Unit 6: Imperialism and Colonialism

6.1. Colonial Rule in Asia

During the nineteenth century, many Western powers scrambled for new territories in Asia and
Africa. Governing by either indirect or direct rule, the Western powers controlled the
governments and economies of their colonies. Some territories resisted colonial rule, but most
early resistance movements failed.

The New Imperialism

In the nineteenth century, a new phase of Western expansion began. European nations began
to view Asian and African societies as a source of industrial raw materials and a market for
Western manufactured goods.

The Scramble for Territories

In the 1880s, European states began an intense scramble for overseas territory. Imperialism,
the extension of a nation’s power over other lands, was not new. Europeans had set up
colonies and trading posts in North America, South America, and Africa by the sixteenth
century. However, the imperialism of the late nineteenth century, called the “new imperialism”
by some, was different. Earlier, European states had been content, especially in Africa and Asia,
to set up a few trading posts where they could carry on trade and perhaps some missionary
activity. Now they sought nothing less than direct control over vast territories.

Motives for Imperialism

Why did Westerners begin to increase their search for colonies after 1880? There was a strong
economic motive. Capitalist states in the West were looking for both markets and raw materials
such as rubber, oil, and tin for their industries. The issue was not simply an economic one,
however. European nation-states were involved in heated rivalries. They acquired colonies
abroad in order to gain an advantage over their rivals. Colonies were also a source of national
prestige. To some people, in fact, a nation could not be great without colonies.

In addition, imperialism was tied to Social Darwinism and racism. Social Darwinists believed
that in the struggle between nations, the fit are victorious. Racism is the belief that race
determines traits and capabilities. Racists erroneously believe that particular races are superior
or inferior. Racist beliefs have led to the use of military force against other nations. One British
professor argued in 1900, “The path of progress is strewn with the wrecks of nations; traces are
everywhere to be seen of the [slaughtered remains] of inferior races. Yet these dead people
are, in very truth, the stepping stones on which mankind has arisen to the higher intellectual
and deeper emotional life of today.”

Some Europeans took a more religious and humanitarian approach to imperialism. They
believed Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize primitive people. They called this
responsibility the “white man’s burden.” To some, this meant bringing the Christian message to
the “heathen masses.” To others, it meant bringing the benefits of Western democracy and
capitalism to these societies.

Colonial Takeover
The new imperialism of the late nineteenth century was evident in Asia. In 1800, the
Europeans ruled only two societies in this area: the Spanish Philippines and the Dutch East
Indies. By 1900, virtually the entire area was under Western rule.

Great Britain

- India

British rule in India brought order and stability, but at a high cost. The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857,
fueled by cultural differences and mistrust, marked a significant attempt by Indians to resist
British rule. Despite initial success, the rebellion was crushed, leading to the transfer of power
from the East India Company to the British government. The aftermath saw Queen Victoria
proclaiming herself Empress of India, making the country a colonial jewel. Although the
rebellion failed, it fueled Indian nationalism, and a new generation of leaders emerged.

Direct British rule brought benefits such as a more organized society, efficient government, and
the introduction of a new education system, albeit accessible mainly to the elite. Infrastructure
developments like railroads, telegraphs, and postal services were implemented. However, 90%
of the population remained uneducated.

The economic costs of British rule were significant. British manufactured goods destroyed local
industries. British textiles put thousands of women out of work and severely damaged the
Indian textile industry. While the British rule lasted Indian local industries suffered as British
goods flooded the market, destroying sustentation for many. The imposition of zamindars
(Indian nobility and aristocracy) for tax collection led to exploitation, tenant displacement, and
increased peasant unrest. The shift from food to cash crops exacerbated famine, causing the
death of millions.

British rule also perpetuated social inequalities, with the best opportunities reserved for
Britons. Disrespect for Indian culture, exemplified by the misuse of cultural sites like the Taj
Mahal, fueled resentment. Despite some attempts to improve conditions, British rule
ultimately contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism.

The goal of the British was to economically exploit India while it developed slowly, with some
exceptions of rapid urban and industrial development in the cities (Mumbai, Calcutta, Madras
and Delhi).

- Southeast Asia

In the 19th century, the colonization of Southeast Asia began with Great Britain establishing
the colony of Singapore in 1819 at the tip of the Malay Peninsula. Serving as a vital stop for
steamship traffic to and from China, Singapore quickly became a bustling hub. The British
expansion continued with the annexation of the kingdom of Burma (modern Myanmar) to
safeguard Indian possessions and seek a land route to south China. Despite facing challenges
along the Burma-China frontier, Britain successfully established control over Burma, leading to
the collapse of the Burmese monarchy.

France

France, which had some missionaries operating in Vietnam, nervously watched the British
advance into Burma. The local Vietnamese authorities, who viewed Christianity as a threat to
Confucian doctrine, persecuted the French missionaries. However, Vietnam failed to stop the
Christian missionaries. Vietnamese internal rivalries divided the country into two separate
governments—the north and the south. France was especially alarmed by British attempts to
monopolize trade. To stop any British move into Vietnam, the French government decided in
1857 to force the Vietnamese to accept French protection.

