai, and in Epic, metri causa, alvrjao
may appear. (3) Also, variations arise to avoid ambiguity by a
separate form. Thus, while dtoa, bind, has regularly Sno-co, fi/o),
want, developes a Fut. fit 170-0). Cf. o'/xat and oto/xat (§ 77, (a) obs.
1). 03) A
further cause of difficulty is that affecting /orm, as when
stems that start as non-vocalic glide off on a pure or vocalic stem
to form a Future. Besides the dentals and gutturals enumerated
as thus diverging in § 77, (a) obs. 1, may be named many verbs in
-avu) and -duofiai, viz., alcrO-dvofxai, afiapr-ava} (Fut. Mid.), av^-dva>,
^XacTT-dvui, bap6-av(o{Y\xt. Mid.), aTTCxO-duofjiai, Kix-dvo) (Fut. Mid.),
oXurO-avo), o<^Xi<T/c-ai/o) (Fut. u<p\-i]<ra)), dvd-dvca (Fut. &8-r](r<i>),
fiaud-dv<o (Fut. fiaO-Tjcronai), and one, a liquid, in -aivofiai, viz.,
6<T<f>paivofxai, also evp-iV/to) (Fut. evpr^ato). So ytyi/o/xai, with stem
y€v, developes a pure stem ycve, in order to reach its Future
yfv-Tiaofiai, and similarly with bvvayMi. (y) Some verbs, treated
as pures in the Attic time, show traces of a consonantal stem in
Epic, as rcXco), Epic Fut Tf\<o--o-a), implying an original stem
rfX«<7-.
1. Verbs in aw, fa>, oa>, generally take the corresponding long
]>efore a-<» of Future. (Chiefly derivative ' verbs).
rt/wi-ft), TififjiTu), T)-(rn^at ; (f)i\(-(a, 0tX>7-(ra), rj-a-ofiai ; 5»;Xo-a),
dfjXctf-o-w, a>'(rofj.ai : based on the nouns rifiT), 0iXor,
ifjXos.

N.B.—The corresponding long of a is ordinarily 17, but if a

vowel or p precedes, it is, in Attic, generally d.
Hence «d«*, alUnCf t'Aam dpaa>, do, dpd<r<o. So, with -^m and
;

1 Called alio itnomimMm M baaed np«)n nouns (rabsUnUTe or adJectiveX

148 VOWEL-NEXUS OF FUTURE. [§ 78.

-acrofxai, dxpodofiai, hear ; BedofjLaiy see ; Idofiai, heal ; KOTrtdo),

labour ; Trftpdo), try ; Trepdo), cross. This analogy is followed by

Trao/iai, Boivdofiai, noivdofiai.
These take, in Attic, 17, even though a vowel or p precedes.
dXodo), grind ;
/Sodo), cr?/ ;
yodo), moum ; e77ud<i), betrotlie ; xpdw,
with its Middle, xpao/xai,
Z€nrf, w^e, borrow. (j3od<», yodo) Future
Middle -j^Vcd is late.)
;

2. Stems with the thin vowels (i, v) as characteristics gene-

rally form Future with long vowel, even where the Present may
have I or v variable as to quantity.
rto), yrjpvat, "Xixo, but only rto-o), Xvcro), yrjpva-o). (tSio) and
haKpvco have vowel of Present long therefore iSto-o), :

daKp{}(T(i>.)

Exceptions.

The following verbs, mostly underived from nominal bases,

retain the short vowel of their stem before a-a.

(a) -da-a.

yt/Xdo), laugh ;
[cXao)] iKavuo)^ drive ; 6\da, f/ruise ; /cXdo), break ;
TTfpdo), sell ; o-rrdo), draw; ;
[(pddo)] (pddviOj anticipate (but Future
<f)6i^(rop,ai as well as <f)6aa-<t)) ;
^oXa'^* »"«^-
So all in dvuvpu, as cr^ceSdi/j/v/xi, scatter^ Fut. o-Kffiao-o), also aKedio.
Obs.— Of these no Future drops a, except «Ai and these from -dvyvm.

(3) -€(r«.
grind (Fut. not extant, but Aor. rfKeaa)
dXc'ft), dpK((o, suffice ; ;

€p.4<o, vomit {co), boil ; KaXeco, ca/^

;
ueiKioij chide ^co), scrape ; ;

(Fut. not extant, but Aor. f^ca-a) rcXto), finish rpcw, tremble. ; ;

So atSe'o/iat, reverence, oKeofiai, heal. So all in -eVi/v/xi, including

€vvvfii, whose stems end in c with a fugitive y assimilated.

dpecKOi, please, dpeaa. evwfii, clothe, eaa.

ax6ofiat, am
vexed, dx^ea-ofiat. (rropivwfjLt, strew, a-TOpea-oa.

Obs.— Of these, only »toA«'w and T«A.e'w allow o- of Future to be dropped, and
a few in -«vw(jli.

(y) -ocra).

ovop.at, blame, ovnaopxit. op,-vv-pi [oficJo/], swear. Fut. Mid.

dpdft>, plough, dpocrtv. [d/idcro/LtatJ ofiovp-ai.

(8) i5o"tt>.

dpva>, also dpuro), fZraio water, dpva-tv. ekKvw, pull, fXKvatv.^

dt/vtv, also dvvTtv, accomplish, dvvarw. ipvic, draw, epvaiv.'
TTTVU), spit, TTTVatV.

Also, although a denominative verb, fieBvw, am drunk, fifOva-iv.

1 Also SkiHt, Future eXfw. 2 gpic Future ipvu.

§ 79.] VARIATION OF FUTURE IN DIALECTS. 149

3. Two in aiw are originally stems in af and take av in the

,

Future.
Kalvu (Attic jcaoj), bum, Kaixru} ; (cXatoj (Attic KXatv), wee}),
K\av(TOfiai (also K\airj(rtv).

4. Five dissyllabics in etv, originally ff tu (all expressive of a

gliding motion), take €v in the Future, and have their Future in
the Middle.
6fw, run, 0€v(rofiai [1
O^a-tOy 0rf(rofiai belong to Tidrjfiif place,
vitv, sicinij vfvaofxai VT]<rtv, etc., „ vew, spin,
TrXe'a', sail, irKfixrofiai TrXTyo-tu, etc.,
'

„ nifXTr^rjfu, fill.
irvfiv, breathe, nvfva-ofiail
pttc, flow, p€V(rofiai II [p^(ru}], etc., „ elprfKa, have said.

§ 79. Variations of Foture in Dialects.

1. AH
Liquid Futures seem anciently to have been in -ea-io.
The .3k)lic dialect on the one hand, being hard and consonantal,
is traditionally said to have dropped the e and kept the a, while
the Ionic on the other hand, being liquid and vocalic, is known
to have dropped the <r and kept the e. The Attic chiefly followed
the Ionic, contracting however the open forms.
Thus (f)$fiptv, destroy, stem *eEP-, had its Fut. [(bSep-fo-u}'].
Hence, by different syncopes, both the (traditionally) ^Eolic
<i>Btp<Tiv, and the Ionic <i>d(p€iv, the latter being Atticised into

<f>B(pa>.
In a few poetic verbs the iEolic Future was admitted even by
Attic poets.
Kfipco, shear, Kf'pa-a) as well as K€pa>. Kvpat, find, Kvpaco.^
KcXXcD, prish, K(\(Ta>. op-vv-jxi, raise, opera.

The Doric, by inserting a helping sound, generally e, made

2.
all Futures, whether liquids or not, end in a> (or o-ca for o-fw,
resting on o-tw) and ovpai. Even in Attic a Doric Fut. Mid. was
Rometinies admitted, especially where, as in (jievyot, the Fut. Act.
was not in use.
KoBf^ofiat, sit, KadfSovfun.
K\aia>, weep, Kkavaop-at, and -ovfiai.
nai(<i>, sport, Trai'^o/xai and -oC/xai.
niiTTo^, fall, nea-ovfiai.
<f>€vya, flee, (f)(v^opxii and -oOfuzt.
So three of the dissyllabics in ta, having *f in stem, vta,
7rX/a>, nvi<i>, as Fut. ifKtvaopuai and -oxipMi, etc.
—
M.B. The Doric Future doxro) (for bavito) comes nearest to
Sanskrit datyami, I shall give^ in which y is probably a relic of t,
toga = Je vaw donner.
> ^W«vp9«, eten in the Ionic of Herodotas. opwtu in MicL ipovMai E|>.
150 FIRST PERFECT ACTIVE. [§ 80.

§ 80. Perfect (Weak or First) Active.

N.B.— A Perfect Active is not found developed in every verb, but where it
does exist, under one or other of two forms :—
it falls

(1) The or weak Perfect Active, formed upon the verb-stem by a

first
certain external accretion which contains k as distinctive sign.
(2) The second or strong Perfect Active, formed upon the verb-stem
with no extraneous element and by means of internal adaptations.

All pure {i.e. vocalic) verbs, whether with stems takiii}.,' a or

taking fit, and also the majority of liquid verbs and of dental
verbs, form the Perfect Active in ko, which they add to the stem,
prefixing the appropriate reduplicatitjn and inserting euphonic
modifications.^
Stem. Future. Perf. Act.
PurCS I. KpOV-O), beaty KfJOV, KpUV-O-O), K€KpOV-Ka
<^iXt-to, loi'Cy (^iXe, (f)iXT)-(ra), Tr((f)iKT]-Ka
di'ficofii, yivCj bo, fito-ao), 8(-8o}-Ka
7rt'^rrXj;/xt, Jilly n\a, TrXry-o-to, ne-nXTj-Ka
0va), groiL\ (f)Vy <})vcr(i), Tri-(^v-Ka
Liquids II. nyyeXXo), report, dyytX, dyyeX-o), rjyyfX-Ka
(f>aivio, show, ^o") <^av-fii ir€-(f)ay-Ka
ey€ipa>, awake, *y^Pi (yfp-u), rjyfp-Ka
Denials III. ntid-a, persuade, mO, -nd-au), nend-Ka
Kopl^u), carry, Kopi8, KopXaut, KfKopiKo

1.[Pure Stems.'] ridrjpi and Lrjpi, though with stem in f, take

ft as vowel-lengthening of Perfect, re-dei-Ka, cl-Ka, and so diverge
from the vocalisation of their Futures and 1st Aorists Active,
which are with ;; {redrjKa in Inscr. is older than redeiKa). ;^f<i>, —
pour, one of whose stems is vocalic, viz., x^t is notable as not
lengthening vowel before kg, Kt-xv-Ko, and so with Xvoa and Sva> ;

also certain verbs with the so-called Attic reduplication do not

lengthen the vowel before kg, as e'/xfo), and so opwp^L (st. 6p6),
fXavvu) (st. Aa), cSci) (st. ide as well as (8).

2. [Liquid Stems."] Monosyllabic stems in X, i/, p, change e of

their stem into a of the Perfect.
otAXo), send, stem oT-eX, a-TfXo), f-aruX-Ka
KTfivOi, slay, „ KTfV, KTfVb), fKTay-Ko (but see 3).
<nT€ipoiy sow. „ (rnep. crrrfpio, f-cnrap-Ka
<l>eeipa>. destroy. „ <pe,p, (^depii), €<p9apKa
But polysyllabic stems retain €, as ayyeXXo), eyeipo), above. Also
ftpa>, knit, €ipKa (in composition).

3. Four stems in v drop v before -Ka (also before -pai and,

ordinarily, -drjv) and take a short vowel penult.

1 These are such as (1) lengthening the vowel-characteristic in pure verbs.

If it is found lengthened in the Future; otherwise not (see § 78, 1,2); (2) dropping
dental characteristic (r. 6, 6) before xa, also changing f into y before <ca.
 —

§81.] SECOND PERFECT ACTIVE, 151

kXu/o), lea7i, K\tva> KficXiKo. nXtvo), wash, nXvuio [TrinXvKa]

Kpivo), judge, Kpiva> KfKpiKo, rctVo), stretch, rfvio rtraKa

Two liquid stems shift to a vocalic base in Perfect, and so form

in 17 before ko. (Cf. also e-Krd-Ka, byform in Kreivoi more approved.)
/ie'vo), remain, pavat, /if/icV -rf -ko. vefio), allot, j/6/xca, vevtfi -tj -ko.

Several liquid stems admit metathesis and transpose the stem

vowel, makint; it follow the liquid, generally with lengthening, so
that r; aj)pears after the liquid before ku (§ 7, 10).
/SaXXo), throw, j3a\S), ^(fi\T]Ka.
6vTi(TK(o, die, Bavovp.ai, redvrjKa.
Kafjivco, am tired, KOfiovfiai, K€KfiT]Ka.
Tffivo), cut, T€p,a}, reTfirjKa.
On similar grounds,
KoXia), call, KaXa>, KtKXrjKa.

§ 81. Perfect (Strong oft Second) Active.

Various verbs, chiefly primitive and underived, form a Perfect
Active, some (A) by simply adding a, as sign of 1st Person, to the
reduplicated verb-stem, others (B) by lengthening, in addition,
the vow^el of the stem-syllable, while (C) a third section, con-
sisting of certain guttural and labial stems, developed a new and
late variety of Perfect by aspirating their final mute, heightening
at the same time a or « of the stem-vowel.

A Stenus forming Perfect without vowel-heightening.

Stem. Perfect.

f am afraid.
Ji^ipf. Ep.
0va>,
K'
grow,
«r,

<Pv,
de-di-a.

[ttZ-^v-o], am grown.
tipiBui, am heavy. tiplO, iii-lfipl6-a. am weiglied down.
yijeiu). rejoice. rne. y(-yr)d-a, am glad.
piyf^, shudder. p^y^ fp-ply-a. am chill.
<f>pia(r€o, bristle. (fipiK, ir(-(f)piK-a, am in a tremor.
apxa>, rule. «px» ^px-fl' have ruled.
KOTTTtO, cut. Kon, K€-K07r-a,^ have cut
Xdfinco, shine. Xapn, X(-Xapn-a, gleam.
ftapTrrcj, seize. p^pn. p(-papTT-a>i^ clutching.,

ypd(t}<a, write. ypacf), yt-ypa<})-a. have written.

Kvirra, bend down^ Ki)(f), Kt-Kv(f)-a,1
stoop.
N.B.-Of these verbs one has a pure stem, two repreuent dental, and two
guttural stems : the bulk are labial sterna No liquid stem in this division.
1. With yiyn^a. compare ir«irAT^a from n\-fi6io ; alHo tfAt)AO0a from 8tem
4A»W, but the Kpic flATjAowea atteinptB vowel heightening.
S. With At AoMwa compare «t«(cAayya from K\d^u, witli »tera KAayy, and
••xaffia from xai-idi^ witli Hteui xaf* (a-** w«l' iw x«»'*. a« in 8 77 fn.).

I Only In Participle in •«;«. As to its other Perfect in <^. see under C.

 —

152 SECOND PERFECT ACTIVE. [§ 81.

B. Sterna wUh vowel heightening: if complete, into d or rj, or diph-

thong; if partial, into o or a>.

(a) a or at of the verb-stem modified to i; (if after a vowel

or p, into d).^
o.
(3)* »
^ 0(.
(y) it »»

(8) o >,
0).

(0 V >>
iV.

(a) d or <

Stem. Perfect.
ay-uv-fii, break, f-dy-a{{or fe-pay-a), am broken.
&u8-av-<a, please. apd8, e-d8-a,
< please.
dp-ap-i-aKCi >, adapt, lip-dp- a, am fit.
8ai(i}, bum, ga or 8af, 8(-8r)-a, < blaze.
eat, dd (old St.), € 8-r)8-a, have eaten.
^aXXo), bloom. Oak, T(-6rik-a,
1 flourish.
fcXafo), scream. KXdy, ,
K(-K\r)y-a,^
« shout.
KpdC<a, 'cpay, Kf-Kpdy-a,
» cry.
\ap^-av-to, Xd0, fi-\T}(f>-a,
« have taken.
\d(TK(M), \dKi \(-\T]K-a or Xc-XdK-a, utter.
)

irpda-ao), TTpay, m-TTpdy-Of

1 have fared.
(t>aiva. show. (^dv, Tr€-(f)T]v-a,
1 appear.
Xaiv(o, gape. xdp. Kf-xr]v-a, standagape.
Add fxaiw fj.«tJL7fva, Tr/jyvvfjii ira^ov (stem Oatr) Te9r)ira.
iriirnya, <rrinu> <Ti<Tr\ira,
But Kaivo) (stem Kav) seems affected by kindred Kxev, whence KtKova, and
\eKoy\a is from stem Ae-yx alongside of Kax- ippotya from pTiyin/fJu. (stem ppay),
is peculiar in vocalisation.

O) « to o.

Stem. Perfect.
8€pKopLai, see, 84pK, 8f-8opK-a, behold.
f Xtto), give hope, fekir, c-oXtt-o, hope (for fe-fokna).
fjiivco, remain, fifp, fU-fiov-cL, wait, long for.
Cf. -yeyova, cktoco, c/xfLOfa, f(}>9opa, from stems yev, Kxec, (itp, <t>Otp.
ndaxo, suffer, irevB,Tri-irovO-a, endure.
piCoi, do, F^py^ t-opy-cL, work (= f^e-f^opya).
aT(pya>, love, arepy, e-<rropy-a, love.
TLKTo), beget, t€k, H-tok-o, have begotten.
83" 1. ^le'Xet, M a cart, having Perfect /x«>i7X«, seems the chief instance of e
not having o. It probably rests on an older form ^xoA surviving by the side of
/yi«A. [Cf. KiKopjox and «caAe'<u.)

2. eiio^a, am. wont, from stem vf-tB, has w (for o), and note also the Ionic and
post- Attic oveVyo, 2nd or Strong Perf. from ii/oiyw, ojpen,, whence also under C.
II. ^, kvififxa^

1 Compare elsewhere the similar influence of a vowel or p, in favouring a.

1. In I. Declension. 2. In Future of verbs in 6m (§ 78, 1). 3. In I. Aorist of
Liquids (§ 84).
2 Cf. KtKKayya in A. n. 2.
 —

§ 81J SECOND PERFECT ACTIVE. 153

S. eypiryopa, am atoake, is regular from stem iytp, by reduplication and synco-

pation.
i.—Kayxdyit, obtain bjf lot, has ei-Ar/x-a, also k(\oyxa., from A.ax, nasalised A«'yx-

(y) t to oi.

Stem. Perfect.
fIdoVf sma, ftS, ojf^a, know?-
flKCO, am like J fiK or yiK, e-oiK-a, resemble.^
XeiTTO), Uave, XtTT, Xe-XoiTT-a, have left.

nddiOj pei'simde^ TTlBy TTe-TTOid-aj trust.

(6) o tn^o CO.

stem. Perfect.
o^o), sm«?Z, give a scent^ 08, oS-wS-a, give forth odour.
nXXvfit for oX-w-/it, destroy, oX, oX-oX-a, perish.
opdoi, see, 6n, on-oiir-a, have seen.
op-vv-fii, raise, op, op-ap-a, rise.
X.B.— In these verbs, all beginning with a vowel, the whole stem is twice
employed.

(f ) V to ev.

Stem. Perfect.
K€v3(o, hide, kv6, Kt-KevQ-a, am hid.
<P€vy(o, flee, <i>vy, Trc'-^euy-a, Jiave escaped.
T(v\a), fashion, rvx, re-rcvx-a, have made.
Tvyxavo), happen, rvx, H-revx-a (Ionic), have happened.

C. Guttural and Labial Stems forming in xa and (f)a.

—
N.B. No dentals form Perfect in da by means of aspiration
$ in such as ninoiOa is of the stem.

I. — (Stems forming without intensification of stem-vowel.)

Char. With vowel nat. short in stem. With long vowel in stem.
Char.
ir. KOTT-ro), cut, «ce-Ko0-a. proclaim, K€-Kr)pvx-a
k. Kr^pvcraa},
IT. Tpin-at, turn, T(-Tpa<p-a.'^ n. fitoxco, pursue, d€-dia>x-a
/3. /3Xd7r-T-o), hurt, ^(-$\a(f>-a. rr. <TKT)irr<ii, prop, €-crKT](j)-a
K. <t>v\d(r(r-oi), guard, 7rf-(f)v\ax-n- y- npda-a-oi, perform, nf-npax-a
K. ir\fKQi, fold, ir(-Tr\fX'^* '^- pifrTci), hurl, €p-pi(f>-a.
y. aWdacT-a, change, rfK-\ax-a.
Similar examples in aKairra, also S\i^(o and rpt/3a>, if with
I in Perfect didaaKu (redupl. root 8i8aK for 8t8aK-aK) and in
; ;

licuT(r<o, raa-a-oi, ^iywp.i, opt-yea, nvp((T(Ta>, with short vowel, but in

vpdaato, etc., with long vowel, in penult.

1 01 of olia only in singular Indicative, reverting elsewhere to i and «i.

from Stiim, which used to be explained as a kind of hi/brid (for

3 C/. id-tcuca
tOoiia), between strong and weak. It is more probably a strong form, from a
stem iffK (whence ittiiv^otiai — S«i-Spiiti/oit.ai), cognate to iiv and StiSu. {H'
ifoi— from stem Jf i would be normal Peff .)
* Raeting on rpitrw (Ionic). * By-form -oyo.
 ;

164 SECOND PEEFECT ACTIVE. [§ 81.

II. —(Stems forming with intensification of stem-vowel.)

(a) a into rjy or, after p, into a.
Char. Char.
K. 8dKva>, bite, de-drjx-a- y- "yoi, lead, rj^a.^

O) € into 0.2

TT. K\(7r-T-co, steal, ict'-xXo^-a. *c. [e'l/ex], bear, ev-Tjvox-a.

77. nffiTT-Q), send, n(-7rofjL<P-a. y. Xeyco, gather, ei-Xox-a-^
n. Tp(7r-a>, turn, rf-Tpo(f)-a, y. dvoiyco, open, dv-f(ox-a.
(f).
(rTp((f)-o}, turn, e-or-po^-a. (f).
rpic^-a, nourish, T(-Tpo(f>a.*
Obs.— 1. Labial and guttural stems, having; t or v as original vowel, are
found accepting in the Perfect the vowel of the Present stem, and dispense
with any modincation of the vowel.
Seuc-vv-ju.i, root SiK, thotc, St-Btix-a ; rpip-nt, stem rpt^, rub, re'-Tpt^-a
pi'ir-T-w, root piir, throw, f p-pt(^-a.

2. In certain verbs, Attic reduplication (§ 72) has affected the form, thus :—
akti^, root Xiir, anoint, has a weakening of i from the diphthong of the
Present, aAi}Ai6a. opvaau, root 6pv«c, dig, has opii}pv\a. aKovut
has an isolated Perfect, aK-i^Ko-a for ax-rfKopa. from a Greek stem
a-KoF, akin to Latin caveo.
3. may be for oKwxa from «x<«» hy transference of aspira-
o;^wKa in avvox-iKOTt
tion. oixwKtt, from oixoHtttt. seems entirely abnormal.
4.Except dxovtt*. 6a«i), 6iw, pures in general, being mostly derivative verba,
have no Perfect of the strong form occurring in Greek.
6. In some non-pure verbs, as Aenrw, «i>«vyu>, the strong Perfect is the only
existing one :—
Ktiwtt, leave, 2nd Perfect \*\oiva, have l<;ft. ,

6. But when both a weak and a strong Perfect eaist, the weak or newer
Perfect is uniformly transitive, the older or strong Perfect mostly intransitive.
oAAv/bii, 1st Perf. oAuAexa, havt destroyid, 2nd Perf. oAuAa, am destroyed.
Sia4>0«ipfo, Si-i<t>0apKa, havt destroyed, 6i-«^0opo, am destroyed (Epic,
Ionic, and late). But 6i.-t<t>0opa in Attic pMjts is transitive, perdidi.
Compare dcoiyw^i, iy«ipu>, rrtiOiti, <j>aCv<o in a list of irregular verbs.
When the Present of the verb itself in the Active Voice has both an intran-
sitiveand a tnmsitive sense, the newer Perfect represents the transitive sense,
the older the intransitive.'^
Transit, irpao-o-w, perform. Newer Perfect, ntnpdxa, have performed.
Intransit. npdaa-to, fare. Older Perfect, winpdya, have fared.
7. In these verbs the strong Perfect is intransitive, although the sole or
almost the sole Perfect in the Active Voice.
ayyvfii, breai: idya, ambroken. irijyvvtJii, fix. irtirr)ya, am fast.
JaiM, kindle. Jcoija, blaze. priywfii, break, tear, ippotya, am broken, torn.
cAtrw, give hope. coAira, ?iave hope, o^irw, nude rotten. criayfiTa, am rotten.
«n;£w, vex. Kticrfia, sorrow. t^kw, TWi^f (trans.) T«'TT)»ca, TiieZt (in trans.)
/aaiVw, madden, utixrfya, am mad.

1 rjmay be, however, from augment standing for reduplication.— Another

Perfect is the peculiar form dy»joxa.
2 This change of vowel in Perfect Active is not communicated to Perfect
Middle or Passive, e.g. among these verbs, «t^-«Ae^-^at, etc. As to Perfect
Middle in rpenio, <rTp«'<^w, and Tpi<i>oi, cf. § 88, 3.
3 Also by eiA«xa (late).
* Also T«Tpd(t>a, from (Doric) Present Tpa(J»w, under § 81, C. I. of present in tt>

these two verbs rests on a primary n, whence their location under C.

6 Hence this ancient or strong Perfect rreVpayo, used to be called Perfect
Middle, but the true Perfect Middle is the same in form as Perfect Passive.
 y

§82.] PERFECT MIDDLE OR PASSIVE. 155

N.B.—1. The Perfect in -ita seems specifically Hellenic and comparatively

recent even on Grecian soil. Its origin has been traced to the influence of
forms in -«w like oAeKw, and it seems first to have infused itself alongside of
such pure verbs as ntiftva, /Sr'/Saa, and the like, and thence gradually pervaded
a large proportion of the consonantal verbs.
2. The afpiratol Perfects in -xa and -<i)a<where x and are not of the stem)
<{>

are also recent, and are by some treated as vcaL: Neitner of these exists in Homer.
3. The attempt of Bopp to tind a formula to explain the different forms of
the newer Perfects was ailmirably ingenious. He assumed the substantive verb
as at work, whence -era. is obtained, but -aa he thought capable of becoming -ica
as in 1st Aorist i6uKa (presumably for eSuaa), and -aa might become a by § 9, 1, a,
whence, by contact of labials and gutturals with d, -xa and -^a result, and so
one formula is obtained for -«ca as for -xa. anil -<}>a.

§ 82. Perfect Middle or Passive.

1. The
Perfect Middle or Passive in the first three divisions
of verbs, viz.y pures, liquids, and dentals, is formed analogically
to the weak Perfect Active, viz., on the basis of the reduplicated ^
verb-stem, with the necessary euphonic changes.
Obs.— It resembles, however, the oldest form of the strong Perfect (§ fi4) by
appending the personal terminations witlutut the help of a thematic vowel, cj.
i 56.— The increment «ca is entirely ignored in passing from Perfect Active to
Perfect Passive, anil the latter seems to have assumed shape before the com-
paratively late foi-m of Perfect in »ta emerged.

Pures I. TtQiy honour Tf-rl-Kay rt-rl-fiai.

(J)iX4a>j love, TTfClylXrjKa, 7r€<f)i\T]fiai.
TTfipao), try, nendpcLKa, neneipufiai.
N.B. — These though not taking o- before fiai, or 6r]v,

or Tosy are not to be deprived of a- in termina-

tions containing 6, e.g. aOov, adai, etc. But
when the penult of the First Perfect Act. is
short, then generally -apm, as,
TfXfdy finish, TfTfXcKa, TfTfXfo-pai.
mrufOy draw, (crrraKa, fo-naa-pai.
Liquids II. liyytWoa, announce, fjyyfXKa, f/yfXnai.
(TTTfipQ}, scatter. (orirapKa, (a-napfun.
KplvfOy judge, KfKpiKa, KfKpinai.
Dentals II. <f)p(i((o, STpeak, Tr((ppaKa, irf<ppa(rpxii.
^ixll. i/o/x(^<i). think. pfvopiKa, vevopLiapcu.

2. In the remaining two divisions of verbs, viz., gutturals and

labials, the Perfect Middle is formed on the basis of the Perfect
Active in ^a and <^a {-yjiai and -fifiai by § 7, 6), except that
o before x« and <f>a must, if non-radical, revert to it« prior form.

I. IVith vowel of Perf. Art. reaypcaring in Perf. M. or P.

Gutturals IV. (bvXaaaci, miard, ir((f)v\axa, 7rf<f)v\ayfiai{-^ai).
riyo), hring,
avolyta^ Open, dvta>xa, avf<fyfiai „

« Or rerb-tten. if re<luplication proper is not admimlhle.

156 VARIATION IN PERFECTS MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. [§ 83.

Labials V. '.
^Xotttco,
^XaTTTO), hurtj
hurt. ^f^Xacfya,
/3c/3Xa(^a, ^f^Xa/tftat
^4^\afifiat {-yj^ai).

\ati^dv(o, take. eiX7;^a, (tXrjfMfiai

KOTTTO), cut. K€KO(f)a K€KOflfiai

II. With o non-radical of Perf. Act. reverting to a prior a or t.

GiUturalsTV. Xe'yo), gather, tiXoxa, fiXfy/xai (-^at)-

<f>(p(ii, oear(8t.eveK),€VTjvoxo., fvrjvfyfjuii „
Labials V. Kkfirrca, steal, (ce'/eXo^a, KeKXffifiai {-yj/^ai).

(rTp((f)(o, turn, earpocpa, earpafifiai „

N.B.— It frequently happens that a Perfect is found in the Medio-Passive
without an existing Perfect, whether weak or strong, preceding it in the Active
Voice. Thus, Odwru), to bury, has Te'doft^ai, thougli it lias not formed any Perf.
Active (such as T«'Ta<^o). In such a case, and in all deponent verbs, the Perfect
Middle or Passive must be formed on general analogj-.— In verbs where both a
weak and a strong Perfect exist, the Perfect of the Middle or Pa-ssive follows
in its vocalisation the analogy of the we.ak Perfect, as in ndeia, nentiKa, ntnei-
a^at, as against the strong Perfect ninoiOa <haivu), ni^iayKa, Tre'c^ao'^ai, as against
;

the strong Perfect ni<f>riva. So \tinw, though developing only a strong Perfect
Ae'Aoijra, forms its Perfect Middle or Pa-ssive on the analogy of a non-existing but
possible weak Perfect having same vocalisation as the Present stem hence :

AcAcifx/iai.

§ 83. Variations from Type in Perfect Middle

OK Passive.

1. Pares, having long vowel either in the verb-stem or in the

penult of Perfect Active, and yet inserting a- before fiat.

As GKova, hear. Perf. Pass. (So Ist Aor. Pass*
fJKova-fjuii.

TjKovcrBrjp. Ynt. dKovcr6f}(rop.ai,.) (non -Attic /3u<a).

/3uvca)
Fut. ^v(Ta>. Perf. Pass, ^t^va-fiai. -ytyi/axr/etu, hiow.

Fut. yvoxro/xai. Perf. Pass, eyvaa-p-ai.

So (^cDuw/xi, gird. $va), polish, a-flu), shake.

6pav<o, bruise, nam, strike. v<o, rain.
Kvaioi, scrape. naXaio), wrestle, x^^vvfii (xo'co), h^ap.
KeXevo), order. TrXccD,^ sail. XP'^^f anoint.
KvXi(o, roll. npito, som. ^^avw, touch.

These have either way, i.e., with or without o- in Perf. Pass.^

dpda>, do. Kopico, raise dust, via),

KXaia {8t. av), weep. Kpovco, knock. ;fpaa), a7m(;er oracularly.
kXcio), shut. (kXt^o), has only KfKXTjpai.)

2. Pures not inserting a before p.ai, even with vowel of verb-

stem short.

1 Stem n\€p and n\tv.

2 In Ist Aorist Pass., however, they prefer the insertion of <r.
 —

FIRST AORIST —ACTIVE AND MIDDLE. 157

14.J

dpd«,
Biu,
iXavvctf,
&
drive.
\aprjpoKCL\
dedcKa
iXr)\aKa
dpTjpofiai
dedefiai
fKrj\ap.ai
r)p66T]v.
fdedrjv.
T]\aBr]v.
Wo,. sacrifice. riOvKa T(8vfiai ervdrju.
\<m, loose. \fKvKa XfXvfiai iXvOrjv.
^U, destroy. e(pdXfiai f(f)Bl0TJV.

x^«. pour. K€xvfiai ixt6r]v.

Two sometimes insert o-, sometimes not.

(o-Oio), eat. €8r)8oKa edrjBffjiai ^ and f SjjSf (Tfwii. (fjbea-Oijv always).

op.wp.L, swear. 6p.a>poKa o/xco/xo/iat and -ocr/xat (late), d)p.66r]v and -octOtju
3. Three labial verbs, under influence of /j, revert to a in Perf. P.
rpiiru), turn. riTpap.p.ai. <rTp^<}>«, turn. ((rTpap,p,ai.
rpi^ta, nourish. Ti6pap.p.ai.

4. A
few verbs from pure stems have formed with vowel as in
Archaic Perfect Active, and so omit the lengthening of the vowel
which occurs in the weak Perfect Active.
paCvo), go. fif^TjKa ^eftdfiai i^aOrjv
J
\ lOT-ripj., set up. ecrrrjKa earapxii iaraOr^v

J
8C8{i>|u, give. bibaxa dedop,ai €86&t]v
\ irLvtaf drink. TrfntoKa TrtTTopai iiroOrju
W«, pvt on. dedvKU bedvfuii edtdrjv

Thus fie^afiai and cora/mt have a vowel recalling [/Se^aa], etc.,

cf. § 64.
6. The following have the Perfect Middle or Passive based
upon another stem than that of the lengthened Present :

TTfvOopaL, learn (stem ttvO), irinvcrpxiL urge (stem (tv\

; (revu)^
fcravpai ; Tfvxoo, Jashion (stem rvx), Terevxay but r«'-
Tvyfiai ^; (f)evyoi, fiee (stem <^vy)^ 2nd Perf. Tre'^firya,
but ni(f>vyfiai.

§ 84. First or Weak Aorist —Active and Middle.

N.B.— It called treak Aorist as being formed by the addition of
in an element,
o or o-o, a portion perhaps of the substantive verb-steiB «o-.

1, In verbs not liquid, the Ist Aorist is based upon the Future
tense-stem with augment prefixed and with preteritive endings
in which a ' is prominent.

1 UiiofLoi in Perfect Passive is now given np. as against analogy.

* Yet rHtvytMn in Ionic and late writers. QT. ^n^croi:.
* « penradas, with the proper modifications, all the parts of the 1st Aorist.
In the Sfd singular it passes into «, and in the 2nd singular Imperative into o.
In A>Ue a WM
not so permanent, whence -crciot for -<roit, </. t 68, 8.—The tend-
encj to adopt forms from the old strong 2nd Aorist is seen in the remarkable
Intennedlate or hybrid Aorist of Homer in •ow, as l{«, iiv^tro, ip^atro, otv«
(oIm In Arirtoph.).
 — —

158 FIRST AORIST — ACTIVE AND MIDDLE. [§ 84.

Fut. I. Aor. Act. I. Aor. Mid.
Travo), ch£ck, Travcrui (iravaa inavcrd^ir^v. Syllabic augment.
aTTTw, fasten^ ayj/o) rjyj^a r)^dfjiT}v. Teinp(3ral „

N.B.— Verbs that do not develop a Future Active, but only

Future Middle, may still have 1st Aorist of the Active, analogi-
cally formed as TrXto), sail, with Future Middle only, nXfva-ofiai,
;

has its aorist enXtvaa.

2. In verbs liquid^ the 1st Aorist proceeds similarly upon the

Future tense-stem as base, but lengthen.s the vowel of the Future
in compensation for loss of the formative a.
Flit. I. Aor. Act. I. Aor. Mid.
I into I. KpLuatf judge^ KpXvu) (Kplva ^
(Kplvdfirjv
V into i. dfivvoij ward off, d^vvco rffivva f]^vvdfii]v

But liquids that retain Future in o-o) have Aorist in aa (cf. §

79, 1) ; add also Ktvarai from stem of KfVTtoi, prick.

0^ When the liquid Future has «, the 1st Aorist has ft.

» >> iy *"> » » V'

( into ft. /ie'vo), slay^ fitvui ffj.fiva{^orffifv-Ta,cf.Ij.man8i).

a into ij. <f)aiv(t}f show, (f)ai'o> (<f)T)ua ((fyrjudfirju.

—
N. 1. Two lit^uids have r) in Indicative, owing to temp<jral
augment, and have d long in the other moods :

atpo), raise.y ap&> ^pa (Conj. Spay). rjpdprjv

aXXo/xat, springy iXoiifiai TjXdp.T}v (Conj. uXco/xat).

2. But where the liquid Future has a pure, or a preceded by

p (e.g. from a Present in -totVo) or in -paivo)), the ortlinary Attic
Aorist simply lengthens a.

pa ) . - palvdy sprinkle, pdvo), (ppavoy (Ion. Ep. (ppj^va).

ta j '
fiiaiPO), pollute^ pidvio, fpidva, (Ion. Ep. e'pirjva).

Some verbs, not in -lat'i/w and -paivuty follow their analogy ;

chiefly these :

laxvaivdiy attenuate ; K€p8cuva>y gain ; KotXatt/o), hollow ; 6p-

yaiv(Of irritate ; neiraivcoy ripen ; with dva ^ in Attic (in
Ionic Tjva).

3. 0:f* Observe four let Aorists in Ka}

edtoKQy gavey from Sidcopi ^/ea, senty from irjpi ; ; tdrjKUy placed,
from ridrjpi rjveyKay horCy from (f>fp(o.
; (In the last,
K belongs to the rooty ev(K or ei/eyx).

1 For«(tptv.<ra. The iEolic is iKpiwa, by assimilation.

2 In late Greek there was a tendency to have dva universally, hence even
c^dva for c^qfa, Luke i. 79.
3 Traces of a fifth, i4>prjKa from tnc^pij^i = <l>epw.
 § 85.] SECOND AORIST — ACTIVE, MIDDLE, PASSIVE. 159

4. Q:^ Observe /owr let Aoriste in final a pure.

(K€a (Ep. €Kr}a)j humty from the regular tKava-a)

Kaia> (also ;

€(Ta€va, sped, from o-fvco (Ep. €x^va\ poured, from

; ep^ea
Xf'o) ; also the poetic ^X€vd/x»;i/, avoided, from oXevo).
For eiTra, an unsigmatic Aorist in a, see Irregular Verbs.

§ 85. The Strong or Second Aorist (Active,

Middle, Passive).
I. To the simple root of the verb prefix the appropriate
augment and add -ov for the 2nd Aor. Active, -ofirjv for 2nd Aor.
Middle, and -r]v for 2nd Aor. Passive. Hence, in the Active and
Middle, the 2nd Aorist stands in form like an Imperfect divested
of the accretions which adhere to the latter tense from the Present
stem and it may be reached
;

1. By dropping the latter of two consonants,^ and, in non-

liquid verbs, the first of two vowels.

2. By shortening (a) the lengthened vowel of the Present
stem, and (/3) in the case of a liquid having a diph-
thong, ejecting the second of its two vowels (being an
inserted y sound), with a frequent emerging^ of a-
(especially after a liquid) for the vowel e of the Present.
3. By ejecting non-radical elements, av, utk, vf, etc.
Present. Second Aorists.
Rooi for
2n(i Aor., Active. Middle. Passive.
pdXXcp, throve. ^aX ?(iaXov f^aXofJLTjv
dXXojiai, leap, dX T)\(')fir)v

K6'ima, cut, KOTT fKonrjv

Kd^vo), work. KOfl Kkcljiov (KafjLofirjv
8dKv«, frit.. 8aK (baKov
•Tr€i0(.>, persuade, 7T10 (nldov (ni66pT)v
XcC-TTfa), leave, XtTT fXlTTOV t\in6fiT]v
^vyia, Jlee, (i)vy e(f>vyov
l^cvO] come. ^\i)6nv, rj\6ov.
spare, <pxd e(f)id6fiT}v
2. (a) cfwke, nvty f'nviyTjv
rphrta, turn. rpan €Tpairov €Tpan6fir)t' f'rpaiTTjv
(T^-rrw, rot. (Tan fiT^nrjv
(rrp^, turiiy (TTpd(f) (<rrpi^rjp
x^e«, lurk, XaS (\aeov (XaBofirjv

J Not if the two conNonanUi concur merely tbrongh metAthesU, as in roota

itftK, wtpO, 6ap9.
3 A nimilar variation to that ttcvn in «(A««rrw, ir^itAo^a. UMwuv, appears in
sncb RN Genoan st<hle. stahl, gestohlen, and English steal, stole (Scotch stal),
stolen.
160 SECOND AORIST-—ACTIVE, MIDI>LE, PASSR^. [§ 85
rpuyta, eat, rpay fTpayov
irXiKia, fold,^ 7rXa< fTrkaKr^v
8^pK0|iaw see, ?)pa.K fdpaKOv eSpaKrjv

) So in liquid stems :
—
oTTTcCpw,* sow, iixnap-qv
KTiivoi, slay. (KTOVOV
XaCvo>, gape, iXavov
(paivia, show, s<Pavr]v
haCpui, slay. ffvapov
6^iC\.u, owe. &<f)f\ov
dY<Cp«, gather. aytpofirjv (Epic) Pep. dypofifvos
[irraCpo)] sneeze. Zirrapov (Trraprjv
orr^XXw, send. fcrraXr^v
U^, flay, ibaprjv

But Tffivcj, cut, may have either e or a. Bflva, strike, Oipa,

warm, yiyvofiai [yfi'], become, have only e. Other liquids, such as —
v(p.o), fifvo), form only weak or 1st Aorists. jcXtVo) has both
(K\ivT)v and iK\i6r]v.

3. By dropping inserted elements, nasal infixes, etc.

-av- apapTovoi, err. rjpapTov
» /SXaordi/w, flourish. €/3XaaT0j/

» bap6m/<i). sleep. (d^pdOop (Metath.)

-wric- tvpiaKOi, find. fvpov (or J71) (vpoprjv
-aiv- aKlraivoi, sin. jJXlTOI/

ii
o<T<t>pcu vopui, smell. a)(r<f)p6pT]u
-V- -av- pav6avu>. learn. (pddov
)) Xa7x«»«> get by lot. f\d\ov
))
\ap^idv(o. take. tXd^ov {ka^6pT)v
-V- nlvoi. drink. (irXov
-v«- iKPfopai, com£, iKoprjv
lo-K-av 6(p\l(TKdv<0, am guilty, SxbXov
-O-K- 'irdax<>> (= ndB-a-KQ)), suffer, (Trddov
»5 /SXtOCTKO) (= p6k(TK<t>),go, (paKov
» 6vj](TK<t) (st. 6av) die, Zedvov

N. 1. Two dentals in -<w (not derivatives) have 6 in 2nd Aor. Act and Mid.
(not in Passive, whence no Aorist in •Stji').
<t)pdCm, gay. i^pahov. [(/>Ad^(M], burtt. e4>\dSov.
KtKoiofirtv (Epic), referred to xd^ofuxi, retire, has no present.

2. Guttural stems in -^w, -aa-u, and -xw, have y in 2nd Aorist.

icXa^w, scream. eKkoiyov. riirao), arrange, frayrfv.
Kpd^ut, cry. iKpdyov. <r/xiJx««>. bum. (-ia-iJivyriv)
^vxu), breathe. ei/ziJyrji/ (also -vxt^)-

1 Aryo) and (^Xeyw, retain e in 2nd Aorist Passive. See § 82, IL, 2.

> So Kci'pw, ireipw, <t>0eip<i), have 2nd Aorist Passive in Spiiv.

 :

§ 85.] SECOND AORIST —ACTIVE, MIDDLE, PASSIVE. 161

3. Under -m- of Present is latent sometimes p, sometimes <l>

of root, and the
Jind Aorist forms accordingly.
^AajTTw, hurt. t'^AJ^Tjc. itpvirTcu, kicle. iic^vfirfvA
/Sdirrw, dip. ipa<i>rfy. pdnroi, setr. eppoirji'.
Bamui, bury. iTai>r\v. piinm, throw. €ppi(f>i)«'.
flpvirrw, crush. (-erpiJ^iji/). <r<can-Tw, dig. (-e<r«c2<^Tj>').

4. The 2nd Aorist in -o , -ojyirjv, -»ji', has normally its root-syllable short. A
few, however, have the root-syllable long
(1) By -position, flanked by two consonants. As e.g. ak^avia, d/maprdcw,
aiT(\Qdvofi.ai, Pka<TTdvtM>, oKiadavto, and through Syncope, ep\ojuai.
(The Epic riKv9ov and rtft^porov seem thus more normal than the
Attic fi\9ov and fift-aprof.) For n-Ajjo-aoj having «7rA>7yTji', see 9 intra.
(2) By having a diphthong in root. Cj. aladeaSai, iiravpelv, evptlv,
X poi (TfJiflv.
(8) Some rare forms, as Epic irapmiv and (if 2nd Aor.) rtpafjutvax, and
the late i7»'oiyi7i'.

5. Some Epic 2nd Aorists reduplicate. See § 73, 3.

opyvfii, rouse, has thus a 2nd Aorist ipopop. In Mid. it drops reduplica-
tion, wpofiTjc, non-the»uitic Stpro =
wpero. (Its weak or Ist Aorist is
taipaa.) iiydyov, from ayui, is the only example retained in Attic
prose, Mi«ldle riyay6tir)v.

6. •tirr«,/a//, i.e. iri-irer-ut [IlET-] has int<rov tiktw, bring ; forth, i.e., Ti-rex-w
(TEK-J, «T€KoV, irtKoixrfv, but no 2nd Aorist Passive.
7. «x«. *«»•«, ivtnu), utter, and «>roKat, follow, resemble each other in reintro-
ducing in 2nd Aorist the vanished <r of an ancient root, i-a^ov in cxw for
i-crtxof, from <r*x *yi<Tnov in ivinu, from vtK, now o-ctt, with prepositi«>n ti/i,
'>

and augment Epically dropped and co-n-OMi*' (for (r<-a«7r6^i)i') from ewo/iai.
;

8. In one of the four verbs dropping v (see § 80, 3), a 2nd Aor. Pass, is formed
retaining it, ckAv'i^i/.

9. irAijtrffi.), root n-Ady, is remarkable as having both the regular

strike,
-«irA^y»jf and the peculiar inKriYnv. (The former is mental, the latter physical.)

II. 1. The Second

or Strong Aorist in -oi/, -ofirjv, -rjv is an
inir>ortant form, as exhibiting; very clearly the primitive ba.se
and so bringing us nearer to the ultimate root.
It is found mainly in primitive verbs, or in verbs which,
though derivative, are practically primitive, as in dyydWo), though
from rtvyfXop.
I'erbs of more than two syllables in -va> and -^o), inasmuch a«
they are derivatives ; also, in general^ pure verbs ; are without the
Second or Strong Aorist.^
2. Where the forms of the Imperfect and the 2nd Aorist might
collide, the 2nd Aorist
is either left undeveloped or is in some
way modified.
X/yft>, Imperf. tXfyov, has no 2nd Aorist Active, but
Passive (Xfyqv. (Also ((f)\fyr]v from (pXfyo).) ayo),
Imperf, ^yov, 2nd Aor. rfyayov (reduplication). weTo-

»ft04*i% alM in Sophocles, Ajax. 1145.

>

Th« aietDtiODa among pure verbs are more apparent than real. They are
*
ChwfljrMJvv, wlfV, iwiT^v, twT9r)v, •ppSijf, iiftiriv, from (6dw],
„ tcarh. Kaiiti, I'Um, ,

^S!?' e*f**t
»TiJ«», tpU, ^m,AtnB, 4,vm, proiiuce. 8omo of these are not pure verlm
(TiiflnaUy. and in otbeni the peraivtent vowel v accounts for the phenomenon.
{yiov for yb^of i« not neooMarily an Aorist).
11
 162 FIRST AORIST PASSIVE. [§ 86.

fiaif Imp. 2nd Aorist 6Vtomt;»' (e syncopated).

cTTfTOfjirjVi

(yeipofiai, Lnperf. rjytipofirjv, 2nd Aorist f)yp6nr]v.

TpeTro), Imperf. erpfnov. 2nd Aorist irpanov.
This ambiguity cannot occur between the Imperfect and 2nd
Aorist in the Passive whence perhaps the comparative frequency
:

of a 2nd Aorist in the Passive Voice.

rpe'TTO), turn^ is almost the only verb exhibiting in actual
use all the possible aorists. {ayyOCka and TrXrjcraai are
close upon it in this richness of form.)
Active. Middle. Passive.
Ist Aor. trpf>^a fTpf^dprjv iTpe(^6Tjv
2nd Aor. fvpairop (poetic), irpanopriv erp^irr)v

§ S6. First Aokist Passive.

The first or weak or extended Aorist Passive is formed by
adding 3( (generally lengthened, drj) to the verb-stem, and pre-
fixing the appropriate augment.
Where a verb possesses Aorists Passive of both forms {-$t)v
and -rju as in § 85), there is scarcely any distinction of sense, but
only in usage. Agency, however, more prominent in such as
€<f)av$i]v, was manifested^ in contrast with e^dvrjvy appeared,

—
N.B. In general the first Aorist Passive will be found to
follow, in the treatment of the verb-stem, the analogy of the
Perfect Middle or Passive.

Pures I. (fiikfoay love^ 776(^4X77-/101 €-<^i\ri-6riv

rfXe'ti), Jinishj TfriXfcr-pai e-rfkicr-driv
Liquids II. oyyAXw, annownce, fjyyfX-fiai fjyyfX-Srju
Dentals III. nelBay persiuide, n(7r€i(T-p.ai (-Treia-dTjv
Gutturals IV. irXe/cca, fold, TrfirKfy-fiai i-iikix-QT^v
Labials V. kottto), cut, K(Kop.-pai €-K6<\)-Qrjv

N.B. —The aspirated mute (6) in -6t)v influences but never is

influenced. Hence Svat and root [6i\ (for Ti6T}p.i) change their
inU) r before -6rjv, as irvBr^v (for cBvBtjv), iriBrjv. {Cf. § 7, 4.)
The analogy of the Perfect Passive is usually continued in the
Aorist, even where the Perfect has any peculiarity, as
fTii/o), drinkj ninopai, itrod-qv. rev\ai, fashion, rerxryfiai,
(Tvxdrjv. Telvoi, stretch, Tfrafiai, cto^tjv, and similarly
with /cXtvo), Kpivo), irKvvoi. /SoXXo), throw, ^(^Xrjfiat,
and by similar metathesis, koXco) and Hixvco.
f^XrjBrjv,
The normal cKXivOrjv and eKpivdrjv occur in Homer,
with V seeking to become permanent also the ab- ;

normal I8pvv6r]v, from ISpva.

Excep. 1. But Tpina, rp((f)(o, (rrpecfxo, return to « of Present
stem in forming 1st Aorist Passive.
§§ 87, 88.] FUTURE PERFECT. 163

TfTpafifiai but (Tp€(f)OT]u ; rtOpafjifxai but €3p((f)drjv ;

(OTpap-
p,ai but ((TTpic^Orjv}
2. dX€l(f>aj anoint. Perf. Pass. dX^Xifi/xai but rjXei<f)6T]v.

fpctVa), demolish. Perf. Pass. €pTiptpp,ai but ripeicfyOijv.

3. Six First Aorists take a short vowel where the Perfect

Pa.ssive has a long.
falv^o), praise. ijvr)p.cu tJv(0tjv
(aipeo), take. jjprjfxai jipiOr^v

f cvpCo-KU, yi?ld. fvpr]fi.ai evpe6r}v {r]vp also).

i ^«i have. ((Tx^pai i<Tx^Or)v

1 ii]ui (6-) send. {-ftpxii) {-fdrjv) {-(tBrfv also),

t t(Sti(u (Be), ^^OCg. H3eifiai eTtdrjv

4. Some insert a- while the Perfect Passive rejects it (except in

6 endings of Perfect).
(st. |iva), remind. p.(p,VT)p.ai efivrjaBrju
C pLt|ivfi<rKft)
-^ ptavw^kiy strewjthen. eppccp^i ippuxrdriv

5. Two drop a- while the Perfect retains it.

v4m, spin, vfvrjafiai, €VT]6r]v. trdato), save^ a-eaato-fiai, (oSOrjv.'^

§ 87. First and Second Future Passive.

The Future and second Future Passive may be deduced
first
from their respective Aorists by dropping augment and changing
-0rjp into -Brjaofiai, -tjv into -rjaopai ; as lKv6r)v^ whence Xvdrja-ofiaif
(PXa^rjv, whence ^Xa^rjo-opai.
On the recency of the Future in -Orftrofjiai, cf. § 51, 6.

§ 88. Future Perfect Middle, and Passive.

N.B.— As to Future Perfect for Active Voice, cf. § 65, 8.
The Future Perfect Middle and Passive is based on the stem
of the Perfect Passive, by adding to it the Future termination
-iTOfuu and lengthening in Pures a short stem vowel.' Cf. Latin
cep-ero for -eso.
Perf. P. stem. Fut. Perf.
Pure I. KTaofiai, acquire, k^kxt], KCKTrjaopxit.
(0ei/a)), ••>^xj/, irtffia, 7rf<f)r)(rop,ai.

art/icio), dishonour, rjripoa, fjTifjLaxrofiai.*

» Non-Attic wrKen Bumetimei nse iTpdif)0r)v and ivrpHOny-

' viomtLoi likewise found, probably from a Present o-aow = (Xfa-dotfiai. So
ivmBuy =
4<ram»fif. Derivatives vary, as <rwTifp but o-worpoK.
> (1)Another mode of statinR the formation is to prefix reduplication to the
Pntore Middle, in whieh ease there is no change of quantity. (2) A composite
form occurs, as In the Active Voice. Cf. ynpv^c icr' i<r*i, A-lnch. Rup. 454. Tt0yri(t
and ivrii(m are Fatorae Perfect of the Active Voice, but neuter.
* Bole enunple, beflimfaig with vowel, besides «tpij<roMa( and ifp^^o^i.
 —

164 THE PARTICLES. [§§ 89, 90.

So St'o), bind, dede- dedtjaofxai. \v(o, loose, Xc'Xt- XtXiJao^ai.

Liquid II. <f)vpa), mix, 7rf(f>vp, {7r€(f)vp(T0fiai, only liq.)

(No example having Future Active in oi.)
Dental III. a/^cuSo), deceive, (\//-eu5, eyj/fvaofxai.
Guttural IV. Xtyco, say, XeXe-y, XeXf'^o/xoi.
Labial \. >ccmr&), c«<, kckott, KfKoylrofiai.^

§ 89. Vekbals in to? and reo?.

Verbals in ror and reos may be obtained from the 1st Aorist
Pa.ssive Participle by chan<?ing Bds into t6s and reoi, and, in
labial and guttural stems, transforming the aspirate mute into a
tenuis before r.

0(Xea) (f)iX.r)-6fis ({>iXT)-r6s« -Wos alpio) alpt-Bfis alpc-r^s, -rfos

TftW Ta-Bf'ii Ti-rds 8t8to/xt 8o-3(is 8o-t6s, -WoS
Ko/iifft) KOfiia-Bfis K0(iur-r6s, -rfos KcXeuta >cf Xf va-^f tV k€Xcvo--t6s, -Wos

Guttural and Labial Stems.

Xeyo) X()cd(is X€Kt6s, -rfos ypd(f)(i) ypa(f)-6eii ypair-rSs, -Wos
TrXexo) Tr\(\-6fis irX€K-T<Jsi -t^os Tpf<j)(o Bp((fj-0fis Qpfir-ros, -rfos
N. In verbs where the 1st Aorist Passive or Perfect Passive does not
1.
occur, the forms are on such analogy, as afixivw, d/nvjTto?. C/. such forms as
^«P-t6v, oioTo?, a4>tKTtot, etc., from special stems. In irvvOduonai, nva^ioi' is
more aual(^ic£j than irtvo-Tcoi'. fiufofiai has Svyiroi, on the basis of the Pnsent
stem.
2. The verbal in -to? answers to the Latin participle in -<u.», as Aeitro?, Uctiu.
8. The verbal in -t«o? answers in meaning to the Latin y^articiple in -dt«, as
ktKTtoK, (tge)uiu».
4. Its neuter (sing, or plur.) answers in usage to the Latin Gerund in -dum,
as, \tKTtoi' (or KtKTta) /xoi ta-TL. lA</indum viihi est. J must pather.
5. Sometimes the verbals in -tok or -rio% show the meaning of the middle
rather than of the Active voice. Cf. aiptrov, ^vkoKjiov, etc.

§ 90. The Particles.

N.B.— Under this head may be grouped the so-called Indedinable Parts of
Speech, ordinarily knowni as Advvrb», Prepositions, and Conjunctions. The two
latter are only modifications of the adverb or word of circumstance, for, if the
adverb receives a reference indicating a relation to a substantive, it becomes a
preposition, if to a statement or sentence, it becomes a conjunction. Interjec-
tions also may so be classed in so far as they are considered entitled to rank as
parts of speech.
Propei-ly speaking, these parts of speech are not subject to modification of
form, except in so far as adverbs may admit of d^rees of comparison. Hence,
apart from such adverbs, the term 'morphology' has only a limited application
in regard to the particles, and, although we can detect occasional traces of
transformation out of case-forms, the particle is, in respect of its morphology,
a petrified formation.
I. Adverbs and Adverbial Particles.
Adverbs are, as to origin, either primitive or derivative.
1. Primitive adverbs are such as cannot be readily traced to a

1 The middle Future Perfect is seldom required by the meaning. These

forms are mostly Passive in terue, except Ktit-r^aofjLai, K«K\dy(oiJ.ai, KfKpd^ofiai..
§ 90.] THE PARTICLES. 165

vocable existing within the Greek tongue, as av, ayain^ vvv^ noiv,
Kai^ also, i/a/, yes, and the two negative adverbs ov and /xj]. no, not.

Obs.— The negative adverbs are thus distinguished ou (ovk, ovx) denies :

objectively and denies subjectivtli/ and conditionally, under the

cattgorically ; jii}

influence of will or conception,ov dtnies a predication ^.r) forbids and deprecates. ;

In the conditional sentence, ov is negative of the apodosis, ftn of the protasis.

Hence ov is found chiefly with Indicatives, or with Optatives when in apodosis ;
(t.^ chiefly with Conjunctivas, Optatives, and Imperatives.
OVK iilievaofitv, toedid not falsify ; fir} \^tv<Tii>ti.ev, let us not falsify : ovk av
ivuaio, flit KOftMv, tv6ai.ix.ovtlv, you could not be happy (Apod.), if thou
vert not to toil (Prot.).

With Infinitives and Participles, ov appears when the act or state is taken
as objectit-ely real ; mt if the act is put as hyiHtthetical.

b ov <Ttywi', The man who (on some particular occasion) is not silent (Qui
non tacet) ; o n'rf o-iyic. One who (at any time) >nuy happen riot to he
silent (Is qui non taceat).

