Valpy - Anthon 1847 Elements Greek Grammar

i^2l^^_
r >!<.•«.!•*?
J7(7^ :'.VI-»e.?«S.TLi»r' r>'s .-1
University of Californis
FKOM THE IJ15KARY OF
DR. FRANCIS LIEBER,

Professor of History and Law in Columbia College, New Yo
thp: gift of
MICHAEL REESE,
Of San Francisco.
1S73.
V,
^
b-
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
'to
http://www.archive.org/detajls/elementsofgreekgOOvalprich
DeavLS Stereotype Eaition.
/ THE
'ELEMENTS
r OF
GREEK GRAMMAR,
.// ^
R. VALPY, D.D. F.A.S.
"^^TH ADDITIONS
BY
C. ANTHON,
JAY PROFESSOR OP LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE,
• NEW-YORK.
/TWELFTH
. /
EDIT] )N. Library.
NEW-YORK r
W. E. DEAN, PRINTER & PUBLIS H ER, 2 ANN ST.
1847.
s
ll
^^
'^f^^L'^.yW^'^tMfii/J
nr^.t
TO
WILLIAM SAMPSON, Esq.,
TEE ENLIGHTENED ADVOCATE AND ACCOMPLISHED SCnOLAR,
IS RESPECTFULLY AND SINCERELY DEDICATED,
BY HIS FRIEND
THE EDITOR.
\IZ12.
t
iU
PREFACE.
The plan pursued by the Editor in enlarging the Greek

Grammar of Dr. Valpy has been, to make such additions
and improvements as might render the volume a more com-
plete manual for the student, not only previous to, but also
during a portion, at least, of his Collegiate career. In order
to accomplish this end, it has been the Editor's endeavour to
bring together, in a small compass, the remarks of the latest
and best Grammarians, on various points connected with the
more accurate knowledge of the Greek language. The gene-
ral features of Dr. Valpy's work are retained, except that the
notes are, in most instances, removed from the bottom of the
page, and thrown into the form of observations which follow
after the text. This has been done for the purpose of bringing
them more immediately under the eye of the student. In using
this Grammar, however, his attention should be first called to
those parts of it which have an immediate bearing upon his stu-
dies, and that, upon a. second and third revisal, he should be
taken in succession over those portions which might only tend
to embarrass him in the commencement of his career. The
result of such a mode of proceeding will be, not only to render
his Grammar a more agreeable companion to the young Helle-
nist, but also to give him a more systematic acquaintance with
the language itself.
In one or two instances some useless matter has been re-

moved from which related to the
the work, especially that part
formation of the Greek language, and in which the theory of
Hemsterhuis was followed. It may be a very specious and
plausible system, to suppose that the Greek language, in its ear-
liest state, consisted of monosyllabic and dissyllabic words
but to this supposition there are two insurmountable objections:

1*
VI
it contains an ill-grounded and gratuitous assumption that the

Greek language was original and indigenous, and it is at vari-
ance with what we know historically of the language itself.
Under the head of Prepositions, the Editor has taken the
liberty of attempting to explain their uses on a new plan, which
it is hoped may prove serviceable.
The arrangement of the previous edition has been retained

in the present, with the exception of the Remarks on the Tenses
and Moods ; these have been enlarged and placed at the end
of the Syntax.
Along with the new matter introduced into this edition will
be found some observations on the Sanskrit language, under the
History of the Dialects, and the admirable dissertation of
Thiersch on the Homeric Digamma.
Among the sources whence the principal supplies for the
present work have been obtained, the following may be enu-
merated. The Grammars of Matthias, Buttmann, Rost, Weller,
Golius, and Lancelot ; the Animadversions of Fischer on the
Grammar of Weller, and the Hebrew Grammar of Professor
Stuart of Andover. To the last of these the Editor acknow-
ledges himself indebted for some valuable remarks in relation
to the resemblance which exists between the letters of the
Greek and Hebrew alphabets.
The Editor, having received from Dr. Valpy a copy of the
latest English edition of his Grammar, has been enabled to in-
troduce into the present work the most recent improvements of
that learned scholar. «
Col CoUege, JvZy, 1830.

INDEX.
PAGE. PAGE.
Accents 16, 280 Homeric Digamma 276
Accusative .... 180, 194 Iambic Verse , . 261
Active Voice 120 "hill, to send . . . 146
Adjectives 49 Iota Subscript . . 4
Adverbs 173, 202 Irregular Nouns 44
Anapasstic Verse .... 264 Adjectives 62
Apostrophe 13,277 Verbs. . . 145
Article 20 151
Syntax of .... 185 K^r/zai 150
Augment 92 Letters, Dialect changes of, 296
Breathings 6 - Change of, for Eu-
Caesura 265 phony 8
Cases 18 Measures . 260
Change of Letters .... 8 Middle Voice 117
Comparison 62 Remarks on 82
Conjunctions 231 Moods, Remarks on 244
Contracted Verbs .... 125 N
added 13
Contractions 278 Numerals . ; 69
Dative 180,291 Particles ..;.... 233
Declensions 22 Negative .... 237
Deponents 124 Passive Voice 122
Dialects 287 Patronymics ; 47
History of .... 294 Prepositions 204
Digamma 267 Pronouns 75
Diphthongs 4 Prosody ....... 252
Dual in ov, iji/ 87 Stops 16
F.lftac,to clothe oTie's self . . 150 Syntax 181
Ei/ii, to he 84 General principles of 176
Dialects of
~' "
300 Tenses, Signification of' 239
E7ui,togo 143 Formation of Active 198
H//a. 149 Passive 113
^riiii 152 Middle 118
Feet 259 Trochaic Verse .... 263
Figures aflfecting Syllables 15 Verbs
. in G 131
Genitive 176, 186 Ml ..:... 31
Hiatus 12 Voices, General Remarks on 81
T,. 1
%^tn%^
Library. /J
ORTHOGRAPHY.
THE ALPHABET.
There are twenty-four Letters in the Greek

Language.
Corresponding Meaninff of the 1
Figure. Names. Power. Hebrew Letters. Hebrew Letters. [
A a Âl(fa Alpha a Aleph Ox.

B §6 BriTU Beta b Beth House.
r y rdfiâ Gamma ^Hard Gimel Camel.
J d MUa Delta d Daleth Door.
E 6 E xpiX6v Epsilon e He (unknown,)
z C Ztjia Zeta z Zayin Armour.
H V 'Hia Eta e Hheth Hedge.
e -iê &7\X0C Theta th Tet Serpent.
I * 'Jwra Iota i Yodh Hand.
K X Kccnrta Kappa k Kaph Hollow hand.
A X AdjiiSda Lambda 1 Lamedh Ox-goad.
M fi Mv Mu m Mem {u?iknoum.)
JV V Nv Nu n Nun Fish.
s $ 3:1 Xi X
"OfitxQdv micron 6 Ayin Eye.
n n m Pi p Pe Mouth.
P Q 'P(b Rho r Resh Head.
2 ag Slyfia Sigma s Samekh Triclinium.
T X Tav Tau t Tau. Cross, mark.
r V "YipTXdv Upsilon u
q> m Phi ph
X X XI Chi ch
»P yj vn Psi ps
n w ^J2 fiiya Omega
2
Obs. 1. The Hebrew letters are here given only in part,
and in the order of the Greek, not of the Hebrew, alphabet.
The object, in adding them, was to make the student acquaint-
ed with the source whence the Greek characters are gene-
rally supposed to have been derived. The Hebrew letters
omitted, are Vau, Tsadhe, Qoph, Shin and ISin. The first of
these stands sixth in order in the Hebrew alphabet, and is con-
sidered to have been the parent of the Greek digamma, which
was generally expressed by F, a Hebrew ^'au reversed and
slightly altered. The digamma was originally a letter of the
Greek alphabet, ranked next after and having a sound be-
e,
tween V and W. It was afterwards