The French eventually succeeded in making the Vietnamese ruler give up territories in the
Mekong River delta. The French occupied the city of Saigon and, during the next 30 years,
extended their control over the rest of the country. In 1884 France seized the city of Hanoi and
later made the Vietnamese empire a French protectorate—a political unit that depends on
another government for its protection. In the 1880s, France extended its control over
neighboring Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos. By 1887, France included all of its new
possessions in a new Union of French Indochina.

Thailand: The Exception

In the late 19th century, Thailand, then known as Siam, remained the sole free state in
Southeast Asia following the French conquest of Indochina. Despite British and French rivalry
posing a threat to Thailand's independence, the efforts of two notable rulers, King Mongkut
and his son King Chulalongkorn, prevented the country from falling under colonial rule. Both
monarchs endorsed Western learning and maintained friendly relations with major European
powers. In 1896, Britain and France reached an agreement to preserve Thailand as an
independent buffer state between their Southeast Asian possessions.

The United States

One final conquest in Southeast Asia occurred at the end of the nineteenth century. In 1898,
during the Spanish-American War, United States naval forces under Commodore George Dewey
defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.

Believing it was his moral obligation to “civilize” other parts of the world, President William
McKinley viewed the colonization of the Philippines as a moral obligation and a strategic move
to prevent Japanese influence. The acquisition of the Philippines also provided the United
States with a strategic base for trade with China. However, Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo,
who had initially revolted against the Spanish, continued his fight for independence against the
new American colonizers. The Philippines witnessed three years of intense guerrilla warfare,
but ultimately, the United States prevailed, securing a foothold for trade with China and
asserting its dominance in the region.

Colonial Regimes

Western powers governed their new colonial empires by either indirect or direct rule. Their
chief goals were to exploit the natural resources of the lands and to open up markets for
their own manufactured goods.

Indirect and Direct Rule

Sometimes a colonial power could realize its goals by cooperating with local political elites.
For example, the Dutch East India Company used indirect rule in the Dutch East Indies.
Under indirect rule, local rulers were allowed to keep their authority and status in a new
colonial setting. This made access to the region’s natural resources easier. Indirect rule was
cheaper because fewer officials had to be trained and it affected local culture less.
 However, indirect rule was not always possible. Some local elites resisted the foreign
conquest. In these cases, the local elites were replaced with British officials. This system is
called direct rule. For example, Great Britain administered Burma directly through its
colonial government in India. In Indochina, France used both systems. It imposed direct rule
in southern Vietnam, but ruled indirectly through the emperor in northern Vietnam. To
justify their conquests, Western powers spoke of bringing the blessings of Western
civilization to their colonial subjects, including representative government. However, many
Westerners came to fear the idea of native peoples (especially educated ones) being allowed
political rights.

Colonial Economies

The colonial powers did not want their colonists to develop their own industries. Thus,
colonial policy stressed the export of raw materials. This policy often led to some form of
plantation agriculture. Peasants worked as wage laborers on the foreignowned plantations.
Plantation owners kept wages at poverty levels to increase profits. Conditions on plantations
were often so unhealthy that thousands died. Also, peasants bore the burden of high taxes.
Nevertheless, colonial rule did bring some benefits to Southeast Asia. A modern economic
system began there. Colonial governments built railroads, highways, and other structures
that benefited native peoples as well as colonials. The development of an export market
helped create an entrepreneurial class in rural areas. In the Dutch East Indies, for example,
small growers of rubber, palm oil, coffee, tea, and spices began to share in the profits of the
colonial enterprise. Most of the profits, however, were taken back to the colonial mother
country.

6.2. Empire Building in Africa

The scramble for Africa

Interest in Africa Grows By the late 1800s, the Industrial Revolution had spread throughout
Europe. Industrialized nations became economic rivals as they sought new markets in Africa for
their manufactured goods and raw materials for production at home. Africa had rubber, ivory,
minerals, and other natural resources as well as largely untapped markets for European
products. Many Europeans also saw colonies as a way to assert their nation’s status as a world
power. Advances in transportation and technology fueled interest in African colonization. As
steamships replaced sailing ships, travel to Africa became faster. Construction of the Suez Canal
made Africa part of a key trade route to India. New medicines increased protection against
malaria and other tropical diseases, making colonization safer.

The Berlin Conference

At talks in Berlin hosted by German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, delegates sought an orderly
“carving up” of the African interior. Most shared the views of Belgian King Leopold II, who
wrote, “I don’t want to miss the chance of getting us a slice of this magnificent African cake.”
European powers haggled back and forth over geographic boundaries for their African colonies,
but avoided direct conflict.

New National Boundaries

By 1914, Europeans had redrawn the map of Africa. National boundaries largely ignored the
location of ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups within each region. People in the Belgian
Congo, for example, spoke over 200 different languages. New borders divided African kingdoms
and tribes or put together ethnic groups with little knowledge of each other’s languages and
customs. These changes had an impact on the peoples of Africa long after colonial rule ended.