N. B.— The same antithesis holds with the pairs of compounds, as, e.g., ovSei't
and M'i^<i<i ovTf and ^J^.r|Tt, etc.

Derivative adverbs, which form the great majority, are

2.
traceable to a vocable existing or recognisable in Greek, as,
a-fHf>Sn, wisely, from (ro<p6s, vnsey ttoO, wherey from a stem tto-s, now
represented by ris.
(a) Adverbs from Substantives are chiefly in -8ov and -8t]v.
^orpvbov, in dusters, from ^orpvs, a cluster; dfi^oXadrjv,
slowly, fnjm dfi^oXr], delay, kvvtjSov, in dog fashion,
from Kvatvj dog. On local derivative adverbs, see 3
infra,
ifi) Adverl>8 from Adjectives and Participles end in as.
KoXaJr, beautifully, from koXos, beautiful; <ra)(f)p6pa}s, jjrn-
dently, from (T<i>(f)p(i)v, iwitdent ; diacfxpovrcos, \eXr]66'
T<t)S, etc.

Obs —I. Certain cases of Nouns are used as Adverbs; the Genitive, as
ovrov, there, •victor, by night ; the Dative, as i5c<y, privately, Srjixo<Ti<f, publicly, sc.
My, tray ; and the Accusative, as apx*?*-, thorou;/hly, from op;j7j, beginning.
i. The Ace. singular and Ace. plunil maur of Adjectives is often used adver-
bially, as Tttxv, quickly, for Tax«'w«. On the Epic rdxa, <Td<i>a, see § 41, 1.

Adverbs from Numerals end chiefly in -aKis. See page 72.

(v)
Adverbs from Verbs end chiefly in -8t}v affixed to tne stem
(h)
with the proper euphonic adaptation.
X<«, pouTf stem x^y whence x^^l^^t profusely, ypa^cu, write,
Htem ypa0, whence ypa^drjv, by uriting. (rvWafjL^iwto,
seize, stem Xa^, wlience (by vowel heightening) avX-
Xrjliirjv, comprehensively. ipnd(<o, carry off, 3rd sing.
P. P. fjpnaKTai, whence AptraydTjv, forcibly, dv-iij-fit,
rtlax, stem i, whence dv-t-orjv, profusely, laxly.
Obs.—!. SoIIM Mid in -toy or -ia, iva^avioy or -td (stem ^av of <^a{ym),
t.Boom adT«rlM from verbH are in -ri, as ofoftaari, by name; 'EAAiffKrri, in
(Tb«M are baae<l on verbn in a^w and t^io.)
N.B.—fieoondary Adverbs derive<i from prepositions end in w.
irw, wpruni, from dfd, up ; ndrw, downteard, from icard, down.
 — !

166 THE PARTICLES, [§ 90.

Ou the Comparison of Adverbs, see § 41.
3. A notableclass of adverbs are those indicating 'place (local
derivative adverbs) under tliree aspects: first, those denoting con-
tinuance in a place second, motion to a place
; third, motion ;

from a place. The first class answers to the question, ttov, lehere;
the second to ttoI, whither; the third to noBev, whence {cf. § 27).
(a) Adverbs denijting continuance in a place end in -^t, -o-i,
"O*' "Oi' (-0*) <^h relics of locatives, -ij of instru-
"X*?' 'X°^* 'V'
nu-ntals. C/. § 27.)
oupavoSij in heaven; * A.$T)vr}(n, at Athens; Travraxr] and
iravraxovy everywhere; ircurrj)^ on all sidis; i.lkoi, at
home ; avrov (also avro^i), there.
03) Adverbs denoting motion to a place end in -8e, -o-e, -(t
(terminals). (-o-f, chietiy from pronominal stems, as eKfto-e,
aXXocTf, also TToaf.)
oiKovdfj also otKadf, homeward^ from oixor, /k>?71€ ; navroae.,
to everyplace ; 'k6r)va(( for 'A^r}i/acrS<, ^o Athens.

(y) Adverbs denoting motion from a place end in -(^c or -^«»

(ablatives in sense).
olKodfv^ from home ; EvfioiriBfy from Euhoea.

II. Adverbial Particles (Separable).

av (Epic Kt or Kfi/), a modal particle infiuencing mx)odj with
sense of mayhap^ in such case, but ordinarily rendered in
English by tone rather than by any single expression.
(ipa, then, in that case.
yf , at least ; yes ; well
8e, however, yet, now of transition =
Latin autem (correlated to
a preceding piv, either expressed or implied).
^17, now, in these circumstances, jiist so, of coun^.
rj (interrogatively or assertively), assuredly, verily, strengthened

Tj fifjv in asseverations on oath.

fid, particle of swearing, by (some deity. Ace), chiefly depre-

catory, no by Also val pa, yes by
. .

^, or, 7 . . ^. =
either . or, n&repov
. . . rj, whethfr . or
. . , .

{utrum . . an). After comparatives ^ is

. thnu. =
pcv, on the one hand, indeed (generally followed by be),
pevToi, however, yet (= tamen).
firjv (in Epic and Ionic, also, ptp), assuredly, in truth.

vi), particle of sweaiing, yes by (some deity, Ace).

vv or pvv, now.
TTfp, just, very.
Toi, aye, surely (I assure you, a form of Ethic dative).

III.— Adverbial Particles (Inseparable;.

(a) The prefix av- becoming a- before a consonant, is prefixed
 . ;

§ 91.] PREPOSITIONS. 167

to nouns (subst. and

adj.), rarely to verbs, and has a negative
force, like Latin English un- a^ d^Xos, clear; adrfKos., dark;
in-, ;

iyvos, pure ; nvayvos, impure ; anaiSy childless.

Obs.— 1. This is called a Privative or Negativt, and is connected with avtv
(sine), without. A
less comu:on form, chiefly poetic, is 107- as in iTjrre^ejy?, jxiin-
l^$. Digammatetl stems are treated ordinarily as opening with consonant,
thus, a-OLvo's =
icineless, a-€py6i, inactive, whence also apyo^ (and even avfpyo^).
2. This a Privative must be carefully distinguished irom o in other insepar-
able prefixes, of much rarer occurrence :

a (^ulative, properly a, as a-dp6o?, crmoded, often a-6p6oi ; also a-Xox©?,

bed/ellow. Allied to a/na, together.
a Interuive, in afvAos vAjj (H. 11. 155), thick-wooded forest, from a for ayau,
strongly, and (vKov, a tree. (Many doubt a for aya< and bring ,

this also under a copulative.)

o Euphonic or Prothftic, as a<rrepojnj,,/!a«A, for (TTepoin). Compare a-irrrip
with English star (esquire withsquire).

(6) 8uy-, badly, poorly, opposed to €Vy well, as dvs-dalficov, ill-

fated, opposed to €v-8aifia}v, fortunate.
(c) fjfii- (Latin semi-), half, as r)fii-6(os)y demigod.
Obs.—The poets use many intentive inseparable particles foreign to prose,
apt- as apiSriXot, ve)-y clear. 6a- as Sd-aKio^, very shady,
I

ipi- &a ipi.-Sri\oi, ,, ^a- as ^d-0eo$, very noble.

|

§ 91. Prepositions.
N.B.— 1. Prepositions are originally adverbs expressing relation, and have
their movable position, since at first they could stand as adverbs, after as well
as be/ore, their cajse. Only those entering into composition with verbs are now
reckoned prepositions. Hence such as avtv, iVexa, /aexpi, ttAjji/, w?, are not
prepositions proper, not being used as prefixes in verb-formation.
2. The general distinction between the cases after prepositions is that the
Genitive expresses the particular relation as one of motion from, origin from
the Dative is used of rest in ; the Accusative motion to or motion over (a space).

(A) *Avri, rrpd ; qtto, €k or c^, take only the Genitive.

aurrl = to Latin ante in derivation, but in meaning chiefly to Latin pro.
wpo = to Latin pro in derivation, but in meaning chiefly to Latin ante.
diro = to Latin ab in derivation and meaning, and denotes removal from
the exterior.
M = to Latin ex in derivation and meaning, and denotes removal from
the interior.

1. primarily opposite, in front of (a meaning from Epic

'Ai/rt,
retained in the Attic only in composition) ; hence, ordinarily,
before of value, in comparison with in place of, for, for the sake of.
; ;

Xpv<r6s dirr\ aidrjpov alptros. Gold 18 to be chosen before iron,

or, in place of iron.
arr\ jcw6p «i 0uXa|. You are a guardian instead of a dog
(as goorl as a dog).
Ti f}fiiu dtrrl rovrtov vmjprrqads ; IVhcU service will you
render us for these things ?

2. Up6, before, of time, place, and value, /or, in behalf of

irp6 rS»v nv\5>v. Before the gates.
irp6 Kvpov. Before Cyrus (either in age or character).
irovtt np6 drjpov. He toils for the people.
168 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 91.

3. 'Atto {diral Epic), from, away from, off from, by means of

after {Ablative Genitive).
dno Sfjpas tpxofxai. I come from the chaise,
dnb drjpas ((b. I live by means of the chase.
OTTO drjpas Xovofiai. I bathe after the chase,
drro a-Konov. Off from the Tnark.

4. 'E>c or f^, from, out from, out of, by means of, immediately
after {Ablative Genitive).
fK p-dxrjs <f)fvyo). I run out of the battle.
(K pidxrjs Ko\d(ofjuii. I am punished by the battle (result from).
(K p.dxT)s Kad(v8a>. I sleep immediately after the battle.
fK naXaiov. From old time.
(B) 'Ev (Latin in with Ablative) and avv {$vu, Latin cum) take
only the Dative.
6. *Ev, in or at, of time or place, among or in presence of (with
a plural or collective noun). (Homeric eW, poetic uv, elvL)
€v arparoTrfdco. In th; camp.
(V napaa-Kfvfj flvai. To be m preparation.
(V oTpoTw. Among the army,
e'v oTrXoty. Under arms.
Elliptically, with a Genitive, oIkIq being understood, as e'v

n\dTO}uos, At Plato^s (house).

6. 2vu, with, together with, with the help of, in conformity with.
narfip avv iraidi. A
father xinth his child.
avv r<a Ota. With God's help.
avv Tw vofia. In conformity with the law.
Obs.— <rv>' loses j^round in prmt except in formnlse like trvv 9tm. It implies
closer cofunnct than iUmjs utrd which denotes mere asfociation. Contrast (rvvixta,
fjitrixo; (rvAAofi/Sdfio, fx«raAafi./3d»'w.

(C) Els (or <V Ionic and old Attic, Latin in with the Accusa-
tive), and dpd take only the Accusative, dvd has the Dative in
non-Attic, such as Epic and Lyric poetry, dva aKfjirrpa), on the
staff. Horn. II. I. 15.
7. Els or es (i.e. €vs), to, into, till, for, as to, up to, icith a
view to.

fh rfjv noXiv. To, or, into the city.

(Is Ofpos. Till the end of summer, or, for the summer.
fls irdvra. As to everything, or, in all respects.
fls dinKoaiovs. Up to two hundred.
els bvvap.iv. To the exteiiZ of one's power.
fs Kipbos Ti 8pdv. To do something with a view to gain.

8. 'A»/a, up, up through.

dva rov -noTap-ov. Up the river (opposed to Kara, doxon).
dva ndaav fjpepav. Through every day.
 §91.] PREPOSITIONS. 169

With numerals it often gives a distributive force, dva TreVrf

irapacrdyyas ttjs fifiepas. At the rate of five parasaiujs a day.

(D) Aid, Kara, ficrd, vrrep take the Genitive and Accusative.
Genitive. Accusative.
9. Aid,^ through, by means of, Through, by reason of (Latin
Latin per, at an interval of propter, chiefly causal in Attic).
^i* d(nrl8oi. \

Through the shield,

^la tSdv dyyeXayv Xcyo). I 8ia TT)v dyyfXtav cncnTra).
/ speak by mearts of the vies- I am silent by reason of {be-
sengers. cause of) the message.
8l* EvpCJTTTJS. 8ia. Stoftara, vvktu.
Through Europe. Through the halls, night, etc.,
8ta. navTOi roi/ ^lov. chiefly Homeric in tem-
Through all his life. poral and local sense.

10. Kara, doum from, down Down through, along, at or

upon^ against, concerning. during, according to, with refer-
ence to.

Kor ovpavov. Kara top norafiov (opposite of

dvd).
Doicnfrom heaven. Down (along) the river.
Kara. Kopprjs. Kara yrjv Ka\ Kara ddXarTOP.
Upon the cheek. By land and sea.
Xfyfi Kara. /SacrtXccur. Kar eKfluov top xP^vov.
He is speaking against (or, At that time.
later, concerning) the king. Kara yvoiprjv rfjv ip.T]V.
According to my opinion.
Kara is often distributive, as Kara nevrc, literally according to
five, i.e., in fives i /car' avdpa, man by man (viritim) Ka6' cavrovs, ;

by themselves (».e. having consultc" 1, etc.).

11. M<rd, among, in the midst After, for, in quest of.

of, togttlier vnth.

fitrd Tatf <bi\(ov. fnXfou p.fTa Tovs (fiiXovi.

In the midst of his friends. I saik'd lifter my friends.
firra napprjaias. (irXfov /lerd ^uXkov.
With frffdom. of speech. I sailed for copper (i.e. to obtain
copper).
p«Ta rnvTov t6v \p^vov.
After this time,
fit
6^ fifjifpav.
During the daytime.

1 When Ata witli (JeniUv« uf a subsUntlve of procedure or feoling atandfi

with i«rat, ipx*9«at. tXvat. yiyrtir9ai, the phnue ha* often to be tmnnlateil by a
vrrtt kindre*! with the Hubtttantive, an 6ia <^iAiaf UVat, i.€., ^iA«iy, to tort.
170 PBEPOSITIONS. [§91.

{j^ ficrd was originally used only with plural nouns or nouns
of multitude. In poetry,
often takes a dative, in the midst. In
it
such as ^\6€ fji€Tameaning is
TpSyas, the into the midst of (^its =
primary sense with the implication of motion). (Contrast with
a-vu, 6. Obs.)

12. 'Y-rrtp (super), above, over, Over, beyond, more than.

in behalf of
virep KC<paXf]s fievfi. VTTfp Tov TTorafiov 7rr)8a.
It rem/iins above his head, He leaps over tlie river,
i/irfp rijs Trarpibos p.dxop.at. inrep rf)v t^XikIov.
I fight for fatherland. Beyond the age.

In late Attic = ntpi, whence with Grenitive = coricerning.

(E) *A/A0i, TTfpt, fVt, TTpos, Trapd, 1*770 take Genitive, Dative, and
Accusative.

OenitlTe. Dative. Accusative.

13. 'A/i0i', around, AboiU, for, concerning. About, for.
about, for. (Not with Dative in
Attic prose.)
dn<f)\ T^S TToXcOX OKOVV. dfi(l>l conois x^a/xvf oi diix^\ Kvpov.
They dwelt about the A chlamys about the\The party about Cyrus
city. shoulders. (= Cyrus and suite).
(Local use with Gen.
is Ionic not Attic.)
a/x0i Tf)s rroXfojy ip.d- dfi(l>i 0*01 (fio^ovfiai. dpL<f}\ dyopav iiKr)6ov-
XOVTO. (rau.
Tliey fought for the I am afraid for you. About fall market
city. time.

14 Ufpi, concerning, Close to, round, con- Round, respecting.

for. cerning.
nepi (TTTovboiv Krjpv^. TTfpX WfiOlS XlTOiV. Trept rT)v vrjaov TrXf t.
A herald concerning a A tunic close to the He sails round the
truce, shoulders. island.
irepl rfjs ^vx^js fid^*- TTfpl aroi <f)o^ovfiai. adiKos nepl 0tXovr.
rat.
He fights for his life. I am afraid for you. Unjust with respect to
friends.

{^ =
Latin amb- in ambio and means round, on both
dp.(f>i

(upcfico) sides. is chiefly used in Epic and Ionic and in poetry.

It
TTfpL means round, on all sides, and is of far wider usage than dpL<j>i.
In Homer and Pindar nepi with the Genitive more than, over, =
beyond (in mental estimates), whence in Attic time, iztpX ttoXXoG
noifla-dai (to esteem highly), etc.
§91.] PREPOSITIONS. 171

Genitive. Dative. i
Accusative.
15. 'ETTi, Upon, to Close upon, close by,'Upon, against, over,
loards, in presence of, depending on, for, unth a view to.
in Uie time of. after (as in naming
one after), upon (ot
condition).
(77\ Tparrf^TjS opxt'irai. fVt rpanf^Tj Kflrai. €7rt rpane^av dve^rj.
lie dances upon a table. He lies on a table. He mounted upon a
table.
eVt vrjaov nXd. eni vTjao) TrXf t. fVi ndaav Evpa>7rr}v.
He sails towards He sails close by an Over all Europe.
island. island.
(TTt Kvpov a>noa-€. (n\ roty ap^ovcri. enl Kvpov fkavvft.
He swore in Cyrus's Depending on the rulers. He marches against
presence. Cyrus,
eTTl T€TTdp<OV. fin, Ti\vri TTfpi^oTjros. fifii (TTi avrr)<Tiv.

(On the oasis of {ovLT^Renovm^ for art. I go upon a quest.

four deep,
iiri noXffiov. €iri TOVTOIS. CTTl TToXv.
hi time of vxir. Depending on these con- To a great extent.
(ni rap npoyovav. ditions.
In our forefathers^ time.
16.napa, from be- Close beside, in the esti- To beside, beyond (in
side, from, by. mation of, unth. things of opinion),
alongside of, at the
moment of, in com-
parison with, on ac-
count of.
napa ^aaCKtua rfkOf. napa /SatriXf t efitive. napa ^aaiXea ^X6f.
He came from the king. He remained beside the He went to the king^s
king. side.
trap dyyfkov aKovoa. nap' €p,ol OavfiacTTos. nap* o\ov rov ^iov.
I hear by (or from) a Admired in my esti- Along the whole course
messenqer. mation. of his life.
napa 86^av.^
Beyond expectation.
nap* ovbiv noiovfJiai.
I regard it as nothing.
nap* avrd rd d8iKqp.ara.
Just at the moment of
the offences,
napa rrfv (axrrov dp.(-
Xtuiv.
On account of (lit. all

alon*; of) his own

nrgligence.
Compare tn English siicb as, '
That ii b<$idc the point '.
172 PBEPOSITIONS. [§91.
Genitive. Dative. Accusative.
17. nposy^ on the Close to, in addition to. Toy' towards, against,
side off in the view of, with, with reference
from, by. to, in contrast with.

TO rrpos ((TTrfpas t('ix,os. irpbs Tois npayfiaari. Xf^are irpos fie.

The wall fronting the Close to one's xoork. Speak to me.
ivest.

TTpOS firjTpOS. npos Toirrots. TTOOS f]fi,fpav.

On the mother's side. In addition to these loxoards day.
OflVV TTOOS 6(<OV. things. rrpos rovs iro\€p,iovs u-
Sivear by {i.e. before or vai.
in the hearing of) To go against the enemy
the Gods. Kpivf npos diKrjv.
ovK earn npia firjrpos. Judge with a reference
It is not nfitural for a to justice, i.e. justly.
mother {i.e. not the d(Tdevf}s npos f'xSpovs.
thing to expectyrom Weak in contract wiih
a mother). foes.
(IpffVTjv nou'iaOai npos
Tiva.
To make a peace with
some one.
otKCtcor 8iaKfi(T6ai npos
riva.
To feel in a friendly
way towards some
one.

18. 'Ytto, from be- Close beneath, in siib- To beneaih, under, near,
neath, from, by, under jection to, under. close upon.
the injiuence of
vno Tov opovs a(T(rfi. vn6 rc5 opci oIko). vno TO opos xatpa).
It rushes from beneath I dwell close beneath I retire to beneath the
the hill, the hill, hill,
vno ndvT<ov Xeyerai. vno noTpl ^v. vno x^^P^ (noii](Ta.
It is said by all. He was in subjection to I brought him under
his father. my power,
vno dnaXero.
Xifiov vno vvKxa.
He died of famine, Close upon night.
vno <f>opp,iyya)v \opfv-
(IV.
To dance to (the music
of) harps.

1Cognate with irpo ; hence confronting, as in o/ili^, etc.

2 is Hsed with Accusative as a preposition to, but only the Accusative of
w?
aperwn or pertviit. noptvfTai i? fia<ri\ia. He marches to the king. Anab. I. 2. 4.
§91.] PREPOSITIONS. 173

Obs.— 1. In causal relations, distinguish v<i,' ov, «f o5, 6i' ou. Si' 6, the first
the agent or fonnaJ cause, the second the matter or material cause, the third
the vieans or efficient cause, the fourth the end or the final cause.
2. a.v9' ov and wv, in return for ichich things, i.e. xoher^ore ; a<^' o5 and i^ oly
sc. xpoi'ow, y*"om the time that, i.e. since ; if <i, in the time that, i.e. xchile ; IC of,
whereby, 6i' 6 or 6i6, wherefore ; i<i>' £>v, (masc.) in xchose time, (neuter) over which
things ; i<i>' Z or ols, (masc.) in whose power, (neuter) on which conditions; i<t>' a,
for what ends.
S. Phrases (circumlocutions) for Adverbs. 'Atto or eit tow irpo^avov^, napa-
avTOfidrov
xprifta, afioitjJTov, =
publicly, extempore, unexpectedly, spontaneously,
awh yXw<r<nj5, Orally, airo m^^i)9, .from memory, anh ixKoirov, off the mark, amiss.
fK woAAoO, at a great distance, «f l<rov, on an equality. "Ev neau> or ev tovtw,
meantime, iv iavrQeyevtro, he came to hiime^f, iv Kaipm, opjwrtunety, iv fxe'pei, tn
turn. Eis Kaipof, opportunely. Aid Ta.\ov<:, raxfotv, quickly, Sia (cei/TJ?, in vain,
6ia Tt\ovi, completely. '.Kva «cpaTOs, up to one's strength, with all one's might,
ava <n6y.a exfiv, to have (aluMys) on one's lips. Kara Kparo?, according to one's
might, TO »caTa TovToi' tlvai, SO far as this man
is concerned, Kara fxepoi, in turn,
Kara HLKpof, by little and little, Kara p-olpav or Kocuof, rightly. Med' rj/xepar, in
the day time, titra x*'P05 *x«. ^ ^"^
something in hand. Tlapa fxiKpof, within a
little, coming near to, itapa iro\v, by a long toay, completely, rrepl jroAAov (n-Aei'o-
yoi, wAei'oTov), fjuKpov {(Kdrrovo^, €\a\i<TTOv), ovSevo?, with Troiovfiai or r)yovp.ai,
are expressions of esteem =.facio magni (pluris, plurimi), parvi (minoris, mi-
nimi), nihili, etc. 'En-l aAijdei'os, truly, inl no\v, .for a long space, to a great
extent, w? inl to ttoXv, tn general, rh in ifxe, so far as I am
concerned. IIp6? tov-
rmv, from these considerations (as a motive), nphi towtois, in addition to these
things, irpbs TovTa, in the view of these things, as against these considerations,
wherefore, accordingly ; irpbs ^tal', violently.

4. In Composition, prepositions signify chiefly as follows :—

"Ai'Ti, opposite, avrfikio^, fronting the sun ; against, Ai/TiXe'yw, speak
against.
'Airo, off or from, awofiaKKoi, throw off : back, aiTo&iScjp.i, give back.
"Ek, out, <f«tfii. 00 out ; out and out, eKviKao}, conquer thoroughly.
IIpo, before, beforehand, npofiaivoj, go before ; publicly, Trpoypa^w, lorite
publicly.
*Ef, in, ivoiKUi, dwell in into, ip.nlnTui,faU into.
;

Ivv, in company, together ; (rvveifn, am, together, consort.

'Kvd, up, into the interior of a country, ifexw. hold up, dca/SaiVio, go into
the interior ; back again, dva^Kinm, see again, recover sight.
El?, tn or into, tlatim, go\n or into.
£ud, through, across, Siapaiuia, go through or across asunder, St-arefjivoi,
,-

cut asunder; thoroughly, 6ianpd<r<T(o, execute thoroughly; through-

out, with verbs referring to duration, fitd-yw, 6ioT«Ae'uj, etc., remain,
continue; with Middle voice, rivalry, or mutual action, ficoAe-yo/ytai,
amarne, diacuss.
Kara, down, towards the sea-coast qf a country, Karafiaivm, go down;
down utMtn, against, Ka-niyopeiv, speak down xtjnjn, i.e., accuse;
thorougnly, KaT*<reiw, eat up, dewmr ; back to one's country, of the
return of exiles, a.s Kardyw, resettle one in his country, Karipxcuax.
return to fatherland.
M'rd, in fellowship, fitTaiiduifjn, give away a part, utrtxtt, have a share qf;
change, fu6i<rranai, change my place, utravotto, change my mind.
*Y»«'p, over, overmuch, virtpfidWu, tnrow over, viripao^o^, wise overmuch,
ifwtpopM, overlook.
'Ait4^i,on both sides, d^^iAcyw, speak on both rides, dispute.
n»pt, all round, wtpUpxotiai, go round; superiority, ntpitipn, over, am
surpass ; excess, vtpiKvnoi, over sad ; neglect, ntpioput, over-look.
'Ewi, ujnm, ftriirvcw, breathe upon; behind, after, innrndb), drag on or
after; to or totcards, against, iwnft-i, go to or against ; over antl
above, iniMtum, give in addition.
\lp6t, to. towards, wpoaipxotkai, go to ; in addition, npovtputrdm, ask over
and abitve.
Ilopa, beside, befnre, near, napariBrfm, jilaoe beside. napaw\4ta, sail near
or jtast ; beside or beyond the mark, wronffly, contrariljf, itofa-
fiair^, go beyond, i.e., transgress. irap<ucovw, mishear, misunder-
stand, wa^avikiv, go against the law.
 — — ;

114: CONJUNCTIONS. [§ 92.

'Yjto, beneath, under, vnop'piut, flow under ; (in a quiet way) vireLwelv,
inttiject a remark; in (wi underhand rmy, secretly, v<^oipe'oftai, take
away secretly, filch ; nearly, not quite, vnoykvKv;, sweetish.
5. Prepositions in composition are often ilisijoined from their verbs, espe-
cially in Ionic and in Epic 0>y Tmesis), as 6x«<ras an-o irai^ras for airo\f(Ta<:, having
lost every one.

6. In poetry and Ionic, prepositions may be used as adverbs, especially 7rp6«

in the phrase »rp6s hi, and moreover.
7. For compendious brevity, bv what is called constructio praegnans, a pre-
position is found serving a double purpose, boine united to a verb to which
it is less congruous than it Is to a latent verb whicn is non-apparent, as iv tu£«
Toiry Karani(i>tvya<:, you have fled to this Spot and are in refuge there (for « ro'vBi
Tonov KaTan€4>tvyai Koi iv T(j»i« tottw /xcVcif)-
8. Prepositions may be put after their cases, and then let the accent rise to
the tirst syllable, as irepi iroifios, but jr<u8b« Trepi (Anastrophe). aM<Ai| a-vri, dvi,
6ta do not throw back the accent the two last might otherwise be confounded
;

with At'a ace. of Zevs and ava, king, voc. of ai-otf or, afu, arise, for aVao-njfli.
,

9. Poetic Forms. 'Ev has ivi, €lv, *iyi; Ei? and Mera have in .Eolic iv and
ire'fia; 'Airo, 6ia, irapd, viro have forms in at, as vnai, etc. Ilpds has TTOTi or jrpoTi.
;

§ 92. Conjunctions.
Conjunctions are either co-ordinating or subordinating.
I. Those co-oi"dinating may be divided into such as indicate
1. Copulative co-ordination (a) of affirmations kcu, andj :

Kai...Kai, both.,. and ; re... re (= qve in Latin); re kcu

or T(...Kai^ both. .and ; aWws t( icat, both in other
.

respects and particularly {in this), i.e., especially {rjfiev ;

...r)8( or 18( (Epic), both... and. (/3) of negations ovre :

...ouTf, neither... nor ; fjirjTf...firfTfy (let) neither... nor

ov...ov8(f not... nor yet; fiT]...fMT)h(, (let) not... nor yet.
2. Disjunctive co-ordination (a) of affirmations rj (or frot) :

...^, either... or; norcpou (or norfpa)...^, whether... or

{utrum...an).
3. Adversative co-ordination aXXd, but, de, however, yet,
:

still ; o/A»ff, nevertheless, etc.

4. Ciusal co-ordination: ydp, for ; ovv, accordingly, there-
fore; hpof then; end, (ireidr) (rare), whereas, etx:.

IT. The subordinating conjunctions are those indicating

1. Dependence of a substantive sentence : ori, that; a>s, that
or as.
2. Dependence of sentence giving time- or place-determina-
tion : 5t(, when ; ottou, where ; ems, while ; irpiu, before,
ere.
3. Dependence of causal sentence ari, because ; iirei, since.
:

4. Dependence of conditional or concessive sentence el, if; :

(ovy rjvy av, if; etrf...etTe, whether... or {sive...sive) ;

ir\T]v, except that.

6. Dependence of final or modal sentence : a>s, vnua, so
that ; axrre, so as to ; Iva, in order that ; rj, than ; fif), lest.
 ;

§92. CONJUNCTIONS. 175

Obs.— 1. Kou as a conjunction = and; as an adverb also, even, =

tovt av
i4o4 (coi 6 lIoKv4>^fjLo^, et^nPohiphemus might see this. Kol /xaAio-ra vel maxime. =
In an enumeration of particulars, (cai, like t(, is usiuiUy repeated either before
every word of the series, or omitted before them all. Cj. Anab. I. 2. 27, 7. 12
II. 4. 28. It represents the English as (or Latin ac, atqiu), after expressions of
timilarity, as o^oio?, lik-e ; o avrov, the same ; ovx ofiotw; <tal npi-y, not in the same
tcay as formerly, etc. It also expresses coincidence in time ws 5« eSo^ev avroli, ;

Koi ixotpovv, when they came to a resolution, then they went away, Thuc. II. 93.
Koi Si — and farther, and also—\n Attic always (cai 6«, with intervening word
. . .

— of an explanatory statement thrown in by the wa^. Kai with a participle,

often = although, as in Eur. Med. 2S0, especially with irep or toi aflBxed, as
npoa-tmivrfaav Kaiirtp etSoT*?, they made obeisance though aware, etc., Anab. I. 6. 10.
—
(Kaiirtp 1 means even very much!) Sometimes Koi merely gives emphasis to the
following word or clause and cannot be rendered by a separate word in English.
2. 'On, t}iat, becatue, answers chiefly to quod, and is never joined to the Con-
junctive Mood. With a superlative it answers to quam, as on rd\i.(TTa, quam
ceiet^imt (by some written 6 n Taxio"Ta, Homeric otti rax).

3. Ouie as an adverb =
ne quidem, not even. ovS' ws efrj^^r? Snoiceir, not even
thus was he induced to pursue, Anab. I. 8. 21. Neither— nor is properly represented
—
in Attic prose by ovrt ovrt, or, less strictly, by ov ovSe. He is neither afoot —
nor a rogue: oure evrjdi/c ovrt navoipyo^ eVn, negations linked as a pair, bat
(with negations not as a pair but treated .sepai-ately), ovk evjjflTj? eorli' ovSi
navovpyoi. The latter is strictly he is not a fool nor yet a rogue. similar usage A
hold.s in fi.rjS( and fi>JT«. ov»' =
accordingly, said to be derived from tof ace. of
the Ionic participle if, being, and answers to this being the case. Affixed to a
relative pronoun or conjunction, it answers to soever, as 6»ra>sov«', howsotver.
ovKovv take-s its meaninc according to its accent. If ovk has the accent as
ovKovv, it signifies certainly not ; if ovv has the accent, as, ovkqvv, it signifies
therefore, accordingly.

4. IIA^foften used as a proposition with the Genitive

is except, sometimes =
a mere adverb, as in Anab. I. 2. 24. It is aiso frequently a conjunction with a
clause after it, except that, as in Anab. I. 8. 20 9. 29. :

5. T«' = Latin que, is a closer connective than kolL. In os re, olds t«, and
some other remnants of the old language, re adds nothing appreciable to the
meaning, and is known as t« otiosum.
6. 'Q? is the adverb to 6«, i'>ho, and properly signifies how, as. It answers to
the Latin ut in these seven usages.
As. tariv cot * At'yet?. Est ut dicis. Jt isas you say.
Like. fiay^trai. ws 2 Kiiav. Pugnat ut leo. He,rights like a lion.
How! wc liof, ut «^La.vr|v. Ut vidi, ut periL How I looked and
was lost.
How! wt TToXAol Ttdyaviv. Quam multi periere. How numerous are
the fallen .'

Am soon as. i>t j}Ad(( dnjjKQtf. Ut venisti, abiisti. As soon as you cam*,
you xoent off.
Considering. 6tiu6i, wf Aouccjatfib- Peritus, ut Lacedae Clever at speahing,
VLO^, Acydf. monius, dicendi. considering that
he leas a Lc^cedct'
monian.
That, in order Aryn wt (iraifTJrai. Dicit ut laudetar. He speaks to get
that {purpose). praise.
That, ao that ovrm i\tyty wt S {;ir'o Ita ilixit ut ab
He sjwke to that he
oni-
(rttuU). nivrtav iirQvi9i). nibuslaudaretur. was praised by all
It is used alao where the Latin ut cannot be used. 1. After verbs saitiendi
et declarandi. t. Along with superlatives, for Latin quam with superlatives.

> In poetry the itai and v«p are often separated, as n. II. 270, and ntp alone

oiOoivA, a« Od. X.
Kive the eenae «UthdMi0k,
canI Kite u -
y 174.— om^k may appear also,. ^ the
whether .

Iciple ha* coivcp present or not.

participle
3 In these, mk is a rtUUive particle, resting on a possible antecedent such as

I ttMtally i<rrt. Ex. with in and Indie. Xea. Hell. iv. i, 33.
 !

176 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§§ 93-95.

3. With uumerals = about. 4. As a preposition with accusative (always of
motion to a person, never to a thing).
—
Example. e\e(ev is OTrAlrai u»5 fitcucoaioc w? /SatriAea u>s raxio'Ta noptvoti'TO,
he stated that about two hundred mtn-ut-arms were marching asjast as possible to the
king.
tl^ w? with the accent is an adverb = thus. w« = as does not take the
accent, except when it stands a^fter its word, as is koucoi, but k<xko\ ^<:, like
cowards.
7. ^ilirrt. 1'. (So) as to, generally with Infinitive. 2. (So) that, generally with
Indicative (or Optative with av).

§ 93. Interjections.
Some deny these exclamatory words to be parts of a sentence
or even of speech. Yet they may sometimes have a Genitive
attached to tnem, as oifioi r^y fioipUis, A las for such folly.
Of joy fvol (evoe !) hwra ! Of praise (vyt, well don£
: :

Of sorrow : ol/xot, woe is me! Of wonder : rranaiy oh strange,

etc., etc.

§ 94. Formation of Words— General.

Consult § 11, with iU footnote, for relation of roots and stems.
1. Words are formed from roots through various developments by means of
stems, i.e., adapted roots or roots under particular modifications or additions.
2. The words can oe referred to such roots the origin,
majin-ity of (jreek ;

however, of not a few is still t)bscure.

Roots are properly of one syllable. The few exceptions are only apparent,
3.
being due to modifying influences, such as prefixing prothttic vowels, e.g., b-pvK,
expan.sion of rui-, root of opvaaiu, dig.
4. Roots may receive accession of consonant (chiefly 6, k, v, <t), without
apprecialile difference of meaning ; ara appears also as o-rae, fw as fv-y, and
they e.xhibit scales of vowel-increase, e.g., ^vy becomes ^tvy in ^evy-i'v-zxi.
5. Stems are formed from roots by adaptations through suffixes, and these
suffixes may lead to change of sound and form, so that (1) contraction may
ensue on concurrence of vowels, as apxotos for apxo-io-s ; or (2) a variation of
form in its final syllable may take place, as cr<o<i>po-(Tvvri, for (roxiypov-iTvirq, oiKeTi}<:
(stem oi>co, in contrast with Sijmottjs) ; or (3) elision of a final vowel may ensue
before a suffix opening with a vowel, as 617^1105 for 6)j/lio-io-s.
6. (a) Words are either primaries, fonned from a root at one remove, or
secondurus, formed from a root at two removes, and based upon an intermediate
noun (sabstiintive or adjective). (The former have been by some called vtrbal
derivatives, the latter dtnoininatire as based upon noum). (fi) Words are either
simple, as containing a single stem, or compound, as containing two or more
stems. Cj. yeVos simple ; oixo-ycf qt compound.

8 95. Formation of Substantives.

I. Primaries.
1. A
few substantives are formed direct from roots without
any sufl&x proper (other than case-sign), as <^Xd|, Jlame, root
0Xcy (s in I being nominative -sign).
2. The most common sufl5x is o and a, forming the groups of
substantives under 2nd and Ist declension respectively.
 : : ;;

§ 95.] FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 177

Thus fidx^t is based on a form ^JLax-a^ root ^lax C^y-n-v, ;

root (vy. But modification of c as the root-vowel

larf]jely prevails, f passing into o, ei often into oi, as
<f)op-d from (f)epco, Tpo(f)-6s and rpof^-r) from rpftfxo,
Xoi^ff from Xfi/Soj (but owing to p, o-7ropa with a, from
(TTretpo)).

3. A few form by the suffixes t and v, as 7rd\-t-?, Trc'XfK-u-ff.

4. (Agent.) Substantives, denoting a personal agent, are formea

by these suffixes
I. -Ta- (Xom. -TTjs), as avXTjTrfs^ flute-player.
II. -TT]p- and -Top- (Xom. -njp, -Tap), as a-eo-Trjpj saviour,
pT)-TOip (Genitive -Topos), speaker, (/xj^o-rwp, as having
-cjposj Epic, is unique).
Obs.—1. Tothese correspond certain feminine forms. Under I. are found
-Tci(Nom. -Ti?), -rpiS (Nom. -rpi?), -rpia (Nom. -rpia), as ttoAiti?, female citizen,
and avAijrpio. Under II. is found -reipa, o-ajrecpa, feminine.
avAjjTpi's
2. An archaic group of agents with participial ending 6fpdiru>v, \toiv, Spa- :

Kuv, all with -aiva in feminine; also t«t«i/ with same feminine in -aiva, on
which analogy e€aiva, goddcst, and KvKoxva, she-wolf.

5. (Action.) The suffixes denoting action or operation are :

I. -TI-, -trt-, -crta- (o-t a variation of older n). TrtV-r-tr,

/ar</i, root Trt^ ; (f)a.-ai-s and (f)d-Ti-s, saying, root <^a,
d-(f>a-(ria, speechlessness ; So-o-i-y, (jiving, root do ;
npd^i-s, transaction, root Trpay ; irolrj-a-L-s, mode of
composing, poesy.
II. -/io-. oSvp-/xo-r, wailing ; pv-6-p.6s, flowing movement;
(Tira-a-pLos, twitching ; \oyL-(r-p.6s, calculation. Kindred
is feminine suffix -fxa, as seen in yva-firj, TL-fxri.

III. -TV- (Nom. TVs), chietly in Homer, ^otj-tvs, bawling

eSrj-Tv-s, eating. {Cf. Latin -tii in 4th declension in
such as or-tu-8, friLC-tu-s.)

6. (Result.) The suffixes denoting the concrete product or

result are

I. -ftar- (Nom. -/xa), as irpay-fuxj thing, effect ; noirj-fia, com-

position, poem.
II. -ts (Nom. -Oi), as Hk-os, child, bairn; Xdx-os, portion,
lot ; ($-os, habit. Quality also expressed by the same
stiffix, as ^dp-os, heaviness; ^d0-os, deepness; BdXn-osy
iffamUK,

7.(Instrument or Means.) This is chiefly denoted by -rpo-,

M in Spo-rpo-Vj vlough; Xv-rpo-v, ransom; fiT)vii-Tpo-v, fee to in-
former. Kindrea is -rpa (feminine), as ^^''^p^h V^^ f^ pouring
more usually expressing relation of place, as 6pxr)-a-Tpa, place of
dancing ; vaXai-tr-rpa, place of urcstling,
12
 ;

178 FOEMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 95.

8. Other suffixes are these, characterised by v: -ov, cIk-wv, stem

fiKov, likeness; -cov, as kXvB-cov, surge; -ova-, fjd-ovf], pleasure; -avo-,
<TT((f)-avo-Sj crown.

II. Secondaries (Denominatives).

Substantives expressing Quality are developed from adjec
1.
tive-stems by the suffixes -ttjt-, -avua-f -la-.
veo-TTjs (Gen. -TTjTos), youth ; raxvrrjs, s^ciftness ; diKaio-a-vvr],
justice; crcotppo-a-vvr), discretion; (ro(^-ia, wisdom; oKt]-
6(-ia (for a\T)de(T-i.a\ truth.

Substantives denoting the Person concerned with any

2.
object are indicated by the suffixes -ev-, -ra-.
imrevs, also Imrarrjs, one connected with horseSj a horseman
TTopO^fvs, ferryman ; lepevs, priest ; ypa<f>(vs and ypap.-
fxarfvs, scribe ; Trokirrjsy a'<U€7i ; araa-iutrTjSy partisan ;

oiKe'n;?, dom£stic.

Obs.— A few feminines corresponding are in -€ia- and -ti*-. Up«ta, priestess
fia<ri\tta, queen (byforms /Sao-iAis, ^ao-i'Aio-o-a) ; noKlrn, female eitizvn; oliceTis,
female cUnnestic. (<f>oyevi is o, ii.)

3. Diminutives are usually develoi)ed from substantive stems

(a) by the suffix -lo- (Nom. -iov\ ()3) by the suffix -ttr/co-, -wr/ca-.
(o) Traibiov, little child ; Krjniov, little garden ; aKovriov,
javelin. Further varieties based upon -to- are -i8io-,
-apio-, -acLo-, -vbpio-f -uXXto-. otxtStoj/, little house;
KvudpioVf whelp ; Kopdcriov, little girl ; fjL€\v8piop, snatch
of song ; [xfipaKvWiov, stripling.

(/9) vfoviarKoSj youth (based upon veavias) Traiblq-KT], lass. ;

Rarer varieties of diminutives are such as rroXixvrjy

TroXt'xvtoi/, little city (from TroXty); Kprjvis, little fountain
(from KpTjvT]).

Obs.—1. Diminutives in form sometimes drop their diminutive force thus, :

Oupiov has taken the place of Brip.

2. Diminutives are used to express sometimes kindliness, sometimes aver-
sion and contempt.
3. Triple gradation sometimes possible. From TraZs come naiZiov, naiSdptov,
nai,Si.<rKdpiov,

4. Amplificatives are used to express largeness and accumula-

tion, occasionallv with contemptuous reference. They are chiefly
in -a>v and -as, Gen. d8os.
ydoTpav, pot-belly ; (f)vX\ds, heap of leaves {(f)vXKop, leaf).

6. Patronymics (mostly names expressing descent from

poetic
father or ancestor) are based upon proper names, whence they are
formed by the suffixes -i8a- or -8a-.
(a) Proper names in -as and -los take -8a-. Bop€d8r)s, son
of Boreas, M€voiTid8r]s, son of Menatius. Obs. Femi- —
nine forms corresponding are in -ds (Genitive -d8os).
Bopeds, daughter of Boreas, etortay, daughter of Thestius.
 ;

§ 96.] FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 179

(3) All other stems of proper names take -iSa-. IleXoTrtSi^s,

son of Pelops, Tni/raXi'Sr;?, son of Tantalus, nrjXeidrjs
(Epic nrjXff-ldrji), son of Peleus, ArjToidrjS) son of Latona.
Obs.— 1. -ifltfiij? is a variety, as n7j\»jia5Tjs, 'A/Saj/riaSTj?.
2. -twf is a rarer variety. Kpovitav, son of Cronus, alongside of the more fre-
quent Kponiif?.
3. Feminine forms, answering to those under 03), are in -i?. TavraAt's,
daughter of Tantalus, StiprjU and Nrjpfis (Genitive CSo^), daughter of Nereus. •ii'ij
and -irtwj are also found, 'ASpTjoriVjj, N'rjpeti/rj, A.Kpi.aimvrf (i.e. Danae).
'

4. Patronymics from aninuiU are of cognate form, in -Sews A.uici5«us (Gen. :

««0i ''*'"« tfo//(frora KvKOi).

5. Some proper names are patronymics in form but not now in meaning,
MiAria£i}S, 0ov«cv£c£i)$.

6. The Place is indicated by the suffixes (a) -lo- forming -«o-

from A and nouns and nouns in -cvs, O) -rrjp-io-, (y) -(op-.

(a) ^idaaKoXelovj teaching -place, school ; Kovpelov, shop of

Kovpcvs, or barber; fjLovaelov, seat of muses; 'Hpaioi/,
temiile of Hera (with o owing to p) ; 'Hc^atoTetov, t&mple
of HepJuBstus.
(3) biKaarrfjpioU) court of justice ; dKpoarrjpiov, lecture-room.

(y) a/xTTf Xq)i/, vine-yard; napBepciv, maiden's chamber; dp-

dpap, men's apartment ; podayp, rose-bed^ byform pobatpia.

7. National names, founded on locality or people, are chiefly

in -euf or -rrji.

(a) Meyapfuy, man of Megara ; 'lariaieCs, man of Histi(ea.

(/3) Alyipr)Tr]s, man of yEgiiia ; TeyearTjs, man of Tegea
^dia>TT]s, m^n of Phthia. So St/ceXitorr/y, 'HTrcipwri;?,
Tv^apirrjs.

Obs.— 1. Feminines corresponding have stems in -ifi- and -tiS-. Ueyapit,

iftffarian woman, ZEixeAiwris, HicUian tcoman.
2. The
great majority of these geographical names are adjectives in -toj used
substantively, as '\eriva>.ot. See § 96, II. 1.

§ 96. Formation of Adjectives.

I. Primaries.
Amongthe suffixes forming primary adjectives in respect of
derivation are -w-, -fo--, -fiop-.
(a) ijd-v-f, gweet, root f)d, Sanskrit svdd.
(3) <Ta<f>-Tjs, clear, root <ra(p ; yj^fv^-rji, false, root yj^fvb.

iy) y^vT)-p,oiP, mindful^ root /xva ; (•ni-\r)(T-yL<ap, forgetful^

root Xai9.

The and verbals in -rot

suffixes of participles -vr-, -or-, -fitvo-y
and the passive ending -pos in such as 6(ip6s, o-f/ii/dr
-riot, also
( ss reverendut)^ may also be ranged under this division.
 ;

180 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 96.

II. Secondaries (Denominatives chiefly).

The most common suffix
1. is -to-, indicating that which in
any way appertains or belongs to the substantive forming the base.
^
A-Declension, 0-Declension. Consonant-Declension.
daXdcrcrios, vuirine. ovpdvios, heavenly. Bepeios, of suminei', for
dyopaios, of the forum. 7r\ov(rios, wealthy, dtpea-ios.
BvpaloSi external. for ttXovt-io-s. ^aa-lXdos, kingly.
oiKelos, domestic. aldolos, reverend.
rjolos, r)(aos, of the dawn.
dvfipf toy, manly.
Many geographical designations follow this analogy.
Orj^aios. MiXrjaios.
KopivBios.
2. Fitness or Ability is indicated by the suffix -iko- (after t

stems, -KO'). Xvp-iKos (lyrical), i.e., adcipted to lyre; dp^-iKos, able to

he a ruler {dpxos) ; ^vtri-KOi, naturally able.
Obs.— Such adjectives can be deduced from verb-stems bjr forming an inter-
mediate noun in n, as aio-0)}riK6«, perceptive, vpaxTiKOi, practical.

3. Material is indicated by suffixes -fo- and -ivo-.

XP^^^^^^
golden; Xldiuos, of stone ^vXiuos, wooden. ;

Obs.— 1. -eo? in old time was -«co5 with e for o of stem, so that the sufllx is
really -lo- in such as xpv<Ttio<:.
2. -ivo- (oxytone), used also as a suffix to form adjectives denoting time.
yvKTtpiyoi, nocturnal; xdtat.v6<:, qf yesterday (from xQi<;).

4. Fulness is indicated by suffix in -fvr-. vXj^ety, woody ;

dpoa-oeis, deioy ; deudprjfis, full of trees (o-stem passing into a-stem)

Xapiets, graceful ; Ixdvofis, full offish.

Various adjective suffixes, appended chiefly to substantives

6.
and so constituting denominatives, are :

(a) -ip.o-. aXKifxos, valiant ; eStoSi/ios-, edible ; pLaxi-p-os, able

for fight ; doidifxos, capable of being sung.
Frequently -aifMo-, as xpw^f^°^i useful (based on a substantive
XPW*-^) ; tTTTTao-t/ioy, fit for riding (implying a possible noun trr-
Trao-ty) ; (f>v^ipos, capable of avoiding.
Obs.— 1. </>p6fi/Lios, prudent, seems verbal rather than denominative.
2. In Epic a form in -oAi/xof appears, as KvSdXifjiOi.

(/3) -VO-. dikyfivos, painful (for dXyecr-vos) ; opeivos, moun-

tainous.
(y) -po; -Xo-. Xxmrjpos, painful ; (fiBovfpos, jealous ; dirarT)-
Xdy, deceitful.
Obs.— I. XvTrpo? also alongside of AvTnjpo?.
2. AofiTrpos, bright, and 6ei-A6s may be verbals rather than denominatives.
(5) -TTjpio; rarely -Trja-io-. Based on personal nouns in
-TT]p-, as arcoTTjpios, safety-bringing, salutary ; iKtTrjpios,
also iKeTTja-ios, of a suppliant ; neia-rrjpios, persuasive
(based on a possible noun, ireicrrqp from neida).
§ 97.] FORMATION OF VERBS. 181

§ 97. Formation of Verbs.

1. Denominative verbs are such as are based upon noun-stems
more or less manifest In some the trace is more obscure, as in
rfXeo), Jinuh (older rfXeico, based on stem rfXey), or in ttoiCo), play
(for naid-io) =
'play the boy,' nais). In all these the suffix to was
affixed to noun-stems.
So with fJiaprvpofJ-ai, ayye'XXw, TiKfiaipofJiai, KaOaipu), t/xeipu>, fJiOi\d<r(T<o, o-tw-
tLvkXot. Cf. § 9. 2. /3, for treatment of i.

2. The more important endings of denominatives are these :

(a) -00). SovXdo), enslave ;

;^puo-da),gild ; ^Tjfiioai, fine.
(6) -ao). ri/xdo), honour ; nindo/iat, accuse ; yodco, W"rti7.
(c) -f 0). (f)ik€a), love, am friendly ; eurv^eo), CTi/oy fortune ;

itTTopioi, inquire.
Ko<Tfi€(i), adorn ; avfifiax^aj am an ally,
(rf) -fvo). ^aaiKfVd), am king ;
/SovXcveo, ^ive counsel ; dXr;-

(e) -1^0). fXiriCo, hope ; fKXrjviCa), speak Greek ; Miyfii'^co,^

favour the Mede ; d/yytXco, enrage.

(J) -a^ta. SiAcd^o), J»d"7e ;
/Sid^o/xai, /orce ; epyd^ofjiai,work.
Ors.— These, though ultimately formed from nouns of A and O Declensions,
rest upon a base in -aS-, so that 6t»ta^w =
6i«cafi-tw.

(^) -aii/o). a-rjfxaivoi, signify ; Xf vKatVo), whiten ; ;^aXf7raii/a),

am angry.
(/i) -WW. ijfiufo), sweeten ; Xafinpvvay brighten ; alax^vo),
disgrace.
(t) -o)0"0"a> or (UTTO). ; Xi/icotto), famish.
vTrvaxraa), sleep
is regularly and so usually oiVw and vi/co. Thus, £ovA6(o
catisative,"^
lltowaJte one a a/atr, while SovAevw is to be a slave, and TroAf/xou) is to render
MUM one hostile, while voKtixioi is simply to make war (Epic noktp.i^u)).
3. Desiderative verbs, expressing a desire or affection of the
frame, mental or physical, rest on nouns more or less clear.
Some end in -ao), -iau>y as <\>ovaa>, am bloodthirsty (from (jyour]) ;

Bavardta, long for death *cXavo-iaa), long to loeep

; d^^aX/xido), /wire ;

an affection of the eyes ; ci);(ptda), sujfer pallor. Others in o-fio), as

hpa<T(i<i»y intend to act ; -ycXao-ft'o), rfe«ire to laugh.
4. Frequentatives end in -d^o), -tX«», -vC«' ptTrrd^d), toss
(from piirr(a\ OTcvd^o), etc. ; alri^a, beg (from airew) ; (piruC<o, creep
(from fpTTw).

Inceptives or Inchoatives end in -cr/cw. f)^daKa>y juvenesce ;

6.
yrjpatTKay grow old. Son>e are Factitive in sense, as pLf6v<rK<ay make
drunk irtnia-Kctf give to drink.
;

6. GemikATE verbs, BUch as yapyapi((Oi TratTroXXu, voiirvva).

1 Analofj tnuwferred m If from a noun in i« like ^Xirtf, to a noun in ov like

s Except In ibe oUmtwIm peculiar rerbs, iip6io and piy6u, see 1 67. 8. obs. 3.
 182 COMPOSITION OF WOKDS. [§ 98.

§ 98. Composition of Words (Nouns, Adjectives

AND Substantives).
Ill a compound noun there fall to be considered, (1) the first
part or element of the compound, (2) the last part, and (3) the
meaning of the resulting compound.

A.— First Part op a Compound Word.

1. A substantive,
.standing as first part of a compound noun,
appears simply in stem-form, as vav-dyos, ship-wreckedj ^op"-
its
di8d(TKa\os, chorus-teacher.
Obs.— 1. (a) Stems of lat and 2nd declennion drop a or o before a vowel.
Before a consonant, there is a tendency toward o as ending of first part, naturai
in O-stems (i>), whence o takes place of a even in A-stems (c), ana is often in-
serted in consonantal or 3rd declension stems (t/).
(a) Ktit>a\-a\yia, K<(^aAa-, oA-yof, htad-oche ; x^P'^*^?, xopo-, ckorut-conductor.
ib) oiKo-2d/[xof, house-Ouiider.
(c) \pvxo-iTonn6^, xj/vxa-', toiU -conductor doAao'o-o-Kpdrtop, ruler of the sea.
;

(d) <f)pevo-p\aprii, crazy ; lxBvo-i>a.yo%,Ji»h-cater ; 4>v<Tio-\6yo^, natiire-stude^it.

Digamraated words are treated as opening with a consonant, hence fi7j/«.co-
tpyoi, fiTjfo-eiirj?, because ptpyov and /^«i6o?.
2. But Tj sometimes holds its ground, a« xo»j-if>6po?, ligation bearer, and some-
times gains ground in other than 1st Declension stems. Thus, «\ori)T)-/36Ao?,
deer-slayer, stem <Aa</)o-, AawTrofirj-'^opo?, torch-beartr, stem Aa/iTroi-. — Stems in eo-
retain «r in archaic words, as iirf<T-^6Ko<;, word-bandier, but in more modern
words to- gives way to o, as Ttixo-vKo-nCa, vkwnom the vull.
3. Sometimes the first part is an inflected case-form, and then the word is
not so much a compound as a merely graphical union of two distinct words :

vewf-oiKOf, shlp-liouse, Sopi-ATjn-TO?, spmr-xcon, n*Ao7roi-i/T)<ro? (for ITeAoTro^-i/ijo-os,

by assimilation), Ptlop's island. In some real compounds an inflected case
appears, i/avcri-jropo?, traversed by shipt (-iropos in this sense being found only in
composition).

2. Compounds, in wliich the first part is a verb, are chiefly

poetic.^
I. (a) With simple verb-stem XiTr-auyi^s, bereft of light, (b)
With Present stem of verb, Trdd-apxos, obeying orders.
(c) Witli stem of verb supported by a lielping vowel,
€, t, o, 8aK-€-6vfjios, heart corroding fiev-f-TrroXefios,
;

steadfast in war ; apx-t-TeKTav, nuLster-builder ; fuar-o-

yvvos, tvoman-hater ; XtTr-o-yajuof, false to marriage.
II. The verb-theme has <ri appended, becoming a before
vowel, Xv-cri-TTovos, toil-relieving ; T(p\l^ivoos, soul-de-
lighting (stem repTT-) ; o-rpe\//-ifiiKoy,j ustice-perverter
(stem a-Tp€(f>-) ; ttXtj^-lttttos, horse-lashing (stem 7r\r)y-) ;
fpv-(r-dpfjuiTcSf Nom. plural, chariot pulling. Homer.
3. (a) A preposition, or (6) an adverb, may form the first part
of a compound, subject only to euphonic changes by elision or
crasis, as in § 74. 1.

1 Compare in English '

Lord Hate-good,' Dread-nought,' break-water,'
' ' etc.
 —

§ 98.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 183

(a) dTT-dXXv/it, lose.

(6) det-Xoyt'a, perpetual talk ; ev-ycvrjs, well-bom.
In early poets, as Homer, the preposition may appear detached,
as 6\((ras aTTo TTovras iraipovs (Tmesis, T/ii)(riff =- sedio).

4. As to the Inseparable particles, found only as prefixes in

composition, see § 90, III.

B. Last Part of a Compound Word

An initial short vowel, at the beginning of the last part of a
compound noun (substantive or adjective), is often lengthened ;

a, € becoming r; or d, o becoming o).

Kvvqyoi and Kvv-ayoif huntsman (ayto, drive) ; vtt-^koos,
obedient (aKovd)) ; KaT-i]p€(f)Tjs, covered {ep€(pa>)', BfTjXaros,
god-sent (eXavj/co) iir-6ivvp.oi, giving name or
; named
for {ovofia) ; dv-(o(f)eXT)s, useless (ocfxXos).
Obs.— 1. In many words this lengthening does not occur, as Sva-eXe-yicTo?, Sva-
oAwTo?, and in derivatives from verbs compounded with prepositions, as eTr-ovo-
fioo-Tos,verbal of fTTovond^oK arapi^/xo? as well as ai'^pi^/oios. Euphony seems to
have been one cause of the lengthening of the vowel at junction, as eAa^ij/SoAo?,
to avoid the multitude of shorts.
2. The Second Component, taken by itself, may or may not be an actual
word. Thus, among examples in § 98. A. 1, i^ayos exists in sense of eater, but
Koyot, ionot, p6\os, are not peraonal nouns of agent, and -KpaTup does not exist.

C— Meaning of Compound Words.

1. These may be divided, as regards meaning, into two classes,

determinative an<l possessive.

2. Determinative Compounds. In these, the first part or

component defines or determines the second crw/iaroc^uXa^, hody- :

auardy where a particular kind of the genus guardian is indiciited

by the first part {Tiofia).
Determinatives fall under two heads :

(a) The first part may define the second in a sense which
might be expanded by an oblique case (with or without a pre-
lK)8ition).