rejected by all but the
jEolians, as superfluous, and used only by its name Fau, as one
mode of expressing the number 6. The Hebrew letter Tsadhe
is thought to have been the root of the Greek 2'a%7n, which
also, as it would seem, after having been an actual letter of the
old Greek alphabet, was retained only as a numeral, and an-
swered to 900. From the letter Qoph, the Greek Konna pro-
bably took its rise, a numeral sign for 90, though originally
perhaps a letter of the Greek alphabet also, in common with
the preceding two. With regard to the two remaning He-
brew characters. Shin and Sin, they were in effect but one
letter in the more ancient Hebrew alphabet, no distinction be-
ing then made between them in writing. From this source
the Doric San or old Greek S is thought to have come. In —
the Latin alphabet, derived as some think from the old Greek,
Vau is made to have passed into Y, and Konna into Q.
Obs. 2. "£ ipvlov, (smooth, not aspirated) appears to have
received this appellation to distinguish it from H, which was
anciently the mark of the rough breathing, and was expressed
also as a vowel by s. —
In like manner " T ipTkov was so named
to distinguish it from the T as one of the ancient signs of the
'
digamma, since otherwise oi was put for v.

Obs. 3. The old Greek alphabet is generally supposed to
have consisted of 16 letters, viz. a, (?, y, d, s, i, x, I, //, v, o,
Tt, Q, a, T, V, which, according to tradition, were brought by
Cadmus from Phoenicia to Greece, and hence were called

YQdfj/nara Kadfir^La or <Poivixriia. To these Simonides of Ceos
is said to have added 6, 1, (p, Xi in the 6th century B. C. and
Epicharmus the Sicilian, I, i], ip, w, in the 5th century B. C.
The number of letters, however, introduced by Cadmus, is fai
from being clearly ascertained. The oldest writers who re-
late the story of their introduction, viz. Herodotus and Diodo-
rus Siculus, say nothing about their number, and the accounts
of later times disagree Aristotle makes 18 {Plin. N. H. 7. 56.),
;
another account 17 (Isidor. Orig. 1. 13.). It is highly proba-
ble,both from these varying statements and the remarks under "
Obs. 1, that the number exceeded 16 nor is it at all certain that

;
Cadmus j^rA'^ brought letters into Greece. Dunbar supposes,

that the Greeks, while they adopted the Phoenician letters,
did not adopt also the language of that country, but employed
such of the letters only of their alphabet as they found neces-
sary, and sufficient to express all the sounds they were accus-
tomed to utter. Dunbar on the Greek and Latin Languages, p.
9. Compare Lempriere^s Class Diet. (Anthon's ed.) articles,
CadmuSj Homerus, and Pelasgi.
Obs. 4. The lonians, it is said, first adopted all the 24 let-
ters, and from them the Samians, from whom they were re-
ceived by the Athenians but it was not until after the Pelo-
;
ponnesian war, under the Archonship of Euclides (01. 94. 2.

B. C. 403.) that they were used in public acts by the latter
people. Hence the 24 letters are called also 'Icovixa yQ&ju/naja,
and the old 16 *Attixu y q6.fi fiara. Before this period they
used instead oi 0, cp, /, TH, TIH, KH, (H being the mark of
aspiration or breathing) for C> -^^
: for I, K^, or X2, or;
r2 for ip, BH, or IT2 for rj, e or ee, deeXog for dijXog, (II. x',
; ;
446.) and for w, the short o. They also anciently expressed «*

by s, and oi; by o. The Êolians retained the old mode of writ-
ing. Compare Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 10, (fee.
Obs. 5. The twofold mode of writing some letters is indif-
ferently used, with the exception of ais only used at
or and g:
the beginning and in the middle of a word, and g only at the
end. It depends, however, upon a mere principle of Calli-
graphy. The latter is not to be confounded with g, called sti,
stigma, sigma-tau, inlarjîov, or F«v, and which is used as a
numerical sign for 6.
Letters are divided into Vowels and Conso-

nants.
The vowels are seven,
Two long, rj, w.
Two short, s, o.
Three doubtful, a, i, v,
Obs. When a,
v, are called doubtful vowels, it is not
*,
meant in every case, something doubtful and wa-

that there is,
vering in their nature, between long and short. All the sin-
gle vowels are in certain words positively long, in others po-
sitively short. It merely means that they are vowel signs of a
twofold nature or use, i. e. the same signs serve to denote the
long and short quantities whereas the e and o sounds have a
;
separate sign or letter.
When two vowels are pronounced with one

sound, they constitute a diphthong.
Obs. 1 . The sounds

of t and v, being formed by the palate
and the front part of the mouth, may be denominated
lips, in
front-vowels. Those of «, e, o, being formed by the organs
in the hack part of the mouth, may be called back-vowels.
Hence the following more accurate definition of a diphthong.
Diphthongs are formed, when a hack-vowel (a,

£, 0,) unites itself in utterance with a. front-vowel
(t, i;,)producing one sound.
Thus,
£ ei ev V V rjv
01 ov 0) 0) (OV
a ai av a a av
Obs. 2. The iota after the long vowel is usually placed as

a point underneath, and is called iota subscribed. Thus, as
above, 17, o, «. Hence these diphthongs are called by some
improper diphthongs. The sound of the vowels is not affected
by the iota subscribed, which serves only to indicate the deri-
vation of the word. Anciently perhaps it was heard in the
pronunciation. The ancients moreover wrote the iota in the
line ; and in capital letters this is still practised, as, THI 2 0-
fPIAT, (t^ aocpiu) : tw ^'Aidri (or a^f?).
Obs. 3. vt is also found as a diphthong, but the t was (in
this case) originally pronounced with an aspirate similar to
W (digamma) ; e. g. vi6g was pronounced whios ; êftavTa, me-
mawhia; vi, consequently, was not, properly speaking, a diph-
thong.
Obs. 4. With regard to the change of the Greek diphthongs
into the corresponding forms of the Latin language, it is to be
observed that the usage of the latter language is not always
uniform Ai, for example, sometimes becomes (b in Latin, as
:
Movacii, MuscB ; and sometimes, though more rarely, at or ajy
as Mala, Maia, or Maja. This irregularity, however, is par-

ticularly apparent in the case of et, as Îcpiyiveia, Iphigenia;
Mi^deiotf Medea, 6lc. it being changed in the former into the long
t,and in the latter into the long e. These deviations, in the
case of et, may be accounted for by supposing, that et was pro-
nounced, according to the custom of the more ancient Greeks,
like si separately, yet in one syllable so that, according to
;
the different dialects, sometimes e, sometimes * had the lead-

ing sound. —
As to the remaining diphthongs, ot becomes in
Latin, oe, and ov the long w, as, Boiaila, Boeotia ; QgocavGovlog,
Thrasyhulus. —
A few diphthongal forms in oia remain unchang-
ed when written in Latin, except that the v passes into j ac-
cording to Latin usage, as TqoIix^ Troja.
Ohs. 5. When two vowels, which generally coalesce into
a diphthong, retain their separate sounds, two dots are placed
over the latter vowel, and form a didresis, as ^vnvog.
Of the seventeen Consonants, nine are mutes,

and are divided into
Three soft, tt, x, t,
Three middle, p, /, d,^
Three aspirate, cp, %, ^,
Each soft mute has its corresponding middle
and aspirate, into each of which it is frequently
changed thus tt has /5 for its middle, and (p for
;
its aspirate. These are called Cognate Letters.