West Africa and North Africa

The period between 1880 and 1900 witnessed a profound transformation of the African
continent as European powers aggressively pursued imperialist ventures, leading to the
acquisition of vast territories and the establishment of colonial rule. Prior to this era, European
influence in Africa had been limited, with many regions under the governance of local rulers
and merchants acting as intermediaries for European interests. However, a confluence of
factors, including intense rivalries among European powers, spurred a fervent race for
territorial dominance and resource exploitation.

West Africa

West Africa emerged as a focal point for European powers, captivated by the abundance of raw
materials such as peanuts, timber, hides, and palm oil. While the 19th century saw a decline in
the slave trade that had previously been a lucrative enterprise, European nations redirected
their economic interests towards other forms of trade. This shift led to heightened tensions
between European powers and African governments. Despite the ability of most African states
to maintain their independence, British annexation of the west coastal states as the Gold Coast
colony in 1874 marked a turning point. Around the same time, Nigeria came under British
influence through the establishment of a protectorate. By 1900, France had extended its
control over a vast expanse known as French West Africa, while Germany held sway over
territories including Togo, Cameroon, German Southwest Africa, and German East Africa.

North Africa

North Africa, with its strategic significance and economic potential, witnessed a complex series
of events. Egypt, once part of the Ottoman Empire, sought independence as Ottoman influence
waned. The completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 heightened European interest, with Britain
viewing it as a vital lifeline to India. After suppressing a revolt in 1881, Britain established a
protectorate in Egypt by 1914. This move was driven by a desire to secure control over the Suez
Canal area. In the Sudan, a revolt led by the Mahdi in 1881 challenged British influence,
resulting in the loss of General Charles Gordon's army at Khartoum in 1885. It wasn't until 1898
that British troops regained control of the Sudan.

Meanwhile, French expansion in North Africa saw the establishment of control in Algeria in
1830, followed by the imposition of a protectorate on Tunisia in 1881. By 1912, France had
secured a protectorate over much of Morocco. Italy, seeking its share of colonial holdings,
attempted to conquer Ethiopia in 1896 but suffered a humiliating defeat. Undeterred, Italy
seized Turkish Tripoli in 1911, renaming it Libya.

Central and East Africa

Central Africa

The exploration and colonization of Central Africa were shaped by figures like David Livingstone
and Henry Stanley. Livingstone's extensive travels, aimed at finding a navigable river to open
Central Africa to European commerce and Christianity, had a lasting impact. Stanley, hired by
the New York Herald to find Livingstone after his disappearance, later explored the Congo River
and encouraged British settlement in the Congo Basin. King Leopold II of Belgium played a
pivotal role in the colonization of the Congo, proclaiming it as the Congo Free State under his
personal control in the 1870s. Leopold's claim sparked concerns among other European
powers, leading to French occupation in regions north of the Congo River.

East Africa

East Africa became a battleground for British and German rivalry by 1885. The Berlin
Conference, convened to settle conflicting territorial claims, officially recognized British and
German interests in East Africa. Portugal was granted a clear claim on Mozambique, further
complicating the geopolitical landscape. In addition to its West African holdings, Germany tried
to develop colonies in East Africa, like Tanganyika (Tanzania).

South Africa

In the southern part of Africa, European presence expanded rapidly, particularly among the
Boers or Afrikaners, descendants of Dutch settlers. By 1865, the white population in South
Africa had reached almost 200,000 people. Initially, the Dutch had occupied Cape Town and
surrounding areas until the British seized these lands during the Napoleonic Wars, prompting
the British to encourage settlers to move to the Cape Colony.
In the 1830s, discontented with British rule, the Boers embarked on the Great Trek, moving
northward and forming two independent republics—the Orange Free State and the Transvaal.
Guided by a belief in white superiority, the Boers denied non-Europeans a place in their society,
confining many indigenous peoples to reservations. Conflict arose between the Boers and the
powerful Zulu people, with the British becoming involved in the late 1800s, resulting in the
defeat of the Zulu.

In the 1880s, Cecil Rhodes, a prominent figure with significant economic interests, influenced
British policy in South Africa. Rhodes aimed to expand British influence, envisioning a series of
colonies "from the Cape to Cairo," connected by a railroad. However, his ambitions led to his
resignation in 1896, and tensions escalated between the British and the Boers, culminating in
the Boer War from 1899 to 1902. The British, facing fierce Boer guerrilla resistance, responded
harshly by burning crops and detaining Boer women and children in camps, causing significant
casualties. The war concluded in 1902 with the signing of a peace treaty.

In 1910, the British established the independent Union of South Africa, merging the old Cape
Colony and Boer republics. However, to appease the Boers, voting rights were restricted to
whites, with a few propertied Africans.

By 1914, Africa had been largely divided among European powers, with Liberia and Ethiopia
being the only free states. Those who resisted European dominance faced devastation due to
the superior military force of the colonizers. In essence, the scramble for Africa during this era
marked a seismic shift in the continent's geopolitical dynamics, with lasting consequences for
its people, cultures, and resources. The consequences of colonial rule continue to reverberate
in the socio-political and economic landscape of Africa today.