Xoyo-ypd<^op, speech-maker = Xdyoi/ or \6yovs ypdcfxav (Acc.)

vdpo-iroirjTos, artificial, hand-made = x^'P* Trouynk (Dat.)
oto-dfjiTjTos, built by gods = Bfols (or vtto 6ea>v) dixTjdds (Dat.)
Om.— In the verbal compoundH dencribed in § A. 2, the tccond part defines
ttM^nt, tut tu.<r6yvvoi = fitawf yvvalKat (Acc.).

(6) Sometime?, though much less frequently, the first part

defines the second in an adjectival or adverljial sense.
dKp6-iroXtfy upner city, citadd =wcpa ttoXis.
6fi6-liov\otj fellow slave = iovXos 6fiov &v.
KaXXi-iraiSf fair child = »coX^ wa7s.
 — : ;

184 SYNTAX (abridged). [§ 99.

3. Possessive Compounds. Again, ia these, the first part

defines the second, but the whole is an adjective describing the
possessor.

HaKpo-xft-pt long-armed = fuiKpas exav. ;(€ipa$'

dpyvpo-To^oSy with silver how = dpyvpovu to^op excov.
KoXXi-Trais, having beautiftd children = koKovs Traidas txova-a.
8eKa-tTr]s, lasting ten years = b€Ka err) e^coj/.

4. Prepositions may also form determinative and possessive

com pounds
(a) :^po-^ouX)7, forethought, {h) eudtoSi havijig a god in him,
i.e., inspired.

PART III. SYNTAX (ABRIDGED).

N.B. The special Syntax of the Greek tongue is reserved for separate
treatment.

§ 99. Laws Common to the Greek and Latin Tongues.

Section I. — Concord.
1. The whether verbal or nominal, agrees with the
predicate,
subject in number^ and person; the nominal predicate agrees also
in case, and, if an adjective, in gender.
fjfids ypd(f)OfXfv. No8 scribimus. We write, or 'Tis we
who write.
rjv fj 686s xflXfTn)' Via erat ardua. The way was hard.
In some imperatives which are used as interjections, the
number is not ref,'arded. Cf. age, aye, 18(. The copula is ordi-
narily the substantive verb dfii, but the function may be supplied
by such as yiyvofiai, and passive verbs of naming, etc.
—
N.B. The personal pronouns in the Nominative are usually
inserted only where emphasis or contrast requires their insertion.
1. a collective singular noun viay have a plural predicate,
«? <f>a<7-ov ri n\y)Biii, II. 2. I Sic dixerunt turba. I Thiu tpoke the crowd
278. Cf. Thuc. I. 20
and § 99. 3. 4. I
I

2. Two or more subjects singular, connected by a conjunction, generally

require a plural predicate (verb or adjective).
'AvT)p ica't jrais jrdpeio-i. | Vir et puer adsunt. | A man and a boy are here.
Sometimes, however, the predicate contents itself with agreeing with the
nearer subject.

1 But neuter plurals as subject have usually the verb In singular number.
(Special Syntax of Greek).
 § 99.] SYNTAX (abridged). 186

8. Two singular subjects, connected by a preposition, may have a plural

predicate.
'\yifp avy trotSl iropei(ri. | Vir cum puero adsunt. | A man i« here with a hoy.

4. A. first person generally overrules a ifcorid, a second overrules a third,

'Eyw Koi (TV ypa4>otJiev. I Ego et tu scribimus. I You and I write.

5v Ka\ Trai? ypa<^eT«. I Tu et puer scribitis. I You and a boy write.
5. An infinitive or phrase of a sentence may stand as subject.
TO KakCn: ^r)v ytvvalov. \ Bene vivere praeclarum. To live well
|
is noble.

6. impersonal verb has either the subject contained within

An itself or a
clause attached to it as the virtual subject.
/tcTo/Lw'Aet (= ^irrofteAeia Poenitet me stultitiae. \ It repents me of my folly.
I

«<m) fioi ifoia?.

xpri fit Saxpvfiv.
I
Oportet me flere. 1 It behoves me to weep.

7. The verb may agree in number with the secondary or nredicative nomina-
tive, instead of agreeing with the principal nominative or subject proper.
Xuptov 'Ewta 'OSoi e«a. I Oppidum Novem Vise ap- I The place was called 2fine
Xovvro, Thuc. iv, 102. I pellabantur. |
Ways.

8. The subject is not expressed,

(a) When it is a personal pronoun not involving emphasis or contrast
ypiifttif. Scribis. You write. (But) I

You write and I read.

I

<rv Ypo<^eic Kayia avayi- Tu scribis et ego lego.

yvuVKv. ' '

In natural phenomena, where no agent

(fi)
is visible to the bodily eye.
aarpanrtL. Fulgurat \ 1
There is liqhtning.

Yet, as the Latins could say in full form, Pluit Jupiter, so Alaens has
vei ftkv 6 Zeus : and Herodotus has, in such, 6 0e6?, 2, 13 3, 117. ;

(y) In some habitual actions, where the agent is less thought of than
the act, and where the verb implies its own subject.
ietiSav oTjpujfn (sc. o <ra\- \
Ubi tubft ceciuerit (sc. I When the trumpet sounds.
wiyK-rrif. \ tubicen). I
Anab. ii. 2. 4 : i. 2. 17.

(5) In some ind4i/lnite or general statements, and in impersonal verbs

and expressions.
Ac'yovtri. |
Ferunt. I People say.
Arycrai. •
Fertur. I Jl is said.

9. The copula or substantive verb

A. is often omitted, especially in the
forms iari and tl<ri.
(o) In proverbs, household words, and quick sententious sayings.
Kpiirff Ml ^cOtrrot. I Mendaces semper Cretes. I The Cretans {arc) always
I I liars.

ifi) With ^pov5o«, verbals in riot, and the expressions of necessity, justice,
etc.
pufiyiT^oy Tov« ayaBovs, | Imitandi (sunt) bonl. | The good are to be imitated.

B. (a) The more common verbs raying, doing, coming, may beof l>,inff,
omittea In laconic style, such an, Unpc hactenus unde et quo Catius ? n-oi »cat ;

wi9t¥ ; So with ti oAAo, oi/6iy aAAo, the Greeks could omit iroi«'w or irpa<rau.
miiir oAAo oiroi q iw*fiov- 1 Hi nihil aliud quam in- I These did nothit^ else than
Xtvva.y. I MS<liHti sunt. I plot.

(fi) So the assertion is not r«peate<I in the elliptic phrase :

maX ravra (Ace. of respect). | Idque. | Ami that loo.

10. An ind^^u twbjtel is sometimes represented by the second person.

itt6fn^t% if. I Putares. | One tcould have thought.
 :

186 SYNTAX (abridged). [§99.

11. The subject of a dependent clanse is often brought forward into the
leading clause, and there becomes the object. (ProUjms— common with certain
verbs of statement, recognition, etc.) (Compare Anab. i. 1. 5 6. 5 8, 21 ; 9. 7.) ; ;

OlSd o-e Tis el. Novi te qui sis.

| / know (thee) who thou an. |

12. —
In the case of the construction known as Appositio partitiva or distri-
bviiva, there is a nominative of the part in apposition to the nominative of the
whole, and the verb sometimes agrees with the one, sometimes with the other
nomin.
01 p>}Topr« oAAof oAAo cAc- I Bhetores alius aliud di- 1 The orators said some one
yoi' or cAcyci'. I cebant, or dicebat. I thing, some another.

2. (a) Substantive Verbs (/3) Passive Verbs of naming^ and

; ;

(y) Verbs of gesture, have the noun or adjective of the predicate

in the same case as tlie subject (Appositional verbs).
(a) 'Eya> flfii fiaOrj-rrji. Ego sum disoipulus. / am a scholar.
O) 2u KoKd ^lax'iuvrjs. Tu vocaris Joannes. You named John.
are
(y) ^EKfLprj <mi\fi fia- Ilia incedit regiiuu She walks as a queen.
a-iKfia.
N.B.— In such combinations, there is a nominal predicate besides the verbal
predicate.

With Infinitives, other cases than Nominatives may emerge.

<f>r)(r\v €fxe tivai fiadrj- Dicit me esse disci- He says I am a scholar.
rriv. pulum.
(^eoTiv ifiiv oX/Stois Vobis licet esse bea- It is in your power to
tis. he happy.

3. Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles agree with their sub-

stantives in Gender, Number, and Case.
dyadTJs nrjrpos dyada Bonae matris bonos 1 love the good children
I 1

TfKva cf)i\ci). liberos amo.

I
of a good mother. |

N.B.— The masculine in general statements includes the feminine, tUv tvrv-
XOvvTuty irayrtt tiai avyytvtU, All (persons) are iiny'olk to the jnosperous.
1. The substantive is sometimes omitted, so that the adjective is used sub-
stantively, especially in the feminine.
fiefia (sc. x«*'p)' I
Dextra (sc. manus) |
The right hand.
Adjectives and participles have sometimes their gender regulated logi-
2.
cally by the sense rather than grammatically by the individual word. (Con-
Structio Kara avvtacv.)
Compare S> nfpi<ra-a Ti/nTj^els reKfov, Eur. Tro. 735, with, Capita coryura-
tionis casi sunt.

8. If a neuter occurs among a number of nominatives of things without lijt,

the adjective of the predicate is neuter
Ai'flotT* (cai fvAa Kai K«pa- Lapides et ligna lateres- Stones and jcood and bricks
1 I

fxos oToxTws eppLfXfjieva que teniere jacta nihil toMtd doicn tcithout order
ovhey xpriaina {eariy). utUia (sunt). 1 are of no u«. I

4. A collective noun may have a plural adjective. (Cf. § 99. 1. 1.)

Tpoiay «A6i/T«fs 'ApyeCioy TrojA potiti Argivorum I The aruiy of the Argives
o-ToAo?. ;
exorcitus. I having taken Troy.
6. An adjective in the predicate, summing up collectively the character of
the subject, is sometimes neuter, though the subject is not neuter or is plural.

1 Including oLkovco and kay\ai'<D in their passive sense.

 § 99.] SYNTAX (abridged). 187

Ck)IDpare ovk ayaShv irokvKotpaviit (II. 2. 204), with Triste lupui ttaJbulU
(Virp.); also tpwr*? kokov (Eur.). Similarly, in apposition, avrh
&iKaio<rvyr) =
'justice in the abstract'.

6. An a(]jective as predicate to a claiue which stands as subject, is always

neuter.
nrMxeveiv vaimtv eerr' I Mendicari omnium eat \
To beg is saddest of all.
dciijpoTOTov. I
acerbissimum. |

7. followed by another adjective,

jToAv?, like multu.1, is generally co-ordinated,
and 80 takes a copulative conjunction after it.
voAAal Kot Seival <^po>^i£c«.| Multae et graves cogita- 1 Many terrible thoughts.
I tiones. |

8. A demonstrative pronoun standing as subject often conforms to the gender

and number of the predicate-substantive.

oMTij ^v ij irepi/36?)Tos (tdxri. I Haec erat nobilis ilia pug- 1 This was that famous battle,
I na. I

Obs.— Yet in Sophocles, Jp' ovx v^P's raht; and, similarly, Aristoph. Ran. 21.

4. The Relative a<;rees with its Antecedent in Gender, Num-

ber, aud Person. (Its case is regulated ordinarily by its own
clause.)

fiixfh 01 ypa^o/Af J/. | Nos qui scribimus. | We who write.

(Referring to a collective antecedent, however, it may be plural.

1. The relative sometimes takes gender and number from the predicate-
its
noun in its own clause (in apposition with verbs of naming, bditving, etc.).
TO ^Hiov Of KaAovtxty ivOput- I Animal quem vocamus I The creature that we call
iroi' (naturally o). I hominem. (Cic.) \ man.
2. The relative sometimes agrees with the antecedent latent in or implied
in a possessive pronoun.
KOJcorriTi yfji(Tip<f. olrivt^ I Ignavi& vestr^ qui fugis- 1 Through your cowardice
i^vytTt,riyLtUaiTu»K6ixt9aL.\ tis, nos periimus. | who jied, our I'uin canu.
3. When the antecedent is a clause of a sentence (i.e. an idea rather than a
single word), the relative is neuter.
vxiv avdytrai, & iij ovSofuis iNunc vela dat ventis, quodi He sets sail now, which is
av^oAc;. | miuime tutum est. fur from safe. 1

4. Sometimes the relative conforms to the case of the antecedent, instead of

following the re<iuirement8 of its own clause (Attraction).
(Frequent in Greek ; in Latin rare and chiefly as a Urecism.)
wparrti^ tc rovrtny, utv eiw Agis aliquid eorum, quo- I You are doing some of those
9ai (for o). rumconsuesti. (Zumpt, operations that you are
L. Gr., § 774 ; Madv. § | wont {to do).
823. obs. 2.)

6. Sometimes, especially in poetry, it is the antecedent that conforms to the

ease of the relative (Inverse Attraction).
Compare 'EAfVTjf fttV, ify <n JioAcVai npoSv/iot tav
n»iapT«« . . . ijlt' iariv. Eur. Orest. 1629.
with Virgil's Urb«m, quam statuo, vestra est. Mil L 672.

Substantives, referring to the same thing or per.son, under

5.
the same regimen, agree in case. {Airjjosition^ i.c.^ an appended
subordinate definition or designation.)
KiKipwv 6 prfTup, I
Cicero orator. | Cicero the orcUor.
 —

188 SYNTAX (abridged). [§ 99.

1. Such substantivea are occasionally put into attributive relation (§ 99. 6),
and so (Utter in case (oftener, however, in Greek than in Latin). (Genitive of
Designation.)
'Uiou vTOAitOpov. I
(Ilii urbs, rare.) | The city of Ilium.
2. A
possessive pronoun often has a genitive implied in it agreeing with a
sub.stantive, placed in explanatory apposition, in the genitive.

nofjinrf ifiri (i.e. e/xou) trp«'<r- 1 Prsesidium meum legati. I My escort as ambassador.

3. A substantive in apposition to the verbal action or idea of a clause, is

generally in the accusative.
(ii\ltu>ixtv iirb irvpyov, Xvy- De 1 turrl dejiciamos, le- 1 Let us hurl him from the
pofoAcdpof. I tuni dirum. I tower, a sa<.l death.

Section II. — Government.

6. Where
there are two substantives, one of which limits and
qualifies the other, the qualifying one is put in the Genitive.
{Attributive Genitive.)

vofios TTJs (f>v(Tfa)s. I

Lex naturae. ]
A law of nature.
1. genitive may be either active (and subjective) or passive (and objective),
The
according a.s it tlenotes the agent or the receiver. (Similar ambiguity in posses-
sive pronouns, as in tf <rri 4>i\ia.)

Subjective UavaavCov ijlI- Pausaniie odium. Hatred felt by Pausanitu

ao<:. (i.e. &s /xKrei)'
Objective — nauo-ovtov nl- Pausaniie odium. Hatred felt for Pausanias
o-os. {i.e. OS /iio-eiTai).

Sometimes both genitives are found depending on one noun (subjective gen.
commonly precedes).
TO riiv a.f0(xinT*ay 6eof rov I Hominum timor moitls. Men's fear of death. (Men's
davaiov.
I

=subjective ^en. ; of
I
I
death = objective gen.)
2. An adjective or pronoun in the neuter gender, expre.ssing amount of, point
of, when used partitively, is taken as a substantive, and governs the genitive.
Kara ToiiTo rov Katpov. I Ad id t«mporis. \ At that nick of time.
T17S ToA/iTjs rroAv. I Multum audaciae. I Much audacity.
In Greek this usage is not so developed as in Latin : Nihil novi is oviiv
Koii'dv (i.e. attributively, not partitively).

S. The governing or limiting noun is sometimes omitted, as iv IIAoTwfo? =

At Plato's (scil. o'iKfo) : frequently in e»'*Aioov and eij'AiSow.

4. A
genitive is often attached to a possessive pronoun in which there is a
latent genitive. (Latent Apposition, </. 6. 2.)

Adjectives signifying an Affection of the Mind or a state of

7.
feeling, as desire, knowledge, memory ; also those expressing fulness
or iva7it {objective genitive) require the genitive.
(finfipos TToXe'/iou. Peritus belli. Acquainted with war.
fivrjuoov €V€py€a-i5>v. ^Memor beneficiorura. Mindful of favours.
€fjLn\(oiS opyrjs. Plenus irae. Full of anger.

8. and words placed Partitively, Comparatives, Su-

Partitives,
Interrogatives, and some Numerals, govern in the
})erlatives,
Genitive plural the whole to which they are referred.
§99.: SYNTAX (abridged) 189

€LS T(M)V CTTparqyoyvm Unas iinperatorum. One of the command-

ers.
npfo-^vTfpos Ta>p dSeX Senior fratrum. The elder of the bro-
thers.
TroXvpadfOTaros tS>v Doctissimus Roman- Tfie most learned of
Va)pai(i>v. oium. the Romans.
TIS f]poiv Quis nostrum ? JVhich of lis /
Ta>u dvdpa>ira)v ol xpT Qui hominum frugi Tlie good 'portion of
OTOt. sunt. mankind.
1. Instead of a bare genitive, the preposition e* (in Latin ex) ia often
inserted.
i^ 'XBrfvaUiV apicrros. Fortissimus ex Athenien- 1 The bravest oj the Athe-
sibus. I nians.

2. The genitive may be singular, if it is a noun of multitude.

oTparevfioTo? apiaroi, | Fortissimus exercitds. | The bravest of the army.

9. A may
be attached, especially in poetic language,
rrenitive
to any verb or adjective, to express a causal relation (= €v€Ka).
deiKcue rod vox/. Infelix animi. \Unhapp)j in thy mindy
i.e. because of thy
I
feelings.
fpatcdpi^ov viv TOv 6a- Laudabant eum leti. Theijthouyhthimhappy
vdrov. (Silius) rare in Latin. |
in his death.

10. Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlike-

ness, govern the Dative.
Xprj(Tiposrfi iroKd. Utilis reipublicae. Useful to the state.
opoios narpi. Similis patri. Like his father.
ravTov noid Tcp KTfi- Idem facit occidenti. He does the same as
voirn. (Hor.) one who kills.

1. So adjectives of hostile or friemUy relation, proximity, etc., ai^rto?, opposed

to, ^iKiof, J'ritndly, niaTOi, faithful, p(f6ioi, easy, KOtyot, common.
Uostibu.s adversus. OpjMstd to enemies.
Koiyot natriv 6 a.r)p,
I

I Omnibus communis aer. The air is common to all.

2. oMoiot, like similis, can take Genitive as well as Dative.

8. Besides the construction with Dative, the expressions of lUenrsn, identity,
etc., can take in Greek the same varieties as in Latin, viz., the construction Kai
or a relative clause.
vfMc lora Koi TO nrjiiy ^w. Vos haud aliter atque I'ou I count as good as
| |

aaf iya^neni,. mortuos reor. dead.

rainh A«y«ic oircp <yii. Idem diets quod ego.
| You say the sam* as / do. |

11. Adjectivea signifying Dimension, usually govern the Ac-

cusative of measure. See 26.

12. Ei/Lw, when it signifies Possession^ Property^ or Duty, takes

the Genitive, or the Pos.ses.sive Adjective equivalent to a Genitive.
trrparuarav iarX ry Militum est duci SUO I It is tlic duty of soldiers
trrpaTijy^ irtiBtcrOai, parere. to obey tluir goieruL
vov 6* ifTTi (f}paCttp. Tuum est dicere. It is for If OH to say.
190 SYNTAX (abridged). [§ 89.

13. fOTt (or vrrdpxci, yiyveTaiyetc.) taken for c;^a), I have^

governs the Dative of tlie person possessing.
ccrri /xot /3i'/3Xoy. |
Est inilii liber. |
/ have a booh.

14. A Verb
signifying any feeling or action for the sake of (or
in relation toward) a remoter object^ whether of Advantage or
Disadvantage^ governs the Dative.
r^ -narpibi €(f)vs. Patriae natus es. You were bom for your
country.
^orjdei /3aoriX(t. Succurre regi. Succour the king.
(Tvyyvoidl fioi. Ignosce mim. Pardon me.
ofyyi^ofiai (TOi. Irascor tibi. I am angry with you.
A copiate noun sometimes inherits the case of its verb, as 17 -iroKtmv inini^ia
n6\t<riv. The intercourse of cities with citits, Where «iri^tfi'a can govern dative in
right of eTTi/xiyi/vMi. So in Latin, obteniperatio Ugibvu.

1. Under this rule, include verbs signifying—

(1) To favour or help and their contraries.
But ofiVrjpLi, Ci(i>tKito, aSiKtisi, /SAdn-Tm, like juvo and Icrdo, as indicating
not remote but direct action, take Accusative, and so with i/Spt'^w,
etc.
(2)To coiiimand,^ obey, retitt, trutt.
But KtXtvui, bid, like jubeo, takes in Attic the Ace. Some of its com>
pounds become deponent and take the Dat., as TrapaxeAevofiai <roi.
(3) To threateti or be angry vith.
2.In general any verb or expression may have a Dative indicating that the
state or action or feeling has some special bearing or direction.

3. The Dative is used to indicate a person's relative state or local position,

forjudging, surveying, etc. (Common in participles; no substantive required.)
TToAis iarXv iv 6«ft<f <o"- Urbs est a dextra intro
1 The city is on your right as I

irkiovTi. naviganti. I
you sail in. I

Also, of moral position in matters of judgment, a^tovyap 'EAAaJi, /< is worthy

in the eyes of Greece or worth the while of Greece : koi'toi <r' (-yo) 'ri/JiTiaa tois <^pocoO-
<Tiv tv, And ytt, in the judgment of the wise, I honoured you.
This sort of Dative, with of without li? prefixed, is used much more freely
and widely by Greeks than Latins ; as myeKovTi, (or w?) avire/ioi'Ti elrrtlv, to
speak, having brought the ituitter to a point, i.e. to speak concisely.
In the case of participles expressing 'willingness, it is common in connection
with the substantive verb,
6pa tl o-oi ^ovXofxeVa> {i<n\v) i keyta. See if what I say is according to your
wish. Plato, Repub. p. 358, D. Compare Quibvj bellum volentibus
crat (Tacit.)

Akin to this usage is the so-called Ethic Dative, chiefly in the 1st and 2nd
personal pronouns in colloquial language, to express what is known as ^0o<:,
involving strong personal interest. (Cf. ridai, familiar.)
w fiiJTep, (is KaA.6s M-oi 6 iraTnro?. mother, whcU a fine papa, I declare !
Xen. Cyr. i. 3. 2. Compare At tibi {mark you f) repente venit ad
me Cauinius. Cic, Ad Fam. 9. 2. {Cf. me and you in old English.)
4. The Dative is sometimes made to depend upon the whole sentence where
we might expect a possessive genitive dependent on a noun. (Dative of special
experience.)
fiieo-Trao-flr) avTois(=in their! Divulsa est illis caterva. I Their band was broken, i.e.
case) Tj Tflif I?. I I
They had that expei-ience.

1 i.e. To give a command, not in the sense to have command, which last takes
Genitive, as with apxu.
 - :

§ 99.] SYNTAX (abridged). 191

15. A verb indicating an action or feeling passing to an object

governs the Accusative of the direct object.
0tXft Tov Q(6v. I
Auia Deimi. | Love God.
Obs.— The feeling (of »hame,fear, etc.) may be expressed by a verb passive in
form
<^o^o^5f«.at tov ©eoi/. | Vereor Deum. | / fear Ood.
X.— A neuter verb mny have an accusative of its own cognate noun or some
noun equivalent, indicating the oiKration.
fioivo/Liai MaxTif. Pucmo pugnam. \ I jiriht a fight.
/jLaxofjiai irayKp6.Ti.ov. Pugno piiicratium. ; I / fiyht in the Pancratium.

Accusative of Respect or nearer definition is frequent

16. Tlie
after verbs neuter and passive, and also after adjectives. (Ace.
GrcecuSy in Latin poets and in prose of Tacitus.)

yvia rpe/if t?. Tremis artus. I You tremble in tlie

I
limbs.
yvfivai ras coXcVar. Nudse brachia (Tac.) |
Bare as to the arms.
In Greek thisa favourite usage. Note als(» the multitude of adverbial
is
fominhe in accusative, where Latin prefere the ablative, xapiv = causii, SCkyiv
= ritu, etc (xaptf, fiiViji/, etc., being ace. in apposition to a sentence, qj'. 6. 3.)
17. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting govern the Accusa-
tive or Genitive.
Tvbia ov fjiffivrjuai. Tydea haud raemini. Tydeust I do not re-
member.
Ne obliviscaris jus- Forget not justice.
titise.

Obs.— With neuter pronoun, they prefer the Accusative, jxe'/Ln/ijo-ai kKtlva^ You.
remembtr thote tcenea.

Verbs of Accusing, Condemning^ Acquitting, and Admonish-

18.
ing,with the Accusative of the Person, govern also the Genitive
of the charge or punishment. (Genitive causal, as if evfKa could
be supplied.)
alTiaral ya kKotttis. Arguit me furti. I Heaccuses me of theft.
Commonefecit me | He reminded me of
belli. I
war.
In passive relations, only the Genitive is retained.

<Pfvyti xXoTT^t. I
Accusatur furti. | He is accused of theft.
**•» ypii-^ilirti. fktyxu, alpiui, SiuKia, vnayw, Also OH this analogy, 0(}>\i<rKdyu,
I
' '' '

'Jive, as being virtually passive. But three judiciul verba

< aroi, reverHe the relation and put the person in the genitive,
' r ifJMv (i.e. declare.H theft aqaintt me, accutatinn, etc., almost
an ",./,.-./. imiing a mark, and so genitive: «y»caA<I» and tmiTKi^ .rroixai put the
person in dativt). The other two in Kara are Karaicpivu and icaTayiyvcio-Kw.

19. Verbs of Comparina, Giving, Declaring, and Taking atray,

govern the Accusative with the Dative.
7r.ipa3aXXfi0OvrpyiXu>v Compare Vergilium / compare I Virgil to
'Ofifiptf. I
Horaero. | Homer.
192 SYNTAX (abridged). 99.
[§

Obs.— »r«pi/3aAAo/utai, turrovMit, and Soipeofiat, preterit, have a choice of con-

structions like circumdo and Uono iu Latin.
irepi/SoAAov retxo? t]^ iroAet or t^i/ iroAi;' Tei'xet, Circumda murum urbi
or urbera muro.

20. Verbs of Asking and Teaching admit of two Accusatives,

tlie first of a person, the second of a thing.
edida^f fif ypafifxari- 1 Docuit me gramma- He 1 taught me gram-
Krjv. I
ticam. I
mar.
N. 1. Under verbs of aihing (i.e. requesting) are included such as alrSj,
irpaTTOi, in its sense to exact, etc. Verbs of (uiimj (i.e. questioning) may in
Greek have two accusatives, as ou tout' ipuru <r«, Ar. auiqpovO' 17/xa? tous ;

nouov;, Kur. But verbs of asking in either of these senses may liave preposition
with genitive (alrCj irapa, ipuTtit irepO-
2. Greek verbs of concealing, as Kpvirno, etc., may, like celo, have two Accu-
satives. An. i. 9. 19.

21. The passives of such active verbs as govern two cases may
have attached to them the case expressing the non-personal object.
didda-Koficu ypafxfiari- 1 Doceor grammati- 1 1 am taught gram-
KT]u. 1
cam. I
mar.

22. The principal agent after a passive verb is usually denoted

by a preposition. (Ino here Latin a or ab.) =
f'^fva-drj vn a5eX(^oO. Deceptus I est a fratre. I He was cheated by a
I I
brother.
N. 1. Instead of yiro, trpos is often found, and, especially with verbs of
declaring, «« and, less commonly, napi, as o/xoAoyeirou napa. ndvjuiv. It is conjtsted
by all, for vnh ndvTuy. X. An. 1. 1. 6 ; 9. 20.
2. But passive verbals and certain parts
of necettity of the passive (perfect
passive in Greek), express the agent by a simple dative.
ravra irpoxrea ^o'tIi' cfioi. Usee mihi focienda sunt. These things mutt be done
by me.
iroAAoif haKpvT6i, Multis flebilis. Mourned by many.
ovS' uiTTTai ovStvl. Neque cemitur ulli. Nor is he seen by any.

23. An impersonal verb generally governs the Dative.

a-vfjL(f)fp(i Tjj TToXei. I
Expedit reipublicse. |
It profits the state.

24. One verb expressing a relation toward an action or condi-

tion governs another verb in the infinitive, which therefore stands
as its complement.
eniOvfia) fiapOdvfiv. \ Cupio discere. | / desire to learn.

25. Participles govern the same case with their own verbs.
^oTjBaiv ^aaiXfi. \
Succurrens regi, | Succouring the king.

26. Time, how long ? and space, Jiow far ? are put in the
Accusative.
aTTf OTt voWovs firjvas. Abest multos men- He is absent for many
months.
aTre'x** rpcls OTadiovs. Distat tria stadia. It is three stades off.
 §99.] SYNTAX (abridged). 193

27. Adverbs qualify Verbs, Participles, Adjectives, and other

Adverbs.
KaXa>s ypd(f>ei. I
Bene scribit. He writes well.

28. Some adverbs of Time, Place, and Quantity or Degree,

govern the Genitive. {Partitive relation.)
Skis [eoTi] \6y<ov. Satis [est] verborum. Enough of words.
iTcana\ov t^j y^y. Ubique gentium. Everywhere over the
earth.
o^c rm T}fXfpas, Sero diei. Late in the day.
ovK oiaOa 01 KaKwv Nescis quo miseriae You know not to what
fkrjXvdas. processeris. a pitch of misery
you have come.

29. Some derivative adverbs govern the same case as their

Primitives.
irdirrcou x°P*<<"'^'^ I
Omnium elegantissi- He speaks the most ele-
1

Xeyd {cf 8). I

me loquitur. gantly of all.
|

N.B.— 1. Many other parallels of construction might be produced by making

the Greek Genitive represent not only the Latin Genitive, but also the Latin
Ablative. It is chiefly where it expresses the ' Cause, Manner, and Instru-
ment,' that the function of the Latin Ablative falls to the Greek Dative in ;

almost every other insUnce the Latin Ablative answers not to the Greek Dative
but to the Greek Genitive. Thus, Comparatives; afios (= dignus), ai/afios
(= indi^ius), yeyiti (= natuf, aatut, ortus, editus) Ailjectives and verbs
; of PLENTY
and WA.NT, lillinp, loading, freeing, depriving, debarring : expressions of PRICE ;
and the ABSOLUTE CCNSTIlUCTIGN of a Substantive with a Participle, require an
Ablative in Latin, but a Gtnitive in Greek. (The three pronominal Genitives
a«$«v. iBtv, etie0tv, are by some taken as really a species of Ablatives, which
have been per contra made to do duty as Genitives.)
2. The chief specialties appertaining to Greek Syntax, involving divergences
from Latin Syntax, connect tnemselves with the following phenomena :—
1. The emergence of the definite article (peculiar to Greek) out of the
demonstrative pronoun.
2. The dislocation of original case usages, under treatment peculiar to
Greek, by the disappearance or modification of ancient case-forms.
8. The flexible use of the Infinitive as serving both for Gerund and
Infinitive proper.
4. The flexibility conveyed to all the moods except Imperative by the
conditioniU particles av or Ktv.
5. The Neuter plural subject treated often as a unit, and so having verb
in the ringular.
6. The larse extension of the principle of Attraction in the treatment
of the relative pronoun.
7. The richer development of Verb-forms in the Greek tongue, through
the presence of a Middle Voice distinguishable from Passive, of
&n Aoriflt Tense distlngulnhable from Perfect, and of a twofold
Mood of Conception, viz.. Optative as well as Conjunctive.

13
194 LAWS OF ACCENTS — NOUNS. [§§ 100,101.

APPENDICES.

§ 100. Laws of Accents.^ — Appendix I.

Consult § 10 for first principles, and in addition to what was there stated,
observe—
1. A word with Acute on the last is called Oxyton, as AiTrwf.
„ ,, penuU ,, Paroxyton, as Ktinuv.
„ „ antepentdt „ Proparoxyton, as Aein-o-
/ULCfOf.
„ Circnmflex „ last PerUpovienon, as Aiwov.
„
,, ,, ,, penult ,, Properispomcnon, as Kelire.
Paroxytons, Proparoxytons, and Properispomena are all called Barytons,
because they are supposed to have a grave accent 03apv« rbfoO on their last,
as Aciire.
2. The Diphthongs ot and ot when fino-l are for purposes of accentuation
reckoned short, as ^ov<rai, aiSfiiaitoi,^ but (uiova-at?, ai'flp<o7roi?. It is only in the
Optative mood, and a few adverbs in oi, that these dipbthonps are reckoned for
all purposes long, as Optative naihtvvai, n-aifievo-oi, as if abbreviations of ace,
oi« ; oiKot, a<lv. (locative, = oUofli) at home, but oTkoi, Nom. plural of oIkos, house.
3. lo in Attic and Ionic Declension, preceded by «. is, for accentuation,
reckoned short. Hence Avtiytujf, iroA«w?, where •^ov and -lo? represent -ov and
-o« ; the « being probably slurred or made like y in pronunciation also by ana- ;

logy, <l>i\6yt\ui, Ovaepui, etc. (But dyrjpMt, not liavmg <).

4. When a jinal accented .syllable is elided, the accentual mark is lost in
an indeclinable word, but ascends a step in a declinable : as kot' i^tov, but KaK
inadtv for the natunU koko.. So al<rxp' «Ae(at for al<r)^pa, and the accent shows
that there has been «liaplacement, for if the accent which alaxp now bears were
native to the spot, it ought to be al/rxpX. Where the elision is apocope (cf. note
on p. 12), the accent remains, as nap Zrivi).
5. Note that the quantity (of a doubtful vowel, o, t, or v) is often deducible
from the accent. Consult § 10. 3. obs., and add that—
1. An acute on penult with end-syllable short shows that the penult is
short. Thus KapKivot, fidSpov have manifestly short penults, which
could not be inferred from parts like »cop»ciVou, fid6puy, where end-
syllable has become lonf/.
2. The emergence of -ai with its liberty as to shortening, often throws
effective light on quantity. Thus while from the singular of Simi
and yU/i no inference can be drawn as to quantity of i, the Nom.
plur. makes clear the natural quantity in each, viz., itVat (T), but
viKai (i). So with -at of 1st Aor. Inf. and Perf. P. in verbs. Thus
in Kpvirru, the Infinitives Kpvipat, KeKpv<f>eai. show v as in Kpt<t)d,
but irpafat and irewpox^at show d, as in npavat, irpa.^t.%.

§ 101. Accentuation of Nouns.

Nominative.
N.B.— Though it is very easy, as will be shown afterwards, to adjust the
accent for all the cases when it is once known where it falls in the Nominative
singular, it is not so easy to determine d prioH or predict where the accent

1 The Greek accents are believed to have indicated, originally, not stress, as

they do in modem Greek, but pitch (tone-heightening), and so were of a musical

character. The accent in French is the nearest analogy to this view of the
Greek accent. Cj. the name for accent, irpoo-wSia, i.e. ac-cent-us '.*

2 In ancient Doric at and oi were for all purposes long hence Nom. plural
;

avBpmitoi. in old Doric.

 — —

§ 102.] ACCENTUATION OF NOUNS. 195

starts in the regulating case. The variety of placing the accent in the Nora, is
so great that in many instances it can be learned only by instinct and observa-
tion. Contrast a.v6pvi)iT( lo^, avSpelo^ and d<i>»'«i6?. Yet there are certain guiding
principles. Thus, regarding two of these contracted words, the accent adjusts
Itself according to the derivation -.free in the word derived from ardpajTro?, which
iaj'rte, limited in the word derived from avr)p, with Genitive ai/fipos, limited.

In .general the accent is free, i.e., ascends as far as the general

laws of accent in § 10 admit. But
1. Substantives of A
stems in a and rj (especially if derived
from verbs) ; as, abos ; evs ; «, X8os ; Is, Ivos ; most verbal sub-
stantives in fios; rrjp, -njpos ; a>v, <ovos (if names of months and
places), 8a>v, 8ovos ; and Adjectives in r)s, €os ; ikos, \os, vos, posj
Verbals in tos. Ordinals in otos, and vs ^ having fem. eta, generally
have an acute on the last : as
Substantives. Adjectives.
a~ro\-f\ (oTf'XXo)) dyepfios (ra<l)T]s -60S
(Tiropd [aTTfipo)) Ofap-os imriKos
<nrov8i^ (fTTrevSo)) TTOTCpoS (TiyrjXos
Xaji-irds -dSos dpoTTjp -rjpos (repvos
linreiis raprjXiQiV (month) (po^cpos
^(Ti-Xcvs pohoiv (rosebed) noirjTos
irarpCs -tSos Inndiv (stable) XtKlOCTTOS
clktCs -ivos drjdwv -ovos f}8vst Fem. ela
)(c\i86iv -ovos

2. Diminutives in uXos, tXos, io-kos,and Diminutives in lov if

trisyllabic, Adjectives in aXfoSf and Verbals in reos, as a rule,
accent the penult.
vcav£<ncos | OiipCov (but dp-yvpiov) |
Oa^^aX^s |
-iroiT^T^s

3. Neuter substantives'^ generally have the accent free, and no

neuter substantive of 3rd Declension is ever oxyton (except the
peculiar Kpds and orat's, but also orais),

4- Compounds in general allow the accent to rise as far as

possible ; as 6d6i but avuodos (eavrov, etc., are not properlv
compounidg). Except (1) most adjectives in rjs compouuaed with
particles; as 00-0(^179, da-Bevrjs ; (2) compounds with short penult
expressing nomina agentis, as prjrpoicTovos, matricidey in contrast
with nomina patientis^ as ui;rpo<ro»/os, slain by onf^s motJiery the
first paroxyton, the second proparoxyton ; (3) compounds with
lonj{ penult, expressing nomina agentis and oxytone, as <rrpaTriy6s,
KiaptaOos, ^i(f>ovpy6s, p,a)(aipoirot6s.

5. In adjectives and participles the accent of the feminine and

> ntuvvt and »iikvx an the chief exceptions in v«.

« Only, if uncontrolled by adjectives as their original or by other byforms in
6i, <^. n^r, ivy6p.
 — . ;

196 ACCENTUATION OF OBLIQUE CASES. [§ 102.

neuter is on the syllable corresponding to that accented in the
masculine, as
f|8-vs -€ia -V, ^(jLio-vs, T|(i£o-€ta,^ ijnio^.
Xap-(&v -ovo-a -6v, Aap.pdvci)V| -dvovo-a, -dvov.

N.B.— Circumflex emerges, in penult, where conditions concur.

Obs.— 1. But the neuter of adjectives in <ov is free (their stem being in -oi',
while that of participles is in -our), as i^Sioiu but neuter rjfiioi'; tv5oi>uii', eifiai-
fjLov ;except tnose in -<^p<»c, raX.ai<f)pit>v, neuter TaAai4>poi'.
2. The accent in comparatives and superlatives is not bound by its position
in the positive, as r)Si<ov, »j6c<rT0S, ai<rxi<rTos, from i}&vi, aio-xpof

§ 102. Accentuation of Oblique Cases.

1. In nouns of the 1st and 2nd Declensions, if the Nominative
has an acute on the Idstj the Genitive and Dative of all numbers
have the circumflex on the last. Compare a Kid, Kpirrfs, 686s on j

pp. 21, 23, 24.

Except The Genitive singular of Oxytoiu in ws. Compare
\ayas on p. 26.
Obs.—The Genitive plural of the 1st declension (J)eing contracted from Ionic
-€«i' or Doric -awv) has always circumflex on -wr, whatever may be the accent
of the Nominative ^except a^urj, injaiat., xAouit;?, xpvoti}^, which are paroxyton
in Gen. plural. p Similarly with the Genitive plunil feminine of participles and
adjectives, when its spelling is dijhrent from that of the Genitive plural mascu-
line, as Gen. masc. raxtuif, but fern. Toxeian' rvnoyriuf, but its fem. rvnova-wv
,-

whereas if the spelling in the Gen. plural is the same for all genders, the fem.
conforms to the accent of the masc., as Tuirroneioi, Tvirroixfyri, Gen. plural,
TvwTotitvity for all genders ; 0i'Aos, <^iA7j, Gen. plural 4>ikmv for all genders.

2. In nouns of the 3rd declension, the chief peculiarity is,

that monosyllables have the accent on the last in the Genitive and
Dative of all numbers, viz., acute on short vowels, circumflex on
long vowels or diphthongs. Compare on pp. 28, 35, firjv, (j)d>p,
^
KT€is, etc. This analogy is followed by syncopated nouns in rjp
(§ 19 a), narrip, fiT}Ti]p, BvyaTrjp, dvfjp, yaarripy and by Kvoiv, yvvfj,
fiia, dvQ), ap<^at.
Except Monosyllabic Participles, as (ttoc. Gen. o-rdi'To?; the Interrogative
Tis, a few nouns contracted into monosyllables, as »}p (for tap), Gen. »5po«. ^Iso
KTJp, Aas, itfKtiv, and Epic Gen. vio? ; and the Genitives dual and plural of these
ten, &<f^, 8/uuo?, flws, [«cpa;] jcparos, ous, »rais, <rrj?, Tpws, <|)is, light, </)<i« ; as iraifioif,

naiSuv (though iraiSo?, troio-i). Also the Genitive and Dative plural of rra?, as
navToiv, naat. (though in singular navroi, rravTi)* Some Epic and poetic forms

1 Would be w/uLKTeta, but for canon as to accent not rising above third
syllable from end.
To distinguish them from Genitive plural of a4)U7js, x\ovv6<;,
2 xPV<rT6<;,
which, being oxytone at starting, must have -Hv. 'Enjo-i'wv had its _
peculiar
accent from oeing originally an adjective in -os, sc. avefiui:
3 Not, however, in Dative plural.

* ovSets and /Lt7iS«i» are similarly regulated, being treated as substantives in

singular, i.e. like tU, Gen. iyoi, whence ovfievos, but like the monosyllabic parti-
ciples in plural, oviivotv, ou5«'<ri (<y'. wapaVTavm, itapa<TTa<Ti).
§ 103.] ACCENTUATION OF VERBS. 197

follow rVfe accent as noStaai, but iroo-i, also yovvotv, Jovpwv (although Sovpoi 'fUj
as if from monosyllabic Nominative).

3.Elsewhere, in all the declensions, the accent is as nearly as

possible on the syllable correspondinpj to that accented in the
Nominative, as av0pa)nos, avdpaynov, but avdpwnov, because of end
syllable becoming long Kopa^, KopaKa, but KopaKoiv ; Tip.ri, rifidy
;

Tifiaiy Tifias ; npayna, npdyfiaros {rrpdyp-aTos being impossible).

Obs.— 1. The accent of the Vocative is free where the Nominative Neater
has it free. See § 102, obs. 1.
2. The accent of the Vocative rises in Syncopated words in ijp, and in a few
others. See § 24, n. 2, 3.
3. Vocatives in -ev and -ot circumflex ; ijnrev, r^xol, though from Nominative
iinrevs, i7xw oxytoned.

§ 103. Accentuation of Verbs.

N.B.— Nothing can be simpler than the accentuation of the Greek verb,
once the few rules are understood as to the range of accent and the effect of a
long or short quantity in the end syllable upon the position of the accent. The
accentuation of the verb proper is then entirely regular— all Indicatives, Con-
junctives, and Optatives conforming to and exemplifying the laws. It is only
when, in the domain of the verb, we approach the point of junction with the
noun and adjective, viz., in the Infinitive and Participle, that we meet with
disturbance by restriction of free accent, and the influence of the noun with its
tendency to restricted accent is felt to be operating on the verb.— It is assumed
that contracted forms, otherwise normal, are not irregular, as, e.fj. Conjunctives
in w of Passive Aorists, and of the Present and 2nd Aorist of verbs in /xi (being
contracted from d«, e'w, etc.), which are ordinarily circumflexed. So \vith
Ti$(l(Ti, which is accented as if from Ti^eao-i, but others propose to accent it
Ti9ti<Ti, as coming direct from riOtvTi. Svvauai and (ni<rTafj.aL have Conjunctive
Present with accent free, as if uncontracted, and such as ridw^ai, ridoi-To are on
Mune analogy.
The Accent in Verbs is /ree, invariahly (A) throughout the first
three Moods, generally (B) (with the exceptions undemoted), else-
where.
Examples in A. irfnavKd, TTfTrau/iai, tiravfTov, eiravtTrjv,
navoifxXy etc.
Examj)les in B. TraCe, Travo-art, nenava-Oy irenava-da),
navfcrdaiy etc.

(a) Imperatives of 2nd Aorist Middle in ov are circumflexed.

Those of five 2nd Aorists Active^ are oxytoned, fiV<, iXOi, dpi,
in all dialects, and i5f, Xa^c in Attic, but their compounds are
free. On 0a^i, see p. 114. tSov, a mere interjection en^ ecce ; =
idovf a verb = vide
(3) Infinitives of 1st Aor. Act., 2nd Aor. Mid.,» Perf. Pass.,
and all in -vau,* accent the penult (with circumflex, if penult

1 Soma of tbcM Imperatites in « can be explained (l) ns being virtually

liit«ij«ctloii«, which are often accented on the lawt, others of them as (2) liable,
oUmtwIm, to be confounded with Indicatives, «ip«, clir«, and the Epic i6t, Ad/3«.
* Except wpUv^at and ova<r€ai, probably Present stems as to accent.
* Exotpi the old Infinitive in fttvoi, as rvirr/^«vai.
 .

198 CONTRACTIONS IN NOUNS AND VERBS. [§ 104.

naturally long, if not, with acute). Tlie Inf. of 2nd Aor. Act. in
etv is circiimllexed on the last.

(y) Participles of 2nd Aor. Act., and all those in s of the

Third Declension accent the last Those of 1st Aor. Act. and
Peif. Pass, accent the penult.
Examples, (a) Aa/SoO; (/3) ope'fot, naiStvaai; Aa/9e(r0ai; netfuKrjaBdt, itrira-
<r6ai, rravOfivai, ireiravxeVai ; AojSeii'; (y) Aa/Swi/; fi(£ov$, irtiravKiia ; wat6«u<rd5;
ireirav/bic'i/0(.

In Epic, owing to iEolic influence, the Perfect Passive has, in ancient fonns,
accent free, as SiKdx^<T6ai, cucaxrifitvoi.
Obs.— The accent in compound verbs conforms to the ordinary rules, except
(I) that it does not rise beyond an augnaent, as ^AOov, ovfiiAeoy (not o-iinjAfloi',
yet o-v«'<Ad« and avfoi&a) (2) it does not rise beyond the accented syllable of
;

the flrtt part of the compounds, as iniOe^, from ini, but, with i elided, inaye,
although only eirjjyof. The reason for this restriction in the case of aunmmt
is that there are tico syllables considered as latent in the tj (c/. p. 186. n.), and
to write inrjyov would be to place the accent on the jnurth syllable from the
end, which is against the primary law. Monosyllabic Imperatives of 2nd Aor.
Mid. allow the accent to rise only when they become by composition trisyllabic,
as aitoQov but irpovOov.

§ 104. Contractions in Nouns and Verbs.

In general the accent, resulting after contractions, is natural
and normal, as e.g. rax^uiv =
retxeoi/, ^iXcf 0iXet (Imperative) =
<^tXc(( = 0iXft (Indicative), e(f>i\€6fi€v =^ c^iXoC/xev.

—
N.B. In these, the circumflex arises normally from the union
of an acute and a grave (not from a grave and an acute).
Obs.— 1. The Contracted Nom. and Ace. Dual of w in 2nd Declension, the
Ace. sing, of nouns in -ci -6o?, and the Gen. plur. of compounds in -^^jjs, as also
of avrapjcTj? and rpt^prj?, accent as if no contraction took place.
oarew = oaru (but, by usual law, ha-Tta plural = oo-to) ; rixoa = ^x<" »

tV7}6iiav = tirjOoiV ', Tpiifpfuv = rpit/pcof

2. Contracts in ov? from * o? are circumflexed throughout as if from eo?, as

Xpv<rovs though from xpvirfo^ (also from -eos, as a5«A(i)t6ous, from -5e6?)-
3. A
few sporadic exceptions occur, as ev out of Epic iv and words under ;

crasis, as e!!jn\a, rovpyov, although from to foyov. Some critics prefer con-
sistency and wiite even here rovpyov, and the like, (eo-rwros, as coming direct
from «o-Tws, without reference to accent of earaoTos.)

Prepositions if dissyllabic have their accent on the last, as Trepl

noXffxov. But they are baryton, (1) when they are put after
their case, as 7roX«>ov Trtpi,^ or (2) are used elliptically for verbs,
as ndpa for ndpeari, twa for dvda-TrjOi, eui for euecm, euficn, etc., or
(3) are by Tmesis put after their verb, as oX/o-as- otto Trdvras for
dnoXda-as. —A
monosyllabic preposition has ordinarily no accent,
unless it is subjoined to the case which it governs.
—
Obs. diro, in its sense of remote from, out of joint with, is by many written
ajTO,as arro rpojrov.

1 This shifting of accent is called anastrofihe. an<t>i, avri, avd, 5io, however,
do not suffer anastrophe. For ava and Ai'a, see Irregular Nouns.
 —

§§ 105, 106.] ENCLITICS. 199

§ 105. Atonics or Proclitics.

These have no accent the forms of the Article without r, viz.j
:

6, 17, the Prepositions es or ets, eV or ciV,

01, al ; or c| ; and the «
Particles ov (ovic, ovx)^ fiot, ft, if, toy, as (but axrei).
Obs.— In Epic, o, 17, etc., being really demonstrative, often receive an acute
accent, ov when emphatic or at the end of a clause, takes the accent, as »rw?
yap ov : Why not / ws .signifying as, when subjoined to its word, takes an
accent, as dyadoi w? = like brave men. (Elsewhere oif = thus, as ovh' ws, not
even thxu.)

§ 106. Enclitics.!

1. These are certain light words which throw back their

accent on the preceding word. Enclitics are

1. The Present Indicative of ft/ut, am, and 0T;/Lit, say, ex-

cept the monosyllabic Second Persons fl^ and 0J7$-.
2. The monosyllabic oblique cases of the Personal Pro-
nouns, viz., /ioC, iiol, fi€ ; aov, trol, trt ; ov, 01, (. Also
cr<f)(a, (r<f)ia-i (when reflexive), a<p(OLu, and some Ionic
and Poetic forms, as (r(f)fas, ixiv, viv.

3. The Indefinite rtr, some, any, in all its parts (not otto),
and the kindred Indefinite Adverbs nov, nodi, irx),
not, noBfv, TTwf, rrco, ttoW. (As Interrogatives they
are always accented, as nws Xf'yeis ; How say you ? but
€1 nois, if in any way, d having got the accent of ira>s.)

4. The Particles yc, H, rot, vvv, vv, tto), ufp, 8f (when a

local attix, as in olKopdt), and the poetic k(v or k€, pa,
and 0T]v.

N.B.— The may bo understood from the use of the

function of enclitics
Latin lyuf or F^nglish irhat in Mimwhat, except that the Greek enclitic is gene-
rally »eparat.e an«l not appended. Englisk enclitics of the CJreek type are such
ma 'now' in 'speak now,* where, if oue accent serves for both word's, we should
expect in such an instance the (Jreek enclitic w
or wv to represent the English
enclitic now, but if each word in English has an accent, then tww is vvv, not
enclitic.

2. The accent of an enclitic appears as an acute^ upon the last

syllable f>f the preceding word, when the accent of tlie preceding
VDord is high, as in a proparox^ton, or properispomenou ; it is lost
vchen the accent of the preceding word is low, as in a paroxyton,
oxyton, or perispomenon, except that the enclitic does not allow
the final acute of a preceding oxyton to become a grave, and if

1 Lit. " on-Ieanen," aa leaning back on another word, to which they are, as

It were, parasitlcmllx attached.

3 But ivvk and «U of Ionic are enclitic.
• The reaaon for thus utating the rule is, (1) becanse a circumflex, an in nov,
is treated to, and (8) there is no reversion of such a tinal acute into a grave.
200 ENCLITICS. [§ 106.
dissyllabic, has, after a paroxyton,^ an accent on its own last
syllable.

Accent of First/ After Properispom. o-wftd jiov for awfia fxov.

Word High. "^ ^^ Proparox. o-wiiard l<m „ aayfiara eort.

After Parox. ^CXei (m for <^tXf t fiL

(But with dissyllabic enclitic, (ftCKd nvds).
„ Oxyton. Ka\6s ns for kuXos tIs.
KaXds itrri „ koXos ea-Ti.
KoKoC Tiv€S „ AcaXoi rtj/e'ff.

I After Perispom. KaXws ir«s „ KaX^f ira>s.

N.B.— A leading princijile is as follows : two acnte accents cannot stand on

tvfo contiguous syllables within one word. If two accents are found on one
word, there must be an intermediate unaccented syllable either manifest or
latent. In o-w/xd ftov the syllable latent is seen in (<rao/xd /nov] the prior form.

1. A series of enclitics is accented by some critics, so that

each has the accent of its successor as e* ris yi fxoi ;

(f)r)cri TTOTf. Others hold that two successive syllables

should not be a^centedy and would write «! ns yi fioi
(^r](Ti noTf. Cf. Anab. I. 9. 18.

2. Enclitics retain their accent —

(1) When they are em-
phatic, as Xeyo) o-f, I mean you. Q(ol elai] there are
(i.e. exist) gods; but 0€oi ela-i ao<f)oij gods are wise

(mere copula). (2) After the apostrophe, as KaKol d*

flaivf but KQKol Sf flaip. (3) After an accented pre-
position, as irapa aov^ but ck <rov. (4) After a pro-
Serispomenon with its last long by position before
ouble consonant, as XaiXa>//' rU. (5) At beginnincj
of sentence, eVri ^ci/ yap 8fj, etc. (Plato).
3. €(TTi becomes fo-rt, (1), wlien it is not the mere copula^
as eoTt ef Of, there is a God. eariv IBdv, it is possible
to see. (2) After rt, 8\ aXX', ct, ov, ^117, a>s, Kai, fiiu^
ort, TTovj and the pronoun tovto.
4. In general, enclitics are not, as they are in Latin,
attached to their words, except -St as a local affix,
and such as To5f, eirf. These are not compounds,
properly speaking, otherwise the last would become
(ire (cf. i^fif, not ^5f), neither do such modify form,
e.g. ovTTfpf but ffiiTfipia.

1 Some add 'or after a perispomenon,' as <^? ia-riy. Others vrould treat
such as (>aK as if an oxyton ; and thence <^u<$ ianv.
 §§ 107, 108.] PROSODY. 201

PROSODY.
§ 107. Appendix II.

As in Latin, so in Greek ; all diphthongs, vowels after contrac-

tion, or vowels beforetwo consonants (not a mute and a liquid), or
before a double consonant, are long as, Xatov, aSo, dpfxa, d^co. ;

Obs.— 1. A .final long vowel or diphtheric may be short when subjected to

hiatus or neglected elision. Cf. u in a/x<Jni> made short.
Sm^ia bnSt% OvfjitL 4>iKeov<T(i re ^CTjfio/iet'T? re. Hom. D. 1. 196.
Glauco et Panope* 6t Inoo Melicertte. Virg. Georg. I 437.
2. The Epic, Elegiac and Dramatic Poets sometimes shorten the t.wo diph-
thonj^s at and ot in the middle of some few words, as toioOtos, yepaios, e/uraios.
{Cj. similar influence in § 100. 2.) For the effect of c demonstrative, see § 48, n. 2.

3. A viute and a liquid are not rega,rded as a pair of consonants suflBciently

strong to make a vowel long by position, unless the mute be an intenncdiate
p, y. 5, before A, m. or vA Hence (with weak position) afierpos, ajroT/xos, but
(with ttromj position) TeTdyjioi, evoj^o;. (But traces of tpkaa-re with e)-
Compare arbKror, gengMx, with piil'Mcus, agmen, lignum.
If the mute and the liquid belong to independent parts of the word,
they are strong enough to make a preceding short vowel long, as
e.g. in compounds, as eKvtvu), where no correption takes place,
such as is frequent e.g. in t€kvov. Cf. quamo6rem.
These correptions or shortenings before a mute and liquid are at a
maximum in Comedy, at a medium in Tragedy, at a minimum in
Epic. tS" Note that a vowel naturally long is not subjected to
such correption or shortening even in Comedy before a mute and
liquid e.g. cird'Aoi/, HT^yvrpov, 9ea.rpov, always.
:

4. Synizesis 2 is a fusion of two vowel-sounds into one. § 8. 3. 4.

in.lv nil' Btol ioltv 'OXv/JLtria SuJuar* e^oi'Te?. Hom. D. 1. 18.
Una eademque via sanguis animusque sequuntur. .^n. X. 487.
6. The ictua metricut falling at the cresura can make a short vowel long.
Ille latus niveura molli fultiM hyacintho. Virg. Eel. VI. 53.
avrap iniir' avTolai. ^<A6« ixtirtVKt^ e^'iei?. Hom. II. 1. 61. (Cf. § 113. 1. 4.)
^i\t KaviyvrfTt, Kop-t-irai ri y.t, 56? re /loi trr»rou?. H. II. 5. 359.

(Ictus is not often employed in Attic poetry unless before p (for <rp or
fp.ovK i<Td' OTTw? o \pri<Tp.bi «i$ toOto ptVet. Arist. PI. 51.)
Similarly, the stress of the voice serves to make the first of certain
hypertrisyllables long. Compare Priamides, Sicelides (from Prla-
mus, .Siculus) with 'dBivaroi, 'ATToAAwfo? (II. 1. 14), 'dnovttadai.

In general, one vowaI standing before another in Oreek

0. is short, though
not eo freqaently as in Latin as dyAdot, but Adb$.
;

§ 108. Nouns.—First Declension.

1. a having in the Genitive is always short, as TpoTrc^a,
i;^

HoCftra, TTf'Ca, fupifivd. In general, apart from Doric words and

proper names, a impure {i.e. with any consonant before it oxcept
pX ^ short.
1 Compare a similar influence of the intermtdiaU mntes in ( 71. 8. n. 2.
3 The chief Attic instances of Synisesis in poetry are ««6c, (wp<wa, m)> ov,
fti) «AA«, M*l ti3«Vat, iwtt HI.
 . ;;,

202 THIED DECLENSION. [§ 109.

a having as in the Genitive is generally long, especially when
there is an acute on the last or on the penult, as dyopti, Ibia, x^^pa-
Except (1) eia and via in the Feminine of Adjectives and Participles
(2) Designations of females in rpio and eia, as ipdkrpia, fanalc
hcui^er, fiaai\eid, queen ; ifptio, priestess : (3) eta (not from evto) and
generally oio, as w^e'Aetd but /SaaiAeid, royulty, from /3a<riA«vw,
avoid ; (4) pa with v Or any diphthong (except ov) in the penult, as
ayKvpa, apovpd (but avpd) (5) Also 6ia, fiid, id, norfioi, fivla, etc.
:

2. av of the Accusative follows the quantity of a in its Nora.,

as fiovaaVf but xapdv.