Obs. 1. The termed because they
soft consonants are so
are uttered without any perceptible breathing. The conso-
nants cp, X, d, are the most strongly aspirated, for which rea-
son they are called aspirate. Between these two classes, as
to the strength of the aspirate, are found ^, 7, d, and are hence
denominated middle.
Obs. 2. When two mutes come together, they must be both,
either soft, middle, or aspirate ; as, jexvmai, not rhvcpTat, ;
eiv(pdt]v, not iivndrjv.
Four are Liquids, X, n, v, q, to which some add

the simple sibilant o,
Obs. 1 Liquids are so called because they readily unite

.
with other consonants, and glide into their sounds. They

are also termed semivowels, as forming, by their humming or
sibilant sounds, a transition to the articulate sound of the
vowels.
2
Three are double letters, viz. t, J, \\i^ and are
formed by the union of o with the mutes : thus,
Tg, ^$5 ê, form L,.
xg, /g, ;:g, form I,
Ttg, /5g, ^c, form i//.
Hence when these letters are thus joined, the
double letter is substituted as " Aqaxî forÂqa^-
;
at, from "jtâyj ; Xtô), for Xtyaw, from Xtym

nXt^co for nltxoco, from TrXtxco ; alelijKo for alelq)
aoj, from aldcpoj.
Ohs. 1. The ôlians never used the double consonants,

but the corresponding sfrnple letters, as oJnaa for ahpa, vnoa-
devxaaarx for djio'Qevûaa. In expressing C they made use oâd,
a form which was also retained by the Dorians. Some gram-
marians maintain that the letter should always be consider-
'Q
ed as standing for ad and not for dg. Theôund of t,, which

was that of a soft s, favours this idea.
Obs. 2. The double letters are not used for the corres-
ponding simple ones, when the two simple letters belong to
two dilferent parts of a compound word as ixaevco, not t|£i;to.
;
Yet 'yfdrii'a'Qs is used instead of 'AOr^yaaSe.
The simple letters are divided, according to

the organs with which they are pronounced, into
Labials, /?, ^., tt, g), \^,
Linguals, d, t, ^, l^ v, (), or, t.

Palatics, /, %, g, x-
F before has the sound of NG; thus

/, x, |, /,
ayyelog is pronounced avytlog, like 7i in angle.
No
genuine Greek form terminates in any consonant except
<r, those which end in I and ip are to be considered as
v^ Q, for
terminating in yg and ng. The only exceptions to this remark
are ix, oux, and oi'/, and these never occur at the end of a clause.
BREATHINGS.
To the written characters belong also the spi-
ritus or breathings, of which there are two, the
!
soft (^spiritus lenis, nvevficc t/zlXiv,) and the rough
or aspirate [spiritus asper, TtVEVfia daav). One of
these breathings is placed over every vowel or
diphthong beginning a word.
The aspirate is equivalent in pronunciation to
the English H, as on, hoti ; ovtog, houtos,
Y and q at the beginning of a word have al-
ways the aspirate. If two q come togej^her, the
former has the soft, the latter the aspirate ; as,
e^Qeov, a()QrjTog, IIv()()og,
Obs. 1 . In diphthongs which begin a word, the breathing

isplaced over the second vowel, as EvQinldrjg, olog. This,
however, is not the case with the improper diphthongs, as Âidi]g,
(fSrjg.
Obs. 2. Anciently Hwas the mark for the aspirate in Greek,

as it is in the Latin: thus HEKA TON was written for hy.ai6v.
This was afterwards divided, and one half F used as the mark
for the aspirate, the other I as the mark for the soft breath-
ing. This form was afterwards simplified into L and J and;
lastly rounded into the present shape, (') and ('). Both the
F and the H or F seem, according to Knight, to have been
dropt from the Greek Alphabet, nearly at the same time, pro-
bably about the period of the Persian war. The first figure of
the latter was, however, retained to represent the double or
long E, and the former seems to have continued in use in
particular places, where a fondness for the ancient dialects
prevailed, even to the final subversion of the Greek republics
by the Roman arms. Knight on the Greek Alphabet^ p. 12.
Obs. 3. All words which begin with a vowel, but are not
pronounced with the rough breathing, have, or are supposed
to have, the soft breathing over their initial letter because
;
every word that begins with a vowel can be distinguished in

the pronunciation by no other means from the preceding let-
ters than by drawing the breath from the lungs \'îth a mode-
rate effort. The spiritus lenis therefore has an actual force,
and is, in fact, the oriental aleph. The ancients were the ra-
ther led to denote it as they wrote in general without a division
of words.
Obs. 4. The ancient Greek language appears to have had
no spiritus asper, at least the iEolians were without it and in ;
the Ionic dialect, like all other aspirates, it rarely occurs.

Hence ^^to from dXlouai, I'xfiepog from Uveofiai, riikiog for riXiog,
8
But the ancients pronounced every word which began with a
vowel with a peculiar species of aspirate, which had a sound
between our v and w, and was often expressed by 5 or v, and
also */. For this the figure of a double r was invented (F),
whence the name digamina ; which was called ôlic, because
the jEolians, who of all the tribes retained the greatest traces
of the old language, kept this letter in use among them after
the other dialects had laid it aside. Thus the Êolians wrote
Yoivog, FeXia, whence vinum, Velia, in Latin, (for the Latins
expressed this digamma by a V) ; so also vuFog, navis ; oYig,
ovis; «tFt'»', (Bvum, &c. A more enlarged account of the
Digamma, by Thiersch, will be found under Appendix A. In
the mean time it may be as well to remark, that Dr. BurgeSs,
formerly Bishop of St. David's, in a letter to the late Bishop
of Durham, maintains that the Digamma was originally no
other than two Vaics, one placed on the other. A Letter to the
Lord Bishop of Durham, &c. 10, seqq.
Change and Omission of Letters for the sake of

Euphony
Gen. Ohs. The great principle which pervades the Greek

language is strict attention to Euphony, and an endeavour to
avoid the concurrence of consonants which were difficult to
be pronounced together, or of different kinds, as well as the
meeting of two vowels of separate pronunciation. Hence
result the following rules :
Rule 1. Three consonants, or one with a dou-

ble consonant, can never (except in the case of
composition Hke dvacpâqTOQ^tKTircooig, ixwvxco,)
stand together, unless the first or last be a liquid
or y before /, x, x ; as jre/i^êtg, axbjôg, tty^co.
Rule 2. As in some instances the concur-

rence even of two consonants may produce
roughness, this is avoided in two ways. 1. By
the introduction of a third consonant, as fjearjij.-
^Qia for iLieoi]a()La, avd()6g for avqdg, 2. By the
transposition of a consonant, as enQaôv for
enaQôv, from jitQ^co ; nqadia for 'Aaqdia*
9
Note. In fieutjftSQla, the letter 6 appears to supply the

place of an aspirate so yafiSgog for yccfiegbg,
: (Knight on the
Greek Alphabet, p. 7. Lennep. Analog. Grmc. p. 286.) In
^pdqdg, the d is inserted after the v, being of the same class
with it, viz. a lingual.
Rule 3. In the concurrence of two or more

consonants, those only which are of the same
class are put together. Hence an aspirated con-
sonant is joined to an aspirate, a middle to a
middle, a smooth to a smooth; as (pîvco, axôg,
(SdelvQog, tntd, vvxtog. When, in the forma-
tion of words, therefore, two dissimilar conso-
nants come together, the Jirst generally assumes
the properties of the second. Thus, by adding
the terminations Tog, di]v, êcg, are formed, from
yQ(X(p(o, yQamog, and yqa^drjv^ and from Tcltxci),
nXex^dg,
Ohs. 1. In the case, however, of two like mutes already

combined, one alone cannot be changed, but always both to-
gether. Thus, from hnx&, is formed e6do/uog from oxtw, ;
bySoog from eTnd and rnuiga, eifOri/jsQog, The preposition ix

;
alone remains unaltered before all consonants, as ixdllGo),

iydeXvai, ixdovvai. Before a vowel it is changed into e^, as
from ix and ccigtcj.
i^tt(Q6tog,
Obs. 2. If two words stand together, the second of which
begins with an aspirated vowel and the first ends with a soft
one or, if the final vowel of the first word is rejected and the
;
second begins with an aspirated vowel in both of these cases

;
the mute which precedes the second word becomes an aspirate,

as oi)x Iva, ovx onmg, dcp ol, dcvd^ &y. So also in the crasis
6oi/Lidriov for TO [{.laxiov^ 66.ieqov for to bieqov. The soft mute
before the aspirate thus introduced, becomes an aspirate itself
in conformity with the rule as, vvxd^ inb, for vvma -vno.
;
Rule4. Two successive syllables very sel-

dom begin each with an aspirate. Whenever
two syllables, immediately following each other,
would, according to their peculiar derivation, or
the original form of the word, begin each with
2*
10
an aspirate, the first aspirate is changed, with a

few exceptions, into a lenis. Thus, ^^)t5, rqixoCx
not ^{)iX0Q, ; 7te(piXrjxa, not (pE(pi,h]xa ; rQtxa), not
^Qtxco ; T()t(p(o, not 6()t(pw, In these last two verbs,
the aspirate enters again, however, in the first
syllable of the future, the second aspirate being
lost, as, ^Qt^cOj ^^>ei^;a).
Obs. 1. There ^xe jive exceptions to this rule. 1. In com-

pound words as uQviOoOrioag, ikvdocpoQog (though sometimes
; ;
in this case also the aspirate is changed, as ixe/eiQla from

first
Mx(^ and X^^Q ; «^«<]D»], aneg)Oog ; for icpacpil, acpscpOog, from dqcrj,
k(p66g). 2. The passive ending in dfjt', with its derivatives ,
as ix^^l^, ^(pidijv, ^Qd(i)d)]v ;
(excepting two verbs only, Ovoj and
which form iivOr/v, and IjWrjv). 3. If a consonant^
Tl6t]ui^
whether rough or smooth, immediately precede the second
aspirate ; as OQscfSelg, dulcpOelg, IdHx^'i^, ildeadui. 4. If the
second, by changing the lenis before a rough breathing, be-
comes an aspirate as edi]x o avOqunog. 5. By affixing the
;
adverbial terminations dsv and 6t as navTa/odsv, KoqivOoOi. ;
Obs. 2. The second of two aspirates is seldom thus chang-

ed it is regularly done, however, in imperatives in 6t ; as deit^
:
'tTu(pdr]Tv ; for Oidij Tvqj6i]dt,.
Obs. 3. This rule, perhaps, extended not only to the aspi-

rated letters, but also to the rough breathing, which it turned
into the smooth. But one solitary trace, however, remains of
this, viz. in the verb sôj, which has bSm in the future, and
should properly have eXoj in the present, but the rough breath-
ing is changed into the smooth on account of the following x,
an aspirate.
Rule 5. The aspirates are ?iever doubled, but,

instead thereof, an aspirate must be preceded by
the kindred mute; as '.^tr^tc, not'_^^^tg; Bdxxog,
not Bdxxî MaTâloq, not Ma^âlog âitcpb),
':
•
not âcpcpo}.
Rule 6. When () stands at the beginning of a
word, if a simple vowel be made to precede it in
composition or inflection, the q is usually dou-
bled ; as e()Qe7iov, d()Qe7trig, from QtTto) ; 7ie()i(){)oog
from Tteî and Qao). This rule, however, does not
11
hold in the case of diphthongs,^ efmotcjQjirom

ei)and odovvvac, /'\.
*
^ *•- "*
~^
\ "x
«^»
S
^ - — ,,,
ff
"^^
Rule 7. Vv is changed iîitoiilito /' •/
r, before /, x, ?, x.^tOrartj.
into ,a, before /5, /i., Ttj;^, i^ ;
into ^, ^, 0, before 1, ^, a'[ -î'J^rr
Thus, t/zâ^w for ivyQd(pa) ; iuâivo) for h%ai-
v(o y avklaaiavo} for avvXaîavo) ; ai;()êco for (T'ur-
()eca; (jf orxem^^co for avvoxevdl^w. Except jiecpav-

oai (2. pers. perf. pass, of (paLva)), tljjivg,
ntnavOLQ, and a few others. It remains unalter-
ed in general only before d, ^, t.
Obs. The
preposition sv^ before g, cr, and t, remains un-
changed as st'Qvdfiog, ifgilooj, ivaeioj, hUoâi,
; But in ai)*',
when followed by two consonants or t, the v is thrown out
as aiaxriâ. In TrciXty, however, in the same case, the v is re-
tained, as 7taXivai<iog, or also, nallaxiog.
Rule 8. Before
the labials /?,
/z, tt, ^, i^/, |t/.,
are changed into as Itlu^jiai for XtXeijifiai j

fî;
tttviijiai for Tti;v7iâi, Before the same letter,

X and X are changed into /, as )Jleyâi for ^.e-
ItXfica; dtdoyaai for dtdox/xa(,; and the Unguals
d\ 6, T, C, into a.
0/;^. The following are exceptions, u^c/n^j av/fibg, I'dficDv^
yiByoQvdfievog^ notfiog.
Rule 9. The linguals ^, ^, t, t, can only stand

before >., |Cx, v, ^. They
are dropped before o.
Thus 7i6deOL, Tiodol^ nooi^ from Tiot'g ; nlr^Ôi),
nXi]^0(a^ Tcliôo) ; acj^ccTeOL, ocDfAAûot, ao}accOi, from
ocbua. So also, dqndoo) for dQ7ia(^to(jo,
Rule 10. v is dropped before f and cr in de-