3. a of the Vocative is long from ar, short from jyr, as napd, but
KpLTa, 2Kvdd.

4. a of the Dual is always long (being contracted from a«), as

Kpir^.

5. ay is long, as ndpds Noni. Sing, and Ace. Plur. (Except in

Doric, where as in Ace. Piur. from ij or tjs is taken as short, as
avras.)

§ 109. Third Declension.

1. Nominative. The final syllable of the Nominative is in
general short, except in these dv (niase.) as, having avros
: ;

IS, having T8os or Wos ; ty (or iv), having Ivos ; vs (or w), having

€pos; vs (oxytoned) vos, and all monosyllables, except rlr, rl as ;

naidv ; yiyds ; (r<^payls -\bos ; aKrls -Ivos ; ^opKvs -vvos ; Ix^i'S,

but i in Gen. -vos ; nip, yj^dp, kIs, avs, ndv.
N.B.— vf vot becoming baryton by composition (see § 102. 4.) becomes also
short, as KakXix&ii.

2. Genitive. The penult of the Genitive generally follows the

quantity of the Nominative o-ap-dros, "Kapnddos, eXnXdos, from
:

snort finals in Nominative ; but yj/dpos, oktIvos, etc., from long.

1. Except in nip niipov, Ktpdi -drof, <f>pedp -drot ; vf oxytoned having Of pure,

and monosyllables, as 6(t>pvi -tJo? ; <rv? otJos, Zev? Aiof

2. In Nominatives ending in a double consonant the final is made long by
2aositio7i, as \al\a\fi -djro?; Kopaf -oKot. The. final of the Nom., however, in these,
IS long by nature as well as bosition, viz. (1) in most monosyllables in f and i^,
:

as /3Aaf pKdKoi, pl\(/ plnoi. (Vet 0pi( rpixos, At't// Ac/36?.) (2) In most dissyllables
in f whose penult is long either by nature or by position, as dwpaf -d<cos, T«'TTif
,

•iyo9, «c^pvf -vicos, KOKKv^ -yyo?. (But <f)vAaf -d»cos, having penult short.) Except
nouns in -Aif and xot»"f with Gen. -ikos, as i^Aif -Ikos : and di-Opa^, ovAof »cA<I>/uiaf
, ,

Ael/ixa^, /Liclpaf , etc.

3. Dative (Sing, and Plur.). t is short, except after Contrac-

tion, as TToXr (Ionic Dative for ttoXu).
4. .4 cciwa^tve when it does not end in a follows the quantity
of the Nominative, as TroXty, ttoXiv ; tt^x^'^' nfjxvv ; Ix^vs, Ix^vv.
a of Acc. is always short, except in Attic from nouns in -evs, as
TratSa, but Attic ^aaiXid, from ^aaiKcvs, Acc. PL ^aa-iXdds (Epic
8a(Ti\rjd).
§§ 110, 111.] VERBS— INDECLINABLES. 203

5. Vocative has au short, bat a long, as Atai/, but Uokvddfid.

1 ao-iof Dat. Plur. in syncopat€<l words is always short ifSpao-i, mjTpdo-i. ;

2. fieydi and iroAv? have the last short in the two irregular cases, as neyaiv,
voXv. Ta\dt, are long, but ntKav, Td\dp short in the neuter. Trai' is
ti.i\di,
always long by itself, but in compounds generally short, as andv, ndijurdv,
vpo.Tdi-.
3. in Comparative in Attic in other dialects Xmv.
lutv ;

4. In Pronouns, observe the Attic t is always long, ofil, tovtI; but v, i, tv

when without the circumflex, and eas in Ace. Plur. are short, as I'wi, ti, ^iV, viV
(but i)^^1r, though in Sophocles fiftlv), <ru (but v/i*«is in plural), i\n€d<: (but ij/uios).

§110. Verbs.

1. Final Syllables.
Final a, as, av, I are short ; reversely, final v, vs, w are long,
(nav-a-d -ads -adv, navovcrl, navdrjTi, lOTdv. dfiKvv, beiKvvs
(both as 2nd sing, and as participle), eSeUvvv, e^iJi/.
1. a? in the Nominative of Participle is long. navad<:, io-rd?.
2. vv in the neuter of Participle, and w
of 3rd Plural are short, as SeiKvvy,
iSvf, for i6vaai/.

2. Increments.

a and V in the inflections of the verb are short, except in do-t,

tcrt of Third Persons Presential, and daa, va-a of the Participle in
feminine ; as enavadfiep, fBeiKuvTtjVy etc. ; but TreTravKda-iy laTdtrit
itUvvai ; 8fl^d(Ta, deiKvvaa.
1. 2nd Aorists in w
lengthen v throughout, as iSvuqv, etc.
gar Verbs in v^i follovr the quantity of the corresponding part of
ioTT/^i ; SeiKyvvat like iffrdfat, but t^Vkai like (rrrivai.
2. Reduplication vowels of the present are short, as TtflTj/uii. iriiJii has its i
usually long in Attic, in other dialects long or short.

3. Penults.
1.ifw, vfw, vpM, vxut are long. But rlvu and <l>9ivw short in Attic, though
long in Epic.
2. -afM is thort, but in Epic these have -dvut, viz. 4>6dvu, Kixdvu>, and Udvu.
The laiit is so used by Attic poeis.
8. awl has ita a long if the preceding syllable is long, short if the preceding
syllable is short, ntivdt,} but 6pdw.
It is only in Epic that the quantity of dw can be determined, since else-
where contraction obscures the original quantity.
4. tw i . long ; vu, having an actually existing byform of Present in
viu, is a! IS 6^l^'vu> (with byfonn 6^»'t»wi) vu>, without such byform, is
;

"!> ^ 1 i<rpCio (no yet n\r)0vu} (no -vmO-

iaKpvfJii),

§ 111. LVDECLINABLES.
In the panicles, final a, np, as ; t, tu, tf ; v, vi/, vs are short.
{a» in adverbs is long.)

1 This b t! <
ins fsee Bachmanni Anecdota II.
42. St), Mill Im '
^ne of words in dw, except in ovri*.
Od.lx.S60. > ^ ( I
an., p. 27.
 —

204 METRE. [§ 112.

&|i2C, &va ;
ySp, ainUp ; ir^&s, drpc^Jias ; ircpi, Srt ; irdXiv, &Xts,
TcrpdKis ;
\u<ra-t\yv, vv viJv, roCvvv
',
^yyvs, uto-oTrylls.
', (Xtav, dYav,
*v, = if, for -J^v ; but av the simple particle is short, so (Jt&v.)

Excep. 1. ntpd, beyond, being really a noun, icTiTrepd?, and Xaflpd. 2.

The Attic t as yvvl, ifOaSl ; irpiv is rarely long. 3. vvv, now at =
this time, yvv, now then ! an enclitic. Also the iDdeclinable
monosyllabic names of letters, ^0, f i, i/rl, etc.

§ 112. Appendix III. Metre.

The following a brief outline of the most essential facts
is
connected with the structure of the more ordinary Greek metres.
The four most important of these are characterised by the
predominance of these fed (or combinations of long and short
syllables), Dactyl — >^ ^ ov Trochee _ ^^ each with ictus on the
initial syllable, Anapaest ^ ^ — or Iambus >^ _, each with ictus
on the closing syllable. The Spondee , though largely intro-

duced into these various species of verse, does not by itself give
name to any species of verse.

A. Dactylic Verse.

1. The leading is the great and vener-

species of Dactylic Verse
able Heroic, or, by pre-eminence. Hexameter. In this measure
there are six metres or feet, i.e., dactyls, or, as substitutes,
spondees but in the fifth foot, as a general rule, there will
;

(except in S})07idaic lines) emerge a dactyl, while the sixth will

be a spondee (or trochee _ w, the end syllable being counted
as common at end of a verse). The first four feet will thus be
open to either spondees or dactyls.

roilaiv 8* 'ATpfidrjs ficydy (vx_€to xdpas dvacrxoiu.

1. A line with the fifth foot a spondee, is called Spondaic.

nvufKa t6v Xpvcnjv rjTifjLija dprj Trjpa.

2. The caesura or division of line, some form of which is essential to har-

mony, takes place either at the first syllable of the third foot (= jiftk-hatf-part
»r«»e-rj/iit-/xep»j?) as in both lines above, each therefore with Penthemimeral caesura,
or at the first syllable of the fourth foot (= seventh-haij'-part, i4>B-rin.i-n.t(fri':) as in
/xjj (re ytpov Koikjiaiv eyw irapa vrfval Kixeitj,
where the chief caesura is after 710 of iyu>, and is hephthemirrural. In lack of
either of these great ctrsuras, we find what is called a feminine caesura 1 where
the line divides after a trochee.

avdpa fioi fvvfTTf Moixra ndkirrponov hs fioKa rroXXa.

Here the caesura is after Movo-a which, taken by itself, makes a trochee.

1 Feminine ctesnra present also in last Hue, in -yiaiv.

§ 112.] METRE. 205

3. The bucolic diaeresis, sometimes called a caesura, which is normal in Theo-

critus and the pastoral poets, is a break after the fourth foot. The first line
quoted above contains what is known as a bucolic ctesnra.

4. In scanning dactylic verses, it is found that sometimes syllables naturally

long must l)e treated as short, sometimes vice versa. The (a) latter case (a short
syllable treated as long) will occur under what is known as ictus at the begin-
ning of a foot, the syllable being said to be in the arsis or stress-portion of the
foot, not in its thesis,^ or unempaatic portion without stress.

d I a fxeu dairidos rjXOe (f)a€ivTJs o^pifiov cyx°^i

Koi d i a Batpr^KOS TroXuSatSoXou fjprjpftoTO.

Here the scanned with Sl long, owing to ictus at the beginning of a

first fita is
foot, while the second 6(a has 2i short, as there is no ictus upon it, since it
appears in tlie thesis of its toot. {Cf. <}>i- of <}>i\e made long in II. 5. 359, quoted
§ 107. 5.) Some of the apparent instances of ictus can be accounted tor by the
presence of a lost letter, such as Digamma. Thus :

fyXii (p€i8op,eva> • en yap e;(0»' eX/cea Xvypd. 11. 19. 49.

Here ydp, which is naturally short, is made long, but we can also add a reason,
apart from the mere ictus, viz., because ixou anciently began with a lost con-
sonant, and made ydp long by position.

^) The other process whereby a long syllable is shortened is very frequent,

as, In theabove verse, «i of fy^ti, which is naturally long but it is there shor- ;

tened because it stands open without ictus upon it (for it is in the thesis of its
own foot), and before an undigammated vowel. So with -ov of no\v&ai.Sd\ov.
2. The minor varieties of Dactylic verse are briefly these :

dactylic dimeter or Adonic, dactylic tetrameter, and the pen-

tameter ; the last being an he.xameter with the thesis dropped
in third foot and sixth foot, and under certain limitations as to
non-admission of spondees after the thesis of the third foot. The
line thus constituted is treated as catalecticy in spquence to an
hexameter, and the two together make up the Elegiac distich,
the laws of which are in Greek much the same as in Latin.

B. Trochaic Verse.

3. In this verse tvx> trochees are treated as one metrcy so that

trochaic dimeter will be four trochees :

(This being complete is called acatalectic.) Take away a syllable,

it will be called trochaic dimeter catalectic :

Take away a foot, it will be called trochaic dimeter brachy catalectic:

1 2 3

1 Tb* Midrat iMtrkUai applied ar$i$ to what is now called the$i$, and vie*
 : :

206 METRE. [§ 112.

Add a syllable to the dimeter, and it will be called trochaic

dimeter h
hypercatalectic
VT

At this point, bv adding a syllable, we leave the dimeters and

find ourselves on tlie lowest stage of a new series now styled by
the name of trimeters, viz.

Trochaic trimeter brachycatalectic, or lowest stage of this par-

ticular aggregate. The ascent is then through similar stages
(catalectic, acatalectic, hypercatalectic), till it touclies the tetra-
meier^ of which the most important form is that known as
trochaic tetrameter catalectic

4. This ancient and lively measure, viz., Tro. Tetr. C. (c/. the
modern poem 'Locksley Hall') receives certain variations, the chief
of which are the allowance of tribrach (^ ^ s^) for trochee every
where, and the admission of spondee and anapaest into the even
places, viz., second, fourth, sixth. The dactyl of a proper name is
admitted into any place except fourth and seventh. The most
notable feature of this verse is the break in the line at the end of
the fourth foot, often with a comma or colon, or some pause in
the sense. The effect of this is really to divide the line into two
dimeters, the second section being made catalectic to the first.
^^ ,^ ^^ ^^ .
N^

6a<T(Tov fj fi ('xp^^ 7rpo3aiv<ov, iKOfirjv 8i aa-reos.

N.B.— The comic poeta often neglect this division in mtdio verau,

C. Anapcestic Verse.

6. The notable species of this verse is the dimeter, of which

the
12
norm therefore ought to be {tico anapaests to a metre)
3 4

But instead of perpetual anapaests we have, as substitutes, spon-

dees and dactyls in any one of the four places. So with the
minor variety, anapaestic monometer, and with the dimeter cata-
lectic, with which a series of anapaestic verses generally closes in
the form

This last line is known by the special name of Paroemiac or

Proverb-line, as many current sayings fell into this form, being
 ,

§ 112.: METRE. 207

often the endings of heroic hexameters, which when divested of

the preccesural part, naturally fall into the anapsestic form. Thus,
Trelpa 3f)v navra TeXelrai = by trial^Ixcot, all things are perfected
will scan either dactylically as the ending of a hexameter,

pa Btji

or anapcesticallyf as

iTfipa I
dfjp nav \
ra rcXci |
rai.

Cf. in Latin, such as

Fas est et ab hoste doceri ; Nemo me impune lacesset.

N.B.— 1. The most notable property of this dimeter verse is the law of
Synapheia (<rvv + anroi, unite), or continuous scansion, whereby the dimeters
are treated as running on in one long line, metrically influencing one another
by position and by elision, until the close of the avarntia or aeries in the cata-
lectic line called Paroemiac, of which line alone the last syllable is common
( w ). (Bentley's great metrical discovery.)
2. The only other remarkable species of anapsestics is that of the tetrameter
catalectic peculiar to comedy. It consists of a dimeter ^vith a paroemiac,
written in one long line, but with certain restrictions. The dactyl is mainly
in the first, tliird, and fifth places, and the spondee can fall everywhere, except
in the seventh place.

D. Iambic Verse.

This species of verse, the most important, probably, of all,

6.
i.s the dominant one in tragedy and comedy. The scale of gra-
duated nomenclature (dimeter catalectic, etc., etc.) is parallel to
that already denoted under the trochaic verse. (Similarly, two
Iambi to constitute one metre.)
Among the minor species of the Iambic is the measure known
ixR Anat reontic (being iambic dimeter catalectic).
^ _ ^_ ^ _ V
OdXa Xtyeti' ^Arpeidas.

Frequently, an anapaest or a spondee is admitted into the opening

foot, as

fi«TovvK I
Ttois II noB* & I
pais,

rffjid yjr \ a vev II pa rrpo) |

rjv.

Ka\ TT}v I
\vprjv II ana aav.
\

In general, however, when an anapoest occupies the first foot

in an anacreontic, all the verses of the particular poem commence
with the same foot*
 : :

208 METRE. [§ 112.

7. The crowning species of Iambic verse is the Iambic Tri-

meter,^ or Senarius, of which the simplest type may be given in
Horace's
Bea I
tus il |
le qui |
procul |
nego |
tiis
|

And first of the Tragic Trimeter.

The scheme, according to Porson's canons, is as follows

DiPODiiE or Metres. I. II. III.

Places in Verse. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Iambus, . . . ^ _ w - w — ^ ^
Tribrach, . . .

Spondee, . . .

Dactyl,. . . . _^w
Anapaest, . . .

Anapaest Proprii
NominiSj . ^^

According to this scheme.

The Iambus may appear in every place.
A Pyrrhic {.^ J), by '
ultima communis syllaba,' only in
last
A Tribrach, in every place except the sixth.
A Spondee, in the places, first, third, fifth.
o'rfrf

A Dactyl, in the first and third.

Anapaest, only in 1st, unless a proper name, in which case
it has the same liberty of insertion as the tribrach.

N.B.— 7c<u« (with its arsis and thesis) which is so important in Epic, has
little influence on scansion in dramatic poetry. Sometimes in proper names, to
acommodate them to the verse, ictus is operative, as 'IirnofjLeSMv, made to scan
'IJTTTO/X^efiwl'.

1 By a singular felicity of circumstances, as remarked by an ancient

scholiast, there is one line that scans equally as Heroic Hexameter or Iambic
Trimeter (with a synseresis as all the change)
epyuv TOiovTUiv •
ifii Si xph ylp**' ^vyp<j» (IL . 644).
 § 112.] METRE. 209

Obs.— 1. Caution 1 in scanning. Any trisyllabic foot will increase the risk
of error or going out of count. The noniial number of syllables is 12 ; if there
are 13 syllables, that implies a trisi/tlabic foot somewhere, 14 imply tico trisyl.
labic feet, and 15 imply three of these, which is, in tragic verse, the maximum.
2. Caution 2 in scanning. An insidious error is that of mistaking a spondee
for an Iambus or vice versa. _Thus, Kivovnevov yap rvyxaftt UfX.a(TyiK6u would
seem to scan equally well, kIvov = Iambus, but ki- in this verb is always long,
and therefore /cii'ou = spondee. Errors of this kind cannot be discovered or rec-
tilied, as they can in the former instance, by counting the syllables, but can be
avoided only' by experience and a knowledge of quantities.
3. The anapiest, whether proper name or not, must have its two shorts
contained within om word or wnat is virtually one word. A line opening M-ith ri
it K\ai «is would therefore not suit tragedy, but only comedy. Such openings
I

as eiri Tw5« were allowed, as the connection between a preposition and its case,
•
or an article and its noun, is regarded as constituting a unity.
4. Aph(rri.<is at end of one trimeter by the initial vowel of the next trimeter
occurs sometimes in Sophocles. Otherwise each trimeter stands metrically
independent.

There are two principal oesuras or pauses, one after the

8.
and thence called Penthemimeral the other after
fifth-half-foot, ;

the seventh-half- foot, and called Hephthemimeral. The former

caesura, therefore, cleaves the third foot, the latter the fourth.
The penthemimeral caesural syllable may be sometimes long,
sometimes short, owing to the variety of opening possible in the
third foot The hephthemimeral caesural syllable can be only on
a short, owing to the restrictions upon the fourth foot.
KaKus TTfirpoK Tai
I
Travraxrj ' ris dvTfpei ; Penthemimeral
I

caesura (-to* in third foot).

rJKca v(Kpa>v K€vdp.a> va Kal aKOTOv rrvXas, Hephthemimeral
| j

caesui-a {-vd (short) in fourth foot).

XtTTO)!/, Lv "Aid T}s
Ix^P *^ w/ciorai 6ea>v, both penthe-
I I I

mimeral and hephthemimeral caesuras.

A may fall upon a monosyllable, with or without

caesura
which monosyllable is generally found adhering to the
elision,
foK^oing word, either syntactically or enclitically, as
Kad/iof fxfv oZv yipas \
re |
Koi Tvpauvida^ hephthemimeral
caesura.
Atowaoi ov T'lKTfi I
TTo^' | 17 KuS/iou Kopt)^ hephthemimeral
caesura with elision.

Instead of incisions in a horizontal series, another mode of

representing the two great caesuras is by a double slope with un-
equal sections jointed by a ridge.
8 4

^ ^ ^ / <w tf

N ' \ *l.

Penthemimeral. ^ o / Hephthemimeral.

U
 :

210 METRE. [§ 112.

An anacreontic line, when it ends upon a naturally short syllable, as anacrav
in 6, is a good example of a possible hephtheminieral caesura suitable for an Iam-
bic trimeter. One or other of these two cresuras is necessary to form a normal
trimeter, and sometimes, as in the third example above, both are present in the
same line. On the other hand, a line is reckoned abnormal in which neither is
Eossible, as in the CSesuraless hievdkae, ix'r} yui^fj.a<: vno -arriaai cro<]>di (Aj. 1091).
\\ ||

[ence the third &nd fourth feet, within which the two great caesuras necessarily
fall, are not to be included in one word, because then neither caesura is pos-
sible, e.g. <Ti Toi* ^6Aoi« vitftoKTviroi^ \\ Svtrxeifitpov, is not a line admissible in
||

Attic tragedy.

9. In the absence of either of the two regular crcsuras, we

generally tind what is called the quasi-ccesuraj in which case the
line has a break in the middle, generally with elision. Thus,
ooTiy (f)(p€i (coXXtoT*, dvf)p ovTos (Toc^oi has ' quasi-csesura upon
elision,' for owing to the third foot and the fourth foot being each
occupied by complete words, there is no syllable left over in
either case to form the ordinary caesura, and hence the peculiarity.
Obs.— 1. The quasi-caesura is really the hephthemimeral in disguise, as the
D€ made to rtin, 6<rTi? (^epci KdAAio'Ta, «^u»? oJtos o-o^os. Cf.
above line might oe
Kur. Ale. 1, where a similar transformation of quasi-cacsura into hephth. is
possible.
'2. Sometimes all three caesuraa coexist, though one may have the actual
preference
/x^ Spwv av tlriv I
irafd', | oa' \ av ir\Koi 9e6c Soph. O. R. 77.

10. There is a subtlety regarding the fifth place, involving a

restriction upon the occurrence of the spondee (Porsonian Pause
or law of the Cretic ending).*
If the last word or pair of words in a tragic trimeter forms a
Cretic (_ w '^\ the Cretic must he preceded by a short syllable, or if
by a long^ the long must be a monosyllable^ cohering to the Cretic^ and
not enclitic or incapable of beginning a verse. {Or^ When the last
xDord or pair of words forms a separate unity called a Cretic, a pre-
ceding long syllable ought not to be the last of a polysyllabic word.)
Thus, endings like «c6 pwv Aof iov and fiw pois Ao (iov were not legiti-
|
| I |

mate in the tragic poets, though common in the comic poets. On the other
hand, Stppi Aof tow. t5 .\of tow, and (because roU, although long, is a monotyllabU)
Toi? Aof t'ov, are all good and valid tragic endings.
The practical effect is to induce a certain lightness in the fifth foot, dimi-
nishing the occurrences of the spondee, wherever or whenever the parts of the
spondee belonged to two diverse or heterogeneous words, and requiring the
spondee, where it does occur, to have its parts homogeneous (i.e. included within
onB word or two closely connected words).
N.B.—The restriction on the spondee in thQ fijth is entirely absent from the
spondee in the third foot. Thus in the line
tTK^fas avitrrn TtKTOViav n-oxB/iiiaViV (lOD, 1129X
allowed to stand freely before rtKrovuv.
-o-ni is
But supposing we transposed the line into

besides the lack of caesura, there would be a violation of the cretic ending, and
the line would pass from tragic to comic style.

1 The glimpse of the discovery of this important phenomenon was given

first
by Person (1797) in his note on a line of Euripides, Hec. 347, when for the
corrupt Trpoaw nov toCm. irakiv as an ending with its heterogeneous spondee,
| I

he restored irp6<rw»oi' iti.iraXi.v, now accepted as the reading.

 ;;

§ 113.] grimm's law. 211

1 1. The comic Iambic trimeter from the tragic in allow-

differs
ing a great many licenses, chief of which are the following :

1. Dactyl may appear in fifth place.

2. Anapaest, whether proper name or not, has same liberty
of position as tribrach, and may in the first foot be
made up of heterogeneous words.
3. Lines without ca3sura are not unfrequent, and the third
and fourth foot may be included in one word.
4. The law as to the Cretic ending, observed by the tra-
gedians, is not maintained in comedy.
N.B.— Tlie Satyric Drama (such as 'Cyclops' of Euripides) followed largely
these comic licenses.

12. The Sc<azon or Choliambus {aKdCcov = liminng^ ;^a)\iafx/3off

= lame Iambic) is the Iambic trimeter but with a spondee in
the sixth. This gives the line a peculiar lim'ping effect, which
suiteil the semi-comic tone of the Animal Fable. Hence Babrius,
the versifier of iEsop's fables, adopts this measure :

Svdpoiiroi ^\6fv els opos Kwrj-yqaiov,

§ 113. Gkimm's Law.

1. A
fundamental fact in Comparative Philology is the re-
markable law of permutation among mute consonants, as pre-
vailing between certain tongues, of which Greek is one. The
principle regulating interchange, discovered by Rask, was first
fully enunciated by Jakob Grimm and it is briefly as follows
; :

The tenues of classic tongues (Sanskrit, Greek, Latin) come up

in Gothic (also in English, Low German, Norse, &c.^ as aspirated,
and in Old High German as medials ; mcdials of classic tongues
come up in Gothic, etc., as tenues^ and in Old High German as
aspirates ; aspirates of the classic come up in Gothic, etc., as
medials, and in Old High German as tenues.^
2. The practical effect is to institute the following scheme of
relationsbetween Greek and English, allied as the latter is to the
Gothic through Anglo-Saxon.
Tenves. Medials. Aspirates.
Greek tf, k, t. /3, y, d. <}>, x» ^•

1 Lord N«i?6i' memorial lines aa to Grimm's Law :

IfclaMie lugnafes yon car« The medials next as tenucH show

With oar Low German to compare, And aspirates into medials grow
TtMM l«tt«^€luuigM yon'U discern : But B "s a wild and wilful letter.
Tb* Urntm farto aafbum tan. That's very hard to guide and fetter.
iMf naeiDonlc formula is that given in Dr. Peile's Philology,
A for ft^umto, 8 for soft or medial, H for hard or unuu consonant.
Gk. L. Hkt Goth. Ix)w Ger. Kngl. O. U. Ger.
ASH SHA HAS.
212 IRREGULAK VERBS. [§ 114.

correspond in native English stems to

Aspirates. Tenues. Mcdials.
English /, h, th. - k, t. fc, g, d.

few examples will suffice :

naTrjp, father, yv<o- know. xhv, goose.

nrepov, feather. vba>p, water. (f>(p(o, tear.
Kvv- (of Kva)v)j /loun(d). yep-oSi kin. 6vpa, door.
ru (Doric for cT-i;), thou. Opvs, tree. 6f}p, deer.

The following are examples of the exchange, in two mutes of

different orders, in the same word :
TTob (stem of novs) foot Kev6a>= ^if?e ; = ; aHyr) (or Hyr})
= thatch, Ang.-Sax. thak (fxayo) ;
= 6a^-e ; <f>pdTr}p =
brother (in guild relation) ; to for ro(5) {cf. is-tud\
English that, German das.

1, The above law holds good in words belonging to the native vocabulaiy of
the respective tongues. It does not apply, therefore, to

(a) Words directly or indirectly borrowed from classic tongues, as, e.g.,
philosophy, poetia, etc.
03) Onomatopoetic words, based on natural sounds of animals or birds,
as, e.g., K6pa(, crow, kokkv^, cuckoo.

2.Minor phonetic principles modify the rigour of the law, as, e.g., the power
of to protect a tenuis from change, as o-Trjcai
<r stand, a-vrnp star, vKth = = =
scatter, or the aversion to two contiguous aspirates, as wkt- night, oktw = =
eight (not th for t).

8. Philological investigation explains many of the seeming departures from

the canon. Thus /3ovs, which comes up as English cow?, is known to have been
originally yaCs. as it still is in Sanskrit, and y therefore naturally emerges as
English c (hard). The connection between aya66<: and our good seems only
partially to conform to the law ; it is, however suspected that iyofio? has itself
suffered change, and the circumstances point to o-xa^os (cf. *A^aioi), modified
by § 7. 4. Apparent exceptions of this kind are gradually diminishing, and only
a few residual phenomena remain unexplained.

§ 114. Irregular Verbs. Appendix V.

*^* 1. Among abbreviations, Pep. = Participle; D.M. = De-
ponent Middle ; D.P. =- Deponent Passive.
Prefixing of -indicates that the part is found only in Composition.
The sign marks the Perfect either A. or M. and P. as non-
existent or non-extant.

2. The order, in which the tenses are given, is, normally, as fol-
lows :
—Present, Future; Perf. Act., Perf. Pass, or Mid.; Aorist Act.,
Mid. Pass. ; Futures Passive ; Verbals.
[(adia), hurt (mentally), mislead, aaira, aira; aaa-ifiriv, erred; aa<r6r)v. Pres.
Mid. aarat. Verbal a-doro?, unhurt. In aaaa and aa(Tafi7)v, the first two vowels
are common, ^^ ; in aa.<r6r)i', the first a is usually short.] Epic, av-droi, ^Eschy-
lus. Probably apdu, whence avara =
anj, Pindar. Allied to van (wound) with
d I*rothetic.
[(i /3 a K ( w, am speechleu, dazed i<if. /5afw, tpeak), only a/5a»ojaai .] Epic.
 ;

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 213

[{afipoTo. f w), miss, only afipoTd^Ofitv. Allied to -i^fiPporov in afiaprdi'd).] Epic.

aydk\u}, adorn, ayoAui, 1st Aor. Act. infin., o-yrjAai : aydWofxai, am proud of.

6.yi.\uiif admire, Pres. and Imj^erf. like lara^i, [ayaaofxaL, also

ayowo"-, only Epic] r^yaa-dnrjVi rfydcrdrjv
; dyaaros [Epic dyaTosl. ;

[Byform Epic dyaiofiai, envy,Fut and Aor. Mid. am jealous.

generally with Also byform dydonai, whence dydaa-de, etc.,
acr.
only Pres. and Imperf. also Verbal dyijTos ; wondrous.] dydCa =
(^schylus), in bad sense aya^o/xai (Pindar), in good sense.
;

dyy^XXo), announce^ regular and complete. Verbal dyyikros.

Second Aorists (with one X) are chiefly Hellenistic, except
rjyyi\r)v.

&-yc^pa>, collect (d copulative), with Attic reduplication in Perf.

otherwise regular. [Epic Perf., Plup. dyr^-yeparat, -to 2nd Aor. ;

Mid. dyipovTO, dy^piaOai, (also dyipia6ai\ Pcp. svnc. dyp6p.€voi,

1st Aor. Pass. Syepdev for f)y€pBr}(ravy all passive in sense. Byform
rjyepedovrai, -to.
[aylviut, Uod, Epic, Doric, Ionic, only Present, Imperf.; Fut. •>}<rw rare.
Allien to ayw.]
ayvoecu, am iffnorant, repilar, except Fut. Mid. in Passive sense. Verbal
iyvoririov. [Epic dyvou'n), Ist Aor. iterative Aor. ayviiiO-aaKf.]
i7yi'0ii7<ro,

ILywikif (root Fay-\ in composition also -dyvvco, break, a|a), ,

<ay/xat (late), 2ud Perf. -edya (Ionic (rjya\ am broken; 1st Aor.
Act fa^a (Epic ^|a, more probably Fd^a^ unaugm.), 2nd Aor.
Pass. (Syrjv (Epic ayrjvj with a, whence ciyfv for (dyrja-av) kut- ;

OKTOS.
The F of root has influenced augment and led to anomalous forms such as
participles with apparent augments, as Kartd^avTe^. Kavdfai; of Hesiod, for
carf afai?, thence by assimilation Kaffdfais. idyrfv in 2nd Aor. Pass, of hidie.
has d short in Homer and Theocritus, long in Aristophanes, just as d in iiXuv ;
but conj., etc., dyjj, as without augment.
ttYopcvM, discourse, mostly in Pres. and Imperf. only in classic time in late ;

writers regular and full. Supplies fonns to AeyM in composition, which see.

oypco), takey chiefly Epic in Imperative, uypd, dypetre = ayf,

come on! as interjection.
a^a, ^x^ (rare), dyrfoxa (inscr. dynyoxa) ^yfiai ;
5ya), drive, lead, ;

^$a (rare, d^dfiTjv Ionic)

rfx^rju 2nd Aor. fjyayov, -ofirjv Future
; ; ;

Piissive, dxBfja-ofiaiy also a^ofiai dKros, -T(Oi. (Epic aoristic forms,

;

a^cT€, d^ffifu.) dvdyofmiy put to sea, has Fut. dvd^opai. (Cognate

is ffytofiai, and Latin ago, which ny<o represents in the meaning of
drive but not of acting, which is irpdaao).)
[iif, am »at<d, 1st Anr. Opt. d8rj<r«i«, Perf. Pcp. dJTjKwt (without augment
for redup., c^. ap^M'i'Of). Sometimes written 66, as li from d6ot, tatidy.] Epic.
fd*., aft. rat, l>t Aor. a*<ra, i<To. First a in atva, ^.] Epic, p of dfe-
appear* ai v in l»v*», $U«p, which is a reduplicated Present Cf. avfw and &<fw.
a«(pw, MO «ipw. ^tffwi Seo av{w.
^fSw, ttn^, from drtdo), acrop-ai (a<To>, rare^ , i7<'/*at ; tjaay

, jjaBrfv ; q^arioi. [Epic dfi'So), df iVw and dtiaofiat ; »Jf kto.]

a in dftdo) naturally nhort.
214 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

[iiTj^t, blow (o), never with augment; ar}Tov, Inf. a^yai, dij/aevai, Pep. aeis,
Imperf. 3rd sine. a»j (fiidet, Imperf., for 6iotj seems false), Mid. and Pass, aijreu ;
Imperf. aijro ; a^/btf vos. Cliiefly Epic]
aepot'^w, auemble, regular and full, with Perf. Act. ^^poKca, etc. Verbal
aBpoitTTtof.
[agonal, reverence, only Pres. and Imperf. always without augment.] afw
once in tragedy (chorus).
olfie'o/uiai, /«7 shavie, respect. Deponent Mid., Epic and poetic; [Homeric
Impemt. aiBtlo); aliicrofkai. Epic -ffaofiat (rare -o-e^o-ofiaO; fiSeiTfi.ai ;xJSt<ra.fi.yiv
(Attic, portion an offender), pfie'aftjf. Verbal aiSeo-To? (late). Poetic byform
atfio/xai.

aivew, praise (poetic, but used in Ionic prose), has generally « except in
Perf. Pass., where »j apj>ears, alveaw, jljvtKa,rffiinai ; xit'f<ra, rji>t0r)v ; oive^jjo-o/iioi.
Verbal aivtro^, -t«'os. In Attic prose, chiefly in compounds, of which inaiyeot
is most common, having Fut. inaivKTOfiai usually, besides in tragedy -earn. In
Homer ij prevails, as aitrqau, iljvriaa. Byforms alvi^ofkai, alvriiii Epic.
aiviaaonai, deal in riddles, regular and full, as guttural oiitfo/iai, with
Perf. ifciy^ai ; aiyiKro^.

lalvvftai. take, only Pros, and Imperf. without augment. Taken as equal
to ap-vvixai. Verbal ii-anrot.] Epic.
alp^w, take, (with X as variation of p, cf. €pxofiai), alprjcrto, fjpr}Ka,
jjprjfiai. Slid Aor. Act. flXou (conj., etc., fXto, eXoipi, eXe, cXetv,
Aor. Mid. tiXuprjUy Ist Aor. Vat^s. T)pidr)v
cAd)!/), 2ih1 ; atpi6f](Toput.,

Fut. Perf. ^pi](Topat alpfros -reos Mid. choose.

; ;

aKia-KOfiai often serves as its Passive. Ionic Perfect, reduplicated without

rough breathing, apaipriica, whence an-apaipriKa, for Attic o</)j)pij(ta. Traces in
Aristophanes of Fut. «Aw it is common, in compounds, in Hellenistic.
: All
forms of Ist Aorist, except Passive, are late, as TJpijo-o, 'ap.r)i>, t[K6.ixi)v.
atpo), liftj from poetic dfipa, regular. dpS), rjpKa, *]pp.ai ;
^pa,
-dprjv, rjp6r]v dpHos.
; Imperf. *ipov, but t is not
dp6r)(ropai. \

acknowledged beyond Present stem and disappears in Aorists.

The 2nd Aor. Mid. fipopujv in sense of win is often given to Spuvfiai.
Where dpS) of Future has a, the Epic dcpa> is the basis.
From the poetic and Ionic a»ipw the chief parts are ^^tipa, atipaa-Oat, -p6.y.tvo^,
riipB-np, ij<PM<". whence Pluperf. Epic awpro, by shifting of quantity from (^opro)
= (i^epTo). Byform (rftpidofiai), whence -orrai and -ovro.
al(r6dvo)iak, perceive (stem alad- and atV^e-), byform aiaOopxii ;

alcrdTja-ofiai ;
fja-drjpiai, ; jjcrdofiijv ; alaBrjTos.

[ataOta, breathe, gasp, from atia, in Participle at<T0u>y, Imperf. ater0e (sine
augm.] Epic.
atatru, see ^irau,
io-xv»'Wf disffi'Ci'^*', alerxwH; jfvxvyKa late, (t)Vxvmm<'«'o?_ Epic) ipaxvya,
J

vv9riv, felt cuhamed ; aiaxvvOrtaoiiai, also oftener aiaxvi'oO/u.ai ; oto-xvi/T«'os.

te'
liddle = feel shame.
alri-aofiai, blame, Dep. Mid., regular, aiTioTeo?. (jgridfiai, both Transitive
and Passive in sense ; TjViaeijt', Passive.)
at u>, hear (a), only in Present and Imperf., alof (augment, qf. § 70. n. 1); in
Attic prose only in fonn inatm, understand. (Ionic parts emjiCTo, iirdxa-ros.)
[if u), breathe out, only Imperf. aiov. Cf. dtaOu and arj^ii.]
dKaxi^o»t see ax-«n//xot.

[dKaxfjitvoi, sharpened, Perf. Pass. Participle (probably for dx-aynivot no :

Present in use. Only Epic. ]

i(n'o/btai, heal, Dep. Mid., aK«<ronai, also traces of Attic Fut. axoiVai (uo.
Perf.) riKtaafiriv (Epic aKtaa-), riK€<r0riv late. Passive in sense aic«<TTos. (Epic
; ;

byform aKtiotiai.]
 ;
;

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 215.

a»tTj5ew, neglect (Pres. Imperf., iEschylua) 1st Aor. axiiBtast; only Epic; in
late Epic, -jjerw, -Tjao.

dKovw, hear^ am called, aKova-ofiai {okovo-w, late), aKijKoa (for

OK-TjKof-a), rJKOvarfiai ; rJKOvaa, tjkovo-Otjv ; dKOV(T$T)aofiai ; d/covoros-,
'Hos. Plup. TjKTjKOT], rarer d/cr/Ko*/ ; Doric Perf. ukovku. Byform
wcovaCofiai. (d euphonic and Kof-, whence /coeo), learn).
aKpoaofJiai, lislen, Dep. Mid., axpoaao/uiai (i^xpoofxai late); i^Kpoacrofii]!'
oxpoaTcof. and Kpo/"- = Stem of k\v-, htar.)
(a
aKakd^vj, cry <xAaAd, dAoAafo^ot (?), (Perf. ?); i7AdAaf(x, Fut. Act. late.
dAaXxcii', see d A ^ w. ('

d Ado At a I, roam, Dep. Pass. (Fut. ?), Perf. dAdA»j/nai (as Pres.) with accent
free in Infinitive and Participle, dAdAijcr^oi, dAoA^fxefot ; Aor. Pass. dAij^jji/.
Trace of 1st Aorist Middle in Uesiod. Imperf. ijAdro, or sine augm. dAdro.
Chiefly Epic.
dAatrd^uj, tocl; distroy, dAairdfw (no Perfect); Ist Aor. Epic dAdn-afa.
Byform Aaird^w.
dA-j-atkbt (root as in I^tin al-o), nowUh, make ttout. [Epic 2nd Aorist
nAJafOf.] Byform dAJijo-Kw, intransitive. Cf. a\0ofiaL under. Verbal in Epic
av-«ATo?, iruatiaijU, from simple root.
dAei^w, anoint, dAeii^u, -dA>}A«j>a, dArjAi/ji/ixat (late ijAfi^fiat); i^Aeit^a, •dptrji',
ijAei^^Tji', -riAiifiriv (rare) ; -a\tii)>driaonai ; dAeiiTTos, -Teoj. (From d copulative or
perhaps d prothetic, and Aiir- in At7r-os, oil.)
dAc'^M, ward off, stems dA«^-, dAeic-, dA*-, dp*-. [Fut. EpicdAefijerw, ijAefijcra. J
Mid. dt/cnd ont'» ^elf afjaimt, Fut. dAe^^o-o/nai (Herod.) or dAe'^o/bioi (Soph.);
i\t(dtJLr)i', frequent in Infinitive, dAe'f a<r0ac Epic and Attic Epic 2nd Aorist ;

i\a\KOv for dA-dA(*)«oi'.

dAeOfiai, avoid, Ist Aor. (i7AedMi7>'), Conj. dAe'ijrot, dAe'aiTO, etc., riKevdixriv
or dAevoMTj*', generally without <r, but a trace of it in dAevaw/mai, Sophocles.
Byform in iEschylus dAtvw, avert, Fut. -o-w, 1st Aor. Imper. dA«v<Tof. Byform
Epic dAcetVw, Pres. and Imperf. only. See also dAwcrxw.
dA(w, ffrirui, Fut. dAeo'cd, dAw ; dAijAeKo, dAi^Aeo'/uiai or dAijAefiai ; i9A(cra(Epic
aXtaad), ri\t<T€r)v, late dA«Td«, -reos. Byform aA^flw, late.
;

(d A o M a I. (jrnvj whole. Put. dASijo-o/nai, Imperf. dAfiero, Only Epic] Byform

dA9aivfa>, hint, lonic.

dXCo-Kopxii (a normally short), am taken^ has, from stem pa\o-y

dXa)(TOfxai^ ijiXcaica, Attic (dXatKa, 2nd Aor. ^Xco)/ (E])ic and Ionic),
Attic <4X<oi» (conj., etc., dXc5, -wr, -w, Epic dXaxa, ^Xot»ji/ (variant
<lX^7i/), dXwvat, riXovf. In ^wj/, augment obscures digamma of
Et^m. (Thucydides prefers «aX- forms to 17X-). dXwrdr.
Impf-rf. i}Ki<TK6firfv always. The verb Is Passive in sense throughout. No
act : lAio-Kw, which is transitive =
coimumn. The lengtht'iiing of d in
In ;
,Awi/ (r/. iupuiv) is probably by Hhifting of tiuandti/ from ijfaAwv.
oA.,, i.ng m" t/«jii (II. 6, 455?) is peculiar, augment not being present.
C/. d in I'r.K.ni Indicative of dvd\l<TKu>.
(dAiM, dAiV-Jw, -Jew], roll (no Fut.), tiAtxa, i^Aiao. Pass. dAiciov/xcK (also
4Uv2oMa() is late ; haii Perf. Pass, and Aor. Pass, in -nikai, etc., regular. Qf.
KvKim and KvAiV&M. (^Aicra is from dAt'^w, regular ~ collect.)
dAiTot*-** (only .Mid. in Pres ), «i»i (Fut. ?); 2nd Aor. Act. ^Atroi-. Mid.dA«r«{
nnv Perf. Pep. dAtrifM^cof. Byform dA«TpoiK.». (A verb mainly Kpic and poetic.)
:

iXKiuTvUf change (stem aK\ay-)y aWa^ui, ifk\axa, etc., regular ;

with three lat Aoriste ; only one 2nd Aor., viz.., Pass. ^XXayi;i/
dXXairror, -rio^.
AXXofiOi, Latin tal-i-o) Dep. Mid., dXoC/xat
leajt (ntcra <IX-,
(Perf. ? ), (rarer), riKoy^riv.
ri\dtir)v ; (Epic 2nd Aorist
2nd Aor.
fbrms without thematic vowel, iiXao^ iikro, aXfitvos. Gf. § 66. II.)
216 lEREGULAE VERBS. [§ 114.
d Ao dco, thresh. Attic dAoijcrcrt, dir-)}Xo)}/u,eVoc (dAod<rw doubtful). [Epic byform
Imperf. Srd sing. aAoi'a.]
[dAvKTd^w, dXvKTcw, am dUtracUd, Pert, a^akuKniiuu. Verb is Epic
and Ionic]
dXvcTKw, ovoid (for iXvK-CTKu, stem a\vK; cf. 5(fid<rK(i>), dXvfw and -Ofxat,
(Perf. ?), rikv^a, and •dfirii' (Epic byform dAucr/tdfo) and Imperf. rfKva-Kave).
Verb chiefly poetic.
akvui, am distraught, with v in Attic and generally in Epic long, sometimes,
in Epic, short. Only in Pres. and Imperf. Byform dXvao-oj (of dogs), chiefly
poetic.
dA^xxfM, And, earn, [Epic 2nd Aor. ^\4>ov'].

^ixoprdvca, erTy miss (takes Genitive), dfiapTrja-ofiai {ifiaprriaayy

Ionic and late), fifiaprijKa, T}napTr}p.ai, f}fiapTT)6T]u ; 2ncl Aor. rjp.ap-
Tov, [Epic ^fi^poTov, 9 ; c/. § 7. § 85. 1. n. 4] ; dv-aiJ.dpTT]Tos, Afiap-
TTjTfov. (a privative, and smar- = partaking; & through metathesis
of aspiration from a in smar-).
du^Aio-Kw, miscarry (neuter), borrows from the transitive afifiXoo, found
chiefly in composition as i$anP\6u and having regular and full formation,
djut/SAoxrid (late), -li/Li^AwKa, -/xai
-<ra, -Oriv. (A 2nd Aor. Act. t)^/3Awi/ is late.)
;

afitiPu, change, regular, but no Perf. Act. rintinrai in Perf. Pass., afittn- :

T«o5. anantifivfi.ai often = ansicer, as Deponent Pass. drrri^ei^ieTji' in Xen. Anab.

In Ionic the simple verb is Deponent Mid., as tifitiiliaTo = he answered. (In Pindar
d./icvw, akin to root of mu-to. Others connect with Latin mi-g-ro).
[d/ict put and d/yicpj(i>, deprive (d negative and ixipot, part). Epic SitJiepaa,
aixtpOjit, poetic]
annixio, aiJini(r\<a (rare). Mid. d/uijr«xo/bioi, a.nwi.(r\vovftai, have about (one),
clothe, an<f)t^m, -fo/xat ; 2nd Aor. Act. finni-a-xof ; 2nd Aor. Mid. qnni-axonrff or
rifjLir«<r\6ixriv ',
Imperf, a/j-irtlx^^ > Epic ifjintxov ; rinTriaxov may in form be Imperf.
annKaKtaKta, err, miss, a.n7T\aKri<ru (Perf. Act. ?), i^/uiTrAdKrjTai, 2nd Aor.
^/iirAoxof, with participle d/iirAoucwf or anX-oKiiv, Poetic.
dfi.irvvt, afjiirvvv0f)v, annvvTO, see rrveia.
ifjivvitt, vavd off, ifivvv, no. Perf. Act. or Pass.; rifiwa, •ifxriv; anwreoi.
Mid. d^end one's self, tak-e vengeance on. Byform afivpaOelv, as 2nd Aor. Others
-dd«iv as Present. (C/. stem of Latin mun-io).
afi.v<r (Tta, scratch, afiv(u) ; Kar-anv^aro. Chiefly Epic.
d^ (j> t
Y f o < w, doubt, with chief tenses 1st Aor. Active and Passive : regular.
Augment i7M0'y- and Tifji4>ty: § 74. n. 3.
an(t>iivvviJLi, see evfu/xi.
ati<i>i(Tprfrebi, dispute, is regular and complete, but augments rin^ia- &nd
§ 74. n. 3.
rifi<t>e<r; (The second augment is odd, if the formation is really d/i<^ts-
^ri-Tiu> {irein diva'sas opiniones), and not an<i)i-aPrj-Tt<t}.)
avaivofxai, refuse, say no, only 1st Aor. i^ioji'dftiji' ; Conj. diojnjTat; Inf.
avrivaaOai (besides Imperf. i7i'aiv6/unj»').

di/aAi<r»cw, avakoio, expend (probably to take ttp or on (debt^, cf. con-«itmo),

ava\ia<Ttt),dciiAwKa and di'dA-, di^Au/xat and dfdA-, avrjKiaaa and afdA-, diojAcoflrji/
and di'dA-, Fut. Pass. draAwflijo-oMai, di'oAwTos, -T«'os. Imperf. has double form
from dvoAooj, dvijAoui', dt'oA-, but only air^\i<TKov. (Isocrates has in compounds
fivaXoiva, -iliOriv. The length of d in this verb is notable, in contrast with d of
a\i(TKOtLai.)

avSdvcD, please (root fad, properly (xf^aby whence sua-vis =

suad-visy &b, dS-f), ddrja-oi (Herodotus) ; (Hipponax), 2nd
adrjKa
Perf. fdha (Epic), chiefly in pep. eadara ; 2nd Aor. d8ov, or from
digamma, evddov (for epddovy from ea-f^d8ov\ eddov (Herodotus).
Chiefly Ionic and poetic). Imperfect in various forms, fjvdauov
(Homer and Herodotus), also erjpdavov (Homer), edvdavov (Hero-
dotus). Rough breathing sometimes dropped, as in dSdv of Pindar.
 § 114.] IRREGULAB VERBS. 217

avtafi, see in Ttj^ii, § 61. 2.

a •> X
('
in Active just as exu. The Middle avtxofjiai, endure to, endure the
(•>,

thought of, has double augment in Iiuperf. and 2nd Aor. (§ 74. n. 3). Rarely
rivrxonitv by syncopation, and with single augment, avetrxoiJiriv. (i^i/exoM**''^* in
Alistophanes doubtful.) Verbals avaa-xeroi, arexros, -T«'os.
[ay^yoOe, springs up, pushes forth, from a st'pposed Present avtOu, <j/". av0os.
Perfect with Present meaning. Epic. Of. iyr)vo8<:.]
ayoiyvv fLi, avoiyto, see olyw.
avop96u>, set upright, augment ai'tup- and in composition, cirrji'wp-. Other-
wise regular.
[avTOfiai, meet, only Present and Imperfect.] Epic and poetic.

avvoj, also Attic, better avvria, ,tinish, avvaio, rivvKa, -va/uiat ; -va-Of
a»a'T«u,
-amnji/, -o-fij)!', iwrroi, but (w short by nature everywhere in this verb
ai'-i^»'VTos.
in -vo).) Byform ifw, only in Pres. and Imperf. Act. and Pass., with augment
also, as Tjvoy 666v. 7JVUT0 (Homer), implies a Present avvfti (Theocritus).

ai'ciiyo, urge, command (-d?, -t), probably akin to stem of ava^,&n old Perf.
without augment and with Present meaning. Ionic and poetic, avtoyfjifv only
relic of dual and plural Indie. avwyrj, ai'vjyoLfiii Iraper. acwx^', rarely ai/to-ye,
; ;

avu>xBt, also ayJiytre. Pluperf. (as Irbperf.) 1st pers. iji'ciyeo, 3rd pers. ^vwyet
or riitiytiv also avuyti. (disputed). See § 64. 2. 2.
:

From the Present sense which it bears, ai-wya easily glided into a true
Present avwyut, which appears early, as avutyti, bids, Inf. avoiytfiev; and
develops a Future as ai/wfoj, 1st Aor. rji-wfa, Innn. avut^ai. Impert. is rivtayov
and aytayov. (jiyuyeov is doubted and iji-w-yecj' proposed instead.)
(axavpaoj), take away, rob, not found in Present (aiipaoi the simple not
extant) has only preteritive tenses, Imperf. ajrTjvpwv (1st sing., 3rd plur.) in sense
of Aorist. ajTTjvpas, aTTFjvpa; Aor. Mid., 2nd sing., amfvpo) (tragic), dmjvpoTo (var.
Uct. in Epic). Anomalous participles of Aorists, an-ovpas (i.e. in-o-fpa?, probable
accent -pa?, having r^'t away), a»roupa/x«i'os, having forfeited (their lives), poetic.
See also iiravptia.
a«o «/> i <r /c ui, deceive, 2nd Aor. Act. i^naijyov. trace of 2nd Aor. Mid. aTrac^oiro.
Rare e^7}ird<»Tj<7-«v. Poetic.
aiTtx^<*-vofLai, am hated, see e\d(i>.
[i.v6t(>T*, swept away, only in 3rd person, aitoipa-^, -crete. Poetic. Simple
•«p<r« not found. Probably -ftpat ef. L. verro.] ;

d>ro Aavw, enjoy, partake of, anokava-onai (better than late oTroA.ou<ru), toler-
ably complete and regular, but with traces of <r in Perf. Pass., anoKtKavaiJMi,
whence diroAavoTos. On augment, see § 70. 8. Simple Aauu not found.
avoKpCytj, separate, regular. Mid. reply, avoKpiyoftai, aTTOKpivovfiai., ana-
ccVpiMOl ; dweitpci'd^Tji' ; dn-oKpir^o?. The Epic Verb
for reply is OLfiei^ofJiaL Or
anautifioiiai, Aor. replied, yift-tiyl/afjiriv, also rinti<t>9yiu ; the Ionic verb is d/mei/SoMai
or vnoKoiyofiai the Attic is dn-oirpti'o/uuxi, in classic times having aTrtKplvdfjiriv
;

for Aorist, and so treated as Dep. Mid. ; in Hellenistic antKpieijv.

a wTtt, fasten, kindle, atpto, no Perf. Act. ^u^oi ; ^i/^a, -d^Tjf, ri4t9iiv; airT6t,
:

iwrioK. Mid. touch, lay hold of, governing Genitive. (Epic Aor. Pajw. ii^Or)
often referred to this verb, but vide Monro's Homeric Gram., § 46. n.)
ipiofi^i, pray, curse, Dep. Mid., -daofiai, i^pa/iai, rfpaffdnriy, aparot (Epic
byforra, aa if from Active, aprjixtvat, to pray, verbal dpTjrd?). (dp in Epic, dp
in Attic. But a eifUr p is long.)
apipi^Kw, JU, adapt (Fut. ?), 2nd Perf. dpopo (Ionic dpnpa), am suitable;
1st Aor. ^p^o, 'ifiiif (Hesiod). -^tjc in form Sp0ty, 3rd JPlur., only Epic ; 2nd Aor.
iaioof (tmna. JUlHlf adapted, inirtinn. phoit.<i, cf., in form, wpopoA In participle of
Perl, note apipvla. as feminine alongHide of dpripvia, both Epic Pluperfect :

i^p«i, also iiinifiti. (wpoa-apjjprTci, trace of a Perf. Pass, in old Conjunctive for-
mation.) Note also Sputyot, 2nd Aor. Mid. participle, now an adjective.
apiwm, knock, dash (with noise), regular, dpd^M, no Perfects; fipafa,
4^X*7»'. Cf,^9m.
<»<«, waUr, 6«Ut», only Prei. (Act. Mid. Pass.) and Imperf. Act., but 1st
or. Ionic V*.
 2l6 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

ap-f-<TKU}, apivm (no Perfect except apijpeico, late) j^pecro, jo/ixTji',

j>lea*e,
;
-(rflrjf ; apeo-Tos.)/iai-e a thing jtleasing, apptase.
Middle, Stem as in ap-ap-Ca-KU).
[aprj/xe'vos, iforn ou<, ojijnxssed, Perf. Pass. Pep., no Pres. Only Epic.
Remarkable as without augment or reduplication. Cf. air/icw?. {dp is long.)]
apKeo), suffice, assUt (also icard off, qf. Latin arc-e-o and aA.ef- above), Dative
of person, apKitrot (? no Perfects) fipKeaa, -a-drfv apKeo-d^o-o/mat dpxeTo;. (As an
; ; ;

impersonal apKtl ~ it is enough.)

ap/xoTTbi (Poetic apft.6^11}, -6<r6a> Theocr.), ^<, adapt, apfLLOcrw, ^pjaoxa, -oc/mli ;

-«ra, -adfjiriy, -iriiriv ; ap/uio<rT6¥, -t«'os. avf-ap/xo^a, Pindar,

apfeofiai, deny, Dep. (usually in Attic. Dep. Pass.), apyriaofJiai, (^avrifiai),
iipufjaOai, Demosthenes, -ijdiji'. 1st Aor. Mid, -qptn/iadnrfif in Epic, Ionic, and late;
rare iu Attic ; Fut. Pass. apfttO^aop^ai, in tussive sense ; apiniTiov.

ap-vv-fiai. Kin, obtain, only Pres. and Imperf. (sine augmento); Fut, and
Aor. apovft-ai, fipofitiv, same as from alpw.
apou, plough (Latin aro, old English ear), apoaot, apripoica Ttire, {-popnu, in
Pep. Ionic) ; ripoaa, -66riy.
apira^ii) (apirai; cf. Latin rop-io), seize, apirdaia and -darofJiai, TJpjrcuca, -acr^oi ;
-ao-a, -aaOrfy ; apirao-i^aofxai ; apirao-ro?. (liyfonns from stem dpvay chiefly
Epic ; apnd^u; ripna(a, dx(h)y, opiroxTO?, adv. dpiraySrii' (poetic).)
dpvut, dpvTw, draw ojf (water), dpfaoi (? no Perfects); -i^pwa, -vdriv (Ionic
flpvaBjjy, also apxiaaofiai), opvcrTcot. (u, in this verb, short.)

4pX«» rul€y lead the icwj, regular, tip^a), ^px" '"^^^j VPyh"'- (^^itl.
luive begun)., ^p^«» -afi»7»', -x^*?" I apx^rjaofxaiy sluiU be niied, dpKTfos
= incipiendusj also regendus. {ap^ofuu is sometimes passive.) Mid.

a (raw, for poetic dio-o-w, ^fw (no Perf.), -jj^a. ^aatrai Passive in sense in
Sopnocle.s. (The poetic aiaau, always trissyllabic in Homer, haslst Aor. Act
i5if«,iterative di(a<rKt, riix&riv, or aixdr)v. Trace of di^aada:, in-aiyoriv.)
[a Tew distracted, chiefly in Present Participle.
I*, Epic]
[drirdAXw, only Epic and Lyric, Aor. ariTTjAa.]
o T V ^«, put in a fright, arvfai (Theocritus), drvxOti^ (Homer), Poetic.
avaivto, or avaivot, wither, make to fade, has no Perfs. but otherwise has
,

fair complement of tenses. On augment, see § 70, n. 6. Chiefly Ionic and poetic.
avSaw, speak (akin to dfeiSw), has in simple no Perfects.! but otherwi.se
tvith fair complement of tenses. Iterative Aor. aviriaaaKt, Epic ; rjvSd^aro in
Pindar (as if from a Pres, av6d^m). Imperf, t>v6wi', 3rd person rtvSa, is used like
i<f>r)v, aoristically. On *| in Persons of Imperf,, see § 57, A, 1. /3.
av|dvai or ai^ta, increase, augment (= Latin aug-e-o, stem common
to English tcox, i.e., grow), ai^rjaoi, riv^rjKay -ijpiai ; -jyo-a, ,

-t)6t)v ; av^rjBrjaofiai ; av^rjrosy -T€os.