clension, and also in the preposition ovv ;
(Rule
7. Obs.) sls fiijveg^ firiveoi., iirjvoi, fjirjoi j ovLfiv for
12
aw'Cflv ; avi^fjTto) for avv^rjTuo, When this takes

place, the syllable preceding f and g is long,
Obs. 1. The preposition iv remains unchanged, and the ad-

verb ndXiv, as noticed in the Obs. to Rule 7.
Obs. 2. If, after the rejection of v before cr, only s or o re-
mains, then eg is changed into eig, og into ovg, and the short a is
made long. Thus, the present participle of rlOrj/ui is properly
Ttdevg, which the iEolians retained, and which becomes, after
the rejection of v and the changing of e into st, ndelg. So the
present participle of dldojfn is ^tôyg, whence comes by reject-
ing V and changing o into ov, didoig. And lastly, tvipag, ardcg,
and other participles of this termination, come from forms in
ocvg as Tvipupg, ax&vg^ and have the « long.
; The same re-
marks will apply to verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Thus, from
the verb anevdoi comes the future anivdeaoj, contracted into
on^yau, and changed by the operation of the rule into anelaoj ;
from ddovg comes ddovg from xuglepg, xagleig from anavg,
; ;
anag. Thus, too, the Cohans and Dorians said, instead of

-ivipavg^ noiriaarg, having rejected the v, fvipaig, 7ion\aaig. The
V which appears in the genitive, proves conclusively that the
same letter entered originally into the form of the nominative.
The Latins in their present participles active retain this old
form, as docens, amans, &c.
OF THE HIATUS.
Gen. Obs. A word which ends with a vowel, followed by
another which begins with a vowel, produces what is termed
an Hiatus. The Attics endeavoured to avoid such a concur-
rence of vowel-sounds much more anxiously than the other
Greeks, and among the Attics the Poets were much more atten-
tive to this than the prose writers. The lonians, on the con-
trary, who were not offended at the concurrence of two or more
vowels, seldom made use of any means to prevent such an Hia-
tus, and only in poetry. In Homer the v i(pslxvajix6v occurs
nearly regularly, in Herodotus not at all. But nevertheless
many instances of Hiatus occur in Homer to remove the ;
most offensive of which, recourse is had to the Digamma.

{vid. Appendix, A.)
The Attics, in order to avoid Hiatus, employed three modes :
1. The addition of v to the end of a word. 2. Apostrophe.
3. Contractions.
13
1. N kfElKVOTLTiOV,
V EcpEXxvoTiKov is added to datives plural in oc,
and consequently in ^l and to the third person
ijjl,
of verbs in e or i, to the word eYxooL (twenty^

and to the adverbs ntqvai^ navTanaoi, voocpi,
jcQooê, oiaaê, xe, vv, when the following word
begins with a vowel; as iv fjiiôlv oXlyoig, naoiv
UTcev ixelvoig, ti;vipev avT6v, iixooiv txi] yeyovcog,
&c.
Obs. 1 . The lonians and Attics also affixed a ^ to the diph-
thong in the third person sing, plusq. perf. active.
ei
Obs. 2. It is denominated by the Grammarians v ecpsXxvarc'
abv, because it draws or attracts the second vowel to the first.
Tlic datives îûlv, if^'iv^ have it also, they beiiig contracted from
Obs. 3. The v icpsXxvGnxov is also applied to the termina-

tions in fffc, expressing a place, which are formed from datives
plural as nluTociuaiy, ' OXvfintdaiv.
;
Obs. 4. The letter a is sometimes inserted on the same

principle with the *' ; as ovtco before a consonant, ovxojg before
a vowel ; so also ^XQh ^XQ^S ; f^^XQh f^^XQ^S ; drê'â, dr^^-
fiag,
Obs. 5. The same remark
will apply to the negative od,
which retains form before a consonant, but has ovx before
this
a vowel, and consequently ovx before an aspirate. The x in
odic, however, is dropped at every pause, even when the next
sentence begins with a vowel, since no Greek word by itself

can terminate in as Ov- aXV oTay.
>« :
Obs. 6. The lonians omit this v even before a vowel on ;
the other hand, the poets use it before a consonant to effect

a position for the preceding vowel. This is also sometimes
done in Attic prose, and at the end of a sentence it is rarely
omitted. (Upon this whole subject, however, see Buttman^s
Ausfurliche Griech. Sprachl. § 26. anm. 2. who denies, in op-
position to other Grammarians, that the v £q)sXH. is ever used
to prevent an hiatus).
2.— APOSTROPHE.
Apostrophe is the turning away, or rejecting,

14
of the final vowel of a word, when the next word
begins with a vowel, as ndw^ tXeyev for navra
eXeyeVj dt' wv for dia ojv.
When an apostrophe takes place, a Ze/zz^ before
an aspirate is changed into its corresponding as-
pirate: thus, -for ccKo 01% an^ ov is changed into
ag)' oil;.
Apostrophein general removes the short final

vowels, a, e, i, o. The following, however, are
exceptions 1. The o in ttqo is not cut off, but
:
in certain cases coalesces with the following

vowel. 2. The l in neQl is not cut off except in
theôlic dialect. 3. The^ in otl is not cut off;
since, if this were done, or might be confounded
with oTe, and o^" with oî. 4. The l is rarely
cut off in the dative singular and plural of the
third declension,
Obs. 1. Not only short vowels, but diphthongs also, are

elided; not indiscriminately however, for 1. They are not
elided in the infinitive of the perfects active and passive, nor in
that of the aorists passive, neither are they elided in the 3d.
person singular of the optative, nor in the nominative plural
of nouns. 2. Diphthongs are not elided by the Attic poets
before short vowels. 3. Diphthongs are rarely, if ever, elided
in prose.
Obs. 2. The Attics and Dorians use the apostrophe, in final
long syllables, on the short vowels of the following word as ;
nov ÔTiv for nov sativ 6' 'yadi for î dyaOL

; The poets reject
also from the diphthong, with wliich a word begins, the first
short vowel, when the preceding word ends with a vowel, as
1^' -daiSeia for evaiSsia,
•^ VQinidrj for S Evglnidr],
(Ji'
Obs. 3. For farther remarks on Apostrophe, vid. Appen-

dix, B.
3.— CONTRACTIONS.
Contractions are chiefly used by the Attics, the characte-

ristic difference between the Attic and Ionic dialects being
this, that the former delights in contractions, whereas the
latter in most instances avoids them, and is fond of a concur-
lence of vowel sounds.
15
Contractions are of two kinds, proper and im^

proper^ or, as they are otherwise termed, Synsere-
sis and Crasis,
A proper contraction, or Synseresis, is when
two single vowels are contracted without change
into one diphthong, as teixu contracted into Tct-
/e^, from Teixog, a wall.
An improper contraction, or Crasis, is when a
vowel or diphthong of different sounds is substi-
tuted, as ru/joq, contracted into reixovg, Teix^cc^
contracted into reix^»
Ohs. 1. A syllable contracted by Crasis has commonly a
mark (') placed as a sign over it, as xauid for xaaixa, -totvav-
tlov for TO ivarrlov,
Ohs. 2. The v is only used when, beside the
subscribed
contraction, the t found in the last of the two contracted
is still
syllables as x(j.Ta for Jcai eha
;
eydda for iyia olda.
; Hence
«5/Tt for J<cxl enl, not x^nt x^qsttj, for xal dêri^, not adqBTrj,
;
Obs. 3. Among the instances of Crasis which are of com-

mon occurrence, besides those already mentioned, the follow-
ing may be enumerated. Tohpofxa for t6 hvoâ, rd/ud for tdc
ijud, iyi^juat for eyco oTjuai, Ooifidxiov for to 1(j.6.tiov, ovvBua for oh
spsxtt, TtQO^TQEijjBV for nQOSTQiipsv xaxovQyog for xaxosQydgy
,
joifAOv for TO ifnoif, (o "vdgojnot for ol ctt^dgconoi, / &7icjjg for xal

OTTMg, X tbartg for xal oaiig, xdxelvog for xal ixelvog.
Obs. 4. For farther particulars respecting contractions,
vid. Appendix, C.
Of Figures affecting Syllables.
1. Prosthesis is the adding of one or more letters to the

beginning of a word, as afiixqbg for fnixgog, ielxoat for si'xoai.
2. Paragoge is the adding of one or more letters to the end
of a word, as iiada for •^|?, TOio-t for rolg.
3. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in the
body of a word, as e'AXaê for eXaSe, onndtegog for onoTsgog.
4. Syncope is the taking away of one or more letters from
the body of a word, as ^lWov for riXvdop, sigdfirjv for Bigrjadixtjv,
5. Aphaeresis is the cutting off of one or more letters from
the beginning of a word, as uiegonri for dcrxsgon^, ogTi) for
kogii],
6. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from
the end of a word, as dio for 5w/<a, JJoueidU) for IIoaBidibva
16
7. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables,
as enqadov for STtngdov, from negdu) Mgaxov for 'ddaQXOVy from
;
digxb) xaQXEQog for XQaregog, x&Qiog for x^ciroj.

;
0^5. The lonians often, by a species of Metathesis, change

the breathing in a word, as xid^hv for /mc6v, ipdama for ivTuvOa,
8. Tmesis is when the parts of a compound are separated
by an intervening word, as vnsQ Ttvd e/siv for Tl)7tsQi%siv xiva,
OF ACCENTS.
There are three accents, the acute ('), the
grave ('), and the circumflex (~).
The acute is placed on one of the three last
syllables of a word.
The grave is never placed but on the last syl-
lable.
The circumflex is placed on a long vowel or a
diphthong in one of the two last syllables.
Ohs. 1 . The circumflex was first marked *, then '", and last-
~.
ly
Ohs. 2. The acute is called in Greek olem (Ttôaw^â, ac-
cent,being understood) the grave is styled âqela the cir-
; ;
cumflex Ttsqianwfxhrj, that is, wound about.

Ohs. 3. In accentuation, words are called, in Greek,
1. 'Oliixoya, which have the acute {(>^^g r6vog) on the last
syllable ; as deog.
'
2. IJago^viovaj which have it on the penultima ; as rBjv/a-
fiifog.
3. IlQonaqoîtova, which have it on the antepenultima ; as
&vdQ0J7lOg.
4. nsQtanibfjisvaj which have the circumflex on the last syl-
lable as ri/iia).
;
5. ngonsgiaTubfisva, which have it on the penultima as ;
ngayfza,
6. BagHova, are all words which have no accent on the
last syllable, because, according to the custom of grammari-
ans, the syllable which is neither marked with the acute nor
the circumflex has the grave, (âgvv tdfov),
Ohs. 4. For a more enlarged view of the doctrine of ac-
cents, vid. Appendix, D.
MARKS OF READING.
1. When two vowels are separated in pronunciation, and
17
do not constitute a diphthong, the latter of the vowels has

two points over it, as nQovTtagx^, dtdrjg. This is called Dm-
rests,
2. Diastole or Hypodiastole is a comma put at the end of
the compound in compound words, to distinguish it from other
words consisting of the same letters as o ts, the neuter of
;
8? and re, to distinguish it from ots {since). So also t6, xe and

T6re, 6, Tt and ort.
Ohs. The
Diastole is rendered almost useless by the art of
printing. Many, instead of the Diastole, only leave a small
space between the parts of the compound, as is the case in
old MSS. and editions ; o tf, to ts, o t*.
3. The marks of punctuation in Greek are for the most
part the same as those in Latin, except the colon and mark of
interrogation. The colon is put at the upper part of the last
word, as sine' The colon and semicolon are not distinguish-
ed from each other.
4. The mark of interrogation is (;), the semicolon of mo-
dern languages.
5. Besides these, there is a mark which shows that two
words belong to each other, and which is called Hyphen^ {i(p^
sp). This consists in a cross line placed between the words,
as OTU'dcdXvaig,
'f]
It no longer occurs, however, in editions.
Obs. 1. The marks of reading were invented by the Alex-
andrian Grammarians. They do not occur in inscriptions,
nor old MSS. In most of these there are no separating
marks, in others a simple dot is put after each word, in others
again a small space is left between the words.
Obs. 2. The Greek denominations of the points are as fol-
lows 1. TeXsla (TTtj'/zTJ, a full stop, which denotes that the
:
sense is complete. 2. /near] (nd^ri, points out where breath

is to be taken. 3. inoaTiyfi'/i, a short pause, indicating that
the sense is not complete. Nicanor the Grammarian imagined
eight arty fiat.
PARTS OF SPEECH.
There are Greek eight species of words,
in
called Parts of Speech viz. Article, Noun, Ad-
;
jective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and

Conjunction,
Obs. The Greek Grammarians in general rank Interjections

among adverbs improperly, however, if we consider the ad-
;
3
18
verbial nature, which always coincides with some verb as its
principle, and whose meaning it qualifies.
The first four are declined with Gender, Num-

ber, and Case,
There are three Genders: Masculine, Femi-
nine, and Neuter. To indicate the gender, use is
made of the Article ; 6 for the masculine, ri for
the feminine, and to for the neuter ; as 6 di/?)^,
the man; i] yvvi], the woman; to fu)ov, the animal.
Some nouns are both masculine and feminine,
as 6, r], TCccTivQog, the papyrus ; 6, r], yihtivoq, the
wild olive-tree. These are said to be of the Com-
mon Gender.
There are three Numbers, Singular, Dual,
and Plural. The first speaks of one, the second
of two or a pair, the third of more than two.
Thus, 6 avriQ the man, T(ji) avdQe the two men, at
avd()eg, the men.
Obs. 1 The dual, which adds to the precision of the Greek

,
language, did not exist in the oldest state of the language,

neither was it used in the jEolic dialect, nor in the Latin. It
is not found in the New Testament, in the Septuagint, nor in
the Fathers- It was used most frequently by the Attics, who,
however, often employ the plural instead of it. In the corrup-
tion of the language by the modem Greeks, it has been omitted.
Obs. 2. The Dual, according to Buttman, is only an old
and shortened form of the plural, which became gradually li-
mited in its use to an expression of the number two. Hence,
as it was not an original form, nor actually needed, the reason
appears why it was so often neglected and its place supplied
by the ordinary plural, vid. Buttmari's Ausf, Griech. Sprachl.
vol. 1. p. 135.
Obs. 3. The Attics in particular often put the article, the
pronouns, and participles, in the masculine, before feminine
nouns of the dual number whence some conclude, that the
;
dual of these parts of speech, and of the adjective, had once

only one form, viz. the masculine.
There are five cases: Nominative, Genitive,

Dative, Accusative, and Vocative.
19
Obs, 1. (in Greek mwaEig, in Latin, casus), mean