Ionic Pres, d«fai (see under dfr), with Imperf, de^ov, Fut. late, defrjo-co. Mid,
av^ofiai, in sense of cresco. I-^it, Mid, sometimes Passive.

av p; see dvavpdw and ivavpiaKOnat.

avo>, duTeo), shotit, c<ill aloud, chiefly in Pres, and Imperf,, the latter tense
generally without augment, 1st Aor, iivaa and dw<ra (o long or short, according
as augment Is given or not, but v always long),
a w w, L-indle, singe, chiefly poetic and in Present, but Mid, and Pass, as well
as Act. The prose is ivavto ; akin to «va> and Latin ur-o.
d ^^ d o- <r w, feel, handle (for Epic dc^dw or d^dw), is Ionic prose and late Epic,
Ist Aor, Imper. d4>a(Tov.
d<t i T) (x t, let go, Imperf, d6irip or ri((>ir)v. § 74, n, 1, (ijc^tovi' aa 3rd plur. rare.)
As to d(^e'w/Liai, etc., See § 61. 2.

1 atnivSriKa in lonic of iUppocrates.

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 219

[d(^ vw, draic off, pour, usually d<^v<r<rw,Fut. d<^v^io (late a<^v<rco), 1st Aorist
iri>vvci, and (»i>w augmento) a4>va-<ra. Chiefly Epic]

ax'Sofiai, am dUpkased, burdened, Dep. Pass., has its parts based on stem
(ix^es) of its cognate noun, Fut. ax6«'o"OMai (no Perf.) ; r)\6i(T6i]v, ax^ecr^rjo-ofxai.

[d X A w «», grow gloomy, only in solitary part, i^x^*'*^**'- Epic]

[ax-vv-iJiai, am vexed, only Iniperf. axvvM^- Byforra dxo/uiai, dicaxt^o/mat,
—
and in l*res. Peps. dx<o»', dxev<«>»' From same stem with reduplication comes a
traiuilicc Present, aKaxi^u, rex, Fut. aKa\ij<Tui, Perf. Pass. aKaxr^nai
, 1st ;

Aor. d«dvT)o-a, 2nil Aor. ffKay^ov, Pcp. dfcaYuu', vexed. Mid. aKaxofx-qv {sine augm.).
In Perf. Pass. ditaxTj^ai, various peculiar forms emerge, as d*caxeiaTo, a»cTjxe6oTai,
dojxe'/xei'o?, as well as archaic accentuation in its ordinary Infin. and Pcp.

[dm, tatiate, acta, (o<ra), in Intin. a<rat. Parts of a supposed second aorist,
neuter in sense, to hare one'*. rill, to he glutted, are 2nd Aor. Conj. eufitv or ew/uiei/ ;1
(f/. KTreututv) Intin. oLfifvai (also neuter). Mid. (dofiai), glut one's self, 3rd sing, with
extension aarai, aaofj-ai, acaaOai. Verbal in d-oTos, contracted Jtos, insatieiAle.
Modal adv. aSrju, aSriu, aSSr)v —
to tlu/utt.]

Badi^M, vail; step, PaSiovfiai. (fiaSCao}, ^e^d5lKa, late.) /3aSio-reo9. Cf.

paiyw.
^dfw, tpeak, utter, fia^u. [Perf. Pass. Epic ^«73a«Toi.] Chiefly Poetic ((^.
afia.KTf<raf).

^a{va), go, step, firjaofuiiy ^e^rjKO, archaic Perf. /3f^aa (see § 64) ;

2ntl Aor. (^rjv (see § 63. A. 1).

The foregf»in<^ parts are all intransitive = go. Pres. Pass.

fiaivofuu found in simple (Herodot.) and in compounds, dva-, etc.

In active sense, caiLse to go, transport, occur the parts ^rfo-df

f^Ti<Ta no Perf. Act. transitive, but Perf. Passive in this sense,
;

^^cutat, (^aBrju ;
^aros, ^dHos ;
^adrjv. ^L^d(a>, which is transi-
tive, can supply a Pre.«ent tense, and has own
future, /Si^oi,
its
for jii^tTo), etc., which is therefore duplicate in sense to ^rjao).
Besides the ordinary and regular iprfrriv of 2nd Aor., there are short forms
in dual and plural ludic, pdritf, pdaav, or ifiav or pdv ; also Epic 1st Aor. Mid.

In 2nd Aor. Imper. besides /S^fli, note a shortened form only in composition,
M Kara^a. (Dialectic variations are Epic py\v {nine augmento) conj. Pfiuy, /3<io- :

luv; alw) Ptjv^, ^iJTj or |3«p, <ir»-p«w>i<i' (Herodotu.s), Infin. prififpai as well as
^l7cai. In archaic Perf. fitfidaaiv, Infin. /St^S/titf, Pcp. ptfiaiiti, /Se^aiTe.)
Byfonn.H (0i0TjMi), {fiifidu}), PiPdcBui = stride, occur,chiefly in Pcp. Pres. On
pdfffu, »ee i,i/,a. Greek fia, expanded for Present stem pav.
R<K>t f>f paivu) is in
Cf. in Latin m and wn of ven-i-o = fiav-t-tu, but n of the
of ra-</o (so VaniJ*ek)
£atin Terb U more pervasive than v in tlie Greek verb, p here as often else-
where represente a primitive g, whence by Grimm's law, our c-ome, just as pov^
to for yaoa, whence English cow.

pAXXw (3oX-, by metatlj. |3Xa-), throw, cast, [(iaXfO) Epic], /3aXa>,

rarely (SoAXiyo-w (Ari'itophanes) ; (it^XrjKo, ^f^iXrjfiai, [Epic fit^o-
Xrjfxai] ; no Ist Aor. Act. or Mid. but 2nd Aor. in both, t^aXovy
;

'dfujv ; 1st Aor. Pass. f^Xi)6rjv ; fiXr)6r)(ToyMi, also Fut Perf. (it^Xi)-
<roftm i ^XtfToSf ^rp-ios ; ^XTidrjv in dva-^Xfjdrjv.

tlito Tiew, another nrevalls connecting the word with Irtut (intran-
, remiuo), and a third w hich rt^ails i^nty (as in II. B. 230), as from
 ;;;

220 lEREGULAB VERBS. [§ 114.

Archaic 2nd Aor. dual (v^-/3A^n7f, Infin. (vM.-^A^/i.efai. ; Aor. Mid. e^Aij/y»jv,
Conj. /SA^erai, Opt. Pkjjo Or PKelo Infin. pkri<T0at, Pcp. P^Tqutvo^
', Fut. fv/*- ;

/3A)jo-eoi. (On ^e'^Ajjai, see § 69. 1. also ^e/SA^^o-de, c/. § 5(5.) Arcadian ^e'AAw.
;

/SaTTTw (i3tt<i)), dip, ^ai//u}, ,

/3e'^a/ui/u.at ; e/3ai|/o. , ifid(i>67jv rare; 2nd
Aor. frequent, «/3a</)Tji/ ; /SawTos. 03a<{> : /3a0- of /Sodvs, aeep : : dip : deep.)
^ap vi/u), (w) wei^A with Fut. Pass., ^apvi/d^aofxai. [Cognate are Epic
doj^^n,
^<^opr}^os and ^opvflw.] Byfonns from /Sope'w, as ^«/3apT)/u.oi <;/. im^apeio. ;

pda-Ko), inceptive form to root of Paivu, go, chiefly in Impemt. /3a<r»c' I9t,
(once transitive, make to go, II. B. 234).
/3 o o- T a f CO, tear, carry (a load), PavrHato, ;«/3a o-raaa. Passed sometimes
into Guttural forms, /3«/3a<rTaKTat, e^ao-rax^i'. (Akin to Latin ger-o, originally
fftt-O.)

Pait^u, bark, cry, with guttural latent; cf. Sva-^aiiicTos.

Peofjiai, thall live, see ^tow.

Pr)<ra-u, Attic /3^tt«, couj^A, 0^f«, , </3rjf«i. The stem is Pr^x; as shown
by noun ^rjf , /3tjx<>s, n, a cough.

^ 1/3 17 Ml, etc., see paivot.

Ptd^o flat, force, also Pass, am forced, has parts in Active sense, ^ido-o/iat,
P«Pia<Tfiai ; iPiaaafxrfv : also in passive sense, ptpiaaixai, iPidtrOriv, Piaariof.
[Byform 03toci>), whence ptpiifKa (Homer) ; .Mid. pidofLai, ^iijo-o/xai, ; «^t»)-

o-aro ; also pirjOtCf, Passive in sense. Epic and Ionic]

Pi'Pd-^ta, etc., see Paivta.
^ I - /3 p ti - <r K w {Ppo; Latin ror-o), eat (? Fut) pippotKa, archaic Pcp. PtPpSyrtt
2nd Aor. archaic ippuy, ist Aor, Pass. ippd>0rjv Fut. Perf. PtPpilxroy^ai /Spwros, ; ;

-reos. Homeric PtppJidoit, Optative of a Present, or Perf. in -da. Chiefly Epic

and Ionic.

Pido) (Latin viv-o), have a livelihood (of social existence),

live,
^laxTOfiai, fif^iciKa, chiefly Impersonal, as /Sf^tWai
/3f/3ta)/iat,

i^iaxra (rare) 2nd Aor. (^icav (long vowel in dual and plural)
;

Conj., etc., /Sto), /3twf /3t(a»7v (fiioirjv is Opt. Pres.) jSitoro)

;
/Sicami, ; ;

/Sious (the neuter is, traditionally, /3toi)j/) Gen. ^lovvros (remark- ;

ably). /Sicjror, -Wof. [Epic Fut. /SfOfiat or ^fio/xnt, for /Stcoo-oftat.]

Bi(5crt in Present tense seems Ionic and late Attic. PioTtvia and ^i supply
defects. (/Stuo-xoMai). The inceptive ai/a./Siwo-xofxai has aca/Siatfai in the neuter
sense of revive, dvaPuitvavdai. in active sense of restore to life. [Qf. ipuoaao, gavest
life to (me). Epic]
^AairrM (/SAo/S-), injure, p\d\ln>>,pip\a<f>a, ptP^afifitu, tPXaipa, , ip\d<l)9rfv,

2nd Aor. ipxspriv; /3Ao/3ij(roMai; Fut. Mid. ^Ad^/>0MOl ; Fut. Perf. ^</3Ad»//o/yiai
(Ionic). Byform chiefly in Epic, only in Pres. 3rd Sing., p^aperai, is injured.
pXaardvu, sprout, pXaarriau, PfPkd<T-n\Ka. and ipXdvrriKa (qf. § 71. 3.) ; e^Ad-
o-TTiaa, ip\a<TTov. Byfonns pkaaTiia •rioy.o). in tragedians.
Pkiirio. see, pkiyj/oiJiai. (also /3A<'i^w Ionic and late), Perfects very doubtful
(fiipk«t>a^ etc.) ; «/3A«i/«a, ipkiitOriv (late) ; pktirroi, -reos.

^kirrtj or pki<r<ru, rijU of honey (M(«)AtT-, /SAit, p. 10. n. 3). 1st Aor.
ipki.<ra.

pX(&<rK«, gro (fioX-, /xXo-, /3Xo-, p. 10. n. 3), /xoXoC^ai, fx(fM^\a>Ka ;

2nd Aor. (fioXov. Chiefly poetic.

^odw, shout (Latin re-6oare), po»;<ro/jtai (/Soi^o-m late); </56rj<ro; ^otjtos. The
Ionic of Herodotus takes Fut. pdxrofxai ; Perf. Pass. ^e^w/u.<Vo? ; ipuicra, -dfiriv,
iPtoaOriv.Homer has e/3o>i<ra alongside of the Ionic /3w<roMat and puaai;.
PoriOto), help, a post-Homeric verb, contracts in Herodotus sometimes otj
into w, whence PuOtio. Regular.
p6(rK0},feed (actively), nourish, Poa-KrjiTio (fP6a-Ko<Ta, lateX The Passive in
sense oifeed (neuter) has trace of Aor. /Soo-KTjtfjjfat ; /Soto?, /3oo-/n>Teos.
 ;

§ 114.] IBREGULAR VERBS. 221

PovXojiai, will, wish (= Latin vol-o), (augment e^- or ^/3-, § 70),

Dep. Pass. ^ovXrja-Ofiatj ^e^ovXrjuai e^ovXr)Br]v ^ovXrjros. [2nd ; ;

Perf. only Epic, npo-^f^ovXa Present in Homer also /SoXo^at, ;

with Imperf.] On 2nd sing, ^ovXei, see § 69. 1.

Ppd^to, /3patro-w, or Ppdrrw, boU(}ntra,ns.), ferment, Fut. Ppia-to, etc.

[Op ax-). hJis only 2nd Aor. «^pax<. ^P«x<» rattled, resounded. Epic]
/SpeVw, rarely /3pe>oMai (perhaps Latin /?*em-o), roar as tAuntfe?-, has only
Pres. and Imperf. Cf. Tpe'/xw.

ppe'x«, vit, Regiilar, as /3p«^w, etc., but no Perf. Act. Traces of 2nd Aor.
Pass. fPpixw, as well as a 1st Aor. iPpex^v. (Some connect Latin rig-are.)
ppi^oi, slumber, AoT. Ppl^ai. Chiefly Epic.
ppiOo), am heavy, Ppiaut, pePpiOa ; ippicra. Chiefly Epic, i always long.
[fipo x; sicailo-w, gulp, Aor. #caT-«^pof o, 2nd Aor. Pass. ai'a-/3pox«ts ; 2ud Perf.
ava-ptfipoxt, formerly written -vxe. Epic]

[/3 pV «c bi, bite, munch, grind the teeth, /SpiJfw, Perf. late ^e^pvxws ; e/3puf o, 2nd
Aor. iPpvx* late ; /Spwx^ei? ; Pass. PpvKop.ai.] Ionic and poetic.

/Spvxaofiat, roar (as a lion), (? Fut.), 2nd Perf. fieppvxa ; ippvxi}<Tdixr]v,

Ppvxv^tit.
ppvut (v), am full, chiefly Pres. and Imperf. (/SpiJcrw— trace of in ^Eschylus
and Homeric Hymns.)
Pvytot or ;3v<D, stop up, /Svo-cu, pePva-nai; ffivaa, ipvadrjf
, ; /Suoros ;
adv. Pvin*'- Chiefly poetic, v long in Pres. Fut. Aorist.

FofUM, marry (said of the man), Mid. marry (of the woman),
Fut. yafiS) (ya/ieo) Epic and Ionic) ycyafirjKo, -fiac (yrjfxa, -dfxrjv. ; ;

[Fut. Mid. yafifaa-ofiai doubtful, will provide a wife for. Epic]

(ya/ujo-o), (yafxrjo-a, -Tj6r]v late, yafxeOuaoy Theocritus). Verbal
seen in ya^crq ; also yafirjTeos.
[yaiu V, glorying, rejoicing, probably for yaf-i-wv, <^. yav-pot ; only in Pres.
Participle. Epic]
yaw ft a I, rejoice, remarkable as retaining -w into its Future, yavvaaofiau..
Epic : ytydyvfuu late. Chiefly poetic.
ytyu>v*u>, shout, •yeyuii/Tjcrw, yeyuivrjirai., ytyoivrfrtou. 2nd Perf. from older
stem, Y«ywva (properly niake k-nown), with meaning of Present tense, Conj., etc,
ytyutfut, yiyutyt. [Inf. ytyiovtutv, Pep. ytyiovut^. Epic only.] Cf. dvwya in similar
relation to a Pres. in -w. Byform ytyufivKu.
y*ivonai, see yiyvo^ai.
y«XSw, laugh, with X, yeXdaonai, , ytytKaa-fiai, late: iytXiaa, •d<r6r}v
ytkaarrof. (Byform Epic, yt\oiu, yeAoiijo-otro.J

y«>M, am full, only in Present and Imperfect.

lyivro, took in meaning. Old English heni), 2nd Aor. Mid. Epic] (Root
(cf.
disputed, Bom© referring It to «A«to or f«a«to, with y (for Digarama), syncopation,
and f for a, as in f/reov for ^Aflw. Others, doubting y as a substitute for
Digamma so earlv as Homer, deduce from a stem yam, akin to Latin -imo in
e»-imo, etcX As for ydyro « became, see yiyyonai.

y«vM, maJct to taste. Mid. taste, regular, but no Perfect Active or Aorist
Piuslve. Pwl Pan. y^tvfiai ; y#v<rTb«. -T^oc. (Stem as in Latin gus'to. y«v.
lM#a in TbaoeritDS notable, as not reduplicated, <;;: under ivyvfii.)

yi|«tf«*, Tifoife, yri^ay,, iy^0f)<ra2nd Perf. ytyrfOa as Present Chiefly

ptMtk, Mcospi yrfyi|«a, which ext«nds Into prosw. (yijdw as Pws., bad and late.)
222 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.
yrfpd<TKU) and 717 pa (p-OW old, yripiaia and -atro^ai, veyi^pouca ; eyripaira
CO,
(rarely causative, presen-ed to old age, usually gi-eic old), (all with d). Notaole are
trafriiients of a 2nd Aor. (iyrjpav) ; viz., eyripa, 8rd sinj?. ; Infln. yripdvai, -pivat
(Butt.), Participle yTjpas.

yf'yvoijxit (for yL-y(()vofiai, from yev-j also ya-), less Attic yiuofiai
(Ionic prose and late), (gi-yn-or), come into being, am born, am,
Fut. y€V7]aofiat, Perf. yeyeViy/iat, 2ncl Perf. yiyova 2nd Aoi'. Mid. ;

(y€v6}iT)V.

Byform only Pres. and Imperf., yeCvofiai poetic and chiefly Epic, and of
2nd Aor. syncop., yeyro; iterative ye»'«(7-(c«rTo, Epic. Later forms of Fut. and
Aor. Pass, Older forms parallel with yiyova, are yeya-
iyevrjd-ny, •yerjjdi/o-OMai.
^ei/, yiyart, yeyao-i, lonfttheiieil yeydacri Inf. yfySi/j-tv Part, yeyws all copnate
; ; ;

with yeyojca, a Doric Perf., and «»cyeyaofxai, witn Future .sense, probably Fut.
Perf. to (ye'yaa). The only tran.ntivc part is a Isl Aor. Mid. (in prose, in Pep.),
iyeivdixriv, bifjat, brought forth, the remaining parts of a verb heget being supplied
by the transitive yei'i'aw. Tlie nearest approach to forms like Latin {,'j)iuu.cor,
(g)na-tu», is in such a.s -yi/rjTos in Koatyvrjro?.

'yi-yvwo-Kw {yvo-^ Lat. {g)no8co), less Attic yii/GwrKo) (Dor. Ionic

prose, late), know, {g)nosco, yv6)aofiai, typoiKa, fyvconfiai ; 2nd
Aor. Act. eyvcov, -<as -u) ; -toroj/, etc. (with co throuf^liout) ; Conj.,
etc., yvS), yvwi, yvta [Epic -yvcoa)] yvoirjv, yvoiOi, yvoivai, yvovSf ;

yvovaa, yvov 1st Aor. Pass. (yv<lia0Tju

; yvaxTSrjaofiai yvtaaroS) ; ;

poetic yvoiTos ; yvanrrfos.

No lit Aor. Act. except the Ionic avfyvijj<Ta in the Ionic sense which afayiy.
vuxTKia bears, to persuade, its common Attic sense being to re<ut. No Aor. Mid.
except once, ovyyi'oiTo for the Active ovyyvoiij, would jxnilon, iEschylus. iyvov
for eyfoxroi' in Pindar.

Y X I X o /x a t, hanker after, Pres. and Imperf. chiefly (traces of Aor. -if u/ixtjc).

yviftvTm, bend, yvo^^w; eyvo^ti/ro, -a/w^^v. Chiefly poetic for itdfiirTw of

prose.
yodco, wail, lament, also yodofiai, bewail myself, [Fut. yorj&ofjiai. Epic. Re-
markable Imperf. (Aori8t(?) Veitch), eyoov in Honi. 11., cf. e\oov from \6o>.]
ypS</)<i), trrite (akin to yKSifno and Lat. s-crib-o), regular. Alongside of
ypo^rjcrofioi in 2nd Fut. Pass., occurs yeypdxlionat ; al.so ypaTTTos, -reo? (Ini-ypdp-
6TJV, Hom.) ; Mid. write an indictment against one, i.e. imj>cuc/t. (lAte Perf. from
a new stem, ytypJuttrtKo.)

y p vf o), aatj ' gru,' or grunt ; -fw and -ofiai, ypvfot ; ypu/tros.

yvy.vd f w, train, regular ; also Perf. Act. •i.Ka. Verbal yvynxiartoi.

Ao- (root) =
teach, learn, no Present [Fut. Mid. 6o7jo-ofioi (may also be 2nd
Fut. Pass.), SeSdriKa, -/uai 2nd Perf. (oefiaa), Pep. SeSoMi ; 2nd Aor. Act. SeSaov
;

or efiaof] 2nd Aor. Pass. eSdr^v, learned [Conj. Saei'to, etc.]. Poetic and Epic.
;

[SeSdaa-eai. (more probably SeSaeffflat as 2nd Aor. Mid.) is an abnonnal Infinitive

from this stem = to get up one's lesiom.] Superseded largely by its causative
descendant 8t-6a-<r(cw.
[5at^(o, cleave, rend, SaX^to, , SeSdiyfiat, iSdi^a, iSatxOriv; SaxKTOt. (Always
with I, but in Pindar, once, fie'Saiy/nai. Epic and Lyric]
SaCvvfjit, entertain, feast (akin to 5ais, Satros, ry, a feast), fioio-w, , tSattra,
(fSaia-eriv), SaioBei^. Mid. 6ai'i/u/u,ai, enjoy a feast, Saiao/Jiai, <6euffd/Lnjv. ,

[iaivvTo is Pres. Opt. for (Satwi-ro), with plur. Saivvar for (5oti/vi-fTo). See § 69.
2. Saivv for efiaiVvtro, remarkable as dropping a.] Verbal d-5aiTos (?).

J This yi'o-, in Sanskrit jmo, appears in English as knotr, by metath. ken.

 ;;

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 223

5 a I w, divide, Pres. and Imperf. Act. Mid. and Pass. (Trace of Perf Pass. .

(fieScufiai) in 5<5aiaTat, 3rd Plur. Epic] Borrows Sia-ouM from iareo/iai. Cf.
IJtaion.ai forming fjiiaofiai.
iaioi, kindle, [2nd Perf. Se'Sija, to be ablaze, Plup. as Imperf. 5«5^ei 2nd Aor. ;

Mid. eSao/uLTjv (passive in sense), Conj. SarjTai]. Qiiefly Epic. Traces of Perf.
Pass. SfSavfifvo':, showing Digamma, as if 6af-i(o. =
8dKv« {8aK-, 8TjK-)y biti'y drj^ofiai (dedrjxa rare), 8(?)i]y^ai ; 2nd
Aor. cSa/coi/, 1st Aor. Pass. e'S/;;^^;ji/ ; Fut. Pass. drjxOt'jaofxai. Late
Fut. ^$a>.
Sdfjivrffjii and SafjLvdoi {Soft-, Sfxa-, equal to Latin domo), also Pres. Safia^to,
tame, subdue, [Epic Fut. Bafj.i>, whence Sandtf, fia/uLowai], for 6o|tiJla-w, no Perf.
Act. 5e6dfioo-fiat e6d/x2<ra, -aMT'. fSafjid(TOr)v, also efifirjflTji/ 2n(l Aor. Pass. eSd-
, ; ;

ftjji', (Epic Conj. 5(i/xei(u, 6afx*iT)?,- etc.] ; Fut. Perf, £efi/uii]0'o/u.at. Verbal d-Sd/u.aTOs
and d5dfxa<rro« also Epic in fern. d-Vn'r>i.
*,

(SapBavu), sleep, not in simple except in 2nd Aor. iSapOov (Attic) and (sole
Homeric form) eSpaSof Pass, late, iSapdrfv or eSpi9r)v. Perf. in Kara-fiefiapflTjKws.
;

(No Fut. ?). (6ap- = dor- of t/onnu).) itaTaSpdflai in Conj. of 2nd Aor. Active
KaToipaBit of Ist Aor. Pass.

Sareofiai (a), divide, apportion, Dep. Mid,, 6d<TOjLtoi, (6e'6a<r/xai in) 6e'5o(rToi
(which properly passive in sense); i&aa-dfi-qv, «5d<r0Tji'
is dfa-faoTo?. With ;

fiarr'ouatcompiare irarionai. [Epic has (TO- also in Fut. and Aor., and has
iterative 5a<ra<r«To. SartatrOat. abnormal, doubted, in Hesiod. Cf. 6aiw, divide.]

jitaro, ap)teared, seemed good (others £6aTo), also £od<r<raro, whence Co^j.
iodaxrtroi.. Epic]
JcdiO'O'Ofiai, see £iw.
2 « 1 3 M, see 5 i w.

ScCk-vv-iiv, and less common -vvi«, extend the hand, sJww, Stt^o),
ifidXai diSfiyficu ; edfi^a, -afirjv, ibei\6r]v ; SeixOrjaofiai. The
Ionic is without t in the above parts (except the Present and
Perf. Act, the last not used in Ionic), as 5e^<a, etc.
(The Middle Voice, StiKvyftai, in Epic =
salute (i.e., hold out my hand), reel-
come, haying Perf. Mid. SriStynai, whence 6<i6eYaTai, and (Pluperf.) 5ti6fx"To.
Byform in this sense StiKafdofjLai, SfiSiaKOfioi..] (Root Sik-, cf. Lat. dico i.e. deico.)
itiirv»*», sup, regular. [Epic forms of Perf. StStiTrvifxtv, -dvai.]

itfjLm, build (Fut. 7), , [BiSfjitifiai] : edetfio, -d/x>)i' (0e6-5^i)TOf). Mainly

Ionic

S^pKOfiai, see (of keen glancing vision, cf. dopKcis, dpaxau^ and
Celtic dearc\ (Fut. ?), dtdopKO (in Pindar also gleam, shine) 2nd ;

Aor. (bpcLKov, {(dpoKrjv), dpuKfis 1st Aor. Pass, (dfpxdrjv, had a ;

vision oft Active in sense. Verbal in fxouo-dfpKTos.

i^pm, fay, t^pit, ; i^6apnai ; iitipa, iiiprfv ; japroc and Iparot. Bf. Attic
Saipm.
it vol*, a ^, Epic loT 64ofJLai, see ittt.

8^o|Mu (fi(KOfjMi, in Ionic and Pindar but not Epic), receivcy

Dep. Mid., dt^opxu, dt'dcy/iot ; iht^aiir^v, tdfxBrju (Act. and Pass.)
Fut Perf. dfdd^ofiai ; dtKHos.
(Epic forma to* sach as a^x<*rati a P«rf. Mid. wiUu)ut reduplication, for Mfv;
In tbe MOM
of to eucait. The forms <«'(o. UxOai, 64yiJnyof may belong either lo
thSa PwfMt, or to M^qr
aa Epic 2nd Aorist. others hold that, if 5<xarai (j^{o,
•te.X Is a Pnftet, 4MMurf may be accounted for as its Plup«rfKt. MoKrip.4¥ot
atoOf la tlM MBM
af MyMrot, iPaOitHTt txptcting. ]
 ;

224 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

8^0), bind, tie, bf)(Ta>, dedeKCl (8e8r}Ka rare) ; Se'Sf/xot ; fdrjaa [-durjv],
ihiQrjv ; Sfdrjaofxai, Flit. Pert". dfSfjffoiMai ; deros, -rc'or. [Bvforui
didTjfii, Sometimes contracts, especially in
Pres. Imperf., Epic]
composition, other concurrences than ee and 6ft, § 57. 2. 7i.
8^0), need, lack, 8fr}o-a), dfderjKa ederjaa {drjae Epic, but reading
;

doubtful) generally impersonally, 8el^ (conj., etc., 8fT), dissyllable

;

in Euripides, Aristophanes (Nub.) bfj in Aristophanes (later ;

plays Ran. Plut.\ and in later comedy Scot, bflv, biov\ Imperf. ;

ffifi ;b€r)(T€L, ederja-f. The Middle is regularly personal, require,

request, dfonai, dfrja-ofiai, dedf'rj^ai eSfrjdrjv. Dep. Pass. [Epic ;

byform dfvofiai, d€vr)(rofiai, (8fVTj(ra, and, rare and anomalous,

fdrja-a.'] Sometimes open forms left without contraction in Xen.,
as bUaOai. (Root hff; whence Epic devofiai dcvrepos is from ;

stem of 8vo).
VaniSek makes both verbs dca derivatives from a common
root = bind {constraint the notion in both).
[Sriptaw, contend, forms as if from (5»jpiu)), {Tjpio-w (late), eJ^pio-o. Usually
Middle, JTjpiao^ai (3i7piofxat Pindar), 6rf(>i<ro(iai, lr\pi<ravTO \ 1st Aor. Pass. hr\(>iv-
6r)Tr]u.Verbal in o-6rjplTo«. Chiefly Epic and Lyric]
rii^w, shall find (probably from stem of 5a = learn), only in Present tense
with Future meaning. Like Kciw, a thematic Present form with intensified
Btem-sy liable.]
6 1 a I T d w, aisign a mode of life, arbitrate, with double augment in Perf. and
Pluperf., 6«5ijjT7>*ea, etc., see § 74. 8.

8i8d<rK(i), teach, (for 8i8aK-aK(o, from stem 8i8ax-i which again

from stem 8a-, learn, to which 8i8a<r/Kti) is causative, cf. in form
aXvaKO) from aXu<a), 8i8d^<i), fieSi'Sap^a, -ay/xat; eStfia^a, -dfiT]v, -dx^drju;
8i8aKT6s, -T€os. [Epic and Lyric fiiSao-K^aat.]
8i8pdarK(i>, run away {8pa-, personal noun 8pa-Tr€Tr}s, cf. 8pan-tiv),
chiefly in composition, -8pdaop.ai, -8i8pdKa 2nd Aor. -eSpdv (see ;

§ 63), (Ionic e8pr)v) 3rd plur. -t8pdadv, (also -e8pav, Soph. (Jhorus),
;

(1st Aor. -(8pdaa not Attic).

8t8w|ii, see § 60. and 61. 4. [On Epic B6-ixevat, § 68. 5 ; SiSuxru, § 58. 5
Imper. Epic (once) SiStodi..]

Sit ft. ai, see S 1 <i*.

Stfrj/xai, seek, has rj throughout its inflection, 6i^r)ai, 5i<'i7m«»'os, etc., Put.

6i^^<Toiiai, Epic and, in prose, only Ionic and late. 6i- is probably reduplication
from root of ^ijTf'*» = seek, and if so, the retaining of it in Future is notable.
SC^w, consider, Pres. and Imperf. only. Mid. Si^ofuu (2nd sing. Si'feai),
teek, only poetic.
SlKtlv, cast, hurl (a discus, i.e., SCk-vko^), only in 2nd Aor., Pindar, Trag.
Si\f/aa) thirst, contracts with t;, see § 57. 3.

[(Si<a), stem Si; fear, run, found not in Pres. but in Imperf. Siov, SU (sine
augmaito). Epic Pres. 6eifiw,2 Fut. Seiaonat (doubtful if in Attic)], Perf.
SiSoiKa, [Epic SeiSoiKa], ((if. p. 153, n. 2}, 1st Aor. eSeiaa, [Epic frequently SS
in Aorist]. From stem Si-, 2nd Perf. 6e-6i-o, [Epic StiSta, for Se-Sf-oia]. See

1 This impersonal occurs only once in Homer (II. 9. 337) ; elsewhere xpjf.
3 A Present without an Impei-fect, and only in 1st Person.
 ;;

§ 114.] IRBEGULAR VERBS. 225

§ 64. 2. 1. [Mid. Siofiai, frighten, chase, complete in parts of Present, except

JauperatiTe. Cognate is bieixai, spted, jfee, having a trace of an Imperf. Active,
iv-6i*trav, chased aicay.] Chiefly F3pic, except efieio-a, 6e6oi»ta, 6e5ca, which are
not confined to Epic. Byfoim Sei/Liaifo), j'tar, also j'rightcn, only Pres. and Irapf.
i,fhia<ToiJt.ai. Of 5t6tTTOMai, teirify, Dep. Mid., has in Attic prose deiC^aa-eai. ; its
Epic form 6«t6t'o-o-o^at, frighten (in II. B., treinOle, but disputed) has Set&i$ofuii.
and ieiii^aa^ai.

SoK^o), seerriy thivJ:, 86^(o, , Se8oy/xai ; edo^a (edoxOn^ rare).

Poetic and Ionic 8oKT]aa>, deSoKr/xf, -rjaai, -r/rat ; edoKrjaa, -qOrjv.
Frequently impersonal, 8oKfl,or in Ionic
it seems^ 8d|^fi, etc.,
doKTjady etc. Verbal in d-doKTjros. {dedoKrjfievos is kept to active
sense of waiting, expediyig ; and in the best time of the language
seems not to share with 8(8oyfM(vos the sense of tlwught out, re-
solved ; trace of dedoxa late.)

Sovirita, fall teith a thud, chiefly in Aor. iSovirrjaa. [Epic Bovrrna-a and
«-)rJovvT)<ra, <^. «crvy-<'w ; 2nd Perf. 6«6ovjra.]
6 pd<r<r on. at, clutch, lay hold of. Poetic verb, Dep. Mid., Spa^ofuu, Sefipay/utoi
cfipo^ofiT)!'. (Act. 6pda<Tui, very late.)

6 paw. do, perform, dpiata, BeSpajca, 6eBpduai (also, rarely 5«6pao-/xai) ; iSpda-a,
(iipd<r9riy), &pa<T0riyai.; 6pa<rT«os. On a in Perf. Pass., etc., see § 83. 1. Con-
trast its forms with those of iiBpavKu. [Epic -fip«iw. Byform SpaiVw.]
ipvrrriMt, tear, also in composition -Spv^xa, -SpvxJ/a} (late) ; fSpv\f/a, -ci/unjf,

•v^»riy. Traces of Perf. Pass. late. (dtTro-fipw^oi is by some taken, not as Pres.,
but as 2nd Aor.)
8vva)uu, am able, dvvTjo-ofiai, dfdvvrj^jiai ; 1st Aor. ibvvr]6r)v or rjb-,

and (bwdaBr^v (not rihvvda6r)v) bvvaros. dvvdnai, Sole form of

;

2nd Sing, in Attic prose, also in poetry dvva and Ionic dvvij, § 69.
1. /3. Dep. Pass.
Inflects like larafiat.. 2nd sing. Indie. Svi'oo-ai ; Conj. fivcwfiai, Opt. fivroiVrjc,
etc. [In Epic as a Mid. Deponent : hence, in Homer, eSvi-TjaafXTji'.] The Impf.
has two forms of augment, tSvvdiJirfv and -ffSw-, with 2nd sing, in w rather than
the fall furm in a<ro, tdtyu or i^fivfw.
SvpofLai, see 'OSvpofuit.

W», put (garment) on another, btaoi,

enter, inake to enter, sink,
htbvKa, dfdvfjuu tdvaa, -dfiijv, ib\}6r)v ; dvOrjaonai ; evdvros, -dvriov.
;

Mid. enter, go down, set (as sun), put (garment) on myself. (In
Hellenistic, (v8i8v<TKa> trans.)
Three of its parts, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and 2nd Aorist Active, are
nomiaJIy intransitive,! viz., to go into, or slip into
'
they may, however, take ' :

Accusative of garment or pla/:t entered 2nd Aor. Ind. ibvv -0? -v vrov, etc.
; ;

(with long vowel normally throupliout) conj., etc., iCw, Bvr\v (wlience 1st PI.
;

•K-iiiiuv, fi^cX hiidi, hx/vai, iv<;. (Hence efivaa = depretsi, «6vv = aidi). The In-
transitive Present, 6vyu>, go doim (in the sense of Mid. f,vo^lal), may be taken as
a separat« verb fsee also under ^vw), and thus cnnjugatt-d, Svaonat, 6«6«)(ea
iivy. A remarkable form Uwro of a 2nd Aor. Mid. is in Herodotus 7. 218 (one
M8.X with V. 1. iviivfof. [Epic Aor. iSwo^jufy, with Pnrtic. Swoixtvoi, hence
Imperative ivoto iterative iv<rK«y.] Curtius claims as trace of 2nd Aor. Mid.
:

yviir6% = iySviitrox for tK-ivixtyof.

N.B.— V long except in Epic 8rd plural, fSvy for ilixrav, and in Present and
is
Imperfect of 6%k>itai in Iiomer, also In Co^j. of 2nd Aor. one© in Hesiod.

1 Bat awo-HivKi In Xenophon Anab. ft. 8. 23. is transitive, and iKidivxat

(Anth. 6. 73) == txuitti, has not only tmnsitive sense, but has 0.
15
 ;

226 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

Siapeofiai, present with a gift, regular and fairly complete as Dep. Mid.
whence eiwpTjo-aM'T'- <6t>.-p»j^f occurs, but Passive in sense owpTjros. (Active :

Swpe'w, Hesiod and Pindar).

'Ea(^dT), see fliirrw.

ikbi allow (has a, present or latent, in all dialects),

[Epic €taa>],
edau), fioKo, -dfiai ftdaa [Epic fdtra], flddrjv
; edao^ai (as Pass.) ; ;

euTfos. On ft of augment, as in Imperf. ei(ov, see § 70. n. 2.

(Ionic Imperf. may be ecop.) [Epic lengthened forms are in a {not
through o), as fdas, see § 57. A. 1. Iterative etaaKcv.]
iyyvaoi, qive in pledge (iyyvrf), betroth, has under augment both i7ryva and
iyeyiia (reduplication riyyv- and iyytyv-). Mid. piedgre myitlj'.

iytipot, waken (another), roiue. Mid. awake collect myself, (j/". a-y«ipui),
(i.e.
iytp<i>. iy-i^ytp-Ka (late), -tajiai ',
riytipa, i\ytpBi\v ; iyepTfOi, 2n(l Perf., iyp-riyopa
(p introduced into reauplicating syllable, probably from influence of riyp- in
2nd Aor. Mid.), am aicake [with noUible Epic forms iypr]y6p6aa-i. i for -opaa-i. ;

Imper. iypvyopOt,^ Infin. iypriyopOai 1 or -6p9ai (6 in these forms very anomalous)]

2nu Aor. Mid. riypop.rn', awoke [Epic fyp6p.r)v]. (From iyp-riyop-a. come the Epic
iypriyopato, iyprfyopiut (Aristotle), and ypr)yopem, icatch, of Testament New and
late Gi-eek.) Traces of eypio (trans.) and fypotioa. (intrans.) in Euripides.

*8<i>, see eadio).

e^ofiai (iS- for <rtS; as in Latin ted-eo), sit, chiefly in Pres. and Imperf.
(i^o/jLTiv in Aori.st sense, and sine augmento^ even in Attic). [Epic Fut. Infin.
tit>-t<T<Tt<Tda(. ;Aor. iaaif^rfu and it<T<Ta.tir\v, ti.(Tdp.r}v Transitive Aor. elcra, kacra,
.

seated. Cf. § 62. 2 ; obs. § 70. n. 2.] Cj. i'^to, KaJdi^o}t.ax.

46Aw, vmk^ vnll, (OeXrjffa), f]$(XT)Ka, TjBtXrjaa. Byform OeXco,

which develops SfXrjao), TfBeXrjKa late edfXrjaaj but not in Indie. ;

Only Attic Imperf. Vjd«Aoi/. ede'Acj is the sole form in Epic, and chief form in
Lyric and in Attic prose, as in Thucydides, also in Aristophanes. d«Aa>, as
adapted to Iambic verso, seems to have "obtained prominence from the trimeters
of tragedians, whence such expressions as av flebs ee\r) found their way into
Attic prose. [e'dtAoi/, Imperf., sine augmento, and edeAecrioc Epic]
iOi^to, acctutom, iOii>, tlOlKa, •ic/xai ; eWiaa, -iaBriv; iOivro^, -reos.

i& u>, am wont {<rft6- = sua-dha = self-acting, cf. su-esco : allied to su-us), [only
in Pep. of Pres. Act., iBmv, Epic], 2nd Perf. tlbtda, as a Present (Ionic ewtfa, pos-
sibly by shifting of quantity in an older tloOa), Pluperf. eiui07j.

[e I /3 w, drop, distil, Epic Pres., only with SoKpuiov)].

AS, 18, see (older form f^eid, ;^iS, cf. vid-eo\ forms 2nd Aor. Act.
(adopted by 6/jaco) flhov, and Mid. ddofirjv ; conj., etc., tSco and
ificD^iat ; tSoijLii and Ibo'mrjv ; tSe and
Ibov ; Ibeiv and IdeaOai ; Iddtp
and Iboixepos. (eldofirjp chiefly in poetry and in compounds.)
Epic forms, tine augmento, are Ifiov and iJo/xtji/. elfio/xai, a Pres, Mid., chiefly
poetic, si^ifles make myself like, seem (yideor). Epic 1st Aor. Mid. eiaa/xr?"', looked
like, and etiaa/xTji', Pep. ei<ra/xe»'os or teica/xei/os in Alexandrian Epic, elaapTo.
;

The parts signifying to see vnth the mind's eye, i.e., to L-now, are 2nd Perf. olSa
used as a Present PIup. xJSfiv, Ionic yjSea, Attic H&v
; ; Fut. elaouat ; a-io-Tos,
[lareo*'. See § 62. 1. [Also eiSjjaw, as a Fut. to olSo, in Homer and Herodotus
el&riaa, late.]

1 The analogy of arwx^e throws light on the Imperative among these forms,
but the Infinitive seems to postulate a Perfect Passive in -op/nai and the 3rd ;

plur. Indie, seems to demand a second Perf. to some such byform as (iytptdu).
 :

§ 114.] IRBEGULAR VERBS. 227

iLKa^tit, malt like, conjecture, eixiUrta, also eticao-o/uiai (Plato, Xenophon),

(Perf. Act. late), TJ«ao-/Liai, later ei«a<r/uiat ; yjic-, later «tica<ra, eiKi<r6iiv, eutao-flijo-o-
liat. : tiKaa^TOi, -re'o$.

«I«tw, yi^/t£ (Flic- allied perhaps to our iceak), eifw [Epic elfo/iat, iterative
ei^oo-Kt], wants Perfect Active and whole of Passive, eixTeoi'. On augment,
see § 70. 3. On ei^caflec^', see oMwi «.

flic to, am
not used in Piesent, though in Imperfect tlKov (Attic, also
/ii-f,
Epic); Fut. (l(to rare; 2nd Perf. ioiKo, very frequent, as a Present, resemble,
Ionic oI(ca. Note the short forms, (Oiyneu, [Epic ei»cTO«'] elfdcrt (= eotVao-i),
t'lKtiai, ('iKJi<;, chiefly poetic. Pluperfect eavcn [Dual itKrriv]. irpocnjl'^ai, as Perf.
Passive [and Epic tji^to or eiKTo], are referred to Inceptive Present tiaitu). Fre-
quently as Impersonal, eoi<cel it setms. =
ei»cw? in Attic is in sense of veri-
iintilit, uhile t'oncois retains sense of similis. Adverb is .^oikotws = similiter and
virisimiliter, «I(c6tius in latter sense entiiely, and frequent. Thucydides has both
antoiK- and an-fiicdTto? in sense unrtagonahh/. Although the two verbs sIkoi must—
be kept asuncUr. there is groun<l ftir believing them from the same root f-i.<- :

(c''. Latin vic-ig) signifying (1) yield or give place, (2) alternate or change places.

(3) take the place of, as like or equal.

< i A w, ('
press, roll, as in Kartikfu), re^lar and (in Herodotus) fairly complete,
etA»j<r- , etc. [From shorter stem
cX-, eiA- come the Epic Pres. Pep. Pass. el\6-
piti'o? ; Aor.
Perf. Pass. e(\ij.ai ; 2ncl Aor. Pass. ea\riv or dArjf ; Infin.
f\-<Ta ;

aAjj^ecaiJ. eoAti (Pindar), ioXiiTo (Ap. Rhod.) are thought to he abnormal Plu-
perfects. Byforms elAAw and eiAAoi, also IaAw. The rare npova-eKelv (insult) of
J£schylus and Aristophanes is by some referred to this verb as if npoa-ftKelv =
= crumple up, and with Digamma transposed, as u.

[eiAvw, roll, eiAvtro), , eiAv/Liai ; etAuao, eiAv^Tjv (doubtful), Present Mid.

m-iggle, crawl]. Epic and poetic. From a stem («Av<«j), comes a 1st Aor. Pass.
cAvo-^i' {tine auffmento), especially iXvaOeli, rolled in the dust.

«lfU, am (iterative « o-zce) ; d^t. go. See § 69. 1 and 2.

clira and
(ultimate root vac as in Latin vox, nearer
ctirov, said^
root f^fiT; also o-fTr-), are solitary Aorists, Couj., etc., etno), elnoiyn,
tl-rri, (iTTclv, (lircov. The Ionic elna has eiTraiyit, (Imper.) clnov or
firrov, (iVat, fiTra?. The Attic scheme of the rival Aorists results
iu this compromise
Indicative, ditovy -aj, -e ; -arov, -drrjv ; -ofifv, -art, -ov.
Imperative, elnf, -orw, -arov, -aroiv \ -arcy -ovtohv.

Conjunctive is common to both. Optative, Infinitive, and Par-

ticiple are taken from the 2nd Aorist

(K^* The with dental

Ist Aori.st is especially accepted in parts
terminations a prevails in the 2nd Persons, but is not readily
;
'**
into Ist and 3rd, nor into Optative, Infinitive, and
;

(I- remaining throughout, because of reduplicated

,

t.'iij Mil- live ff-fina, whence (§ 70. 3) the 1st Aorist was affected
by analogy. The Ist Aorist is chiefly Ionic, partially Attic.
The other parts come from ^ly/xt and eipw making this series ;

<^7/i(, ^^0-0) or ipS)y fiprjKay tlprjfjiai ; ((Prjcra, una and etTrov, ('ppr]-

1 It WM in oomMction with this word that the Digamma first reappeared in

modern time*. Bentlcy, in a note on Paradise Lost, quoted this word written
f4^w.ict. Curtini thinks the lost letter in this instance was really Yod, but
he is not now followed herein.
 —

228 IREEGULAB VERBS. [§ 114.

6t]p (Ionic ippiO-qv) prjOr^o-ofxai

; ; Fut. Perf. €lpT)crop,ai ; prjTos,
-Tfos ; pr}8rii/ in dia-ppT)8r]v.

N.B. iptto in Epic is either Fut. of the verb to say, or Prcs. of a verb (o asic.

The Aor. Mid. f ijrafxT/i' (usually in--, refused), is mainly Ionic and Hellenistic,
and only in composition. [Epic iterative elTrea**. Imper. of 2nd Aor. evirerf.]
eipw as Pres. is only Epic ana Ionic. Traces of Digamma in root of epa>, etc.,
cf. Latin ver in vei--bum.

tlpyu}, shut out, «lp^i», ; elp-yftat ; eip^a, etpYdijc. [lonic epycu, epfa,
epy/u.ai]. Fut. Mid. elpfo^xai as Pass., also fpf 0^.01 (Soph.V Epic ie'pvw, i.e.,
ipipym (except in Iliad 'I'. 72, doubted) Imperf. iepyov, also itpyw. Byform
:

epyddio, sever, in tragedians dpyadelv (Alii, eipyaSen').

t ipyvvuLi, tlpyvviti, elpyio, shut in, tip^w, flpy/xai elpfa, etpx^'Ji'. , ',

Verbal in <p*ct^ and a4>rpKT0i, also tlpKrri, prison, eipAcr«'o<;. Epic only, epyo)
aa Present found only in composition (Ionic), Fut. epfw and ep^a (Ionic and
Attic) ; Perf. Pass, (sine reduphcatione) epy/u-at (on reduplication lost, fiexo/nai, <jr'.

iyyvfti), 3rd plur. epxarai Pluperf. epxaro, itpxaro ; fpx6-fiv.

;

N.B.— In Attic, the appropriate distinction of the two verbs may be easily
remembered by noticing the inclination of the breathing mark ; curved outward
or intcard, according as the sense is to shut out or to shut in. In Epic the dis- —
tinction by breathing does not hold cf. iipyw in Odyssey = shut in in Ionic
: ;

it is operative, but omy in Attic does it attain full validity. (Latin urg-e-o from
same root.)

• ipo^at, ask; see ipeaOai.

< ( p V w, see cpvi».

[«ipci», *ay, byform «Ip«««), Hesiod.] Epic. See etiroi'.

tip to, knit, join (= Latin ser-o, having ui, yet not elp<o, probably owing to p),
"
(no Future), *
eIp<to,
"
"
elpfiat [Epic itpfxevoi, Ionic epMeVot
ipiJLiyo<: (sine reduphcatione),
redt
«"
Plup. «<pTo];
itoTo] ist
Ist
-- Aor.; tlpa (Herodotus), «p<ro (Hippocrates). (Some refer hither
ty of Hiad
ritipty I" - K. 499.)
eto-o, seated, see i^onai.

[iiaKui, liken, compare, byform Io-ku. Only Pres. and Imperf. rjia-Koy and
iio-Kov. Based on stem of dicbi, ani like. Chiefly Epic]
cKKATja-td^u, call an assembly, augments, usually (parathetically) cIckAt;-,
but also riKKAt)- (synthetically). See § 74.
4Xavv«, march, drive (both veho and vehor), (Xdrrco, f'XrjXaKa,
eXrjXafxai; eXi'jXaa-fiaij Ionic and late (Honi.) Plup. eXrjXf^iaTo ;

or -XaS- abnormal ; iterative eXda-aaKe ffXaaa, -cip.T]v, fjXaBrjv ; ;

iXaros, -reos. Byform chiefly poetic. [Epic Future tXaaaco and

cXoo).] Aao) as a Present, Imper. eXa in Euripides and even in
Xenophou. (fXavvoa is for iXa-w-co, cf. § 7. 11). Attic Fut. Aeo,
•as, -a, -arov, etc. (§ 77. p. 1).

[«A5o|u.at, «e'A6oM.ai, disire, only Pres. and Imperf. ««A5eTo ; Passive, 11.)

ikeyxo), chide, confute, «Aryfw, : tA^Aeyftai (2nd sing. -Aeyfai, etc.);

irjAeyfa, ri\eyxOr)v, cAeyx^fjo-o/yiai ; eKeyKTO^, -T«os.

e A e A t ^<u, shout, Mid. only in Pep., trill, chiefly in Present. Traces of Aor.
in -fa, but more probably from aAaAd^co.
eAeAi^co, whirl, wheel (no Future), Aorists (sine avpmentn), eAe'Aiff, -dixevo^,
«AeAix^T)»' Epic syncopated Aor. (?), «a«'Aikto, by some taken as a misreading for
;

«eAiKTo,i.e., /-'eft'AiKTo. Mostly Epic.

e A e u 0-, « A ©-, see e pxo ft,ai.
iKlvvu, keep holiday, only in Pres. and Imperf. a, but in late writers v.
Poetic and Ionic.
§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 229

(Kioau and (Ionic, poetic, and late prose) ei Ato-o-w, roll (ftX- Latin =
(no Perf. Act.); eikiyfiai ; t'iXi^a, el\ix6rfv iXiKTOi eAcyfirji' (e\rj\iy-
rol-vo), iXi^o) ; ;

/lai is lute). [Epic eAifa/ir/v. Sole Homeric Present is eAtatrw. fiAio-erero of

Iliad M. 4S (?), may have «i- due to augment.]

« A K oi, later (but in Present rare) « A »c 5 w, j)«Z/, draff, makes its complement
of tenses out of both stems with little of redundant duplication eAfw, rarer, :

tAKvaui, tlX.KVKa. (iXKVfTfJiai. e'i\KV<Ta (later elAfa), eikKvadrjv (later (\x6rjvai.),

;

f\Kva6^<rofiai (simple, late; also e\x^V-t late; eA/creot, tAKvo-Ttor. (Homer has
only Pres. and Imperf. without augment, but Herodotus has «TA/cof. byfonn A
((Akco)) —
tu'j about (insultingly), is remarkable as having eAK^o-co, and two
aorists ij^miaa, ikKifOftt ; «A»ci76d^ (Homer).
[^Airw (ftXn-. Latin wiuj)-), causf to hope, 2nd Perf. eoAira (i.e. ftfoKira),
Plup. tilik-rry) Mid. cAiro/uiat, /(o;)f.
; Imperf. eAireTo, eeATTfTo,] Epic. Super-
seded, in prose entirely, by Attic and Ionic eATri^w. Verbal in a-tAirroc. eAn-i^u)
is regular and full, except that it is without Middle, and Future iknicrui is late
{never in good Attic in -ti). Aor. ^Airiao, Soph. etc.

ififu, vomit (Latin roni-o), Fut. ifxio (rare), cm-oOjuuii ; 1st Aor. T^/j^ea-a [Epic
<t<t]. Traces of reduplicated Perfects «^>jMfta, -ea-fiat..
f MvoAdw, traffic, eViroAjj<7w, etc. Regular. Augment variable, § 74. n. 3.

ivaipui, slat/ (not a compound, qf. evapa, sj^oils), no tenses except rivapov
^Attic Trag.) and {fine augvumto) fvr\paTo only Epic. Poetic. The cognate
fvopt^w is 'juttuml, in Epic, Lyric and choral, whence future -fa>, etc. is dental ;

in Passive, in Tragic trimeters (aud late Greek) as KaTTjvapto-MeVos, -flei'?.

c cacTioo^ai, nppote, iyavri<a<rofiai (late -9:^<T0fiai), fivavrCwfioi., rivavTiii)9r)v

Dep. Pass., synthetic union absorbing the preposition, see § 74. 3.

ivtno}, say, tell, (tv and a-fir- or cre/c-), also efi'e'Tru) fby assimilation of a), (in
Pindar once as Present efiwra)). Epic Fut. ivi-a-nyia-oj, en'i/zw ; 2nd Aor. ei-i-o-jro*',
Imperat. evio-ire [Epic ivurnt^], Iniin. ei't-aireii' [Epic ivtairifiev]. Cf. in-sece in
Old Latin. Poetic. See § 85. n. 7.

[ivriyoBf, tit*, lies ujwn, only in composition, inev-, etc. Also Aoristic in
sense. A 2nd Perf. defective, from a supposed Present (iveOu)), qf. avrjyodt.
Epic)
iv0vfjLionai, reflect, a, Deponent Pass. whence , iveOvfii^Orfv, and Perf. Mid.
iyrt9v(t.rffi4u..

iviwTui, chide, [Epic byfonn ivicrvut. Passive e»'i<ro-o/iiai ; 2nd Aor. ivivlnov
{rf. noun iviirri, a rebuke), also rjvCvdnov, § 73. 3]. ivirrru : iviaau irimut
: : :

jr« <r<Tw.

cfvv^t (by assimilation from fter-w-fn =

Latin re«-(i-o, and cf. similar in
9 21. fl, 1). clothe, Pres. Act. only in composition. [Epic Fut. t<r<rw, , (or
«croi
in cf*r"— "••• "v>-, Perf. Pass. tV/noi, or «I/luii,i Pep. uniformly eiMeVos; 1st Aor.
iirrr composition), -anifv or if<T<Ta.fj.r)v. IJyform of Present -fifvw.
1

Atti this verb only in composition; chiefly i/jK^i-eVi/u^i (Imperf.

ijjt<;...,
• ^-r augment as if uncompounded ; Fut. a/a<jbi«L (out of a^-
'

^k'<ti. ). i fvixai ; 1st Aor. i)iJi<i>it<Ta, -dfjirfv (iin.-t<raa6ai, in Xenophon

uneli ! I J influence of /-. Mid. clothe myself, put on, has Imperf.
ivvv- . it «)f tenses for that voice. The form <<T/uiai in Perf. and
PIuj" rr s. 18 remarkable as discarding reduplication, of which a

tm<«- •-• in iteno of Hiad M. 464. (etaro is the Ionic 3rd plural of
Plupbrf .-v..,K-..-.. from «caTo of ^oi ir\fra.)

ifoxkim, annoy, with double augment, S 74. n. 3; Imperf. iivu>xkovv, ivox-

• fTv. w(Homer and Pindar), have only Pres. and Imperf.,

the lattei : ut ; ivrvym has also Ist Aor. Act. and Mid., but not
in Indie.
ioprdim, keep a /cast, has Imperf. iUtpra^ovH 70. n. 4). Ist Aor. Act. iu>p-
raoa in Indic late, iopraook in Anstopbane*. Traces late of a Perfect ActiTo.
Ionic PrewfUt 6praj>.

> (Jn t, </. I 60. 1. 6.

230 lEREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

[inavpeu (Hesiod), iirav piaKO) (Theopnis), inav p Co-ko ij-ai (Homer),

enjoy, reap the frvAts of, Fut. inavpria-ofjiai ; 2nd Aor. Act. (Lyric as well as Epic)
firavpov, get (good or bad) from (genitive), graze (accusative) 2nd Aor. Mid. ;

e7rrivp6fiy)v (Conj. iTTavpu)fj.aL, etc.), get one's content of. Traces of 1st Aorist foi*ni
inavpaa-eat..]Chiefly Epic and Lyric, except in eirrivpofi-qv, which occurs in
Herodotus, Tragedy, Attic Orators (see anavpdw). avp- of eiravp- evp- of :

evpC(TKu> avxeu) euxofxai.

: : :

< ire ly w, urge, press, not felt as a compound, hence riireCx9rjv.

«jrio-To^ot, understand (em and unreduplicated stem a-ra, stand, cf.