Cases
fallings. The
ancient Grammarians, in making the nomina-
tive a case, proceeded on the supposition that words fell as it
were from the mind. Hence, when a noun fell thence in its
primary form, they called it nTibaig dgOi^, casus rectus, a straight
or perpendicular case or falling, and likened its form to a
perpendicular line. The variations from the first case or no-
minative, they considered to be the same as if this line were
to fall from its perpendicular position, and make successive
angles with the horizon. These they called nnixTsig nl&yim^
casils ohliqui, oblique cases or sidelong /aZ^m^^. Thus,
AB is the mwaig dgdi^ ; BC, BD, BE, BF, are the TtKacrstg
nX&yiai, Hence, Grammarians called the method of enume-
rating the various cases of a noun, xUaig, declinatio, or declen
sion, it being a sort of progressive descent from the noun's
upright form, through its various declining ox falling forms.
Ohs. 2. The Greek language has no ablative. Its place is
supplied partly by the genitive, and partly by the dative. The
Latins also had anciently no ablative, but instead of it the da-
tive was used, as in Greek. At length an ablative was form-
ed, governed by prepositions, which ceased thenceforth to be
put before the dative. One of the most recent advocates for
a Greek ablative is Professor Dunbar, in his work on the
Greek and Latin Languages, p. 54.
The Nominative and Vocative are frequently

the same in the Singular, always in the Dual and
Plural.
Obs, Even, however, where the Vocative has a separate

form, the Nominative is often used for it, particularly by the
Attic writers.
The Dative singular in all three declensions

ends in i. In the two first, however, the i is sub-
scribed,
Obs. The Dative plural properly in all three declensions ends

20
in aiv or oi ; for oiig and oig are only abbreviations of the more
ancient forms aiaiv and otai,v.
The Genitive plural ends always in o)v.
Ohs. The more ancient form, however, was euv and awy,
though not in all words.
The Dual has only two terminations, one for

the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative, the
other for the Genitive and Dative.
Neuters have the Nominative, Accusative, and
Vocative, alike ; and in the plural these cases end
always in a. In the Dual they are the same in
form as the masculine.
Obs, Weare not to conclude that the * was wanting in the

dative case of the old Greek, because it is omitted in several
inscriptions. In the case of those words where it was not
pronounced separately, it was omitted by the Dorians and iEo-
lians and by the stone-cutters in all dialects. It is consonant
;
with analogy to suppose, that the termination of the dative

case was originally uniform. The very ancient datives olxolj
TisdoT, were retained even in the Doric dialect. Adverbs in t.
were also compounded of datives, as ^ftaxl, dcvoncil, and tho

like. 'EviavOol and nol are old datives.
ARTICLE.
TheArticle is a word prefixed to a noun and

serving to ascertain or define it.
There are commonly reckoned two Articles
in Greek, the Prepositive, 6, ?], t6, and the Sub-
junctive, og, 7], o. The latter, however, is, in fact,
a relative pronoun, and will be treated of under
that head.
The Prepositive Article, or, as it should be
more correctly styled, the Article, answers in ge-

neral to the definite article the in English, as 6
âotlevg the king, ri yvvri the woman, to ^coov the
21
animal. When
no article is expressed in Greek,
the English indefinite article a or an is signified,
as âOLlevg, a king; yvvri, a woman; ^cjov. an
animal.
The declension of the Article is as follows
'
0, 9^, t6, TAe.
Singular. Dual. Plural.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. 6, 4 T(5, M. F. N. N. of, af, Td,
G. TOVj T^?, TOC, N. A. T(a, T(5, TC&. G. TWy, TWy, TC5>',
D. TW, TJJ, TW, G. D. TOty, xaty, ToTv. D. TOi?, TuTg Tolg,

A. X^y, TTJI', t6, A. T0l5?, Td?, T(i.
05^. That the appellation of inotaxrixbv &q6qov, or suh-

1.
mnctive which many of the ancient Grammarians ap-
article,
plied to the relative oj, is an improper one, appears fully from
a remark of Apollonius. In comparing it with the ngoTuxn-
xbv ^qOqov^ or prepositive article, he not only confesses it to
differ,as being expressed by a difl'erent word, and having a
different place in every sentence, but in Syntax, he adds, it is
wholly different. De Syntax. Lib. 1, c. 43. Theodore Gaza
makes a acknowledgment. Gramm. Introd. Lib. 4.
similar
Obs, 2. There is no form of the article for the vocative ; for
(o is an interjection, ranked with the other interjections under
adverbs improperly, however, vid. p. 17.

;
Obs. 3. If the particles ys and de are annexed to the article,

it has the signification of the pronoun " this.^^ The declen-
sion remains the same, oJe, (Att. 68L), 7\8s {^8l), j6ds (lodl) ;
rovde, zriade, rovde, &;c.

Obs. 4. In the old language the article was ^6g. tiJ, t6 ;
hence the plural rot in Doric and Ionic, and the t in the neu-
ter and in the oblique cases. In Homer and the other old epic
writers, the article, with a few exceptions, is, in fact, the same
as the demonstrative pronoun, olxog, this. In some passages
a large portion of the demonstrative force is, however, lost, and
then the use of the article approaches to that of the common
6, 1^, t6. In the old language, the same form to? was also used
to denote the relative pronoun " which," for which the form oc,
arising from tog, after the general rejection of t, was afterwards
used. Hence in the Doric and Ionic writers the relative pro-
noun often occurs under the same form with the article; as r6g
for hj x^ for % t<5 for o, &c.
3*
22
NOUN.
Declensions of Nouns are three, answering to
the first three declensions in Latin.
The first ends in a and ?], feminine ; and in ag
and r\Q, masculine.
The second ends in og generally masculine,
and sometimes feminine and ov neuter. ;
The third ends in «, neuter w feminine;

^, t;, -,
v^ I, ^, g, 1^, of all genders, and increases in the

genitive,
Ohs. 1. In the two first declensions, the termination only

of the nominative case is changed in the oblique cases, so that
the number of syllables remains the same. In the third, on
the contrary, the terminations of the other cases are affixed
to the nominative, yet with some change. Hence the two
first declensions are called pamyZZorizc, the third imparisyllahic.
Obs. 2. The old grammarians reckoned ten declensions
jive simple BJidfive contracted. The simple were, 1. a?, yg,
2. a, 1], 3. og, ov. 4. b)g, wv. 5. a, t, v, v, ^, q, g, ip. —Of
these the four first are parisyllabic, the last is imparisyllabic.
The contracted were, 1. r^g, eg, og. 2. tg, v. 3. evg, vg, v.
4. CO, (ug. 5. ag. These are all imparisyllabic.
Tabular View of the Three Declensions.