Irnov),
German yer-stihen =
under-«<o»it£), is treated as an uncomijounded verb with
Imperf. qiricrrdijiriv (§ 74. n. 1.), iniarriiTopiai, ^^TrioTijflrjj/, eTna-njTos.
, Imperf.
is ^Trio-Ta^xrji', § 74 (in Ionic either ijir- or en--).
(ji".
Dep. Pass. It inflects in
Pres. and Imperf. like lo-rafiot with o, but must not be confounded with e<l>i<T-
TTj/jit, set over (prc^rlcio), which is an ordinary compound, having Pres. Mid. or

Pass. i<})i<TTanai. Besides the normal iniaTaaai, as 2nd Person Indicative Pre-
sent in vEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, we find iniareai Herodotus, iniaTq.
Pindar and JEschylus, iniaTj) Theognis.
[i'n-w (root o-eir-), am after, am busy ahout, rare, Fut. in simple, as D. 6. 321;
in prose appears only in composition like ir<pi«jru) has augment in «i, e.g.,;

nfpftlnov, -i^io) 2nd Aor. ia-nov (for i-a{t)ir-iiv) ; Infin. im-antlv, etc. Aor.
; ;

Pass. irtpi-i(^0yiv, Herodotus Imperf. often sine augmcnto eTrof. Chiefly Epic
;

and Ionic: aorists only in poetry or Ionic prose.]

eiro/itai, busy myself about, i.e., follow (= sequ-or by § 9. 1), t\l/op.ai, ;

2nd Aor. ianontfy, Conj. airotnai, etc., Imperat. (Epic), <nr«Io (for o-7reo), Attic
In composition, -a-nuv. Imperf. tlnofiriv (sine uugmento, tTTontfv non-Attic). (Traces
also oi a Conj. eantoixai, and per contra of an Indie, ia-nonriv. Variations ex-
plicable according as 2nd Aor. is supposed to start from i<T(e)n- or from cre-a-en.
See § 85. n. 7. A lat« bad Present is 'i(Tiroy.ax.
ipdio, also (chiefly poetic) ipaixai. (like loro^at), love, am enamoured of
teov. Genit.), Fut. fpaa(hricrotJ.ai (shall be enamoured of, love, JEschylus ; in later
Greek, Passive, loved by), T^pao-^i/ (loved, Sophocles, in later Greek, Passive);
[ripacrdixriv or -aa-a- or ipaaa-, only Epic]. Miu. ipdofiai, love, only poetic. Pass.
cpao^ai, atn beloved, prose. Byform Epic epari^ui. Verbal epao-ro?. (fipaaiJiai as
Perfect late. Trace of Passive in sense as well as form in ^ «pw/u.eV»j.)

ipdio, j)our, only in compounds, rare in prose, as ipdaai.

work, practise, augments with et, see § 70. 2, Imperf.

IpYtttofuxi,
flpya(6fjirjv, though
rjpy- in inscriptions, epydaofiai, (ipyacrfiai, have
xorought (also passive in sense) (lpya(Tdp.r)v, elpyuadrjv (also passive
;

in sense), ipyaadr)aop.ai (passive in sense) ; fpyacrreov. fpda> and

epSo) = do, see p((cii.

ipyo), see elpyixi,

[ipetivu, ask, only in Pres. and Imperf. without augment, Epic] Cognate
which see.
to ipecrOai,

epe0<a, tease, only Pres. and Imperf., ipeOi^ia, provoke, regular and full, Act.
and Pass, (-iam, etc.), but no Middle.
epetSco, prop up, ipeiato (late), -ripttKa, «pi}pei<r^ai fiptiaa, -dftrfv, •aOriv.
; On
reduplication, see § 74. In Plup. Pass. ijp^peKTTo. [Epic eprjptiaTat, -aro.]

ipe iKu), burst, tear (transit.), Mid. tear one's (clothe.^, etc.), has reduplication
in Perf. Pass. ep»ipiy^ai (Hippocrates). Aorists are r,pii^a (transitive), ^pt/cov
(intransitive, shiver, uas torn). [Cognate is epexOw, only in Pres. Particip. Act.
and Pass.]
iptlnu, tear dovm, demolish, fpei\po), [ipriplira, haw fallen, Ionic, i^T^pififiai,
once fpe'piTTTo metri causa, only Epic]; ripeexj/a, r)pei<i)6T)v ; [2na Aor. ^pi7roi',/e^^
or sine augmento epmov, ripCinjv (Pindar), chiefly Epic]. ifrfpeLxljavTo ( tore or bore =
away) is probably a compound. Verb is generally poetic, rare in Attic prose.
 .

§ 114.] naUEGULAR \'ERBS. 231

ipia-a-iMi, roic (stem eper-), has no Perf. Act. or Pass., or Aor. Pass. (Chief
tense besides Present is ripeaa, -eaaa, Poetic.)
iptvyo/JLat, see epvyydvu).
ipevOin, redden, 1st Aor. epevaai. Byform epuflatVo/xoi. Chiefly Epic.

«pix9itt, see epeiKw.

ipia^at, ask, is part of an aorist, Tjpouijr, epu/biai, -oiVr/i', ipov, etc. (in Epic
accented as Pres. epta^oi),! and so Epic Imperative epeio. Ionic prose has
Pres. t'lpofiai, with Imperf. eipo/x^v, to which, with stem fp-, yiponriv is the
natural 2nd Aorist ipt<o (whence ipeioiiev, Present for epea)/u.ev), ipeonai, perhaps
;

tpofiai, appeared in Epic. All its defects supplied by epwrow. Most important
and sole Attic parts are Fut. epri<roixai (Ionic flpi^vofiai), 2nd Aor. riponrfy. Dis-
tinguish from the above, «pa> and eipijo-ofiai, parts of ip- in sense of say, see «l7ro»'.
[epew, ask, see iptaOai.]
epTjTvw, restrain, Fut. -v<to>, has iterative Aor. eprirva-aa-Ke. v always before
<r, but V before a vowel, in Homer, common.
ipi^ui. Strive, vie, 1st Aor. rjpiTa, [Mid. in same sense, t'k, «pi<r<rerai. Trace
of reduplicated Perf. Mid. ep^pto-rai vie, (Hesiod). =
Byform ipX^auoi, with
Aor. Mid. and i in arsi, iplhrt<Ta<r6ai (Hornet)]. Perf. Act. late rtplKa (Polyb.)
epiOTo?.

epirco. creep (= serpo), ep\(/u, Imperf. elpiroi'. Verbal ipirtrov. Byform

ipirv^w, Fut. -v<ra». Chiefly p>oetic.
ippoi (Latin erro), rjo astray, pack off, go to destruction, ippriiru, fipprfKa;
rippria-a. (Starts as a Liquid verb but forms as a Pure.) Imperf. not found.
[•4p<rai, see a ir o-t p <r a i.]
cpvyydvw, belch, 2nd Aor. ^^pvyov, roared. (Ionic and Epic ipeOyoiiai (qf.
ructor), -fo/uiat.)

«pv»t«i». hold back, restrain, [Epic Fut. «pvfw], fipv$a [2nd Aor. ijp- and ip-
vKaKov. See § 73. 3. Byform ipvKdyia, -Kavau), Epic]
[«pvw,2 eipvcri, draw, pull, Fut. tpvoi, Perf. Pass, elpvfioi, tlpva-fiai; 1st
Aor. tlpUva, or sine aufrnunto, fpv<ra. Mid. epvo^^ai, tlpvofjiai., pull over, rescue,
protect, Fut. tpvonai, ipvaotJiai, and tip-, also with -ero-- ; 1st Aor. Mid. tlpvadfiriv
or ip-, or with -ira-. Peculiar forms emerge in Homer: Pass, eipvorai in arsis
tlpv- ; elpvi'To, plural (of ships, are pulled ashore) ; Mid. etpvro, drew (a sword) ;
ipvro, ilpvTo, in singular protect ; also tipvarai., in arsis, eipvarai, plural, watch ;
Imperat. ipvtro ; tpvaOai, rlpv(rBai ; these are by some taken as syncopated forms
of Present and Imperfect Mid. or Pass., by others as Perfect and Pluperfect
Mid. and Pass, ipvro in II. V. 538 looks like aorist in sense. Hesiodic Infinitive
Pres. tipvufyai as if from (flpv^Jil), and ipvro. Pass., was drawn in. Epic and
Lyric, except in ippvro (Sophocles), and verbal ipvcrro^ (Sophocles). Cj. Attic
i>voii.ai, having only the meaning to protect.

(fpXOf^h gOf come (for (paKOfim, an inceptive ; f'p A, whence =

by expansion «X-v^-, by amplification tXfvO-^ in the A^- parts
] illy corrUy rarely go\ eXfixrofiai (chiefly Epic, Ionic, and
istic) 2nd Perf. fXrjXvda ; rjXvBov, syncopated ^\Sov, never
;

u iiiK-ut au^nnent in Indie, Conj., etc., (XBeo, fXBoi^i, (XBt, (XSc'iv,

t\0a>v. (Doric Aor. (not in Pindar) ^p3ov.) Verbal, late fXfva-
TfOi. Traces of syncopated Perf. in Attic comedy, eXi^Xv/xev, -vrc

1 C/. similar 'i">.!"»»- !n typi(r€at, from <y»ip»».

2 One of til verbs for philologists. They Are divided as to
lilt
its root, wnne !• with Latin «r-rare, others with rer#. of verro. Some
.
;

would constitute as a ni'Darate verb a Deponent tipvofiai in sense of prtt'n^,

apart from ip4m tn Its phjstoal wnse of jnul, which view is favoured by the I>e*
 ;

232 IRREGULAB VERBS. [§ 114.

shall goj is used as its Future.

(Ifii, [Epic Perf. also elXrjXovdoj
with 1st plural fiXr/Xov^/Ltfi/.] epxofiai seems in simple to be
Attic only in Indie, of Present its moods of Pres. and Imperf. :

are supplied by e?/n.

epw, vnll »ay, see (jy-nfii and etn-a.

ia--QC.ia, eat (Latin M-o), Fut. e'So^ai (§ 77. /3. obs. 3), Perf.
fbfidoKa, (8r]8ccriJLai 2ud Aor. Act. ec^ayoj/, 1st Aor. Pass. i]6ta6r)v
; ;

ffieo-rof, -Hos. Byiorm poetic and late prose, Zcr-6-a>. Byform

poetic, also, edo), this last having trace of non-thematic formation,
as Epic eSfievai. [Epic Perf. f 8^Sf/xat (var. lect. fdrjdofiai.) {cf. § 83.
2, fdrjdofiai) and (brjtas.

ea-Orjfievos (Herodotus), also fjadrjufvos (Euripides), chiefly in

Perf. Pass. Pep. =attired. Akin to evwfu.
ccrriuLw, featt, entfi-tain, haa el- in aiifonent; Perfects in -a<ca, -a^ac, etc.
Mid. regale oruul/. (Herodotus has i<rr-in Pres., Perf. Pass. io-riijM*'-)

«vfiw, »/€«p, Iinperf. tflBoy or tJiov; ewfiifaw. I'snally »ca0«v6w, with luiperf.
in prose, iKddtv&ov : in Plato and the Tragedians, KoS-nvSov and Kaefv6ov. Fut.
Verbal Kadtvi-nrtov. Trace of Kafltvirjo-ot.
is *tafl«u6^<rw.

evepycTc'w, do gocxl, is regular, -170-u, etc. For augment and rednplication,

tvripy-, also rvtpy; see § 74. 2.

cvpCo-Kw, yi7i(i, (ipr)(T<o, fvoTjfxai ; 2nd Aor. Act. eypoi/, Mid.

(vpofirjv ; Ist Aor. Pass, fvpiv-qv ; fvpfOrjao/xai ; evpfTos, -rtos. In
Epic, no augment or reduplication in Attic sometimes, especially
;

later, rjvp- as well as tup-. 1st. Aor. Mid. (vpdp.r]v is non- Attic.
e V <f> pa I f <u, cfuer, tv^pavi, , ev<f>pava (or 1711-) (in loulc also -iji'o), -dvOrfv,
fi^payOr}<Tonai.

tvxo(t.ai, pray, also hooit ; regular Dep. Mid. ev^ros (traces of «vxer6<;),
tvKTto^ (Ionic). Augment dropped in Epic, Lyric, and Ionic prose ; in Attic,
»ju- prevails in Imi)t'rf. and Aor., and seems fixed in Perf. ancl Phip. Akin to
avv'w =
Ooatt. Both are referred to a stem vun-sk, same .as German toUnschen
anu our vUh, and the transition has probably been Pa-aK-, ei--o-K-, ei;-x- (cf.
cvaiof). Cy. ep-x-o/nai.

[«vw, tinge, roa»t, tJxra], Epic. In composition, d(^evw, iifirjDo-a, and Perf.
Pass, (with preposition augmented), ii<i>tvti.tv<K. Akin to aOw, and to Latin
ur.o (Sanskrit tuih).

ej(d«o, hate, only Pres. Act. and Pass., and Imperf. Pass, (aoristic sense),
€x9aipit>,make hated, has Fut. Mid. «x^''P<'*'M«ii' inexOayofjiai, incur hatred of, am
hated by, dLirex9^<rofiaL
airrix9rifiai 2nd Aor. Mid. anrtx^6fir)v. Byform of Pres.
; ;

which would allow in Imperf. a form like 'ind Aor. Mid. The
lar^, aTrs'xdo/xai,
unambiguous Imperf. is ajr-Tjx^afo/u.rji'.
i\fi>, have, hold (based on two roots sagh (sustain), and
vayh (carry), cf. veho the first dominant, the latter seen chiefly
;

in kindred 6xf(*>)i Fut. e^co or axr)(ra), Pa.ss. fcrxrjKa, eax^t^t^t

(late in simple) 2nd Aor. Act. eo-xov, Conj. etc., o-^w, txoItjv,
;

arxfs, (Tx^^Vt <Tx<i^Vj Poetic Aor. eaxfOov 2nd Aor. Mid. eaxo- ;

fXTjv, Conj. etc., axoipMi, etc. 1st Aor. Pass. eaxeOrjv -a-xfros,
; ;

T(os. eicros and -Tfos late, axe-dov, holding fast or close ; thence
nearly^ almost. Mid. hold myself hold 6y, follow^ governing the
Genitive. The augment of Imperf. is d (§ 70. n. 2), as dxov.
 § 114.] XEBEGULAR VERBS. 233

flxofirjv [in Epic may be txov, e'xof^v^ augment in ea-xov never ;

dropped, even in Homer, but a-xero is found]. The 2nd Aorist

may have, as Optative and Imperative, -o-yoifii and -a-xfy but
these only in composition. dv€X(o has double augment in the
Middle, as fjveixofirjv, rjuea-xofMTjv {cf. § 71. 3. 3). Byform Xaxco,
only Pres. and Tmperf. (for (ri-(r(e)x&)), (^^t ta- because of
x), gnp-
[Epic anomalous Perfs. are (rvvoxaKorf and the doubtful eVooxaro
(PIup.), from eVf^w.] Traces of a pure formation evelxee in Hero-
dotus. 2nd Aor. Mid. in Epic sometimes in passive sense, as ax^To,
stuckj was held fast.
!\lno, coob, «)^i}o-b> and -a-oftai, , rji^rj/xai ; TJi^ao, •170171'; c(/>0o; from older
stem ; or e<»TjT6s. Taken as for niifiu> from ireir-, and aspirate breathing is
peculiar, as in iirra/uiai.

Zdw, live {i.e. diafa^ whence Slaira of animated existence, not :

necessarily social life), contracts with t;, fw, Cfjs, Cfl^ and has Fut.
Crja-ofiai. It has duplicate forms as if from a verb in /it [^iy/xt],
viz.^ Imperative^ (fjdt, as well as
Cv Imperf. as well as
; cCW
regular c^eov. fi7o-a>, tiijKo c^T;o-a, are all late
; these parts are in ;

Attic supplied by /Stoo (as to hwman existence). Poetic byform

Cctfu), chiefly Pres. and Imperf (not in Attic prose or poetry except

in choruses) fdo), rare, ^wt. Ace. febj/ is a poetic adjective rather

than a participle.
^tvy-vv-m (^vy- (j/", Latin ju^-um, ju-n-gro), yoke, ^eiifw, , ti^tvyfiai, efevfa,
ij«v\9fiv; 2nd Aor. i^vyriv ; CtvKTo^. Byform ^euytT)^ (Herodotus). (Inf. Piesent
Epic, notable, ^evyvv^efat, ^ruyvvfjiev, and metrically lengthened i^evyvifieu.]

^««, boil (neuterlyX (feo- =

English yeas-t, Latin jus), ^«<raj, efe<ra (Ionic
i^taixai), ^tvToi. Poetic ^«i«a ; aa- in Aorist Epic. Traces of ^eyvvfit., late.

^wfvv/uii, .vmi (Fut. not found), «^w(ta, late, , efuxr/xat ; e^ojo-o, -a/ixTjv,
«^«i<rdiji' and fwo-To?, late.

'H j3 a M, i)0a<rKu>, am in yotUh't prime, ripri<To>, -^jSTjKa ;

^/3i)o-a. Epic ^^woifxi
for n3«fVii in Optative Present.

iiytonai, lead, contider {ef. in sense Latin duco), Dep. Mid. regular, has
Perf. ^yrj/Aoi usually Act. and as Pres. ; rjyijTfof.

n * o M o I. nm pleated, is in Attic treated as a Passive i)(r^<ro^ai, ri<rBr)u. ; ,

(In Epic as a Def). Mid. ^o-arol. The Act. rjjw. Aor. V«. hardly used, [aa/mefos
;

has been by some referred to a Perf. P. Pep., by others to a non-thematic Aor.

Pep. = iliuyof {<^. oAfMfot) from this stem].
^ff M, am. eomt, here I am, has Imperf. fiKov in Aorist sense, Fut. TJfw. Only
late, 4f a as Aor. ancl ^ra as Perf. ^»tu> is chiefly Attic ami new Ionic (IlerodotusX
not found in Pindar, twice in Homer but di.s])'uted (ikw being proluilile reading).

^ M «», «•'. in Attic prose and comedy itddijunt. See 8 62. ft. (Epic 8rd plural
*tarai (profierly ij-arai) also tarou for iffTai, and ('iaro also caro for ^vio. lonic
mariaran, -ro, from «adim«u.]

iiMi. Mjf, Me 1 60. 8. 8.

• Cobet doobte whether let Pereon t^v {iin* i)) can be formed from i4m.
234 lEEEGULAE VERBS. [§ 114.
rffjLvu (y short, late v) bote, gi-nk, Ist Aor. -fifiva-a. [Perf. vir-«ixirq-nv-Ke foi
(•ifji-TifjiVKt). Homer.] Chiefly Epic, v long, in Aor. and Perf.
iiar trdofiai., r]T7 doy-ai, am worsted, om inferior, is treated as Passive Dep.
rjTTrj0jj<7OMatj rarer »jTT^<roMai, ^TTTj/nott, ii7Tr)0r\v ;liTTTjreo?. flonic formed as from
-oofiat, viz., eo-crov/xat, having Perfect, Aorist, and Imperfect without augment,
«cr<rovMi7«'. «<r(rw/Aai, etc.] (Active 17x700) regular but very late.)

©aao-o-w, 8it, see 9d<r<T(o.

edWio, not ITomeric Present), 2nd Perf. TtflrjAo, as Present
bloovi (Attic,
in sense, with Tt9a\via in feminine of Pep. ; 2nd Aor. ed\t ; Epic. (Homeric
Present ^A«w, -eijA^aw, d^Ajjo-* (Pindar) ; later Epic ©aA«w ; Peps. Epic eaXtOtov,
rr)\t6dtiH'.)

[Odofiai (probably Odfoixai), gaze at, admire (Doric), see 0eao/xai ]

1(0 do /mat), milk, suckle, Infln. eri<T0ai, Aor. fl»j<raTO. Epic]

[©air- or Ta4>; Stem of Ta<J>o?, Odfifioi, amazement, 2nd Perf. rtOrjna, am
astonished ; Plup. «T*0^jr<a ; 2nd Aor. tTa</)oi', rd<i>t (Pindar) rare except in Pep.
ra^iliv (Homer), amazed, intj-ansitive.] Only poetic. Akin to Oav-iia. eifo/xoi,
etc., whence, probably by hardening of fla<^, thence by adjustment of
f into <l>,
aspiration, Ban- or Ta4>:

hury (Ta<f)- for ffac})-}, ^aVro),

edirro), , rtOafifiai [Ionic Srd
Elural T(3d(f}aTaiy others read T(Td<l)aTai] ; tSa^a, fdd(})6T}v rare,
etter, 2nd Aor. Pas.s. fVa^iyv ; 2nd Fut Pass. Ta<l)T)<Tonai ; Fut.
Pert". Tf$d\lrofjLai ; Oairrios.
6da-<T(o, siL, in Tragedians only in Present [Oadaa-io (Homer), Pres. and
Imperf. (sine augm.)]. Byform Oontiu (Herodotus), Oaxtu Tragedians.
0avji.d^w, ioonder (Ionic Owv^dfo)), Fut. 0avfi.d(rofiai. better than Oavfidcrw,
otherwise regular, eavfiaroi (Pindar) as well as BavtAaaroi. [Byform Oavfj-aivia,
Fut. -/xavc'iu, only Epic]
0t do fiat, behold, gaze on, regular as Mid. Dej). in Attic, with verbal Btdro^,
-T«os. (Traces of i0fdOr\v in passive sense. [Ionic is drje'o/xat, Fut. ^^o-o^^ot, Aor.
0rm<rdfjiriv,generally without augment Doric eaeo/Lta*. and Bdonai, -daoixai,
iOaad/xriv. Homeric BriaaiaT].
Otivoi, smite, 0fym, [1st Aor. eBtiva Epic] ; 2nd Aor. (not in Indie.) Inf.
,

Otvelv. Pass., Pres., and Imperf. Poetic verb, Latin /en-U-o in of-jen-d-o. =
0eA<i>, teish, see iOiXut.
[9 ep/xo), warm (La.tin fer-ve-0, for-mus, our icar-m), whence Oepfiere (Imperat);
BtpntTo (Imperf. Pass.). Epic]
64pott.at, iMirm on^a self, (Fut. Btpa-otiai, 2nd Aor. Conj. Btptot from (iBipriv).
Chiefly Epic]
BiaaatrBat, beseech solitary aorist whence ano-Btaro^,
, ; not to be supplicated.
(C^rtius makes this the stem of fled?, and of Latin jes-tus.)
Biw, run, has Imperf. and Fut. e«vo-0M.at (6<verw late, rest wanting). [Epic
byform d<uo.J
B I y-y-dvio, tuuch, Bi^ofiai, ; 2nd Aor. eBiyov. Verbal in d-dixros.

OKdoi, break, bruise, BXaam, ; rtSkaafim ; iBKaaa (Epic era), -dtrBriP ;

BKacrro^. Chiefly poetic and Ionic
BMP to, squeeze, B\i\l/oj, T(B\i<})a late (Polyb.), reBXififiai ; e^An^a ; iBKCiBriv.
iBXifiriv. (Homeric Fut. Mid. 6\i\l>onai).

Bvi\a-K<a, die^ {Oap-j 6va-, sometimes written dvrjarKto), Fut. davov-

fiat, Perf. riOvr^Ka ; 2nd Aor. edavovj Fut. Perf. Tf6vT)^<0j later
Tfdvri^ofxai ; Bvtjtos. For the Archaic Perfect with its Ijitinitive
§ 114.] IRREGUL.\B VERBS. 235

TfOvavai {rcOvavai), Epic reOvdfifVf Pep. TfSveas, -wcra^ -6s or -coy,

Epic TfdvTjas, Fern, -via, see § 64. Passive to icreivay. In Attic
prose, it adopts the compound in Future and Aorist, diro6avo\^iai
and aTTedavovj but in Perfect and Pluperfect the simple stands.
Boivdofiai, feast, has d in Euripides, Soivaa-onai, rtBoipafiai (Passive in
sense); -doi»-7J<ro^ai in ^Ischylns. [iOoirii^y Epic] The Active Ooivdu}, enter-
tain, is reliable only in Present tense.

BpifTvoi, see Topa<ro-w.

9pav<a, smath, bruise, 6pav<rut, , TfBpavfiat and reflpavo-fiai ; eOpavaa,
•<r9rii'. BpavoTOi.

Opvnrui, eriuh, crumble, has no Perf. Act., and a double Aor. Pass. i9pv<{>-
0r)v and eTpv<}>r)v. Otherwise regular.
Opctfo-Kd), leapf Oopovfiaiy ; 2nd Aor. tOopov. Byform 66p-
vvfiai.

Ww (a), storm, rage, chiefly Pres. and Imperf. Act. ; byform

6tva). 0va» (3) send up steam of sacrifice, offer (as priest), Bvcroi,
riOvKa, T(6vp.ai tdvcra, -dfii]v, €tv6t)v (see § 7. 4) ; rvdrjaofxai
; ;

dvrdos. Mid. sacrifice (as the consulter of the priest).

riaiy w, cherith, gladden, irjvai. Idverfv ; i short except in arsis.] Epic and
liync.

iaA.A«, send, hurl, ioAi. [Epic 1st Aor. IrjAa.] i short, except through
augment.
lao^ai, heal,Dep. Mid., regular 1st Aor. Pass, ladriv (passive sense), laBrj-
;

(TOMoi, iaT09. In Ionic such forma as itvyrai., i»jo-o/aai. i in Epic and generally
in Attic ; I in later time.

t a V w, rest (on couch), Fut. lat« ; [1st Aor. Jowo-oi Epic]. Poetic verb. Epic
and tragic (in Pres.) in choruses. Cj. apt- above, whence by reduplication Javw.

(tavw. shout, Imperf. laxov (used as aorist), Pen. of 2nd Perf. (lax a) */*<Ji*

taxvia Q. if tiru augmento). Byform ia(»c)x<'w.] Epic chiefly.

Ihito, sweat, Pres., Imperf., and 1st Aor. ISto-a. Each i long, but ISiov
Imperf. once in Odyssey. Root is svid, whence Latin sud-o, our sweat.

iSpou, sweat, perspire, akin to i8iw. Regnlar, fairly complete, but no Mid.
oic«. On contraction of i6p6«j, see § 57, obs. 8.

i2pvM, place, settle, Itpvtru, -vxa, .vfiat -vtra, •vvany)v,-vBy\v', iSpvrtov. In

;

Pre*, and Imperf. v always in Attic, but in Epic v. In all other teu-ses u regu-
larly In every dialect. [Epic byform of 1st Aor. Pass, ifipur-dn*'-]

I <w (i.<. for (Ti-irifa), seal (not in prose and rare in Attic poetry) usually sit.
Mid. l^0H««, sit. (Traces of i^>i<rw, -«o.) Byform ifdw, only Pres. and Imperf.
Act. See koB-i^u, also i^ofiai and fi^ai.

ti)|u, send, hurl (see § 61). Mfxlal adverb in dv-(-8r}u = remisse.

iK'vt'Onai. cofn«(Rtem i«c-), liofiai, lyfiat 2nd Aor. lK6nrfi>. (i long in Indie,
;

of Aor. throagn auxment, bat ConJ., etc., (0 iiKw^ai. Verbal -Uro^. In prose
generally in cotnpoaTUon. as i^-iK-ffOHoi. [Byform Ikw (Momer, Pindar), chiefly
Pre*, and Imperf., for n«cM ; with Epic Anr. from Xku>, l^of (p. 167, n. 3), also
nontbematlc Aor. Pep. iKtuyo^. Byform Epic and tragic txai^w, with i naturally
abort and a, having besides the additional i>eiu*o of coming to, as a suppliant r=
 . :

238 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

i X d-<TK-o fiat, propitiate (akin to adjective "iXoos, generally i), iXao-o^ioi, ;

lAa<raM>j»', iAao^rjv. [aa- may appear in Epic in Put. and Aor. Byform Epic
tXaoMai, 'iKanai. Neuter byform (iA.TjM.0. c-"^ propitious. Iraper. iXtiOi, also iKaBt
a short), Perf. Conj., etc., tAij»t&j, -oifn.] I normally long, rarely short.
lAXta), iXXo/uiai, roll, see eiXetd.

Ifxaaaoi, Icuh (Fut. ?) ; 'iixda-a, Epic Conj. ifido-o-o). i short (sine augmento).
I /x 6 I p w and -o fx a t, yearn for, has two Aorists
desire, l/uietpa/juji' and ly^ipQuv
(as Middle) ; I^epros. Chiefly poetic (i always long).
IfS.fA.AoM.oi, appear (nasalised form of elSo/xat), chiefly Pres. and Imperf.
Epic, also Attic Philos. (Plato, Aristotle).
I ir ran at, fly, see ir«TO/uiai.
lo-T/^it, Jbioir, probably for fi5-o"a-/**, is found, in the singular, only in Doric
form, as 3rd singular lo-ari. See oi5a, § 62. 1.
i<j-*cw (for (Ti-o-ex-oj, qf. in formation t<rxw), say, see e»rw.
lo-Kw (for ciVkw), c(»n7)ar«, see elxw, am h'ld.

lo-TTjMt, »et up
as trans.), forms as described in § 58. Three parts of
(sit-to,
the Active are intransitive, with sense of sto, not »i«<o as transitive, just as in
6vu> and <f>va», ru., Perf.,i IMuperf., and 2nd Aor. Hence there is no need for
2nd Aor. Mid., which hanlly exists (yet anoa-TmtJitea in-b KaKdy, Boiss. Anecd.
I. p. 124), Note in conjugating its comjwunds, that the parts of this verb fall
into three divisions, according as they open witli an aspirated vowel, with uu
unaspirated vowel, or with a consonant.
I. The Aspirated parts of 'icr-nrifjn are the Pies., Imper/., Per;., Pluperi.,
and Fut. Pirr'., throughout all voices. A preposition before these
undergoes not only elision but a-spii-ation, as Kara, becomes icad-
in Kae-t<mjM«. (The rough breathing is the result of <r of redupli-
cation.)
II. The Unaspirated parts are the Indicatives, when augment-bearing,
of all the Aorists. Before e as augment in these, a preposition
undergoes mere elision, as Kar-icrrtiv.
III. The Consonantal parts are the Aorists, when not augment-bearing,
and the three Futures, Act. Mid. and Pass, (not Fut. Perf.) Before
these a preposition stands unchanged, as k iTa-a-r^o-uj. Verbal
CTOTO?, (rrariov, vrdirfv. ava-ara^oi'. Iterative <TTa.<TKt (eiTTrjTe in
Iliad IV. 243 is disputed, <<ttijt« is preferred).

i-oTTj-fxi is by § 9. 1. for o-i-ottj^i, and eion?*!) of Pluperfect is for e-<re-(rTTj<-Tj,

which explains ei, out of contraction and conversion of cr into '. {(<no.<Tav
(transit.) as a 3rd plural 1st Aor. Act. for ordinary ((ni\(jav is supposed to be
an error for \<naa-av (Imperf ) distinguish from iaraaav of Pluperf; (intrans.).
;

In 2nd Aor. Conj. o-Tyjrjs, <7t«'w/x<v. from a-T^-o/yiei' by transference of quantity.

In Archaic Perf. Pep. for e<rT*i<r, Ionic has k<TT(u^, ife-siod «o-7-»ju»s, Homer (after
Noni. sing.) eirrafoTo?, etc., but also traces of Ionic <ot«<I>to?.
ItTxvaivia, make lean or dry, laxtfavCt, ; lax^ava (Ionic -iva) ; -dvOriv.
Transitive to adjective lirxvoi.
iaxot (for <ri-<r<xwi thence (lorxw), whence l)y lightening aspirates, io-xw),
hold, grip fast, see < \ w.

KaOaipm, purify, from same root as (tad-ap6-?, pure, Latin cas-tu-s for ead-
tu-s (not a compound with Kara, and must be distinguished from Karalpu and
KaOaipto), whicn are), KaBapH, KtKdOapKa late, -apuai ; fKdOrjpa, and later -dpa
(§ 84. 71. 2), -dfirfv, -dpOriv, KaOapriov
K aO i^ofiat, sit dowix, /eofleSoufAac. Imperf. eica^efo/xTjf, in Tragic Kade^6yi.i\v,
S 74, )i. 1, used as an Aorist ; late UaBiaer]v, Kadfcrreov. See «^o/Ltai.

1 The Future Perfect eo-xTjfw (less good -onai) is therefore, as so based, in-
transitive also, sha^l stand. Traces of a" Perfect eo-Toxo, which is transitive and
late.
§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 237

»cae«v5«i», sleep, see «v5w.

KaBrimai, sit. Cf. i^/mai and § 62. 2. (In comic poetry and Attic prose, trace*
of an Imperative KaQov and Optative KaQoin.y\v. Note Ka^afle Indie. Pres
Ka9f^<T6«, Im
Imperf.)
KaOiCta,set, sit, Ka6iQ> (for Ka9C(rto), KtKaOLKa late; KaOlffa and entaflio-a, «*co-
(jErenerally transitive, set).
9t(TdLfjLT,i' Remarkable Fut. Mid. Kaei^va-ofjiai (Plato).
The simple t^w has both meanings (seat, sit), but is not classic except in Pres.
and Imperf. Act. and Mid., and in these chiefly poetic and Ionic.
[Kaivvfiat, excel (for KaS-w-fiai.), Perf. Mid. KCKaarixai, Pluperf. eKtKaaTO or
KCKaaro (Doric KtKoSnevo^), adorned. Poetic.

Koti'w, slay (in prose KaraKaivta), Kavu, 2nd Perf. K(Kova.\ 2nd Aor. sKavov.
Sole tenses of Passive (only tragic), Kaivoixai, kKaiv6u.y\v. Passive in general
supplied by flnj<r/cu>. (Kaivm Kreivia : : iroXi? : irroAt?.)
'.

KaCw, or Attic (not contracted), hum (.stem *car-), Kavaco,

icda)

'KfKQVKa, KfKavfiai eKavaa, (tragic fKea, only in Pep.), [Epic fKr]a]

; ;

-(KavcrdfiTjv (Hei'odotlis), [eKTjdfxrjv Epic]; eKavBr}v; Kavdrjaofiai, also

2nd Aor. eKurfu [Epic and im-AtticJ, Kavaros and -Kavros. Traces
of -KaVTCOV.

icSXiii) {KoXf-y kX<-, cf. Latin cal-are)^ call, KoXio (AcaXeo-eo rarely),
KCKkrjKa, (Opt. K€K\i]fi.r)v, etc., § 56) ; eKoXecra, -dfJ.rjv, €k\t]6t}v
-Tjfxai ;

KXrjOrjaofiai ; Fut. Perf. KCKXrjaofiai Fut. Mid. as Pass. KaXovixat ; ;

K\r]Tus, -Teos. k\t)8tjv in ovo^aKXrjdrjv (Homer).

[Epic Future open, icaA*a>, a<r in Aorists.] Byform kckXijo-icw, kAjj^w (Trag.),
and [Epic »rpo-«caAifoMai, chalUngt].

(tdAvTTTw (<caAw/3-, -w<J>-, in #taAv/3>j and -v(f») ), conceal, cover, koAvi^w, ,

<c(icdAvMM°^ J t/taAu</>o, -a/xi7*'i -v4>^t)«' ", KoAv</)^a-o^at ; (coAvjttos, -tcos. O. also

(tpvjTTiu. Ultimate root koA-, c/". Latin cul- in oc-cwi-o, also cel-o.

Kanvot, labour, am veary (also in Epic /a«Ajon by labour), Kafiov/J-ai, KeKurjKa,

[Epic Pep. KtKfxrjioi] ; 2nd Aor. iKafiov, [Epic -oimTji'] ; ano-KurjTfof. 01 (tdjuLi'Oi'- S^
rt% —the sick; the invalids; oi ic«»tfxr)»coTes (Attic), </i< dtad (those whose toil is
over) ; (oi) Ktmovrtv (Epic), the dead, or the enfeebled.— KtKafim Conj. of reduplicated
2nd Aor. doubtful ; var. lect. k< «cd/iu.
KdfjLVTin, b<nd, Kd4i\ftu, ; KtKafiixai ; tKaixxjta, -dfx4>^1^ > ^a/yiTrros. Cf.
yvafiwrw.
[Kaviiu, breathe, whence iKairvaaa.] Epic.

[(x a^-)i p<int, stem whence Homeric Perf. Pep. KtKa<}>riw<;, like rtBinju^.] Epic.

[KcJdyfVfii, byform of <r««6dvin;M«i «ca»er, tKe'Sao-ca, -da0T)»'.] Epic.

Ktlitai (stem to. ''^ Ktiaouai. See § 62. 3. [Epic byform KtvKtTo ; with
future sense Ktiut, k«u>, especially in participle Ktiovrti, cA Si/ju.]
Ktipm, thtnr (I^tin ri</- in cul-ter), xtpw, K<icap<a (Lucian), x«'xap/ixai exeipa ;

fPoetic <««p!ra]. -pdmji' [poetic participle Kepo-d/nefos], Utpdrfv, 2nd Aor. Pass.
«K<pf}f ; K<iprd« (late), affo-»eapT«o»'.

[k«ic<(jo>', parted from, caused to depart, KdcaJo/iryv, retired, KtKaSriaui, shall

,

deprive (all unually taken as re<luplicated Homeric forms of xa^u), seem to be from
a root Koj- akin to scindo, vKtl-, etc.]. Epic.

«flA«VM, urge, onlrr, icfA<v'<rw, KtKtXtvKa, K*teJ\tv(Tnai ixiKtvaa, .o^f ; -kcA* ;

«v7t6(, -ff«A«v7T«o«. On o- in Perf. Pass, and Ist Aor. Pass., see { 83. [Byform
Bpic x<AoMa«.] Mid. chiefly in comiK)unds, some of which become Deponent,
and have 1st Aor. Mid. as vafnictKfvodnriy.
c^AAm (Latin 'Ctllo, in jKr-ctllo), puth to land, land, kAo-m, iitrXva. Chiefly
poetic Byform o^^AAm, which see.
238 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

KtXofjiai., bill, order, KtXi^aofiai., iKe\y)U-aLnvi' ; 2nd Aor. Mid. kcicAom-iji' or

iKtK\6iJ.riv,shouted in command. (See § 73. 3.) Poetic, chiefly Epic.

Ktvreui, prick, Kevr^ aw (»crKeVTTjp,ai Ionic) iK(VTr\<Ta, -^flrji' late {•KevTt\B-f\tTO-

; ;

fiai Ionic). [Homeric Aor. lufin. Ktvaai, from dental stem KtvT-, whence verbal
icecTos.!

Kt pavvv fxi and -f 8 o) {Ktpa-, Kpa-), mix, Ktpdam, late, ; KiKpifxat. (lonic

•pHliai), fKtpdaa, -afiTji', a6r]v ; also iKpdOrfv (Ionic -pridr)v) Fut. Perf. Kpadri<ronai; ;

avy-Kpajfov. {KtKtpaKa. -acr/xoi are both late), [era- in Aorists Act. and Mid.
may appear in Epic] Traces of eKprjao ixepacra in Ionic and Epic] Byforni =
Kepdii, -acu>, also Kipmrtfii. ; Mid. K4pdp.ai. (Conj. Kcpwi/rai).

xep5aiv(0, gain, KtpSai'u} (lonic •aceco and Ktp&ijiTOfiai.), -KtKtpSijKa eKtpSava ',

(as to d see § 84. n. 2), (Ionic -Tji'a or -tjo-o). Late writers make liquid formation
persistent throughout (KtKtpSayKa., Ktp&ai>etii),

KtvOu, hide, conceal (Latin cxu-to» and our hide), kcvo-w, ; 2nd Perf. as
Pres. KtKtvBa, have in hidin'j -ixtvaa in Conj. [2n(i Aor. Act. Epic kvOov (for
;

tKveov), Conj. KtKvdot.] Passive Pres. xtvflo/uai. Epic and tragic verb. Byform
Epic KtvOdvui. The Present and Perfect are also used intraimitively in Attic
tragedians, of ttu dead as invisible and so lying hid.

K^Sia, vex, rTjSijo-w, ;

{-i)njSr}<Ta.) in ajro-K7j5ijo-as (but <^. aKtiieui) ; 2nd Perf.
KiKri&a, am concerned. The Middle (c^fio/nai,care for, sorrow for, has (besides
Imperf. and iterative Imperf.) »aj6«(rat in 1st Aor. Mid. and [Fut. Perf. redupli-
cated KCKa^yjo-o/biai, only Epic]. For KexaSijo-w, etc., see KtKaoov.

KJipvaao) or •cTjpvTTw, proclaim (as a herald), (stem lajpvK-), -f w, KtK'/jpvxa,

vyfi.at. ',
tKijpv^a, •afxrii', •vx&v" '>
Kr}pvx0fiaonaL. Future Middle as Passive.
[Kiivrffxi., spread, chiefly in Mid. KiSyafiai poetic and Ionic for cr<e5dfw/Lii.]

[ft i-vu-Mmove (intrans.), am in ^notion, only Pres. and Imperf. Epic]

at,
Akin to the regular Kl-vi-o> (= put in viotion). Both are akin to Latin ci-eo, and
probably rlvdaaut, etc.
kXx^vo* (tixOi fl^t aJso KiX'Sftti, Kiyxit'io, KiYijo-o/tiai, ; tKixov, [Eplc
«jtix>j«»'<)^M»?»'], a-tcixriTo<!. A few Epic forms may belong either to a Present
Kixrifj-i (Infin. Kixrin«vai, Kix^vai, Pcp. »cix«is). Or to a 2nd Aor. Act. €Kixr)v.

»tiXP»JMt» ^*n^. 866 XP**"'

I'w, go, only I*res. and Imperf., in the latter frequent.
(it Byform fj.€TtKia0ov
(iin arsis)]. Epic, rarely tragic. (Participle accented as a 2nd Aor., kmv.) Dis-
tinguish from Ktioi.
Kkd^oi ((tAayy-, K\(Sy-), Mcream, clang, K\dy^o>, and Fut. Perf. Mid. KtKkdy
fojiai, 2nd Perf. KtKkayya, [Epic KfK\riya, inith Pcp. passing into thematic form
(^Eolic influence), KfK\riyoi'Tf^ (Alii KexATj-ywrcOl ; iK\ay^a, fK\ayov ; KXayKTOi.
Byform KKayyaivio. Chiefly poetic.
KXaCo), and (Attic) icXdc* (not contracted), weep (stem kXov-),
K\av(TOfiai (<Xava-oi}/iat, rare, KXaixru) (Theocritus) and late ; also
K\air](T(i) or KXarjao)), KfjcXav/uni
; eKXavaa, -^H-Wt; I'^^e -crQrjv) ;

Fut. Perf. K€K\ava(Tai ; KXaurdy, also kKovcttos.

icXdo), break, smash, /cXao-o), ; KeKXaafiat ; €/cXao-a, -da6r)v.

(also o-o- in Epic Aor., A. and M.). [2nd Aor. Pcp.,-/eXar].

Kkeioi, shut (Latin Clau-d-o), kAcictw,! ; KtKXeipiai or K(K\ei<rtiai. ; tKXtiara,

•dn-qi', -aflrji' KAet<r^(7o/xai, KeKAeiVo/xai.
; Old Attic kAtjco is fairly complete,
having Perf. Act. ice'jcAjjKa, (ceVcAD/aai (only); eKXrjae-riv (i'K\jj0riy doubtful); Kkfi'
o-Tos. [Ionic Present is xApw or »tA>jiu) (i.e. kAtj^i-w, rr. c^a-v-j«), (Fut ?), <*tA^i<ro,
(ce(cAifI/xai, etc., always eK\r)tcrer)v (cAtjio-to?.] (Distinguish from *cAeiw, celebrate,
;

found chiefly in Pres. and Imperf., except in Doric forms in $, as <cAei^w, etc.
(cAeiTOf.)

1 Tiaces of a notable Future -kXiu in comic poets.

 § 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 239

KXe'irTw, steal (Latin clep-ere), Kktifia and K\t\(iofj.ai., k^kXck^o. KiKkenfiat, old
reading -a/n/Ku {?) ; «K\t\}/a, -<f)9T)v 2nd Aor. Pass. eK\dit7iv,
;

(c v «o, bend, incline, see § SO. 3.

A I [2nd Aor. Pass. -exXinjv, -k\i.t€ov; -kXiSov in
vapa-KXt.S6v, Epic], i short, except in Pres. Ipf., also Aor. Act. and Mid., where I.

kKvo), hear, (Latin clu-o, Sanskrit (ru, Gaelic duos ear), Pres. and Imperf. =
chiefly. (Present not in Homer.) (kAvo-oj belongs to kA,v^<o, rinse.) Iiuperf.
tKkvoy, also as Aor. («e'(cXv<ca rare). 2nd Aor. Act. Imper. kKv-Oi., KkO-re [Epic
KtK\vOi,- T«] alongside of Pres. Iiuperat. Kkve and KKvere. Pep. KkSixevoi. Verbal
K^vToi. Poetic. V short, except where circumflex accent occurs.

Kvaiu, scrape, regular in composition. On byform kvow, (J/". § 57. 3.

KoKa^oi, chastise, Kokdau, -a<ro/u.ai, also <coAw, -\wfjiai. ; otherwise regular, as

«ceK6Aao-fx.a( (no Perf. Act.), #coXo(rTe'os.

«c o A o V w, maim, regular. Passive with or without <r inserted.

Ko vital, raise has I and is regular, but no Perf. Act., best Perf. Pass.
dtut,
KtKovlitMt. A late byform Kovi^ta has superadded KtK6vi.ay.ai.
KOJTToi, cut, hack in pieces, K6\fJ^o, >ce'»to<f)a. [2nd Perf. KtKoiruti (trans, smiting)
only Epic], KtKOfjifiai, ; tKoxj/a, -a/un?*', -6<l)0r]v ; 2nd Aor. Pass. Kom^o-o/iai ; Fut.
Perf. -KeKo^fionai. ; KOJTTos. Mid. mourn for.

Kopevvvyn.. sate, satiate (iiopiaia Herodotus, Koptu) Homer), ; KeKopea-

Mat (Ionic -»jM<w), tKoptaa [-ofiTji' Epic], -eaOrfv ; [Epic Perf. Pep. xeicopTjws (in
Passive sense), <{f. rtOvrjo)^] ; d-Kopea-ro^, also -pero? (-p>jTos Ionic); Present post-
Homeric and late. Attic Future had been KopCt. (icope'a>, sweep (a floor), is
regular, -jjo-w, etc. (no Perf. Act.) iicopijTos (Attic), icntnmmed.)

Kopvaa-u, arm with helmet, (KopvO-), [Aor. (?), Kopvaae, 1st Aor. Mid. Kopva-
o-oftevos, Perf. Pass. Pep. KtKopvdyL(vo<;]. Mainly Epic,

[« o r e u, KOTioyai, am
angry, Aor. (ejcoreo-a in Pcp.), -dyirfv (often with aa) ;

Perif. Pcp. itfKOTrjoJs, incensed]. Epic.

Kpd^ut (icpay-), Cry out, Fut. Perf. KeKod^opLai 2nd Perf. KeKpdya (Imperative ;

KfKpa\6i) ; 2nd Aor. Act. -tKpdyov. (Late Kpd^ut, expa^a in LXx. cKcxpafa, ;

eK«payo»').— Cognate is Kpw^ut, whence xpcifais (Ar.).

Kpaivio, accomplish, KpavCt, ; Perf. Pass. 3rd sing. KtKpavrai., (as 3rd plur.

doubtful), like irei^ovTat ; expava (lonic -Jji'a), expaf^rjc Kpav6ifi<T0txai ; Fut. Mid. ;

in passive sense ; i-Kpai'Toi.

Kpavoi/fjiai. Ionic and poetic. [Byform Kpaiaiw,
KtKpdavrat, <irp7J>)fa, eKpadvOriy (Doric TheOcritus) is Epic ; also oKpdavTOi.] Akin
to Latin cre-are.

Kptfjidvvvfit, suspend, hang (trans.), KptfiS) -mo?, etc. (= Kptixda-u), (Epic

Fut. Kptn6u>), KtKptfxaKa and KtKptp.a(Tnai, lat« itcpifiaaa, ;-dpLr^v rare, -d(T0r)i>.
Byform Kpty-afiai, hang (intrans.), inflected like Svyatiat (Kp(p.ain-r)v, etc.) ; Fut
Kptfirjirotiat. (Kp-qy-yriijii, sus/iend, only Pres. lujperf. Act. and Mid. Poetic.)
Kp*fiM, as Present, is late ; is Future in classic time.
Kpi^u creak, squeak,
(Kp7y-), [2nd Aor, Act. xpUt, v. 1. KpCyt, Epic], 2nd
Perf. Pcp. KtKplyoTti, squeaking.

Kpivu, judge, separate (Latin ctr-no, eri-brum), kpimu, KtKpiKa,

'ifiat, ; tKptva,
dfitir, Epic in simple, iKpi6i\v
; [Enic
itp i^jjo-omoi, Kpird;, 'Tto^ ; -Kpihdv
««rpii'd7ji']
in (ff-<rp(46i', late. Cj. Middle
in simple, only Epic, c/toow. Mitldle
diroKpivm.
\» found in compounds (deponents), as diroKpii-ofxai, vitoKpivoyai. I, except in
Pres. and Imperf., also in Aor. Act. and Mid., where I.

Kpovm, knock, beat, regular (with Perf. Act. in -««), except Kixpovanai as
well as KtKpovfiM*. Only Kpovarot, -tco(. Mid. back (a ship).
ffpvvrw (c/. KoAviTTw), ecneeal^ Kpv4>; later Kpv^•, icpvi^w, etc. Regular and
full. «pv0i}<roMat and Kpv^- in Fat. Pass, and so in 2nd Aor. Pass. [Epic
KpvwiaiTKf, «ptirTo«, -Tt'o5 ; tcpvfi-ir^v, Kpv^rii6v,

« T a o ft a I. aequirt. KT^vofiAi, K^Ktiffiai limiKtM chiefly Ionic, sometimes Attic

j= potHU (CoqJ. and Opt., see f W), iKTt\<rdnr\v, '4,9rtv Pass., Mrnfao/Mt and inr
(rar« *«t-), Fut, to KiKnuLak ; KTitT6s, -rioi.
240 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

Kreivu. slay, Krevu, 2nd Perf. tKTOva, 1st Aor. tKreiva (poetry and good
prose) 2na Aor. tKravov (in poetry
; often, but only late in prose). Its Passive
IS evtiaKoi. Byform Attic, KrCvvvfAi, and -u'w, only Pres. and
Imperf. [In Epic
Fut. Act. KTf.vfu) and Kraviui ; Fut. Mid. in Passive sense, KTai'€e<T0ai. Perf. A
tKTayKa in comic poets, but iKTUKa, eKTovrfKo. both late. poetic Aorist is iKrav, A
with Infin. >cra/i«i'ot, Pep. ktcLs (§ 63. A. obs. 1). Ionic Fut. is AcreVeo), Epic Kravtu).
Traces also of iKranr^v =
was slain, and of (eKTaerji/) but only in 3rd plural,
iKTaOev, KTaOev. airoKTeivu, generally, in Attic prose.]

KTiCbj. found, KTia-o), full and regular (Perf. Act. eKTiKa, also ««'<-, only late),
except Epic Pep. -Knuevoi, built, -ktitos in ivKTiroi.
KrCvvvfti, see KT«ivui.
KTviTtta, sound, tKTvmicra, 2nd Aor. «»cTv»rov, <tvitoi'. Chiefly Epic. After
Homer, has often the sense cause to resound.

Kviu (also K V w), am

pregnant (qf. Latin in-cien$, i.e., in-eu-i-<ns), -ijtrw, xeion^ica.
From Kv<o come Aor. fKva-a, impregnated, (u) Aor. Mid. Kwaiiiv^ {ora- here false),
etc., conceiving. Inceptive xvio-kw, -0^.01. Kviia early as in Homer; kvw, as a
Present, is first in Theognis.

•evAto), roll, (actively), (without Fut. Act. and Perf. Act.); Aor. Act. is
Pass, and Aor. Pass, insert o-, K(Kvkt.<T-^ai, «Kv\ia-driv (o- probably
iKiikitTa, Perf.
from influence of byform kvKU&oi, only in Pres. and Imperf. Act. Pass, or Mid.)
Another Pres. is kv\- or KoXivSeu, never in poetry ; late and with Fut. ->j<rw.
Of. akCu, dAiVfiio. I long throughout.

KV-ve-u, kiit (lev-). Aor. Act. eKv<ra [Epic aa] also, but later, e/cvrrja-o, npoir-
:

Kvviot is generally regular, -ifcru*, etc., but npovKva-ai, poetic. naturally short
throughout.
Kvirrut, stoop {qf. Kvi>'6^, Latin cu-m-bo), -Kvi/tai, -kv^ohox ; Perf. KiKv<t>a ; iKv\fia ;

modal adverb KvPia,

Kvpm, hit, meet, chance, with v long, icvpa-o), ; eKvptra. [Mid. Kvptrai, he
encwinters, as Dep., Epic.l Byform Kvp-i-ui. with v short, is regular, Acvp/jo-w, etc.,
and with Perf. KtKvpriKa, Note the quantity of v, which is short or long, accord-
ing as « is attached a/ter or absorbed into the root-syllable. The verb is properly
Ionic, and finds its way into the Attic almost solely in tragic poetry. In late
Greek it in more diffused.
K VM, see Kv iu).

Aa-y-\-6.v-c» (stem Xa^-) ^VX')i O^^*'^ ^ lot, Xt'j^ofMai, etXi^yfxai,

2nd Aor. Act. eXaxovj [Epic XcXa;(oi/, trans, cause to share, Ist
Aor. Pass. iXljxOrjv. 2nd Perf. (non-Attic, Ionic, and poetic),
XfXoyxa, from nasalised stem Xty;^-, cf. nenovBa.

Ka^vixai (tragic, only Euripides), Aafofiai (poetic, Epic, Ionic), seize, lay
hold of, only Pres. and Imperf.

Xa|iPdvo> (stem XajS-), take, X-qyj/'O^ai, f tXr;0a, etXr^/x^iai, XiXrj^fiai

(in dramatic poets) ; 2nd Aor. Act. tXafSov, Mid. (Xa^ofujp [Epic
XeXa/SeV^at], 1st. Aor. Pass. eXTj<f)6T]v ; XT](f>6r)aofiai XrjTrros, -Ttos, ;

-Xrj^-drjv in cvX-X-q^-brju. Mid. lay hold of. Xd/i>//-o/xat, XeXa^i/xat,

€Xd^i(f)6T]v, XafjiirTfos, also XeXa^rjKa, are Ionic.

AajnTTco, also Adfxiro/Liat, shine, Aa/ii/zw, 2nd Perf. Ae'Aa/Lin-a ; ikapul/a. Fut.
Mid. (Ionic) -Ad/xi/'oju.ai. [Byform Aa^irerdw^ -dw, Epic]
Xav0dv« (Xjj^o), poetic and in Xenophon), lie hid, escape notice of
(some one), {lat-eo), (stem XaQ-, Xtj6-), Xtjo-o), 2nd Perf. XeXrjBa,
Perf. Mid. XeXrja-fiai, Fut. Perf. XfX?jcro/xai 2nd Aor. Act. eXaBov ;
§ 114.] lEREGULAR VERBS. 241

[Epic \4\adovj made to forget\ Mid. iXaOoyir^v [Epic XfX]. Mid.

jorget,whence governs Genitive. Verbal in a-Xaaros. Transi-
tive parts =
cause one to forget, 1st Aor. eWXT^crfi/ (Epic), eVXfXd^o)
(Theocritus), eK-XijOdvoi (Homer).
KaiTTu (= Latin lambo), lick, lap, Aai/zu and -Kanpoixai, X«'Xa(|)o ; e\a*}/a.

Ado-icw (= KaK-aKu), (Aa<c-, probably Latin loqu-or) speak, crack, utter a

sharp sound, Aeutijo-o/iot, 2nd Perf. MKojca (a) [Epic AeA^jJca, Fern. Pep. \e\aKvla],
i\dici}(ra, 2nd Aor. tXoKov [AeAoKb/Lnji/]. Doric Aajcew, Ionic Atj»c«'w. Poetic.
[(Adw), see, only Pep. Kauiv and Imperf. Aae.] Epic. Others make it = seize,
and connect with Aai)w of anokavuj.

[Aa«, Ai, trwA, contracts with rj, Ajjs, AjJ, Infln. Arji/. Doric]
X^«, 29icA;, gather, count, lay (chiefly in compounds in Attic),
Xf'^o),-(IXoxa ; fiXcyixai or XcXey/xat ; TXe^a, -dfirjv, -xOr}v, 2nd Aor.
Pass. fXtyrjv, Fut. Pass. Xfyijcro/iai.
[•2nd Aor. Mid. (chiefly Epic), ikdytirtv is non-thematic (Aexro, Imper. Ae'fo,
Infin. Ae^^ai, AevAiti'osJj A«»ct6s, -AexTeos (eligeudus), -AeySoi/ in i7M^epoAey66i' ; also
Ao-ydfirji'.(The parts A«'^o/otai, eAefa, Aefeo, eAeyfiirjf, when occurring in
Homenc
the .sense of Un/, ptu to rent, are allied to a stem Aex-. appearing in Ae'xo?, coucA.)
The sense of gather is the meaning common to both the Greek and the Latin
Uyo. In other senses, these verbs diverge, the Latin developing the sense of
rea</,i (%vhich in Greek is mostly represented by avayLyvuaKu), and not adopt-
ing the sense of *pcak, which the Greek so largely developed.

\hf(a, say, speak, state, X*'|co, XeXcyfiai {di-fiXcy/j-ai); eXe^a,

;

8i(Xe^dfiT)v, usually Passive, but sometimes Micldle in

fXfxOrjv,
sense X^x^jyo-oftat (Xe|o/xai as Passive), Fut. Perf. Pass. XcXe^o-
;

nai ; XcKToi, -rtos (dicendus). Its Perf. Act. can be supplied by

(IprjKa. Modal adverb KaTa-Xoyddrjv, by discourse, also in prose. =
(The connection between the two groups of meanings of Xe'yo) is
seen in our count and recount, i.e., relate). In composition with
Preposition.s {npoi, airo, etc.), dyopevo), in Pres. and Imperf., stands
in best Attic for Xiya>.
ktivw, leave (Latin H-n-quo), A«ti^w, 2nd Perf. Ae'Aoiira ; kiKufifiat ; 2nd Aor.
l«t Aor. Pass. i\ti<t>9riv ; Aeiirro?.
cAiirof, cAiiro/xT}!'
; (eAeti^a belongs, in Homer,
only to A«t^w (or eI^«), pour a libation.) Byform Ai^waj'u, only Pres. and Ipf.
Kti^u, /ici- (Latin lin-go, and cf. Xixfidio), \ti(u late, <A<tfa. (Probably
from tlus verb Epic, tlightly touching.)
Aiy^jji/,

[A« AiijMat, participle of Perfect from uncertain Present, (probably At Adw,

from stem Ad«i», tcith, whence would arise A«AtA»jfuxt), AeAijjMeVo?, longing for.
Akin to AiAaioMat.] Epic.
kt*m, peel, -Kitltw, ; -KdKtuf^ai, iKt^a, 2nd Aor. tAdinji'.

Ac V9 0-M, behold, only Pres. and Imperf. certain. (Aor. tAcvaa disputed.)

A« vw, itone, in prose chiefly In composition, Kara-ktvta, -ktvau ; -iktvaa', also

iA«v<r^i)»' ; KtvirOrt<rofiai.

plunder, only Present and Imperfect in Active. Mid. Aijtfo/uioi [kr)l-

Krit^i,t,
aonai, Knic, Innic), Perf. Pans. AcAyjaMat (Passive In sense). iXnaifivv
«AT)«<yd>ii7»'
in Kuripi'les. (iMatinguish from ktkricfiai, under kavOayu.) [Verbal Kptc
Kniarot, aiao kiiarot.]

'EwtXdyofiM in Ionic is the nearest approach to the I^atin use of lego

1 to =
ptrutt. In tb« MttM of rtad aloud, even K*yu is used of a herald in public
meetinga.
16
 242 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.
[X t y f e, twanged thrill, only in 3rd sing., Aorist.] Epic.
Ai<r<ro/iai, supplicate, rare byfonn kCronai.; (Fut. 7); (ikiaifxriv or eXX-,
2nd Aor. «Ait6/lit}i/, Epic). Verbal in nokvWiaroi.
AiXMaw, li*:k, with remarkable Perf. Partic. AeAeixMore?, Fut. ajro-AixM^jjo-o-
/lac.

[Ao «' w, tca^A, (Latin lav-o), has Aoe'<r<rojuiai, cAoeco-o, •aij.rfv. Byfonn of Aovw].
Epic.
Aouw, wash, bathe. Mid. latlie (oneself), regtilar. In Ionic and early Attic
writers, Pres. and Imperf. Act. and Pres. and Imperf. Pass, form by contraction
from Aooj, as tAov = eAove, also cAov^f v ; Aovrai, and traces of Aov^ecot.

Xva», loose {solvOj Xvaa, XeXvKo, XeXv^ai eXvcra,

i.e., so-lu-o), ;

-dfir]v, iXvdrjv Xvdrjaofiai, X(Xvaofiai

; Xuros, -t(os. Mid. ransom. ;

[Epic 2nd Aor. Mid. eXv^rju, Passive in sense, Xvto, or by metre

XiiTo. Perf. Pass. Opt. XfXvro.] (u in Pres. and Imperf. is usually
short in Homer, sometimes long in Attic v.) ;

In other parts v is short, but in Futures Act. and Mid. and Aor. Act. and
Mid. is long, v of this verb imvudiatel)/ before <r of a terue-foinnative is long.

Matfco, madden, (no Future), 2nd Perf. ninrjva, am mad; 1st Aor. e^rji'a
(trans.) 2nd Aor. Pass. «>a»'i?«' (intians.) 2nd Fut. /mai^o-OM-at, late. Middle
; ;

mad. {jiayovfxai Ionic, «V»?''oM'J»' Epic]

/Aaifo/iai, i/roic

^aiufiai, feel after, desire, fiaaofiat, iixdrrdfirfv ; ini-fjiaaroi. {Cf. Saio/xai.)

Mainly Epic, and often with aa in Fut. and Act. Cf. yjxw, ^dojLiai.

liavOdvw, leani (stem ^laB-, (Midf-), fiadrjao^ai, fMfuddrjKa 2nd ;

Aor. f^adov fiaOrjTos, -Tfos. Passive has no Aorist, and is scarcely

:

found except in Present.

nd pvanai, fiyht (Conj. /Liapi/<t>^at, Opt. -aifnt)v but also oi'fXTji/, Imper. fjidpvao).
Only in Present and Imperfect. Chieny poetic. (Epic drops o- in 2nd sing, in
Imperative and Imperfect.)
fytdpirrcii, clutch, seize, fidp^u, [2nd Perf. fiifjiapna Epic]', efxapifia, traces in
Epic of 2nd Aor. fitfiapiroy, and with p dropped, fit'/jidnov, tfi&nov.

napri} p€u, am a tcitness, -^o-co. Regular, with Perf. Act. and Pass., etc.
fiapTvponat (v), call (one) to witness, Dep. Mid. with fut. -pov/xai late ifiaprvpafiriv. :

tidiTffM, ftaTTta, knead (stem ixay-), /xdfw, fienaxa, etc. Regular. 2nd Aor.
Pass, 'ifjidyriv.

fiaaTi^u, lash (/jiaoTi^w late), indari^a, whence Epic fidoTiifV S' iKaav.

(ulxo(iai (Ionic fiaxfOfiai), Jight, fxaxovfiat (Ionic ^axfcrofiai. Epic

fiaxfOfxaiy also fjLaxTja-ofiai), fiffMcixrjfJ.ai ; (/xaxeo-dfirjv (also Epic aa),
[besides ffiaxt]<TdfiT)v] ; fiaxrjTos (also d-fidx€Tos) ; ixax^riov.
;iacu, amnot appearing in Act. except in 2nd Perf. (u<'-/xa-a), which is
easier,
not found except after the singular; dual >ie>idTo»'; plural /x<^'a/>^f»'. -arf, -dao-i,
Imper. /Lic^drw Pep. |x</u.aa)s 3rd plural Pluperf. y-iy-avav. Defects supplied by
; ;

Hffxova, see w«V-. Mid. fidonai, desire eagerly, always in contract form, ti.uiiJ.ai,
with to fixed. [Imper. /xweo or ^wao, /Lwierflat (Theognis)], Partic. yMtuvo^.—A.
geminate foim fiai/uiaai, rage, chiefly Pres. and Imperf., but with Aor. fiaifLtiae,
IS Poetic.

[/xeSo/mai, am concerned about, only Present and Imperfect, except once, Fut.
futir/aonai.] Epic.
Me'fiw, fJitSeu, rule, only in Present; chiefly in Participle as a substantive,
fjieSovTti.
 ;

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 243

«biedii)/j,i, drop, let go, etc., like iij/ii. (On jHf/xeri/ixeVos in Herodotus, see
§ 61. 2.)

ft.e9v<rKu>, inal:e drunk (Fut. late -v<rw), pieniOva-nai.; enfOvaa, -va-Brfv. Mid.
drunk. Byfonn ixtdvoi, am drunk, only Pres. and Imperf. (Aor.
tifOviTKOfjiai, get
iutBvaa, in ntuter sense, late and bad).

ixeipofiai, get as ami's share (jutp-os, from smar), obtain. Poetic. [2nd Perf.
ffjinopt (i.e.ta-fioftf) has a share. Epic] also in prose Perf. Pass. Impersonal
;

fiuoprai, it is allotted, fated 17 ei/iap/uieio7 (/loipa

; fate). =
On ei/mop- see § 71. n. 4.
Traces of /yi«fiopfteVos, /Lce/nopri/aeVos.

fjLtkkto, intend, am about to, hesitate, neK\ri<r<o, ineWrfaa; (jLeWrfTtov. Start-

ing as a liquid, it forms as if a pure, whence fieAA.->j(rw. Passive, in Present,
/uifAA«Toi Impersonal. Augment of Imperf., e or >>, the latter chiefly in later
Attic, not in Homer or Tragedians. (ij^<'\Ai7<ra, rare and doubtful.)

/bicATTw, sing, plai/, fiiXxf/u, ififKifta.

fit km, am an or care, also care for, chiefly poetic when used
object of interest,
personally, picA^o-u [Epic (yi.eA>jo-OMat, 2nd Perf. /xe'/arjAa]; tifneKrifxai [Epic /Li6>/3Ae-
Tai, -«T0, for /xe/xf'ATjTai, -to] ; jtxeATj^ei'?, -/if ATjTe'o?. Chiefly poetic. Mid. /xe'Aojuiac,
/ lay to ht'trt. In prose it is represented by eniti.iKoixai and -ionai, which are
regular and full. /leAei, as Impersonal (§ U5), it concerns, fxekria-ei, jae/ixe'ATj<ce

ifjLfkrffff. (I'arts of /le'Ao/nai are also used Impersonally.)

ixtfi<i)otJiai, blame, Dep. Mid. (without Perf.), ju.eV»/'OjLiai, efi,€ju.»^a/ixTjv ; 1st
Aor. Pass. «Ve'M<)flrji', usually in Middle sense, sometimes Passive. /xe/x^ff^o-o/Aai
(Passive), /Lte/LtirTos, -t«'o?.

/xefw, »-«)Jiatn, «<ay (Latin mon-e-o), /mevw [Ionic /nefew], /mejuiei^Ka ; e/xeii/a ;

fMfCTo;, -Te'oi'. Byfonn Epic /mi/xfio, /aiMca^w ; fiifjivia also tragic.

(m*!"), </€«Ve, 2nd Perf., with no Present, MeVova. Based on the same root
as out of which comes the cognate /mej/eaiVw (jieveriva), and /mecoccaw, both
fxcVof,
poetic. See /xaw.

iJitpuripi^M, ponder, is guttural, (-^(», -fa), in Epic; is dental in Attic, as

'ifupuripia-a.

firfSofiai, devise, plan, firjirofjiai, ifiriadnr^v. Poetic.

fx»j«tdo(xai, bleat (cry as a sheep), [2nd Perfect Participle fjL«tiij>cu)<:, fem.
mt?-,
fitftoKvla ; abnormal Pluperf. ifntftriKoy 2nd Aor. Partic. fioKtoy].
; Epic mainly.
Cf. fivKOLOixai.

[p. 17 T I a w (Epic -oco), plan ; Mid. ([A>jTtao/xai, also urtriofiai, the latter with co-
in its Future and Aorist.] Epic and Lyric.

fjitaivut, pollute, regular and full, with Perf. Act. utixiayKa; Perf, Pass.
late -la/x^ai ; ifjiiava, -dv6t^i' ; d-/u.iacro?. (lonic Ist Aor. tiJiir)va and also
•ia<r/Li(u,
late.) Thecrux in /xidi/erji' (II. 4. 146) is whether it is dual or plural, for /xiai/»jj-
nji' or for fiiavOtu (plural) Epic.

filyvvfii, (tia-yui (I.,atin mis-ce-o), mix, fii(<it (nt'fiixa. late), fituiynat ; Cfiifa,
inix9r)v, 2nd Aor. Pa.ss. ifiiytfv; fiixdrjo^ofjiai late, /ii'yi7<ro/xail ; /u.e/Litfo/xai : 2nd
Aor. Mi<l. (non-thematic) hikto, iynKjo ; (jlikto^, -T«ot, [jxCy-Sd, -6rji/, fjnyi-Sriv
Epic]. Iterative Mi<ry«rK«To. [Byfonn /x'yafo/^ai Epic]
|u|i,v^<rKw (/iva-,Latin mon-e-o^ com-min-i8C-or\ remind, ixvfjcroij
fiffivTjfiai, remember in Present .sense
; (fxvtja-a, -dnT]v, poetic ; ;

-<r0r)v, remeirOjered something, made mention of

; fivrjo-dtjaofiai, will
menttoUj fxtfitfrfaofiai dfiuaoTosj Doric, fivaariou. (Mid. fiifiprja-Ko-
;

ftaL, also fivdofiai =

fiviofiai, Epic and poetic, remember).
On mooda of fi«>ii^M<u (= memini), see f 66. (2nd sing. M«>i'>)<rat, Epic
iu>v|},out of fufiyitu) ; fMiumfiM, •^n*' Of -nMn"* lonlc -^«To ; Imper. .tj<ro (ii^Mi^fo
Herodottt*), etc

1 EarKect of all the Snd Futorei Paadf e and lole dear example of the tense
in Homer.
244 IRREGULAB VERBS. [§ 114.
fivao nai, court, woo (whence Epic fjn-uioPTo, ixvaaadai, fivda-Kfro, and Ionic
fjLVftijfjitvoi), is chiefly in Pies, and Iniperf., but has eMvrjo-dju.i)!/. Poetic generally,
but sometimes in Attic prose. This fivdofj-ai is probably /Sfo-yo-uai ieeL- a wife =
to oneself (p. 10). {C/. pavd, yvyrj and Celtic 6caji, with its Genitive mna.)

fLoKelv, see A. fa> o- K (o.

^ V ^(o, tuck; [nv^eu lonic, -inv^rfCTa Epic].

/uiv^w (Latin 7nut-i-o), mutter, grumble, 1st AoT.fuv^a, Homer irrifiv^a, poetic.

fivKdofJiai, bellow ((/. firtKaofiai), roar (as a bull), -rjVo/uiai, ty.vKr\adti.i)P \

[Epic
parts 2nd Perf. fiinvKo. ; 2nd Aor. tifKov].
Muoj (Sophocles), /al)w Gate), shut (lips or eyes), nvau (late), /bi«>vxo, e/xva-a.
tcaranvo}, whence, in later comedy and late Greek, xa/n^vw, -vo-w, etc.

Nai'oj, (;?fe/^ chiefly Pres. and Imperf., except in Epic, [where vda-aofjiai,
ivaaa-a (causative made to dwell), also in tragic choruses -o-cra/iTji/J. -ivda-driv in
Epic and in choral or non-Iambic Attic poetry. [Byforni poetic i-aierdo), i.e., am
a t-aien)?, only in Pres. has only open uncoiitracted forms with Epic variation
; ;

in Pep. fem. vaitTouxra, abnormally -duitTa also, lenfttheninjr, vaLtTdavKOf (sole ;

Ipf.). vaioi is for faa-yw, and signifies go out and in ((7". vea- in vio/xai, fiacronai), '
'

i.e., to dwell, whence the <t<t of Epic, as in 6aiofi.ai, Fut. iaaa-.

vd<r<Tio, -TTw, stuff, as guttural (Ionic chiefly), vivayixai, [iva^a], vaKTot ; as

dental (Attic and late), vivavfiai fatrro^. ;

vdw, Jime, only Pres. and Imperf. (sine auymento). Poetic (a in Homer,
except in Od. 9. 222. where d by arsis, or the form is vaiov). In later Epic a is
long in thesis as well as in arsis.

[fciKCM, fciKctM, chide, vetKe(rw, eveixco-o. Mainly Epic, also Ionic of

Herodotos.]

vi fiio, apportion, distribute, Mid. allot to oneself, pasture, feed, vtfuo, vtviixriKa,
•17/uiac ; ivtift-a, -d(i.r\y, ivttiy\dr\v (traces of -idrtv) ; vtntfTOf, -reos ; ytfirftrui late.
Hence vuftdu, chiefly Ionic, regular.

ptofiai [Epic ftifiai, 2nd sing. Epic velai with interior contraction], go,
come, frequently Future vrill go. Only Pres. and Imperf. certain, o- in root,
extant in noun i'6o--tos. Byform Mainly poetic.
viaao(j.ai..

»• e V o>, Tiod (Latin nu-o), regular, except that Passive of Perfect and Aorist
is wanting.

•vt<t>oj -tto, only in composition, it is cloudy, 2nd Perf. ^vvv(vo4>t.

villi, swim, (stem cv-, Latin na-i-e), vtv<roiJ.ouor vtvtrovfiai, -yivfVKa; -efevaa;
vev<rT€ov. [Byform Epic inj^oft-ai. Future yri^ofiai.} (vevo-w belongs only to
vevcu, nod.)

v«'w, heap up (Fut. tr/jau late), vtVrj/iai or feVrjo-^iae, furfaa; 107x6?. [Byform
Ionic KTje'w, whence iTJTjo-a, etc. also -vTii/ew, but only in
; Imperf. of compounds.]

viu), f 176 CO, spin (Latin ne-re), vi^vto, tvriva [Epic Aor. Mid. -afiTjr], ;

ei^^jji' [Verbal in evrf^jros Epic], (Traces of Perf. Pass, veyncrnai. having o-

;

Erobably from influence of I'lj^w.) Besides ordinary contraction as vtlv, there

ad been forms where w abnormally stood for ov, as yuiaif, vutufvo^.
US' v(u), heap, and veoi, spin, are from a common root (cf. meanings of glomus
and globus), veta, swim, is allied to i'dia,flow (</. Englisn./foaO-

vi^io, vinru (usually late), (vIjS- resting on fi7- whence Q, wash (bands),
vii^w, ; vevififiai. ; tfLxjia, -afJiT)v, •ivi<t>6riv a-vimoi.
; Mid. tcash oiit's stlj.
(anoyinrcadai a var. lect. in Odyssey.)
yi<T<ro(tat, go, come, Fut. viaofiai (rarely as Fut. viwonai..) Traces of an
Aorist ivia-dfxytv. Poetic. On o- in stem, c/. veoixai, vaiu. i for e (<•/. vi-ofiai.)
sometimes before two consonants, as in la-Oi. from «er-.
 ;;

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 245

vi^oi, v«iif>u>, snotc, viff/m, {vi.>fia, late ivi<i>0riv. Pass. Pres. vi<f)eTai, and
Pep. (Rests on same base as fin-Tio, viz., nig- or snig-, whence Latin 7iinguo, nix,
nivit, and Gaelic s)ieachd.)

voe'h) (out of [yvotui]. Still existing in afi<t>i-yvoeot), think, perceive, i/orjcrw, etc.
Regular in Attic. [Herodotus has, by interior contraction (as in /Soaw), « t'wo-a,
•viyujKa, refio/xai. lonic parts.]

vofjii^to, practise, consider, regular and full, vofxiw (vofiiaia late), vevoixiKa,
etc., yoiiKTriov.

vvo-o-tt), fVTTw, prick, vv^io, iw^a. The Passive is full but late, veVuyMa',

vvo-Toi^w, /eel droic#y (Fut. ?), vv<rTd^o), iyvara^a, B.nd ifvtTTaa-a. (veuo-Tafw,
Epic byfonn only in Pep. Pres. -wf.) Frequentative from vtvu, nod.

B«M, scrape, ; ^fe<r/iat ; ^fe<ro, [Epic ^ea-aa] ; feo-ros.

{ifpaivw, dry, ^yiparui, ; e^T^pacrfiai and i^TJpanfiai ',

e^^pava, i^tipdvOriv.
((fijpa^ai doubtful.)

(vpdiMt (only in Pres.), «Aear, Ionic and Old Attic -e'lo, from which last come
Perf. Pass, and 1st Aor. Act. and Mid. all with tj, as also (but late) Fut. Act.
and Mid. Byfonn (vpio, with liquid formation efOpa Ionic, -aixy]v late.

f liu), polish (Fut. ?), ; i^vanai ; t(v<ra [Epic e^iaa], -d/HTji', -virOriv fua- ',

TO?, (u is long in Pres. and in Epic 1st Aor. v is short in 1st Aor. in Attic
hence <r is inserted in Perf. Pass.)

'OivpofjLai, mourn, Dep. Mid., regular but no Perf. Mid.; -pov/xai, ;

««JvpaMi)i' ; bSvpTot, -T«'of. Byform SiJpo/u.ai only in Pres.

[(6-6 w<r-), aia angry, a stem found only in Homeric Aor. and Perf. wSuo-oVrji/
(also <r<r), o6m6va-fi.ni..] Epic.

ofui, smell, emit odour, 6^»)o-u) (Ionic o^co-w), 2nd Perf o5w5a [Plup. 3rd
. sing.
blmSti Homer] ; w^ijo-a (Ionic 6^«<ra).

[oOofiai, reck, care about, only in Pres., if oOtr is such (Iliad 5. 403).]

ot-yw, otYW(ii, ojJCyij oi|a), , -iayyiai J^a [Epic a)t|a], Aor.

;

Pass. Pep. olxdfis. [Impeif. Pass. oiiyvviir)v. Epic] More com-

iiionly avoiyoi or -j/u/xi (Iinperf. avitoyov) with fuller tenses, ai/oi'^o),
Perf. Act. avftoxcL, Perf. Pass. tu/f<uy/iiat ; 2ii(i Perf. avfuya (Ionic

and Helleni.stic, ncut.) stand open (for which Attic' preferred

Perf. rarely Active
Pa-f^s.), Aor. Act. avia^a (poetic di/oi^a, Ionic
;

avot^a), Conj., etc., avoL^oi Aor. Pass. avf<^\6r]v ; Conj. avoix6u>

; ;

Fut. Perf. di/rcp^o/xai ; avoiKTiov.

The forms iiotyi'ww, a»'otx^^<yo>xai, and all with y\ of augment, though ap-
pearing in Xenophon, are in general late, as ijfoifa, rfvoi\6i)v, and ho Imperf.
7Vocyoi'. [In Epic, the diphthong suffers dinretis at augment in simple, ^.
mperf. Pom. itiywvro.] Tri/de augment in Hellenistic, rivTif^t, etc.

o i 3 ( M. tKtU (ot j^Vm Ionic), iilr^Ka ; ifirifTo. (Byform olSdu late ; also oUdvu,
oijotfw, these sometimes trajuitlvc.)

o i MM (•«. cry aUu (ol^ot), groan, -M^ofiai (-(w late) ; Aor. Act. t^itM^a poetic

oiroxocM, (Homeric Pres., always in -9vm\acl a$ vint-pourer, oiioxoiitfv.

o(i«von9<u. (Homeric Imperf. remarkable for rare divergence from Present
and for variety of augment, olvoxoti, iffoxoti, i^vox6*i, i.e. irff-.]
246 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

oto|uii, think, ween, olrjaonai, (otjBtjv olijTfov. The syn- ; ;

copated forms oiuai and cofnju are only in the 1st Person and are
post-Homeric. Present 2nd person sing, is in Epic oteai, but in
Attic and also post- Attic, only otfi. [Epic resolved forms are
6io (only 1st person), otofiai, dy'ia-afirjv, (Lta-Orjv, etc. (in Homer
always oto--), this t in diceresis is ordinarily long in Homer in ;

Middle voice always long, in Alexandrian "time common. These

latter Epic parts have sense of foreboding ; verbal in dvaia-Tos.]
[(otow, leave alone, only in Aor. Passive ; sine augmento, oiw^c]. Epic.
olxoiiat., am
usually am gone (in sense of a Perfect), oJx»)0'OKai
a-gninrj,
(oIvTj/iiai, -yxTJM"*; both Ionic, doubtful in Attic); Perf. Act. oi.\i^Ka or ixutKo.,
both with peculiar vocalisation (oj for r\, which appears in Epic napw^xnun)-
Imperf. has aoristic sense. [Byform oixvtu, go or come. Poetic]

o(t<'AXu>, run ashore, prose form of xeXAw. Only in 1st Aor. Act. oiK€i\a,
besides Pres. and Imperf.

o\i<x6dvu>, slip, also b\i.<r6aiyu late, has 2nd Aor. wAio-^oi'. (Ionic ciXiV-

£XXv|ii (for o\-w-yii) and -va>, destroy, lose. Mid. perish, oXcVcu
(Ionic oXf'o)), Attic 6\£> (oX«tr, etc.), oXwXtKo, 2nd Perf. oXaXa, am
destroyed; u>\(aa, 2nd Aor. Mid. uAofirji/, perished, Epic Participle
ovXofifvos, pernicious, accursed. In prose, dnoWvfjn more common.
No proper Pasj<ive until late, u)\((tBi]v. (Byform poetic oXtVo), only
Pres. and Imperf. Act and Pa.ss.)

o AoA V ^tai, wail, shout, -{o^ai. (?), (•{«» late) ; has Aorists Active and Middle
(Latin ul-ul-o).

£|jiw)u and -vq), swear (forms from o/xo-), ofiovfiai (see note on
p. 146), oficifiOKa, o/za)/xora( and -oarai ; &^o(ra, -dfirjv, bifjLodrjv and
-oaOrjv ; ofioaSijao^ai. Verbal in dnoifioTos. (o/xdo-o) and atfiOKa
are late ; Attic prefers to drop a in Passive parts.)

oAo^vpof&at, bewail, -povfiat, ; «>>Ao<^i;pafjii7i' ; oAo^vpdci's (Thucydides).

o-fiopy-vv/ii, irij)«, o/mopfco (no Perfects) ; itfiop^a, •iniiv, -bfiopxOtii, Mostly

poetic.

6 1'-t !»
7} M I {ova- see § 73), benefit, help, hirqaw (no Perfects) ; Cimjcra, -yiOriv ; 2nd
Aor. Mid. uyafiriv or u>yTifXTi)v (Opt. bvainTiv etc.). [Homeric Iinperat. oi'tjo-o. Pep.
Mid. bvivafxai,
bvrifjifvoi.] profit by, Fut. 6»^(ro/xai, Imperf. u>vi.vd(inv. ISo
Imperf. in Active Voice.
[ovofiai, blame (2nd sing, byoaai, like SiSotrai, etc.), bvoaoftai, vtvovo^r^v.
[Epic Fut. and Aor. Mid. also with av] ; [ovoaros, also bvoTo^, poetic], [ovi/ftrde
in 2nd plur. Pres., o>va-To or oh'oto as Aor. Mid., and -iavotrdriv in Middle sense,
all Epic. Byform oi-ora^w, Epic]
on- vital, marrii (of the man), Fut. ottvo-uj. Pres. ojrvtai late. Pass. 6irvio/uuu,
am mai-ried (of the woman). Mostly poetic.

opAft) (Ionic opeoi), see, oyl^ofiai (2nd sing. o\j/(i), eoipaKa (or with
single augment eopoKa, common in comedy), fcopn^at (-daai, etc.)
also uififiai (S)\^rai, etc.) 2nd Aor. Act. ddov. Mid. ftdofirju, 1st
;

Aor. Pass. a>4>dr)v, Fut. Perf, d<f>BT]arofiai

late €<opd$Tjv ; opdros, ;

oTTTfOi. The Imperfect, which in Homer is sine augmento, as opa,

oparo, is in Attic {toypaov) =
eiapoiv, {(<apa(s) eotpas, etc. in Ionic = ;
§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 247

(opoiv, also a>p€ov. An Ionic 2nd Perf. is oncoTra. Mid. Spaa-Sm,

IdeaOai, chiefl}' poetic, and differs from the Active in indicating
vision with inteTiser emotion. (Roots associated are(l) var (Latin
cf. English ware in a-icare ; (2) ak or ok (cf. Latin oc-ulu-s\
vtr-eor,
by Labialism into op ; (3) vid, of momentary recognition, contri-
butes therefore the stem of Aorist}
bpyaivoj, am angry, Aor. upyava, enraged. Only in Tragedians, (opyi'^w is
regular and complete, but without Perf. Act. and 1st Aor. Mid.)
o-pty-a)j reach, stretch (Latin reg-o) bpe$m, ; apey/jLoi, [Epic reduplicated
3rd plural 6p(i)pe)(aTai, -to]; mpt^a, -a/uiTji', diptvOriv ; opeKTO?; opeyfirji/ late; Mid.
reach after, desire. Cognate o-pt-y-i/ao/Ltai, stretch aiid yauni.
op-vv-fit (stem bp-, Latin or-in-r), raise, rouse, opaui, ; 2nd Perf. opoipa,
arise; Sipa-a, [Iterative, optraa-Kt, 2nd Aor. Act. wpopoi/ (trans.), but like rjoapoj'
also intrans. always reduplicated except in Pep. opovcra (Hesiod): only in Epic]
;

Mid. rise, ra.fh, Fut. opov^ot, [Epic Perf. Pass, opwpe/nat] ; 2nd Aor. Mid, ilip6p.r)v
(with parts mostly non-thematic, as 3rd sing. Indie. HtpTo Imper. optro, opaeo, ;

oocrtv ; op6ai, opMfj'o?). Traces of a Pres. Mid. opo^ai, poetic Imperf. hpiovro.
Byforms all poetic, opo^viw (chiefly Pres. and Imperf.) raise. opiVw, stir, only
1st Aor. iLpiva, pivOrfv ; opouw, rush, Fut. -o-to, and 1st Aor. -tra.

bpv<T<Tu, bpvTTui, dig (o- prothetic, cf. Latin ru-n-c-o), bpv^ui, -bpmpvya,
oputpvyixaL, wpiry/xoi Herodotus (?) and late ; iopv^a, -afxriv, Ionic and late Attic,
wpvxv ; bpvxer)(rotiai. ; bpvKTo^. Traces of 2nd Aor. Act. wpuyoi' and 2nd Aor.
Pass, varying between -xtjc and -yrji/, and Fut. Pass, similarly in -x>j<rofiot or
-y>j<To/Ltai,

[o <r <r o a I (= 6«f-yo-inai, cf. oc-ulus), eye, often of second sight, forebode, only
/ii

Pres. (chiefly Pep.) and Imperf. (sine augmento).] Epic]

ba-<t>paivo fiai (late b(T<f>pdoua.i), smell, feel the scent of, b(r<}>pTJ<rofjiai, ; 2nd

Aor. uitT^pofirfv (traces of Aonst in -d/atj;'); also <iia<l>pdv9r)u, rare. b<T4>pai/T6i late.
broTv^ui, lament (cry ototoi), -v^o/nai, av-wTOTvfa. Its Passive occurs in
Present tense in Attic drama (not in trimeters).
ov piu>, male urine, ovprja-ofxai, eovpriKa ; iovprftra. On augment, see § 70. n. 0.
Fut. Act. ovpri<r<t}, ovptfKa, ovprjdrji' are Ionic.

[ovra^w, wound, ovracw, ; ovraa^at, Ist Aor. ovrava (-aaOet? late.]

Epic.
[ovraw,' wound (Imperat. ovrat), (Fut. ovrrja-u, very late), (no Perfects);
1st Aor. ouTTj<ra,outtj^tji' 2nd Aor. Act. 3rd sing, ovra (like ««Td\ Infln. ovrd-
;

M't'oi,ovTSfKf (page 126) 2nd Aor. Mid. ovrSintfo^ in Pa-ixive sense; Iterative
;

ovTa<TKt, ovrrjaaaKt. Verbal in ii'-ovTaTo? {cf. dovTo?)]. Mainly Epic.

&^(iAm, owe, ought, 6<^(iA)jo-io, u<i>ti\rfKa; o)<]>ti\ri(ra, 6(^eiATjd«i's ; 2nd Aor.
Act. wt^cAof, now
only in wishes (utinam), originally I ought (had all been well),
i.f. 2nd Pers. u)(}>t\ti, thou oughtest, etc., would that thou, etc
icould that /;
[IJyform Epic b<f)t\\ui, with u}4>tK\oi' or unaugmented b<l>*\\ov usually, rarely
itx^eAoi'. unaugmented 6<i><Ao>'. Imperf. wc^eAAor, ot^rAAof are in Epic used as
answering to ulinaui, not less than is the 2nd Aorist.]
o<f»«AAw, augment, ordinarily Pres. and Imnerf, Act. and Pass., [Homeric
Aor. Opt 6^<AA«ic (iEolic fonn as well as ending)]. Poetic.
b^X-iiTK'dvut, owe, incur a penalty, am guilty, 6</>A>j(rw, iIi4>Anica, i<<)Arj/iat ; 2nd
Aor. w^Ao»'(with its Infln. and Pep. sometimes with accent as if Present, o<i>A«ii',
6^A»i«), w^\ii«ra Ut«. Buttniann thinks that SKb^ov is properly 2ntl Aorist to
i^tiXm (m^Aov : i^iAm : : ifypb^n*' '•
'Y'lp"). and that it has been appropriateil to
a special mwintiig.

1 The «
in Up- to explained by shifting of quantity from a primitive nop-,
with as aognient, aa In nfiovMfiriy. So in iaAmv and iayriy.
I)

3 From same base as oar English wound, oovtoy ipovrot (flmra(n¥, /3aA- =
A«ir (H«sych.X wheoM fi has taken the place of /=).
248 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.
UaiCto (rraifi-, iraiy-), play, play the boy, sport, as guttural, nat^ovfiai (late
nai^fjiat) ; TreVocxa, -y/uiai, both late. Also, as dental, notwithstanding collision
with Trac'w, (no Fut. ?), ntnaiKa ; nenai.afj.ai. inaia-a nai<TT€ov.
; ;

n a Cta (J jfLtin pav-i-o), strike, smite, regular, but inserts cr in Passive parts,
naiiTio, -nenaiKa, -nenatafiai late ; «7roi<ra, -d/uiT/i', •ato-^i'. A Future in Aristoph.
7roct}(7w. (In Passive ire'TrArjy/noi, in\ijyr)t/ preferred.)

nakaCo), wrestle, nakaLtrut', inakaiaa, •aiaQnv ', 6w<r-7raXat<TTOS. (Perfects -ico

and -o-fxai, but late).

nakkia, shake, brandish, (Fut. ?), ninakfiaL ; inrika [Epic parts 2nd Aor. Act.
afi-nenakiiv, as if from ire'jroAoi' ; 2nd Aor. Mid. eiroAro, TraAro.] But inakro is
from i(t>-akkofiai. Trace of 2nd Aor. Pass, -naktii.
(n Pres. not found), acqidi-e, is used much like leraofj-ai, Fut. naa-ofiai,
do fiat,
TTtrrd/uiai ; Mostly in poetry, but nenifiai in Xenophon. (Distinguish
inaaifjiriv.
from naaofiai infra, in 7raT«o^ai.)
Trap 1 veil), behave rudely (in wine), irapou'^aw, nenapt^vrjKa ; iwapi^frjaa,
-wfii^f. Imperf. cTropt^covi'. On double augment, see § 74. n. 8.
naaau, ndrrtu, sprinkle, niata, ; ircVaa/Liat late ; indaa, -doOrjv ; naa-
T0«, naariov.

tr&aryja^ (for Tra^-tr/co)), (naB-, n€v$-)y suffer ^ feel, nda-ofiai (for

iTfvd-iToyLaiy see p. 145), 2nd Pert'. iriiTov6a. [Homeric parts, 2nd
plural, TTtrroadf, Trfrra^uia] ; 2nd Aor. eiradov ; jradtjTos late.
Note another »rei<ro>iai, shall obey (a part of nei0u>). Trace of rr^o-aj = naOiav
in iEschylus (Agamem. 16U7). ninaadt now prefeiTed to ntnoaOe.

irardcro-w, strike, -afw, no Perf. Act., but otherwise full in Active forms.
The Aorist indra^a is the only part adopted in Tragedy and Attic prose ; and in
Passive parts more prevalent in Attic. -7r«TrdTay^oi is Epic, but 1st
nkria-a-o) is
Aor. Pass, and Fut. Pass, are very late, and nardcrcroixai. hardJy exists.

ndriofiai, eat, partake of, nE.a-OfiLat., (ntnaa-fiai), [Epic Plup. Mid. treTrdo-fii/)!'] ;

a-na<TTos.
inairdfjLTnv
; Chiefly Ionic and poetic. Cf. Sartofjiai in formation.
Distinguish from nionai and from n-Sreo/xai, Pass, of niTtm, tread.

iravoj, check (stem in pau-cus, English ftir), Mid. aase. Regular. In Ist
Aorist Passive inavadriv, besides the normal inaxidTqv, and traces of in&riv.
naWTtov.

ircCOw {ttXB-), 'persuade, Mid. obey, comply icith, neia-o}, TreTretKa,

TTfueicrfxai ; (Treiaa, (TTflcrdrjv ; Treia-Brja-o^ai 2nd Perf. TrtnoiBa,
; also
as a Pres. trust in; 2nd Aor. Act. (only in po.st- Homeric poetry, in-
cduding Aristophanes), tirXBov, Mid. (TnBofirjv, complied with (2nd
Aorists not Attic except in poets), [Epic nfiriBov and (= trust)
-ofjLTjv^ TTJOTOf, -irficTTos Only in compounds, also neia-Hov.
;
[Epic
parts of TTfrroiBa, (TreniBfifv, etc., cf. § 64] TreTreia-Bi, Imperative in ;

sense of nenoiBa. [Epic byforms, the trans. TrfniBrjaa), the intrans.

iTiBr](T(o and mBTjaas, obeying, trusting, the latter also lyric and
tra<]jic.] (Distincjuish Trtt'cro/xai, Fut. of Trao-xo), governing accus.,
from TTeiaofjLai (of neiBo)), will comply, governing dative.)
[ntiKio (Latin pec-to). Epic Pres.], comb, clip, [Doric Fut. ir«fw], tnt^a, ;

•ajxrji', -ex^Tiv. (The Attic Present in use is neKtew, only Pres. Act. and Pass.)
Poetic.

nti.vdu}, hunger, regular, but has 17 in contraction in place of a, § 67. 3.

1 Memoi-ial Iambic line : iracrxw t« »coI ninovBa, Kan ntivonai (Euripides).

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 249

Treipeiw, try, freqwent with Genitive; tempt with Accusative regular and
full,with Perfects. The Middle, in same sense, has choice of 1st Aor. Mid. or
Ist Aor. Pass, in sense of / tried. »r«tpa<^i.., with frequentative sense, t.mpt, is
only in Present in Homer, but in the Hellenistic time, receives complete and
regular development. [jrtcpTjTi'^w, found only in Present and Imperfect, is
Epic.)

irei'pitf, pierce (Fut. ?), ; »r<7rap/ui.at ; trreipa, -€jr«pr}i'. Chiefly poetic.

ireXa^iii [ireAaw poetic, also in Attic poets nf\X.9ta, in choral odes v\i9u)],
hring near (only in poets), also approach (stem n-eAo-, ttAo-, r-f Aa5-), (Fut. ne\i»,
from irtka.<T<M>, both poetic, choral), ; irtnKrjuai, eirtKaaa [Epic (TO-], iire\d.(T-
erjy and irrXri&riv [Ind AoT. Mid. in\vnrn', dnw nigh; unaugmented, ttAtjto, etc.,
(contrast with itA^to from 7ri>7rAT)|iii)] : dTrAdro?. The transitive sense, bHn<j
near, confined to poets, is almost universal in Homer. (-TrAd^w in Homer occurs
twice as syncopation for n-eAd^oj). Byform [TriAi-aMai Pres. and Iniperf., only
Epic, also TTiAi'dw], jrAijo-td^w Only in prose, regular, whence a Perf. Act. in -»ca.

»r«Aw and Tre'Aofiai, move round, am (in sense of versari). only Pres. and
Imperf., Act. and Mid. e often syncopated in the Imperf. (whence some con-
sider it a 2nd Aor.), as «7rAe or in\eTo for eireAe, etc., enKfv also in Pep. Trepi- ;

TTAoutio?. Poetic remained longest in use among Dorians.

;
The Imperf.
Middle (en-Afro) is notable as having sense of a Present. (n-wAeojuai gained upon
this verb in the Attic and even in the Epic time.)

vi/xnoi, send, ir<m//uj, 7r«'jrofi<J>o, w(nt^t.^xaL fweiJ.\l/a, -dixriv, ; -fiJL<{)dr)U ; nennroi,

vtfLirrtov. (Distinguish this ire'7refi/u.ou from that of 7re<r<ro).)

nivoftai, am poor, vork at, only Present and Imperfect. Cf. Adj. TreVrfs.

ittpdtii, cross, regular, with long a of Attic in other tenses (jr«pio-w,

its
ire»r«'pdjca) and 17 of lonic. On jrepao-w, etc., which has no Present Trepdw, see
iriirpa(7«C(i>.

ir e pio M. a I, Usually taken in origin, as in meaning, to be same as Latin pedo,

2nd Fut. Pass. -Trapirjo-o/xai •2nd Perf. TreVopfia ; 2nd Aor.
; errapfioi'. Traces of
iripiiu. Only in comedy.
Trepew, sack, destroy, ntpato (no Perfects); enepaa. [Epic 2nd Aoi". Act.
iirpadov. Mid. iirpa96firfv (as Pass.), rare Intln. nepOoLi, probably for ntpQ-Oai] Fut. ;

Mid. as Pa-ss., nipaofiat. Poetic. Prose form to irtpSw la its own frequentative
nopBito, regular.

nip V ri fi. t, sell. Iter, nipvaaicf. Mid. irepvaixan. Poetic, in sense of 7riirpd<r»cw.

irtrrto (late irtwTto, cf. ivimia), cook; ripen {stem Treir-, by labialism
ire <r<r<u,
from same base as Latin coquo), trivia, ; Trejrf^uoi intxl/a, -<<i»0rji/ ntuTOK. ; ;

(Distinguish jr«jr«>i^at, -ei/zai from »r<7r«/xfiai, -«fx(//at of irifJiTruj.)

ntTa.vvvn,i, spread, expand (trans.), ntraa-w, also Treroi -nentTaKa late ; ;

Tfirtraanai late, better niwTKfxai (Epic 3rd plural ntTTTiaTai]: intTacra. -do-dTji'.
CByform Triryrfm, only Pres. and Imperf. Act. atid Mid., Epic and Lyric (not in
trimeters).]

ir^roiioi, Jly, Fut. Mid. (-cttto/mt;!/),

ir(rr]aoixai, ; Slid Aor.
Opt., etc., iTToifjLrjv, Mid. by TTfTroTrjfxai
TTTfo-dai, rrroficvos, Perf.
from bvfonn noTaofmi. The above contributes tlie normal con-
jugation of this verb tm admitted into Attic prose.
A late non-Attic form in Pres. and Imperf. is irirayiai, also
TrerdofAat. Byf<jrm (late in Pre.**.) LTrrafiai, -Tm^o'o/Liai
(Ionic and Attic prose, tlie simple very late) 2nd ;

Aor. Mid. (irr&fXTjv (Conj. 7rr^ra«, Inf. Trraa-Bai, irrd-

fiivot^ § 63. A. obs". 1) also 2nd Aor. Act. late and
;

poetic, tnTTjVf Conj. (ttto)), nrairjvt nrrjuai, Trrdr.

 — ;

250 IKREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

n-nyvvfii, Hx, freeze (Latin j>on^-o), irjjfw (1st Perf. Act. ?), verrrfyuat. late ;
2iul Perf. Tre'TTTj-yo, sltaul flxed, am frozen ; <t»j| », -d^.rfv, --nxBTnu ; 2ncl Aor. Pasc.
e^dyyfy; 2nd Fut. Pass, irayriaotxai; [2ncl Aur. Mid. Epic KaT-eVr/itTo] ; TTTjKTOS.
TTTjyi WW and 7r>jc7-a-«o, -TTuj, as forms of Present, late. mfiyyvTo (Pres. Pass. Opt.) in
Plato for TTTj-yi'votTo.

ny]Sdw, spring, has Fut. nr}Sri(Tonai (imSittTio late). Perfects Act. and Pass.
no 1st Aor. Pass. Regular and full (with Perfects).
iri«f«i>, press (some from Lat. pis-o, but from (()ni- «^<o, Brupm.), reg., »ri«<rw,
etc., with Aorists, no Perf. Act. ; in Ionic is largely guttural, whence nenieyfjiai.

ni\uaixai, se© 7r«Aa^«.

w t'-u-TT A t)-M t inflected in Pres. and Imperf. Act. and Pass, like lo-nj^i
(irka-),
(once Iraper. for -dOu), Al(, forms in Attic from a stem ttAjj^-, ttAtjo-w,
«fj.nin\r)0i
rr<»rAT7»co, vtrr^rftTtxai., also WttAtjiuoi Tmj)lied in Tr^jrArj^Tai, -rjt'TO tirKnaa, -dixrfv, ;

in\i^<T9rfv ; n\ri(reriaoixai 2nd Aor. Mid. (Kpic («VA>jurj«', page 127), unangmented
;

ttAi^to (contrast with that from rreAd^to)], in Attic, in compounds, tien-ArjTo. Opt.
ejiTrAjj^irji' (-tifxrji', Buttni.) Imper. itJiTT\i)(To, ifi.n^rifj.ei'o^ «jui-irATj!TTto?, N.B. In; —
composition with if and <ruy, it is so ordered that only one n shall appear ui
the preposition and reduplicated syllable, conjointly thus «m-wi-tAt)mi but ti**- ;

iri'njrATji', and SO with itlnnpr)ij.i., when along witli the .same prepositions. Cobet,
however, demands e/niriMTA-, etc., and regards such as the sole correct forms.
Cf. byfonn irAjjflcu. TrArjSiiw, both generally intransitive and chiefly in Present
and Imperfect, although irAij^cj has 2nd Perf. tren-Arjea, and n-ATjfluiu has traces
of Aor. in -vira. The transitive sense of ttiVi-Atj/xi can be also expressed
by wAtjpow. itKr^But chiefly in prose in the phrase ayopa 7rA»j^ouo-a, full mark-tt
time. Epic byform Pass. mnir\dytTai.] ninnA.tvaai (Hesiod) implies a form
(mfiw\«t,)). Negative verbal, owAt/o-tos. Cf. Latin pleo, our , rill.
iri-^-wprj-Mi (»rpo-), blow, bum, borrows from irp^flw largely, wp^o-w, ;

-ir«»rpijnot. alst) enpriaa. [lonic irpjjo-ojuLai in Pass, sense, also Fut. Perf. jren-pii-
o-oMoi.] Byfonn rrpijfluj, blow, bum. Imperf. eiVn-prjeoi'. As to u by concurrence
in composition with iy and a-vv, see under TriViTrAijMi. (Trace of inptaa, Hesiod.)
nivvaKuj (niy\l-\ mcJce prudent, admonish [Homeric Aor. inivvtraa]. Ci.
nviitt. Chiefly Epic.

ir£-v-«, drink, {nl-, no-^ po-to), Fut. mofxai (§ 77. ^. obs. 3), (i of
Fut. long in Ei>ic, as always in arsi, but X in Attic coinerly late ;

-ov^lal) TreTToxa, nfTToum 2ik1 Aor. Act. f Tribi/ (i long t7i am, as Epic
; ;

Infin. nifn(v), with Iniperat. nWi (p. 126), as well as rrif. Traces
of Infin. tt'iv or -rrdv. l><t Aor. Pass, (nodrju noBrjaofiai ; Trordy, ;

-Woy. The transitive mmaKct), give to drinks has Fut. Trt'o-tu, eTrio-a ;

chiefly Ionic and poetic.

n-r-»rp!l<7»cto> (ntpa-, npa-, ef. irep-irri-fii), sell, [Future, only In Epic ntpia-b),
iirtpHaa]. ninpaxa, irtirpdfjiai, [Homeric, in sense of sold, we7r«pjj^eVos] iirpdidriv, ;

[Ionic -prifiai, -pjj^T/*'] ; irpa^jjo-Ofiai, late ; Fut. Perf. ireTrpdaofjiai, irpdroi, -rio^.
The Attic representatives of Future and Aorist are dvo6t^arofxai, air«66Mn«'-
ir^irTft), Trt-Trer-o)), (stem Trer-), nearovfiai (Ionic -eo/iot),
fall (for
TTfTTTujKa,Pep. TTfTTTas (tragic), [Epic nfTTTTjcis and -fcof] 2nd Aor. ;

tiTfaov [Doric eizfTov], possibly for (Trer-arov (rare relic in Attic

like Epic Aor. in -o-ov.) Poetic Present in tragic and lyric ttitvoj,
less certain -ntrviat. (t of mirTOi is treated as long, as for example,

in Imper. irlirre.)

iTLTviiiLi, spread, see ircrdci'v/xt.

[Tri<^av<rKw, see i^avcKM.]

n-Adi'w (nkayy-), make to vander, mislead, (Fut. ?>; inXay^a. Mid. and Pass.
n-Adi^o/mai, tcandtr, n-Aay^Ojuai, ; fn\dy\6riv ; 7rAay»CT0?. lonic and Poetic.
(The cognate rrAdvdu, reg. and full, takes its place in prose.) Cf. under ir* Ad<io.
 ;;

§ 114.] tRREGULAB VERBS. 261

irAao'O'iD, TrXaTToi, fashion, foriUy [-rrKaaiti Ionic], ireVASita late ; iT«jr\ao-fxai

cirAao'a, •txft.-qi', -do^Tjf ; TrAatrTo?, •reoi' late.

irA«<ca> (Latin plec-to), fold, hiit, plait, jrAefm, [ntnKexa or lonic -oxa], ir«-
irAryuai ; (n\e$a, -dfirn', -exBuv ; irA<x^^O'0/*ttt 5 2nd Aor. Pass. -ejrAoLicijj' (var. lect.
-e'icijf)
; jrAtKTos JrAe'y-firjv. ;

irAe'w (tAv-), saii (takes o" in Perf. Pass.), irAevo-o^ai or -ovfiai, irerrKevKa,
jr«'jrA*va-Mai inXtvaa, iir\fva-07iv late TrAeuo-Teoi'. [Byform Homeric TrAetw (i.e.
; ;

irAe,=-ya>); also the Poetic and Ionic (both prose and poetry), »rAoiw, nkilxrofxai,
irtTTkuiKa (Euripides in trimeters once), «jrAoi<ro, Epic "Jud Aor. en-Awi', Participle
-jtAw? ; wAtejTOS.] (TrAevVw, as Fut. late.)

vkri(T<ru, ttAtjttw, Strike, late (post- Aristotelian) in simple in Pres. in ;

composition with <«-, Epic and Attic in Pres., Fut. TrA^foj (^schylus); 2ud
Pert. TrejrArj-ya (in early Attic Active, in later Passive in sense), (1st Perf. TreV-
Aijxa doubtful, being only var. lect.); TreVATjY^ai ; enXri^a, -dfj.rji' (Ionic); en-Kiiy-
6r}y, more commonly 2nd Aor. Pass. inkriYnv ; also -inkityrji', but only in
compounds of mental emotion, expressing strike with terror, etc. ; 2nd Fut.
Pass. jrAr/yifaouat or -nkdyriaofiai. Fut. Perf. venkri^otxaL ; nkriKTeov ; -TrA^-ySrjj',
',

en- Epic. Mid. stHk-e one's self (for grief). [On reduplicated Epic aorists rreTr-
Aj/yof, -ofirfp, see § 73.] Trace of a form 7rA»)yi/y/xi in Pres. Pass, in Thucydides.
In the Active parts, Trardo-o-co is more common.

vkvviM} (irAuj-), -icasfi. (clothes, etc.), n-Ailvi, (Perf. Act. ?) ; neirkvfiai ; inkvva,
-oMi7»> <jrAWj7v ; traces of nkv9i/jcroiJiai. ; Fut. Mid. -nkweiTat. in Pa.ssive sense
irAuTOS Ionic, TrAuTfOS. (Akin to TrAe'w, nkv-.)

irviii> (jTvu), [Epic byform nvtita, i.e. iTvef-yu>], blow, breathe, wvevaofxai and
-ovixat, -irtnvfvKo. ; [Epic Perf. Pass. nenirOfjiai, icise (literally gifted with am am
soul, be.seelt), Plup. nenvvao] ; evfeva-a, -aflTji/ ; anvevcrroi ; [2nd Aor. Act. with
preposition ava-, Imper. att-irwe, 2nd Aor. Mid. afjL-nyvTo, recovered breath : 1st
Aor. Pass. ati.--nvvv&y[v\. Cf also nivvaKU), and adjective wii'wtos.

» f I -y w {irviy-, to check breath, irw-), choke, trans, stew, -nvi^u (later -irvC^oixai),
, itfTviynai. ; infi^a, -ix^rff late eirviyrfi' (I), was drowned ] iri'tyrjaoMat ; nvi.K'
,

T05. (Doric Fut. nyi^ovtMi. in reflexive sense.)

TTod iui, tlesire, regret, regular, -rjau), etc., but Perfects late ; traces in Ionic
and good Attic of short vowel, noOecrotiai., 1st Aor, Infin. nodea-ai (Homer); (»ro-
erjTo?), in Doric rpi-jroddTos : a-ir6de<rroi in Homer, which Eustath. takes as
from woOiw.

[noiiTvvu (geminate from nvto)), puff, bustle about, chiefly I^resent and
Imperfect, except 1st Aor. Pep. 7roi7ri/v<ras.] Epic and poetic.
trofcw, labour, regular and full; traces of an Ionic Fut. irofeVw (in bodily
of smart), as well as vomficroi.

IT op- (rrpo-), assign, allot; 2nd Aor. ivopov poetic [reduplicated jreiropeii' in

Pindar) Perf. Pa-sii. irinpwftai, generally impersonal 7r«'7rpu>Tai, it is fated, nfirput-

;

fityr) as substantive = Fate. Cf. fwi'po/ioi. nopa-vvu supplies defects. Root as

in Latin por-s, im-per-t-io.

nopnaw, fasten with buckle (wopwt)), prefers to form with d in early Attic,
tm wopniaov. »j appears in later time.

irpd(r<rw or ttparriti (irpdic-, irpdy-), do, perform, exact, irpa^u, niirpaya

(trnnsitive, till l.ittO, 2iid I'crf. n-»irpdya (generally intrans., have fared, well or ill),
" r ... Mililh' in seUHe), iiTpa{a, -dixiff, -ax^V*' t irpa\$r)<TOixat. ;
.il>.i
I
'()?; Middle exact, obtain (for one's self), (Ionic
- • .
Ml.; ,11 :..;iiH). N( -it ive verbal, dirpojcTot.
wpii; irug (get some one to sell, stem with only Ist Aor. Mid.
wrpa-, npa-),
iwpid^Liir. See for inflection f 63. B. 1. (Other tenses supplied by iltftoixai.)
wpim, $aw, iaaerte a in PasHives (Perfect and Anriat). (Fut ?), wtirpi^fiai ;

iwpiaa, *4«#1^ ; gptrr^ f. Traces of -wiwpUa late. Byform npi^m late.

wpn^vfitfo^at, $hom tametttutt, a Dop. Pass., whence Aor. irpov€v^i^0Tiv (no

Perfect).
252 IRREGULAB VERBS. [§ 114.

[irpotaaoftai, beg, -Trpoifo/noi, Ionic]; -jrpoi'fo/xoi, Attic; -en-potfaTo, late

and rare. Mostly poetic.
nrapwuai. (cf. Latin ster-nu-o for {p)ster-nu-o\ sneeze, (Fnt. ?), 2ml Aor.
Act. iirrapov, (-6/xrji/ Ionic) dpriv. (Trace of a Present rrraipw or nrdpo}.)
;

irTJjo-o-w {nraK; iTrt}K-), crouch, cower, (Future ?); en-njxa, enryt^a (usually
cowered, also transitive tenified). From -maK-, 2nd Aor. Act. KaTa-maKiiiv ; [from
older stem Trra-, 2nd Aor. KarairTfiTT\v (of steeds, referred by many to the inT-nv of
ntTOfJLai) ; Pep. of 2nd Perf. TreTriTjws, but qf. irin-Tw]. tttijo-o-uj. Ionic prose and
tragic, is chiefly in Present and Imperf. ; Fut. and Aor. -fu and -fa late. [By-
form TTTwo-Ko^w only Epic and in Present.]
TTTto-o-w (for »rTii'-«ri-w = Latin pin-so), 2>0und, (Fut. ?), ejmo-/ixoi ; enTiaa.,
Mfiv. Chiefly Ionic.

TTT V <r<rw, fold, -irrvfu, ; inTvyixai. ; iirrv^a, •dfitfy, -v,\6tji/ (tttuktos Epic).

trTvtti (I^tin Ist Aor. Act. nrva-ai ; Aor. Pass. inrva-Byiv -nrvtr-
*J>u-o), »;>it, ',

t6«. Traces of a Perf. Act. in -(to. (In Pres. v in Homer and tragedians, v in
later poets.)

irv6(a, inal-e to rot, irvo-co, iirOira. P&as. rot, decay.

; (Distinguish eirO-
Oofifif, its Imperf., from cirO06^T)f, 2nd Aor. of wwddvoiJLai.)

wvvOavOfiai, inquire, hear (irv9-, forms from byforra ir«vflo^ai), nevaonai

(Doric -oCjLtai) ; ntnwfJiai, invd6nr)v, [Epic iTtirvOoi.ro] irtva-Tiov Attic ; ai'a-m;<r-
;

t6?, -t«os,Epic and Ionic, jreufio/uiai as a Pres. is not in prose, but in all forms
of poetry, except comedy.

iTvpiaa-u), irvptTTiMt, have fever, generally guttural, irvpi^u, traces of Perfs.

Act. and Pass. ; eirvpefa (var. lect. imiptaa).

Paivw (pa-, also paf-), sprinkle, pafw, ; ippaafiai ; ippdva (Ionic -rji/a),

-avdpirjy late, -pavddt. From

stem pa- ((^f. /3o- in /SotVw). [Epic 1st Aor. Imper.
pdaaart ; Perf. Pa.ss. «ppoi5aTai, -oto. See § 69.] po»^6?, late, Ionic and poetic.

^aib>, strike (with a hammer), [^ot<r<D, «ppai<ra], -aiaBi^v ; [Fut. Mid. as Pa.ss.
-Aato-OMot]. Except ippaiad^f, which occurs in tragedy, mostly Epic and lyric.
pdwTu) {^a<t>-), stitch, ^d\(iu}, ; eppofx^ai ; ippa\l/a, -d/xTjf ; 2nd Aor. Pass.
ippa^i)V ;
pairr6(.

pd<T(Ti», pdrrot (Present late), tear doim, ^afw late; ippa^a, -dxOr^v ;
pdy-
Srjv : akin to ^r\<r(Tu>, dpdwut.

pi^o (i>ty-), (out of fp«>-v<ii,l cf. § 9. 3. for 0, do, work; pefw, ipe^a, rarely
ippt^a ; pexBtirf, ptx6ti<:, only Ionic in Aor. Pass. Verbal in a-pe^To?. [Iterative
.^aJC... ITrki^
T*Ytn.A%-/
Imperf. 5^J?'^.0^^^.. 1
ftigta-Kov.] Chiefly poetic— Byfomi
r^^^i^ttrr vx^-wAfv^ f) «*/<-« v*rki epSu l^nJi..^ ^^i¥ar> Tr\tii/*
Epic, jpfioj QT-lkillirr
later Ionic, arising
out of ftpy-im, cif. ftpfov, Fut. <'pf(i>, 2nd Perf. eopya, Pluperf. iiltpyei. 3rd pers
ip^a, also «pfa rare. No Aor. Pass from ipy- stem, which avoids confusii:
with Aor. Pass, of «pyw, exclude. Never au^ented except in Homeric Pluperf.
—Not in Attic prou except in passa*;es which are quoted or borrowed ; super-
seded by ipyd^OfiAi.

^« {pv-\ flow (for o-pffo) {(rpv-\ see § 9, cf. Latin riv-us,

Celtic sruth =
Srpu/itoi/), pevaofiai and -ovfim (traces of peixroi in
Ionic and late), fppCrjKa (ppcvaa, 2nd Aor. Pass. f'ppvTju (in
;

active sense) ; 2nd Fnt. Pass, pvrfo-o^iai (in active sense) (!>vt6s, ;

late ^(VTos. Epic Pres. also /Jfi'o), Hesiod. In the best Attic,
f'ppvTjp was Aorist and ^vr}aofiai Future, rather than fpptuo-a, etc.

1 Ftpy- or ^'<p"y- is the same as our English work, German werk; and p«'/tTT}s, in

which F has vanished, is the analopon to our English wright, in which w ha.<»
now lost Its sound, though retained in spelling.
§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 253

(J>f-), stem of elprfKa, elpriixai., epprj^rji/ (-e9rfv) ; prtBrja-ofxat. ; 3ril Future Perfect
tlprja-ofiai.. Cf. ver- in Latin rerbum, and consult elmv.
prjyvvf*-!- (probably Latin j'rn-n-go), (pay-, pi)y-)i poetic p)j<r<ru>, break, shatter,
pri^tn, ; -eppijy/uLai rare ; ippr^^a, •dfjirjy, -yixBrfv rare ; 2nd Aor. Pass, ippiyr^v,
payr)<Top.ai. "Ziid Perf. ippuiya, am broken, see § 81. ptjktos. [Iter. Imperf. pTJ-y-
waKf, Epic]
piyetj (ply), shudder, (Fut. ?), 2nd Perf. epptya, as Present, [Epic Participle
ippiyovTi] ; tppiyrjo-a [unaugmented Epic pCyr)<ra]. Chiefly Epic.
piyow shiver (with cold), piywaw,
(i), ; eppLyuicra.. On contraction by
w ci) for ou 01, see § 57, obs. 3. (piywf in Infln. older Attic than piyou«'.)
pirrriM), throtc, aist (pi</)-). pi"/"-), eppic^a, eppi/ti/uiai, [traces of pepifi)aai, whence
Homeric Pluperf. epepin-ro] ; fppL\pa [poetic epi\{/a, pl\l/a], «ppi<^flrj»' ; pi</)fli7<rofxai ;
also fppi<!>rjy ; Fut. Perf. ippiil/op.ai ; ptTTTos; (modal adverb pin4>a. Epic). Byform
pijrT«u>, Pres. and Imperf. only ;
[Iterative Epic pinracrKov].
poijtcw, tup up, swallow, po<i>i\(Ta, also -ifo-o/itai ; ipp6^ri<ra, (Akin to Latin
sorbeo.)

pvoftaL (C, in Pres. and Imperf. variable), draw to ont's side, defend, pvao-
/lai(i>), 1st Aor. Mid. eppvcrdMrji'. [pixrOat., by Some taken as from a stem [pvni], by
other-s as syncopated Infln. Pres. for pveadai., eppyro and plural pvaro may be
from Imperf. syncopated or from a 2nd Aor.] [Verbal puros in primary sense,
dragged. Epic. Distinguish from pvro^, _ti<)icing, from pen*.] Trace of pv<Ta.p.y\v
(only Epic), having quantity as in «pi5w, which see.
pviraw, am foul, [Epic pviroto, Ionic Perf. Pep. pepvjrojjaeVo?].

puivvvp-i, strengthen, -puxrtu late, eppuixai (Imper. ippotao

; = vale, fare-
well) ; ippttxra, ippiiitrOriv (§ 86. 4). Verbal in appu><no%.
[putofjiai, more nimbly, ippuaavro Homer.] Epic (of flowing motion, for
pw- ; ptto '. '.
irAtac : TT-Ae'oi).

iaiftti, raicn upon, (Fut. ?), iaava, aaaurot.

traipto, sKtej>, I.st Aor. icrrjpa, and, if from same stem, 2nd Perf. aea-qpa
(ffvin, as Pres.), especially in Pep. atarfpins [Epic Fut. aeaapvla]. {aapout un-Attic
and late.)

o-aAiri'^cu, sound a trumpet, is a guttural, whence Fut. <raAiriyf w ; Ist Aor.

ttroAiriy^a. (Late forms shifted to dental, as <ra\wi<To).)
<Ta6ut, save, see o-iofw.

<rdu>, sift (whence aio-t of Herodotus), e<n\<Ta, trt<rtip.ai. Chiefly Ionic. Attic
i.aTTaw. Byform <rijdu), late, whence o- began to be inserted in Passive parts, cr'.

vfiivvvfAt,, extinguish, irptau, -lafiriKa (neuter); ftrPfo-fxai; iafitcra, -t<r0r]y ;

2nd Aor. iaprfy (neuter); -<r0>j<roM^ai. Mid. v^ivvvtiai, to which ea/SjjKa and «<r/3>ji'
belong in nieanmg.
<r «0w, revrrenct, Aor. Pass. i<re<t>Oriv, wot awe-struck; Mid. ful rtverenee, revere,
Pres. and Imperf. Verbal a-trrro^.
fftim, shake, 'CrtiiTit, ceVtiKa, -cKr^ai ; lativa, -a/yLtif, 'tia6t\v ; o'eiCTOt. [Epic
Imperf. itrotiovro, dvavtrtiaVK*.]
atvm (<rv), move, set in motion, urge. Mid. hasten, rush (no Fut. or Perf. Act.),
itrirvuat, ruth (fun a Pres.), [Aorists iaatva, •dp.i\i', or vtva, etc.. Epic] ivafiB-nv ;

f- -•' ' ». -r. .Mid. tVcrSmji'.l having parts such as «<ruTo, <ruTo, o-v^efo? ;

liyluH). (Anomalous Presents .Middle o-owTai, o-eOrai, Impora-

t mtavova, rather -ova, may be Laconic for dur«<r<rwij, is gone,
.. -...; l'..i-tlC.

Might also
1 l)e a Pluperfect in form but the subjoined parts beIone[ to an
AoHst. It* 2nd sing. Is ivavo (for iv<r<nTo), for same euphonic reason as *v<r*va
drops 9.
 ;;;

264 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

(rrifiaivu), show, (Tyifiavio, <Tf<rfinayKa late, <re<r^fxa<rfxat ; i<rf)firiva, also -di/a,
•duTfv, -dvOrfv ; (rry/aai/dijcro/Ltai ; Verbal in a-crrj/nai'TOS.

0-17 »ru> (o-Stt-), rot, i.e. cause to decay, ai^xLot, 2nd Perf, o-eo-ijTra (as a Pres, rot,
i.e. ivjU'er decay), atoTffjLuai ; 2nd Aor. Pass, tadmiv, 2nd Fut. o-a»njo-ojaat otjtttos. ;

a-tyaui (probably German schtoeig-en), am silent, pass over in silence, Fut.

©lyijo-o/ixai, o-iyrjcT-w late, otherwise regular and full, (o-iy- with t long.)

tripofjiai (i), Aan/i, chiefly in Present and Imperfect.

o-iteiiraw, am silent, pass over in silence, Fut. o-ium^o-o/xat, o-iuTn^erw late,
otherwise regular and full.

<T K an T u {<TKa.<l>-), dig, (ncai/zoj, i(rKd<f>a, -a^/mai ; e<TKa\}/a, 2nd Aor. Pass. i<rKa-
<l>riy.

a-KtSdvi'v fxi, scatter, Fut. cxejoo-cu, Attic <rKeSu>, -a?, -4, ; ivKtSaafiai ;

iiTKfSaaa, -ajxTji', -aa^f o-»c«6o<j-t6?. Byform aKiSyrim., Poetic and Ionic prose
,

(also entirely Epic, without o- prefixed, as KiSvafxai, tKr^aaaa, etc.]

(TKfKkio (<TK(\; iTKkt-), dry up (trans.), (Fut ?), eVxATjica, neuter, amdried
up, (Epic Aor. eo-jojAa) ; 2nd Aor. ianKr^v, -aKKai^v, in ajro-a/cATJcoi whence awo-
;

<rxA>)<roMa(, late.

0'«c<irro^ai, 866 (T «c o rr e w.

©(t^iTTw, prop, Z«on on, -o-kiii^m, ; -e<rin7/bifi,ai ; i<rKr}\f/a, •dfirii', -jjc^diji/

Mid. </eri<e an excuse.

a- K C S f 1]
fjii. Mid. <r«ti8»'a/xai, «c<Uter. Byform, chiefly poetic, for <TKtidvwtn.

(akin to Latin spec-i-o\ is in pood

a-Koirlu, view, also aKoirovfxai
Attic writers confined to the Pres. and Iniperf. Act. and Mid.,
borrowing the rest from a Pres. which is chiefly EjDic, o-KfVro^ai, as
Dep. Mid. ; viz. o-»c<>//'o/xai, eaKffifiai (often Pass, in sense) ; eVxf-
yj/dfiTjv ; Fut Perf. ea-ie<>/^o/xat ; aKenHos. {(TKonr}(T(o, etc., are only
post- Aristotelian and Hellenistic.)

[o-Kvfo/ytat, angry. Epic am and chiefly in Present. Imperf. late. Aorist

Optative «wi-<r»cv<r(rotTO.] Epic.
<TKu>irria, jeer, scoff, aKunpofiiat. (traces also of aKtitxIioi), •eo-xcdfx/xai ; eonccoi^a,
'dfiriv, -ti^)di}»'.

vfjidu, smear, contracts with 17 for a, see § 57. 3. (Ionic <j-m<w.) Byform
(Tiiri^o), chiefly Epic and Ionic, regular but no Perf. Act. (a/xijxeeis also in
Attic) ; Verbal in i-e6-<rnrjKT0i Epic, a-a/LnjxTos Attic.
(Too/biai, <rov/xai, see o-ei/u.

o-ow, see (Tw^bj.

an dot, draw, jmll, regular and full, with a short; o-irdo-w, e<rnaKa -aa-noi;
i<rnd<ra, -oifiTjv, 'dirOrjv ; <Tnaa6rj(T0iJ.ai. ', -crirao-Tos, -crna<TT(ov ; im-and-driv.
antipoi, sow, (mepio, tanapKa late ; -ap/Liai ; ianeipa, 2nd Aorist Passive
iandpriv ; crrapTos ; <r7ropa5»j»'.

a-nev&io, pour a libation, a-neiau (see p. 145, n. 1), {-ianetKa very late), «<nrei<r-
fiai ; ;<r7r«io-a, -a^Tji/, -eio-flTji' (late). Mid. engage in a treaty. [Iterative Epic
forms anevStaKf, andaaaKe.]
<r TT e u 5 <o, hasten (tmnsitive and intransitive), regular, with late Perfects.
Verbal <Tn€v<TT€ov.

a-rd^M, drop, distil (neuter), (rrd^u), ; iaraynai.; iara^a, ia-rdxOriv

o-TOKTo? ; <TTdy-&r)v. Chiefly Ionic.

cr T « '^
I uj (<rrt/3-), tread, -((rrfixf/a ; Perf. Pass. iari^niuu. (from a stem <m/3«-X
Verbal oreurTos (or o-titt-). Poetic.
 ;

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 255

(TTei'xw (oTtX"). fnarch, [-earti^a, 211(1 Aor. earlxov, Epic parts]. Poetic and
Ionic.

VTt\ko>, sejid, ,tit out, OTeAw, Ionic a-rtXeu), earoAica, -aKfiai i<Trei\a, -aurfv, ;

2nd Aor. Pass. iardKriv -aToA^a-oMf". (fTroiXaTo lonic 3rd. plur. Plup. Pass.
;

now read for abnormal «<rT<xAa6aTo.) Mid. Stt out, go; array one's self; send for.
a-Tfi'd^ui {crrtvay-), c/roan, arfva^u), eo-reVaf a arevaucTOi;, -reo?. (Perf. Pass,;

late.) Poetic. The kindred o-Tei^avw. (nivm, <neva\i^u>, are used only in Present
and Imperfect (Act. and Mid.X [Byform in Passive, o-Teu-oftoi, in sense of am
straitened, only in Epic]

(TTtpyoi, love (of the piety of natural aflfection), acquiesce in, a-Ttp^oi, 2nd
Perf. eo-Top-ya HerodotuS, <crTepy/u,ot, Emped. ; ^o-repfa, i<TTipxdr\v late, (TTepKTOS,
-reos.

VTtpim, (fe/)n re (byform <rTepi'a»cu>), o-Tepijeraj, eo-TepTj^ca, .Tj/xai ; ia-Ttprja-a [once

in Epic, a-TtpeaaL, sole occurrence of verb in Homer] -rjdrjv ; o-tj p>}6»)<rojoiai ; has also
from unexpanded stem artp-, 2nd Aor. Pass, ecrrepriv; 2nd Fut. Pass, (or Mid.)
<rT(py',<Toixat. No (crrtpiti) is found, but in Hesiod, Herodotus, and Attic prose,
rare in tragic, o-Tepo/uai occurs, expressing a condition, as if a Perf., am depnved =
of, forlorn, am witfiout, in Pres. and Imperf. a-Tepia in JEschylus in Future sense.
(Akin to English steal.)
[a-Ttvfjiai, stand surety^ vouch, chiefly in 3rd Persons, a-TfiroLi, (TTevvrai,
Imperf. (ttcvto.) Poetic, chiefly Epic.
(j-Ti fw (arty-), prick (cj. stig of Latin in-stig-o), o-ti'^w, ; ^o-Ttyjotoi, ?<TTi$a,
(TTIKTO?.

(TTope'i'f w|Lt I, or (poetic) a-ropwut, spreoAl, strow, -<rTopa> (for a-Topea-to),

late iaropKra (never -ao-a, for metrical reasons), -iixr^v, -ia-Oriv. Cf.
i<rr6pt<Ttt.ai. ;

arpiiyyvfii (Latin ster-n-o).

<rTp(4>to, turn, arpif^iia, i<rTpof}>a, ^(rrpa/uifxai ; eoTpei/>a, -oftrii', <<7Tp«4>^i» rare

(Ionic and Doric i<TTpd<i>0rjy) ; 2nd Aor. Pass. ia-Tpd<i>r\v 2nd Fut. Pass.; <rTpa<)7J-
tTofnat. ; <rrp«7rTos. Modal adverb in such as fiov(TTpo4ti)h6v.

vrpiin-vvfJii. {(Trpui-) OTopeVi'v/xi =

(Trputvat ((a-rpuKa very late)
; ; larpw/xai
iarpuxra, •o/itji', -utSrn' ; orpuTos, (Cf. Latin stra-tu-s.)
arvyiia, detest, forms from stem a-rvy, [iarv^a causative, made tennble, later
hated; 2nd Aor. iirrvyov, hated Epic]; f^rom expanded stem a-rvye-, «o-ruy7j(ca.
•rffxai late ia-rvyrfcra, -ridrjv.
; Fut. Mid. in Passive sense <rTvy»j<ro/xai (may also
be 2nd Fut. Pass, from arvy stem), tarvyixai only cited by Hesychius. Poetic.
[vTvif>« ki^to, dash, Aor. «(rTv<i)«Xifa]. Epic.
<rvp I f w, Attic oT/piTTw, whistle, hiss, has y latent, whence Fut. <rvpi'fw, best
•fofxat in Attic.

V p lo.draw, tug (Fut. avow late), Ist Aor. favpa, -dfiriv. Traces of Perfects
<T

Act. and Pass., and 2nd Aor. Pass, iavprjv late avp-Sriv (.^Eschylus). ;

a6d^w slaughter, a4>d.TTUi generally in Attic prose; <r^a.(u;

(<r^ay-), slay,
iv^ayfiai ; ((r<(>a^a, -i<rti>a(dnriy, ia6d\$rfi> rare, 2nd Aor. Pass. i<ri}>dyriv ; 2nd
Fut. Pass. <r.^ayij<ro^ai ; cr<^flucT6«. (Perf. Act. -icr<i>aKa, very late.)

or^aAAw (lAtin /aZ^o), trip, deceive, ir^akia, i<T4>a\Ka (Polybius), <<r<^<xAuac ;

c<r^i)Aa ; 2nd Aor. Pass, iv^dkr^v ; 2nd Fut. Pass. <r<j)aA>j<ro/Liai ; Fut. Mid.
v^akovtiai, will fail.
<rw^M, tave, protect, <rut<rui, <r*au)Ka, .w/jiai, also •oxr^xat ; ivtixra, •dutji', iautBriv ;

^M^ov^Mi <r«>(rT«ot.
: Doubtful in early Epic chiefly in Attic poetry and ;

prow. Present is in Attic often <r<^w. (Epic aww, only Pres. ami Imperf. Act.
and Pa**., hating Conj. <r6yj?. o-brj. Also, Epic aaow, Fut. a-aoxrw Aorists ;

ivmmvof ivamSiiy (Homer and Pindar), trau, as a 3r(i sing, of a Past tense,
by some taken as Imjferfcct, by others as Aorisl on analogy of inkm. Also <rdu,
as 2nd sing. Imperat., for aaov out nf rraor.)

l(Ta-), take, found in Homeric Imperat. ttj, hold there! and t^t« (SophronX
(Beferred usttaUy to stem of rciVw, becoming ra-.) {Cf. iii Imper. for idt.)]
 ;

256 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

[(ray), take, grip, found in solitary Homeric 2n(l Aor. Pep. rerdyJiii'. Cj.
Latin tag- in tango.]

[ravtito, stretch, ravicrui (also ravtlut as Fut.), , TeTat'u<r/u,ai ; erdi'va-a, -dfir^v

(also a-a) ; -vaOrfv. Byforra Toiw/iat.] Epic byform of retVo).

rapdaau) (rapax-), disturb, rapafo), Terapixa late; Tfrapayfiai erdpa^a, ',

•axBr)v ; Topox^jjo-oMai. [Epic Perf. with tj from Ionic infiiience, {rerprfxa, am

Btormj/, ronjHsed), rtrprfxi^i Pluperf. rerprixei,] Byform dpaaaia or OpdrTto, with
',

Aorist iOpa^a, idpdx^ytv. T seems to receive aspiration, passing into B from

contact with p.

rd<T<ru), toLttw (ray-), aiTange, rd^ni, riraxa, TtTayfiat tra^a, -dfir^v, -dYflrji' ;

raxBria-ofJiai ; 2nd Aor. Pass, irdyyv, 2nd Fut. Pass. rayria-ofjLai. late Fut. Perf. ;

TeTafo/Ltai ; raicTO?, -t«'os. On TtTdxa-rat, -to, see § 69.

rtivu {t(v-), stretch (Latin ten-do\ tcvw, HraKa (see § 80), -cifim ;
ereiva, -d^T)v, (Tadrju ; radrjcrofiaL. ra-roj, -ra-reoy, (K-Td-drjv. See
Tavvoi, Tiraiuo}.

reipu, mh, wear out (Latin <er-o), only Pres. and Imperf. Act. and Pass.
Rest supplied by rpifim. Traces of Perf. riroptv. Mostly poetic.
T<X«'w, finish, rtKit (out of rfkiaut), rtrtKtKa, •tafiai, cTe'Aco'a, -afiTji/, •aOrfv.
(Epic byform Ttktiu.]

T A A u), accomplish, cause to rise (of a star), also intransitive rite, with Pres.
«'

Pass. T«'AA«Tai, 1st. Aor. irtika, [Plup. Pass, with ini in tmesi, irtTakro, teas
committed]. In composition (d^a-, im-, etc.), thus avariWu), rise, also raise, (no
Fut.), avtTtika, and Perf. di/aTeVoAica (Polyb., Arist.). Most notable of its com-
pounds is ivTiWofjiai, eryjoin, a Dep. Mid., Fut. cVreAov/yiat late, efTeVoiAfiai, in
sense Mid., also Pass. ; cccreiAdfirif.

T^|jLV<a), cut, slice (rf/1-, r/xf-), [Ionic rd/ii/a), Homer once T(fio> as
Pres.], T(fia>, T(TfiT)Ka, -Tjfiai ; ere/xoi/, -d^i;»/ with f, also, in older
Attic, (Tayiov and €Tafi6fjiT]v ; erfirjdrjv ; TfirjBqa-oixat ; Fut Perf. rcr-
ljLr)a-ofxai ; TfiTToy, -r«osr ;
[r/xiySi;!' Epic]. Byt'orni Tfirjyoi, which see.

ripvio, amuse, repi^w, (no Perfects), irtp^pa, [-dp-riv Epic]; irfp(i>0r\v [Epic
€Tdp<^drji', 2nd Aor. Pas.s. tTapnriv, with Conj. rpandui 2nd Aor. Mid. (r^rapTro- ;

^iji/]. (Including iTtpi^er^y, which they also u.sed. Epic poets had six different
Aorist forms for expressing was rejoiced.) fSome incline to associate rep-mn with
Tpen-w (cf. rpandto, belonging inform, to either), both signifying to divert.)

[Ttpaofj-at, become drt/, 2nd Aor. Pass. eVepoTji'. Te'pa-w, Fut. Act. in Theoc,
as if from an vEolic (Ttppiu), c/. <t>B«p-(Tio. Byfonn repo-aiVoj (trans.), dry up, with
Aor. Act. iTip<n\v(x. Akin to Latin tojT-eo, terra (= 'dry land'), and c/". raptro^,
Attic Toppos, crate for drying.]

[TeTtT)^ai, nm wot begone, usually in Pep. TeTnj|u.eVos, t«titjws, each with

Passive sense, dejected, troubled.]
[r e T ^. o V, found, lit upo7i, or «T<T/ixoi' (for re-Te/ui-oi'). Conj. t«'t/litj?, etc. See
§73.] Epic.

Ttrpaivu}, pierce, bore (late Pres. TirpaiVu, Tirpddi and -yim), [Fut. rtrpavioi,
Aor. eTeTpTji/a], •iTtTpr\vd(t.rfv. A
short stem Tpa-, as if from mpdia, comes up
in 1st Aor. irpria-a ; Perf. Pass. rerprjuaL ; rpijTos.

T e V X ««> (tvxO. prepare, make, fashion, revfoi, [Tereuxa. intrans. Epic] TeVfvxci.
Act. in sense =
have formed, late. Ttrvyixai, am by making, [Epic 3rd plural
Terevxarai, -aro], iTVxBr\v (Ionic iTivxBy\v) [Fut. Perf. Ttrtv^onai.] tvkj6<;, late ; ;

T«u»cTos. Epic 2nd Aor. (tvk-), with »c for x from loaiamus {cf. btKop-aC), rtrvKt'iv,
1

-ofiT)!', prepare, procure.] Generally poetic almost never in Attic prose. On ;

this stem tvk- is raised a new inceptive Present, TiTva-KOfjLai, having double
sense, (1) with Accusative in sense of t«vxw, prepare ; (2) in sense of the cognate
Tvyxdvoi, to hit, aim at, governing Genitive. On relation of rvyxdyu to this
verb, see Tvyxdvto.
 ,

§ 114.] IREEQULAR VERBS. 257

r^Ku (rax-), melt (trans.), ttj^io, e-nj^a, errixOriv rare; 2nd Aor. Pass. iraK-rii'
(intrans.) ; 2nfl Perf. rerrfKa (i\s Mid.) = melt (intrans.) ; ttjicto?.

[(riew), assumed as Present to TeTirj/xot, occurring only in TeTiiia-0ov and its

two Epic Pep. Perfects TfTiij/ieVos and TertTjws, both meaning woc-begone.] Epic.

rl-Qr\-\i.i (Of), ?'ut, place, do, for inflection and forms, see § 60. Latin repre-
sentative of this stem is believed to be found in those compounds of dare, in
which notion of placing prevails, as ah-do, con-do, etc.

tCktw (re<-, as for Tt-r(€)Ac-a), cf. fxi-fiv-co), hegety bring forth, r4^a>
(not till late in prose), and rt^ofiaiy rarely re/coO/iai 2nd Perf. ;

TcTOKa 1st Aor. (Te^a rare, erex^rjv rare

; 2nd Aor. ercKovj -ofirfv, ;

(Traces of Perf. Pass, rerfyfiaif Ionic and late.)

rii'w (ti-), (tv in Epic, Iv in Attic and Gnomic (Solon) poets ; rf. <t>0ipio),
pay penalty, rue, rCtru, rerlKa, TfTiafxai ; erlaa, -ajuiTii', (TiaOrjv. Verbal in ot'-TiTO?,
o-TiTo?, airo-TKTTeov. Mid. riro/xai, take payment, rcvemje, punish (Kpic as well as
Attic), to which Aorist iriadurfv belongs. [Epic Pres. Mid. only TiVv/moi.]

[riraCvu, stretch, 1st Aor. (^Tinji'a), rinji/as. Byform of reivu.] Epic.

Ttrpaw, bore, see Ttrpaiw.]

Ti. rpu-o-Kw (rpo-), teound, [Epic byform of Present, rpioai], rpuj^o),
'
——
Trrpiojiat; erpwao,
; irpuxra, -wdijv rpwf
-w9riv ; Tp(>>^(rop,ai ; t'ut. Perf. Terpwo-o/uiat late. [Fut. Mid
in Epic, r,
rpuaofiai, as Passive].
'

Ttw, A«»U)ttr, regular, n'o-w, , TeTi/uiat, erlo-a. Verbal in ariTOS ; also, but
only choral, aneTos. Poetic verb, (i common in Pres. , but before <r or /m always
long.)

TtTvaxofxai, see Ttvx«-

tAo-, bear, dare (= thole in old English, cf. tuli, tollo in Latin), no Pres. or
Imperf. in use, (jakaot) very doubtful, avi\otLai. or the like being used instead ;
Fut. Tkr\<Top.at, TerAjjK.i (with archaic forms, after the persons of singular Indie,
as TeVAofKi', Opt. TexAati}!', Te'rAafli, rerAa^ej'oi and TfrXfLy^ev, tctAtjuJ? Plup. ;

tTtrkatuy (Ap. Rhod.).) 2nd Aor. frkriv (inflected like fo-rriv and complete
in forms), [Epic Ist Aor. eraAao-o-a], tAtjto?. (This verb is rare in Attic prose.)

[rfx^yw, cut, glofh (ruay-), byform of t«Vvw, r/n^fw rare; er^ijfa, 2nd Aor.
Act. -irnayov, Perf. eT^dyrjf (3rd Plur. T^ayff).] Chiefly Epic.

(ropc'tai), pierce, (Pres. in ai/Tt-Top«Oin-a Epic], Fut. [-Topijo-w], rarely t<toptjo-w

(Ar.), [Ist Aor. iroprja-a, 2nd Aor. iropov], >Io3tly Epic.

[roa-a-t, T6<r<ra<:, an Aorist akin to, and in meaning of, tvx«»«', only in
Pladar, where four times.] Lyric, aa by a.ssimilation. C/. roi-ov. From stem
TVK- or TVX".

rpiiLm, tremble, only Pres. and Imperf., <^. rpiu>.

rptwm (Latin iorqu-eo\ turn [Ionic rpdnoi] Mid. txrn one's self, ;

take a course^Jlee, also trans., especially in 1st Aor. Mid., make to

JUe ; Tp(y\r(ti, Ttrpofpa or T(Tpa(f>ay T(Tpap.p.<ii fTp(y\tn, -dprjv, fTp((f)- ;

BffVf [Ionic (Wpacfydrjv] 2nd Aorists [(Tpanov, Ep. Lyr.], -nfirjv

;

(often Intranf*. or Passive in sen.se, as Trot Tpniroifiai ;) -tjv ; Tptn-

ros, -TfOiy also late (in Mid. sense with 6bdv) rpctnrjTfov. Sole
verb with all six aorists in u.se at different periods. Frequenta-
tivea, rpanraM [rpo9r/o>, only in Epic].

rpait'' ' ' 't

V '
1 jirtTpair/w, tntru»l\ is apnmprlat<Ml to
tumtnp I Only l»reiM«nt an«l ImporfiM-t. Cliiofly
Kpic Oi, .^u,.

17
 ;

258 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

rp4^<a (Tpe(f>- for dpfcf)-), (rpdcfxa as Present in Doric), nourvih^
moke fat or thick (Tapcfivs), Ope'^co, TeTpo(f)a (intransitive in Epic
and Ionic prose, transitive in Attic tragedy), (late rerpacpa),
TfBpanfiai ; (6p(\\ta, -dfiTjv, -((f)drjv ; 2nd Aor. Act. [frpdcfiovj Epic,
intrans. = grew], 2nd Aor. Pjiss. €Tpd(j)T]u ; OpeTrros, -t(os.

run (stems rpex- {^pfX')} ^P«M-) ^P"Mf-)> ('p<'X<" ^^ P^'^*^-

rpi\(a,
Doric), {-Bpe^oum) or ^papnvpm, {-^(^puprjKo), {h(^pdpi^pm) 2nd ',

Aor. ibpajxov. Ti-aces of bpap,u), (Bpe^a, -h(8popn (Poetic). Verbal

-OpcKTfovj late 8pafjir)T(ov. Traces of rpoxu^qv.
rpeot, tremble, (Fut. ?), Ist Aor. erptaa [may be -aa- in Epic]; a-rpfo-To?.
Chiefly poetic.
rpiput, ruh, wear, (I), rpti^w, rerpK^a, -infiai ; trpi^a, -afirfv, -cfiOiji' ; 2nfl Aor.
Pass, irplfirtv, (i) ; Fut. Pass, rpi^jjao^oi ; Fut. Mid. as Pass. Allio«l t<» retpw.

Tpi'^w (rpiy-), squmk, 2n(l Perf. rirpiya in Pres. .sense, with Pep. liaving
Genitive -oro? in Attic, [-wtos in Kpic]

rpvoi, rare in Present, wear out, rptata ; rirpviiai ; verbal in a-TpvTos. Akin
to next verb.

Tpwx«. txhau»t, veary out, [Fut Epic Tpvfw], fonns from a stem in o, rpv-
xw(rb>, (Tpvxtixra, and Perf. Pep. I^ass. TeTpvxt^iitvo^, [Aor. l*ass. irpvxtodrtv].
rputyta, munch, gnaw, (rpay-), rpw^o/iai, , -Tirptiyyuai ; [erpw^a] ; rpiDxrof.

TVYX<iv«, /itf, chavce, Ttv^ofiaiy rervxrjKa (in Ionic and ])oetic, r«-
rfv^")) 2nd Aor. eriJ^oj' [Ist Aor. ervxw^^ Epic]. It is kindred
with Tfvx<^y make, form, being a development of the imperscjnal
use appearing in its Perf. Pass. HrvKTm {= is constituted, therefore
happens so to be), and the oldest or Epic occurrences of rtrux'/f"
are nearly equivalent to rtrvKTm in meaning. Tvyx('it^<o must be
carefullv distinguished from revxat in usage and formations, and
although closely akin, they yet stand almost entirely independent
of each other in formation. In Future, Tfv^o) is a])])ropriated
to T€vxa>, Tfv^ofiai ordinarily * to Tvyxdva). In Perf. Pass, there
is no risk of confusion, as Tvyx(u>(>} iJas no such tense. In Perf.
Act. and Aor. Act. ejich has its respective and separate forms.
TfTfvxcis is, in reality, the only debatable territory, and this was
vacated by Tvyxava) after the Ionic time, a new Perf. in -rjKa
having emerged along with an Aor. corresponding, ervxw^'
This last form, however, remained P]pic, and was not carried
into Attic along witli TfTvxrjKa.
The following parallel scheme of the two verbs shows their mutual inde-
pendence in the Attic time :—
Pres. Fut. Perf. Act. Perf. Pass. Aor. Act.
Ttvxoi, J'dshion. Ttv^io. TtTfvxo.. TtTvyfiai. erevfo.
Tvyxeii'w, hit, happen, rev^ojuiai. TervxrjKo. wanting. ervxcf.

TwiTTw (rvir-), striL-e, rv^u) late, better Tujrnjo-cj TfTv4>a late, and also late
;

TervnTTfKa, -rj/uiai ; Te'TUfiM<" (Houier and Tragedians); «Tui//a, -dfiriv, -v<}>9rji' ; 2nd

Aor. Act. ervnov rare, Pass, ertnrtv. Fut. Mid. TvnTri<Top.ai as Pa.s8. in sense
TwiTTTjTf'o?. Parts supplied by ttAijo-o-u) and nardtrau.

1 For Attic this holds good. The only exception is that in Epic rev^op-ai is
also Fut. Mid. to Tewxw in sense of will fashion for myself.
§ 114.] IltREGULAB VERBS. 259

riiftoi (rv'/>- for 0v<i>-), raise inceiise or smoke, [9v\f/u) ("0 traditional], Perf. Pass.
Tt9vtLnai, inflamed (with passion) ; 2ad Aor. Pass, -eru^iji', 2nd Fut. Pass, -tv^^-

fYAow, hotel, bark, is Epic, and only Pres. Act., and Iniperf. Act. and Mid.,
seems not to contract). Byform wAao-ftw (poetic), Aor. vAof a late. uAoKTea), Aor.
wXducTijo-o late, Iinperf. vXdKTow (not limited to poetry), (v short, but if v long
appears, it is from augment.
virtfivri iJLV Kf, see rifjivto.

form of uTrc vo/ioi), hold myself under^

vincrxv^o|«xi (strengthened
promise, vnoa\r]aofjnu, vn((r\rjyi.ai 2nd Aorist Mid. vTrfaxofiTjv, ;

(Conj. etc., vnoaxmnai). Dep. Mid. The Iniperf. is vTna-xvovfxrjv.

Byform imiaxofxai, is poetic and Ionic, and only in Pres. and
Iniperf. Cf. t(rx<o and f^o). Traces of a 1st Aorist Passive in
Middle sense, viroax^Br^Ti.

v<f>aivo}, Wfnve, v<(>a.v<tt, v<f>a<rtt.ai v(f>r)va, -a/xT*', v</)ai'0>7»' ; u^ai'TOS.

',
•v(t>ayKa
as Perf. Act. and iKpdva. as 1st Aor., late. [Byform, only in Epic, v(f>du), whence
wf>6uKTi.] V sine auiimcnto, but u, if cum auipni.nto. Uomer has this verb always
anaugmented, and therefore with u uniformly short.
V •»_(»;), rain, v<r«, , -uo-Mai ; iaa, wafliji' ; [Herodotus has Fut. Mid. as
Pass, vo-erai].

#aCvw shoxo (Mid. ajjpear), (f)av(o (Ionic ^av(a>\ {-ntcfyay-

{(f)av-),
Ka)j nfcjidcrfiai (2nd sing, -avaai) f^rjva, -c'iixtjv (rare in simple, ;

showed, but, in composition with an- declared, etc., is common), =

€(f)av6Tjv [Epic (f>aav6Tjv], also 2nd Aor. Pass. i^dvr]v ^ai/i^o-o/xat ; ;

2nd Pert'. 'n((^r}va, appear. Verbal in (i-(f)auTos dva(j)av86u, and :

})erhaps a/x<^a5oj/. [Epic Iterative 2nd Aor. (papca-Ke, appeared,

18 nearest approach to a 2nd Aor. Act. For n«l>r)(r(Tai, see (^aw.
<f>a(ipa), shine, only in Pres., and (^aiOoa only in Pres. Pep., are
Doth Epic]. (f)alv(o is sometimes intransitive shine (especially =
imo(balv(i), in Pres. Imperf., Fut. Act. 0n»/o) in Fut., with a,
doubtful may be explained from a Fut. of </)a€tVco {cf. ap5> in
;

aip<t>).

^aaxw (inceptive from <^o-, stem of «^T>fn:), say, allene, only in Present (rare)
and Imi*erf. (common). Pass. «</)ao-»teTo, Sophocles. Uomer uses only Imperf.
Act 8ee ^ny-i.

f^avvKm or <>w(ricw, has Present of simple only in Grammarians; but

I Pn'i><)>*iti<»iis iia-, iriro-, etc., in Herodotus and and in
late, fiioc/)ava-Kw,
lA ' '
Kpic fft<f>av<r«w. and -o^iai, amwunce, give to under-
'.(iv(re.
*!•' antl Imperf. Act. and Mid. wi- is regularly short, but
In \ T has wi liy arsis.]

</ ' ('.*>a^-, whence (fravflrKw), Present late, [Homeric Imperfect (^d«, in
oorui s. II-,,. ; I'ut. Perf. irt^i^o-crou.] (Another »rei^ija«T<u, undur (<;>«»'<.»).)

[^ tf « M « (. /ear, jUt, only Pres. and Imperf. ] Epic.

^ftJoMot (^ti-)i fpart, Dep. Mid. ^«(<rofMu [Uomeric vf^tJija'OMai], j^via^*

fUftf [Uutoeric 2nd Aor. vt^i4eMi*']i ^tvrc'oi'.
260 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

(<^e'f w), (stems (ftev; <})&-), kill, whence [Homeric Perf. Pass., iri<l)atJ.ai, -arai,
-aadat. ; Fut, Perf. Tre<^^a-o/uiai(c/". SeSiqa-ofiai from SeSefxat) 2nd Aor. redui)liciited
;

ne<l>vov (also Pindar) or frre4>voy (also Pindar and Tragic), with accent of I'artic.
as if Pres. Tre'^rwi'.] (Tre't/xx/xai : <t>€v- Terafiai
: : rev-.) (Distinguish from
:

jre'(^aa/xai, of <^aii(o.)

<f>epPa), feed, transitive, (no Fut.), only in Pres. and Imperf. Act. and Mid.,
except with trace of 2nd Perf. (7re'(^op/3a), whence [e7re<;)6p/3ei Epic]. Poetic.

^(fxa, hear, (Latin /e?ro, stems (pep-, ot-, ei/e/c-, eveyK- for cV-ei/eAc-),

Fut. oicro), Perf. €vr}vo\ay evt]veyp.ai. (-e^ai) ; 1st Aor. ^veyKa, -(iftr;»',

also 2nd Aor. Tjueyicou, ffueyKop-Tju ; 1st Aor. Pass, rjvfx^l'^ "^• 5 •'^

Pass, oladrjao^aiy ej/€;^^^o-o/iat ; also Fut. Mid. in Passive sen.^e,

uiaofiai ; otoros, -rtos ; poetic (fxpros rare. Modal adv. (l)opu8rjv.
Byft)rni (frequentative), (fiopiat. Regulai* and full, [with Epic
Intin. ({)oprjpevai. and (f)opTJvai]. <f>€pT€y the sole part syncopating,
is only lini)erat. Pres. Epic.
The in 1st Aorists and Perfects Pass.,
Ionic forms have ei for t

as ffveiKa, -dpr)v ; ; the reverse happens in the

rjudxOrjv, ivi]v fiypxti
Ionic forms of dfUvvpui, where ibix^tjv is Ionic for ibeixBrjv.
[Traces of a Ist Aor. Act. from oio-w, in mf-oiaai, Hero<lotus re- =
ferre, and in oio-e. otVr, Epic Imperative, retained in popular
speech by Aristophanes,^ with whicn compai'e dvaeo in 8va>. See
p. 157, n. 3.]

^«vYci> {<pvy-)yjlee {Laiin fug-i-o), (fifv^opm and -ovpai, 7r<0euy",

2nd Aor. e^iryoi/ ; (f}(VKT6s, (fifVKTfo^- ; also (f)vKTns (Homer and
Pindar), as in a(f}vKTos ; cfyvyba ./E.schylus ;
^vy-br^v late Epic.
[Homer n((fivyp(uos, xrf 0i;forf y.] {((jifv^a is the Aurist of (f)€vC(i>,
cry (jicv, alas. Cf. p. 145, n. 2.)
<t>rf fii (<i>a), say, say yet, if>r)<ria, i4>r)<ra ; Perf. Pass. nf<}>d<T6u ; t^uros, -rt'os ;

•<l>airfi' in 6ia<f>a.Srfif. See § 69. 3.

<|>6dv(tf ((f)0(i-\anticipate^ (jyOdaa or (f)dj)(ropai, f(f)BaKa late ; 1st

Aor. Act. f(f)$d(Ta, 2nd Aor. Act. (cfidrjv, like fo-Trjv (conj. 0^a>,
Epic (^^t'o), also <f)dj'jHy etc.). [2nd Aor. Mitl. only in participle,
0^a/i6i/oy, and Ejiic] {((pBdirdrjv in Hellenistic period.) Modal
in npo-(fida8iT]Uj late.
(^^eyyofxai, utto", «}>cail' (of YOCal SOUnd), Dep. Mid., tftOdy^oixai, efl)0eyfi,ai
(-yf ai) ; i^Oey^dfiriv ; ^^eyxrot.
^Oeipto, corru])t, lose, ^dtpit. [Ionic <tflepeu». Epic -<f)6epo-w], e<^dap»(a (chiefly
Attic prose), -apfiai 1st Aor. Act. e<i>0ftpa, 2n(i Aor. Pa.ss. ec^tfapiji', 2n»l Fut.
;

Pass. ^Bapriaofiai alsc in Pnssive sense, Fut. Mid. <}tdtpQVfjiai 2nd Perf. &L-t<}>0opa,
; ;

am destroyed, in Epic and Ionic prose, but in Attic poets, this part is transitive,
have lost or destroi/cd. Simple ii]>dopa late.
. il>eii>(o, [Epic with ir long(r;. tiVoj^, also with form <f>(iiu)],faile, icaste, decay,
in intransitive sense has itOivoixai, i<f}0itjiai 2nd Aor. Mid. (<l)Biy.r)v [conj. Archaic,
;

^eUrai, Opt. (/)ei(jL7ji' for 4,01- 1 -fit) I', Iniperat. 3rd sing, ^teiadm, Infin. <i>Bi(TOai.],
Pep. (i)eiMe»'o? [Epic 1st Aor. Pass. (^diSy)v, 3rd plural -Bey]. Verbal <\)9iT6<;. In
Attic, <i)fliVw, although, as in Ej)ic, it is intransitive, has Iv, but is transitive in
Fut. ^OitTui, e*}>eiiTa. These have no tnuinitice Present, as any instiUice of <}>diyut,
and <f)9iuy, being transitive, is lUsputed. [Byforni Epic, transitive and intransi-
tive, only in Pres. and unaugmented Imperf., ^Oivvdia.] (<^di»'>jaw Hellenistic.)
Mostly poetic and largely Epic.

1 Imperative in -o-e for -o-oi/ appears also in modern Greek.

§ 114.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 261

<{>tXeii> (0, love, <}>i.\rjaroi, etc., regular and full, but no 1st Aorist Mitldle in
-i}(rdfx>)f ; has Fut. Middle as Passive, </)iArj<j-o/nat [ir«^iA»j<ro/jLni rare, (/nAijffijo-ofiat
late] ; i^iAtjto?. <i)iATjTfos. [On the analogy of liquid verbs, as if from a Present
(<^iAAw), is develoi>ed the Epic 1st Aorist Middle e</)iAoju.Tji' with i, = made one's

favourite. Intin. Pres. Act. <^iAij/xe»'oi, from .^olic (^iAtj/xi.]

(^Xa^w), burst, only in 2nd Aor. i<f>\aBoi'.

<f>Kaui, bruUe, [t^Adcrai, , ire^AacrpKU ; e<t>\.a.(Ta, •da9T]v], Ionic. Doric Fut.

^Ado-cw. Cf. 0\au).
4>\eyu (Latin falg^o), burn (transitive and intransitive), 4>Aefw, iTe<t>kfyfiat ;

i<f>\(ia,-tx^l" 2nd Aor. Pass. €if>\eyrfv a-<^Ae«cTOS.

i ;

(^Ae'w, abound, only in Pep. Pres., (/)Aewi', (.iEschylus).

<ftKvo}, bubble (v, Homer), Aorist !<f)\v(Ta (others ec^AiJaa). Byform 0Av^<u,
giving <^Av^at. (Distinguish from 0Ava>, scorch (0), more probably </)Aevw, whence
atpi.n«t>\evafi.fi'Oi of Herodotus.)

<^o^€o», terrify, regular, no Perf. Active. The Middle «/)o/3ouMat, ff<ir, dread,
in Homer .rt€<, is treated as Passive Dep. ; regular and full. (As Middle Dep.,
Imperative if>6fir)<Tai late.)

<}>pdyvvfjLi, /t HCf, only Present and Imperfect, Act. and Mid. C/. <i>pa<raw.

<f>pa^iD (</ipd5-), tell, <t>poi0^i'>t ir(4>pa.Ka, 7re'<^po<r/xai, [Kpic Partic. ire<f>paSfjifVOi,

announced] ; e«/)pao-a, -d^ijc, ((f>pdcr9rfy, in poetry and Ionic prose, was icare, ob-
aerisd ; (Kpic 2u<l Aor. jrt</>pa5o»' or ineifypaSof]. Mid. in poetry and Ionic prose,
not Attic prose, / «/»«'(tit irithin viyself, i.e. I consider. Verbal a-4>pa<TTo<; </>pa(rT<'os. ;

|In Kpic, Aor. Mid. and Fut. Mid. may have aa-.] iT€<t>paa-fiai, as Perf. Pivss.,
has in Attic prose the sense of has been stated, utmouyiced. As Perf. Mid. it has
in p<»etr>' the sen.so of has considered, observed, devised. It is not until late
(Arrian) that (<(>pda9riv appears in its Medial sen.se {was toare) in common prose.
4>pd<Ta-»i {<}>pay-), (Latin farc-io), fence, protect, ^pd^u, ; iti^payyiax ; ^^-
pa^a, -dp.r\v, -dx9r\v "ind Aor. Pass. e<f>pdyrjy.
;

^piia (in Aristoplianes also trace of -i^piut or -<^peiw), let pass out and in.
Mid. admit to one's self, -</>pjjo-w, -i^prjaa, etc., with Aor. Pass, (late) i(f>pri(r0Tiv.
In simnle, chiefly in Imper. <l)pe<:, as if from (/)prJMi. See p. 134. n. 1. Traces
of a 2na Aor. Pep. -^pdi. (Cobet claims as Aor. in -»co, et^pij/ca, like fOrjKa.)

^piaa^ or </ipt'TTu> (stem <t>plic-), .shudder, bristle, (tpi'foj late, jre'<f>pi»to (Pep.
pasting, by JSolic influence, into thematic -iKorra;, Pindar), l<}>pi^a, ^piKTos late.

^pvyM, roast, parch, ^pv(a>, , irt<f>pxryfiai ; l<t>pv^a, [i<t>pvyriv].

^vKAvvto oi ^vkdrrto (stem «^vAok-), guard, 4>v\d^ia, irrt^vAotxa (-euca in

Hellenistic), -ayfim ; (<^vAa{a, -dfirff, -dx6rfv ; Mid. Leej) to one's self,
</>vAaxT*'oi'.
teatch, keep in mimi, in Homer and Hesiod after Epic time, avi on mi/ nuurd
:

against on< (Accus.), hcirarc of, Fut. Mid. jus Pji.ss., as well as Mid. [n-po^iiAax^t
= icatch ortr, is anomalous ; may be Perf. Mid. sine redujd., in Ei)ic sense of
^vKaavta in Mid<lle Voice] <f»v\d<Tau : ^pdaau : : KoXvirrit) : Kpyirru.

^vput, mijc, confute, {V\li. ?), tre't^wpjuni ; fc</)vp<ro Epic], (late «</»vpa) ; i^vpd-r\v;
2nd Aor. Pjuw. »<l.i'-piji' lat«; (Fut. Perf. jr«</<wp<ro^ttt,i Pindar); -</>i'pTo? ; ii>vp-hr\v

(poetry and pn*»e, ..tlschylus). v long, except in 2nd Aor. i'ass., i<i>vpr\v. The
cngiiata ^vpd«*, knead, is regular anil full (except, no Perf. Act.), -do-w, etc.

^vw (Latin /tu, En^liish 6c), produce ; rarely intiaiisitive, aiul

only in poetry, r/7'ou; ; Ayo-o), 7r((f)vKa 1st Aor. ((jyvaa, produced, ;

2tiu Aor. (l(^vv, was proauadj was by nature, con j. etc., <f)va), (fivrjv,
divvai, <l)vi (f*ee § 63. A. 3) 2nd Aor. Vas». fepCrju, conj. (f)va> (jivros.
; ;

Thi-ec |>art8 of the Active (as in fivw, wljjch see) are always in-
transUtve, Perfect, Pluperfect, and 2nd Aorist [Epic Archaic

1 Hole ex&inplo of thin Usnm hi a liquid verb which remaiuH l!(|uid. In

r*Tnn«ott.»i, ir«^i;ao^«u,the liquid fonnx have pivhihmI into the pure formation.
262 IKREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.

Perf. {ne(f)va)y 3nl plural Trt^uacrt, 7r€cf)vTj, nfffivcos. iivi^vKov is

Pliipeit'ect, for e7r€(j)vK«rav, becoiiiiiif,' thematic (iEolic iulliunice).]
The conjugation may also be exhibited as follows, showing the
mutual relations (similar to those in the verb 8vco) of the transi-
tive and intransitive parts :

Future. Perf. Act. Aorist.

Trans, cfiixo. cfyvaruK i^vaa, produced.
Intrans. (fyvofim. (fivaofiai. ne(f)vKa. c0ui/, grew.
{(f)v(a in poetry). {nf(f>va(ri).

V is long before any consonant {k or o-, etc.), e.xcept in Srd plural

Epic f^vv and in (fyvros. v is short before a vowel in Homer.
V before a vowel, is doubtful in Attic in Present and Imperfect.
(^(uyw, roagt, toast (Kllglish bake), (<^u^u>), Tre<fiu>7^ai, tiftut^a. Chiefly lonic.
Byforni itujj^ui, {'J><J><to>), niiitoxTfiau, i4>oi<Ta, entirely Ionic.

Xa^w (xaS-), drive hack; make to rtlii-e, also intransitive retire, yield. Pi-esent
intransitive) and Ist Aor. (transitive) in composition only, especially with ava-,
avtxaaaa (Pindar), made retire. More cuunuon in Middlk, xa^o/xai, retire, xdao-
nai, ixaadfirfv (al.so Kpic With aa in Fut. and 1st Aor.). C'hietly Epic, hardly
in Attic poetry, but Xenophon uses it in Pres. Act. and .Mid. (both intransitive)
in Attic prose. N.B.— On KtKaSof, severed, etc.. often referred to this stem, see
KiKa&ov. If it is taken from x"^*". analogy of Kt^^dpovTo requires Ktx^a&ov, and
X and K may have interchanged, as in Ionic itKonai and Attic 6<xoMai, so
avoiding contact with txaSoy (from xaySivu)).

xafvM, see x<x <''*<»•

Xa£pci) {x'^P')i ftjoicCj ^aipriaut, Kf\apr]Ka., Kexaprjfiai and K(-)(ap-

pLttL ; 2nd Aor. Pass. (xtiprjVi rejoiced. Late
Fut. Pass. xffpW^H'^'"
[Epic parts are, Fut. Perf. Kfxaprjaa (usually taken as intransi-
tive,Curtius thinks transitive), and -opai 1st Aor. Mid. x'7/^<"'o> ;

2nd Aor. Mid. K^xapofirju Epic Perf. Particijjle Kfxaprjojs.] Verbal

;

XapTos. (f^at/jr/o-a late. Present Mid. only in jest, on lip of

foreigner as a blunder.)
N.B.— This verb is notable for its variations in stem. It begins in Present
as a litiuid, has Future as if a pure with stem xa'P<-i reverts in one of its Per-
fects Pas.s. to liquid model, viz., ««'Yop-/iiai, and, in the other forms of Perfect,
adopts a new model of 2>ure with lighter stem x»P<--
X;aAacD, loosen, relax, [xaXdtna, KtxdXaKa lotlicj, xexaAaa^ai lute; ix'if^iO'a,
[Epic -<7«r, Pindar -a|a], -aMl". daOriv. Has a naturally short.

XaKeiraivta, am offended, -avSt, exaAcn^ca ; 1st Aor. Pass. •acdijK. Present

Middle in same sense.
[x a-v-S-a v-<a (x<^; X«»'*-> I^tin -hemlo in pre-hcndo), hold, contain (of measure of
capacity), Fut. x«i'o'OM"' (see p. 145, n. 1), 2nd I'erf. «ce'x<^*'5<* 2nd Aor. exa-Boy.] *»

Epic and Ionic prose, {yutpeu, in Attic prose, unites the senses of xa»'5a»'««», con-
tain, and xflifo/xat, retire.)

xi<TKto, later x a i f w (xav, Latin hi-are), gape, yawn, xai'oO^ai, 2nd Perf.
Kexvva (as Present) 2nd Aor. ix^vov ;
; x*«'-*<>«' Ionic and poetic.

xe'^w (xfS-)i «««« o"«'* «<-'^''. (i" sense of Latin alvuin exonero), xecrov/mat, rarely
•xe<roy.a>. ; Kex^anevoi; ', 2nd Perf. »ce'xo5a ; 1st Aor. -^x«<''«. -^"^1 Aor. «xf(roy (<y.
eiTtvov), 1st Aorist Mid. ixeainriv.
§ 114.1 IRREGULAR VERBS. 2G3

(x^-X V^^tr (akin to Latin fu-n-do ami Enj^'lish gush), Fut.

xi<a
also (in Hellenistic xf«i>' ^^^it Fut. Mid. in Attic is ^f"/^"*
;^ea)
representing^' the old Epic Conjunctive from exf"fi'?»')» r*^i'f-
(-itfxiJf «)> KfxvfJ-fti ; fxf", -«/xt;»/, ex^^l^ X^^'}""'^/^'"j X^T''^- X'^"^'/"?
'>

prose and poetry. [The Pres. xftt«>i -'^Iso xf»^<«> Jis Future, and
Aorists (x€V(i, -t'i^r)v, and 2nd Aor. Mid. (xvfir^v (p. 127) are Epic;
fXVfjiijv also choral in tragedians x^^(^^ ^* XaiQ. Tiaces of Pre-
;

sents xv(^^ X"^"*^'

^'^""y lf^t<}.]

[(xAa5-)) stem of solitary part, 2ik1 Perf, Pep. icexAaStos (Pindar), txuheront.']
YoXob), enrage, regular and full in Active Voice, except no Perf. The
Mi<f. and l*ass. xoAoi'^ai, is regular and full with Perf., Aor. Mid., and Aor.
Pa.ss. Verbal xoAwto9. (Kpic Kut. Perf. icex'oAoio-oMat,]

X o«», heap up, x<oo'(i>, -»c«'xw»ta, Kevtoafiai ; exwo"«, -waOiji' ; xoi<r$ri(rofiai ; x'^'J'tos.
ImfH-rf. ex-ovi'. lJyf<irni x««»«'»'v/uii and -v», both late. First v of xw»'«'vm' ''^nd a- in
Perf. Pas.s. may be akin.

Xpaitrneu (xpat<r>i-), kelp, avert, Present Late; [Kpic parts, xP<*'«^/*i?*''w»

ixpaL<Tiiri<Ta ; 2nd Aor. ^xp«k^>*o«' (anomalous). Akin to xPn<r*^H-o^-]
xpaofiai, i«<, a Dep. Mid., xPjJo'OMat. fe'xpT/fxai, /iatv: twct^ (with Dat.), also
P:is.sively,Aaw been two/; (with Gen.); expri<Ta.ft.ifv exp^JTBtfi; generally
ni-ff/ ;

Pas.sive in sense, was vxtd; Future Perfect Kexp-na-onai,' wUI 7ia'<l xp'jo'to?, wj»c- ;

/W, f/rt<xi ; xpi7<»"Teos. Contracts by tj in Attic, as

xP'i'"*'* (l'- § &7. 3), btit in
Heroilotus usually xP^TOi. IJyform Ionic xpr}t<rKOfiat, use.

[(xpavcu, «rra<cA, /rraa?, only in 1st Aor. Ck)nj. xpawoTj. Akin to xP«?. <«»</«•
tlin.] Epic.
xpaw, j^iwe an oracle (contracting with >j, asxP??' f^fXPv\ XP'}<''*^» ffXP*?*"? f*X*
pjfvfiai {rnr. lect. »t*'xp»?««n) : e vpijo-a, exp>io-0i7i', indicaifl bii orade ; (generally imper-
sonal, oracle vas ffiven). Mid. chiefly Ionic and Kpic, xpo-ofiai, consult an oracle,
Ypi}o-o/Ltou. Ktx^prifLax, have consulted, got warning ; ixpr\<TafXTt\v. [Epic Pres. XP<^<^-
Traces of xp<» ^^ Present in Ionic]
xpdw, r«i//, also Kt'xpimt, xP'i<''o' Herodotus, Kixpy)Ka, -Kexprifiai fxP^"-) ; Ifnt,
ixpuvofirfv, got some one to /tju/, i.c., bon-owcd. Mid. Kt'xpa^ai, late, borrow.
[(XP^^)t a"«^i*. tporn/, chiefly in Imperfect, (\pae, ixpdfT. xPf^F; whence
byform (xpavw), appearing in ixpa-vaa, graze (surface), a solitary part.] Kpic.
Xprj (impersonal), t/wrre i» need, (one) muHt, ought, in 3rd sing. Pres. Indie, (also
avoxpii it Mnj^cet, Iniperf. ajre'xP'? (no trace of v «<^.). This Lust also occurs por-
(lonafly, an«l lias thenr« a Pass. d;roxpao^ai = am contented.) The Pep. is only
neuter and in old Attic form, xp**^*' (with peculiar accent, if coming out of
XpaoOi as \ftoy in relation to Aaor. On parts of <i^i apj)ended to xp»? taken
as a noun, and fused into a unity, in such as xpfirt, x^pifv, etc., see § 65 Oiw.
Traces of jterAonnl usjige in xpyjs [Doric xpn<^^nl and xpi?. »n sense of xpr?^»'?, etc..
rtquirest. N.H.— Taken not as a noun out as a verl), xp>i has been by some
explained as for xp*?-""! c/. iotjjo-i ; by others as for xp? or XPV> «cilicet 0e6i, the
goi gi'tet a% oracle, from XP<^ above ; whence XPV '^'* ^he divine voice. —
XPlSC** (XPV^-)> cr'^ve, need, rcqucnt, has in Attic only Pre.sent and Imperfect.
lonSc xpV^**i XPI^^*' ^^ XPTi<''<*'< *XP')^*'<^ "'' 'xpD*^'^ Doric XPV'^^*^-
Xpi*» (Latin >Vi.o, ^ri-c-nrt), anoint, touch lightly, xpt'o'<tf> ',
»c<XP'M«t Ol"
•t9|*at ; ixpivo^ •«l»1»'f •XP*<'*»?»' J XP*<""<>«» •XPtfl^Tfoi'. (In iEschylus xpi*» = «<*»H7
or £uir/«.)

voM^M, later ypMVfvMt. eo^>ur, regular and full, Fut. xp<^(rw; Porf. I*aas.
ana Aor. I*asii. witn <r, Kixpto<rniu, etc.

(XMO^a^ <f* W7io(A, Dep. Mid., Fut. x<<><7'0M°i I^te ; i\u><rafiriy.] Epic.

XMp«M, go and with Accusative case, hmx room (xutpo^) for, con-
j/itw pf/i/y,
lain, n>gi>lar an«I full, (niief peculiarity Is that the favourite? Future of the
simple verb in the iMwt Attic time is >liddlo, xutpii<ronai, rather than x«>»p<i<rw
(Homer, IlercMlotus, and late).
264 IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 114.
*(£«), •nib, contracts with tj for a (see § 57. 3) ; xl/rjam ; ?i/*>j(Ta. -a^rji'. The
Attica prefer t/z^X"** ^ form Terf. Pass, and 1st Aor. Pass., ^i/^rj-yjuai, -^x^'J"-

1^6 V 5(0, deceive, </rev<ra>, , Ixjievafiai. ; f\jtev<Ta, -afirfv, -(T6r\v. Mid. ^tc.

«/rvX<^ (•/'•'X-)»
cooi, i/zufw, , itj/vyiJiai ; ti/zufa, -vx^JJ" ; [i/fuvO^tro/uiat lonic] ;
2nd Aor. Pass, ei/rwyrjf , also ti//i/x»?f • v long, except in 2nd Aor. Pass.

'QOeoi (root in Sanskrit vr«/A, perhaps Latin odi), push (chiefly <a0- as stem),
remarkable as taking (except in Ionic) the syllabic augment, wcrw, -eoixa late,
iuxTfiai, [Ionic wCT/xatJ ; iitxra, [Ionic w<ra, (txra^ijfj, imcr9-t\v ; wcrd^crofiat ;
-o(lit)i',

-ox^Tos, wffTfo?. Stem w0«-, mainly in Pres. and Iniperf., eoidowc and (poetic)
u0i)a-<i>. [Itenitives in Epic udt-cnce, wo-ao-xe.]

wceo/xai (Ijatin ven-um, ven-eo), buy, takes generally (except in Ionic) the
syllabic aujnnent from influence of initial Digamiua, (Li/^o-o^at, eoinj^ai (Act. and
Pass, meaning); uyrjadnrjy and iiaf-, iiatnjOriv (Pjuss. in sense); wtojrds, wfrjre'o?.
(inpidfiifv supplies the place in Attic of the 1st Aorist Middle.)

N.B.— In the above List, signittes that the Perfect or Perfects are
not found - prciixml to a (Jreek word, if that word is otherwise
;

analogically complete in form, signifles that the fonn occurs, not

as a simple, but only as a comjwund with some preposition.

FINIS.
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