Singular.
I. II. III.
Nom. a rj (xg rig og, Neut. ov atvuv^ggyj
Gen. a? rjg ov og (tog)
Dat. a ij 06 ij
Ace. ccv r]v (XV 7]v ov, a or v Neut.

Voc. a rj a rj 6, Neut. ov — like Nom.
Dual.
N.A V.a (M B
G.D «iV OIV otv
Plural.
Nom. ai oi> Neut. a eg Neut. a
Gen. (av G)v (bv
Dat. atg oig atv or at

Ace. ag ovg Neut. a oig Neut. a
Voc. o» 0* Neut. a eg Neut. a
23
FIRST DECLENSION
9^ Movaa, the Muse.
N. 'fl Movaa N. a[ Movaai
G. Trig Moiarjg N. A. V. T« Moiaa G. TW»' MovoQJy
D. f^ Movari D. Tttiff Moiaaig
A. Ti^v Movaav G. D. raXv Movaaiv. A. Tttj Movaag
V. Movaa. V. Movaai,
Nouns in da, ^«, ()«, and a j9wre, (that is a fol-

lowed by a vowel,) make the Genitive in ag, and
the Dative in a, and the rest like Movoa thus, :
i] tdâ^ the seat.

N. 17 bSqoc N. al idgai
G. Trig sdgug N. A. V. 7U tJâ G. rwv Idgwv
D. 1^ £<^>^ D. Tulg Edgaig
A. T'^v edgav G. D. 7at*' £i5^«i»'. A. Tug edgag
V. e(5^«. V. sdgat
1^ xaqdla, the heat•/.

N. 1^xagdla N. at xagdlttt
G. T^g KugSlag N. A. V. -rot xagdla G. Twv xocgdi&v
D. T>j xagdla D. talg xagdlaig
A. Ti^*- xagdlav G. D. TulP xagdlttiv. A. T&g xagdlag
V. xecQdla. V. xagdlai.
Nouns in rj make the Accusative in i]v, and the

Vocative in rj, and the rest like Movoa : thus,
T^ Ti/.^?'], /Ae honour.

N. 1^ Tt^TJ N. a I tiâl
G. trig iifirig N. A. V. Tu Tf//a G. TWV TlflWV
D. T7^ Tl^rj D. Tttij TCfialg
A. T^V Ti//7J|/ G. D. TaTv TifxaXv, A. T(is Tt/^cig
V. TtjWij.
24
Nouns in aq make the Genitive in oi;, and the
Dative in «, and the rest like Movoa : thus,
6 veaviag, the youth

N. 6 VBaviag N. ot veaviav
G. ToD veaviov N. A. V. T(b veavla G. Twv veafiGiV
D. T(3 VBavla D. TOi? veaylaig
A. Tov vsavluv G. D. TOiy veccvlaip. A. TOiJg vsaviag
V, VBUPia, V. veavlai
Nouns in i^g make the Genitive in oi;, the Ac-

cusative in Tjv^ and the Vocative in tj* and the rest
like Movoa : thus,
6 'veXi[)vrjg, the publican.

N. 6 tekihvTig N. ol jelibvtti
G. ToD Te^(6you N. A. V. TU TsX(ava G. Twv reXuvwv
D. TOJ TfiAcdV'*; D. TOig TcAcdyatff
A. tbv TaXiavTjv G. D. TOll' TfcXcoVttty. A. rovg TsXfovag
Observations on the First Declension,
Obs. 1. The tennination in a, which makes ag in the geni-

tive, is generally long. Hence words in a contracted, as û46tj~
VOL, fira, &c. make ag. The termination in «, on the contrary,
which has ijg in the genitive, is always short. The vocative
in a of masculines in a? is long, of those in ?;? short. The
Dual termination in « is always long.
Obs. 2. From the genitive in ag is derived the ancient ge-
nitive of the first declension of Latin nouns, as paterfamilias,
materfamilias. The Dorians said fjioioag for fioioiig and the ;
Cohans, adding an t to it, made it fwvaaig, from which the

Latins, cutting off the S, have taken musal or mus(B in the ge-
nitive. So also the Cohans said fxilaig for ê'Aag, r&Xaig for
x&lttg. Etym. M. p. 575, 1. 53. Maittaire Dial. p. 208. ed.
Sturz, From the Dative in at or a, is formed the Latin Da-
tive in (B. The similarity between the Accusative in av and
the Latin am, is obvious.
Obs. 4. Some nouns in ag make the genitive in a as well as
in ov ; as nvOayoqag^ G. ov, and — —
« ; naTgalolag^ G. ov, —
25
and —a. Some keep a exclusively as OMfiag, G. Qcofia ; ;
Bo^âg, G. Bo^^d; ûiavag, G. -TaxaJ'a; TiUTTra?, G. TraTTTra.

The genitives in « were the Doric form. The Doric form for
the genitive singular is foraied by contraction from the oldest
form of the genitive singular of masculines in «?, viz. from «o.
Hence it is always long. This Doric genitive, in some few
words, particularly proper names, remained in common use,
as ÂpplSug, Hannibal, G. toD ÂvviSa-^ UovtSag^ G. rod 2Jovtda;
JToidqvag^ G. toD 1û)6(jvu.
Obs. 4. The Attic form ov for the genitive, comes by con-
traction from the old Ionic form £w, which is itself deduced
by some Grammarians from the still older Doric form ao.
Others, however, maintain that there was anciently a double
form for the genitive singular, viz. ao and £w, each distinct'
from the other, and that ao remained in Doric, while ew was
retained in Ionic. They both occur in Homer, II. go'. 85
and 86.
Obs. 5. Two opinions are likewise maintained respecting
the form of the genitive plural one, that the genitive plural
;
of all endings was anciently uojVj contracted by the Dorians

into the circumflexed «»', and changed by the lonians into eojp ;
the other, that anciently two forms for the genitive plural were
used, awr and smv, both of which occur in Homer, and hence
were both used in the old Ionic, and that the first of these
was subsequently retained by the iEolo-Doric, while the lat-
ter alone remained in use in the Ionic. From the Ionic — scav
comes by contraction the Attic circumflexed wv.
Obs. 6. The terminations i]g and ag were u in iEolic, and
also in the old language of Homer, as Gviara, fiT^riira^ vBcpelrj-
yeqha^ svQvdna. Hence in Latin, cometa, planeta, poeta, from
xo/nriiT]g, nlavrixrig, noiTjT'qg, and hence the Latins regularly
changed the Greek names in a? into « and the Greeks, on ;
the other hand, turned the Roman names in a into ag, as -Tvil-
A«c, rdlSag^ Kaitlivixg.
Obs. 7. Of Nouns in j?? of the first declension, the follow-
ing make the Vocative in a Nouns in tr^g ; compounds in
:
TiTjg, as icvv(hnr]g', Nouns in i]g derived from «£t^w, ttwAco, iglSoj;
as YsuîdrQTjg, i^vgonioXrig, naidoTQlSrjg or denoting nations, as;
UsQcryg^ Persian, V. UsQcra but nigutjgy the name of a man,

;
JIsQ(T7] : Idyvjjg, /tispalx/iiTjg, nvgalxM? make «. But AIt^-

also
7Tjg, alpaglTr^g, TKxXXda/nneTTjg make r]. Nouns in frx//? make a
and r].
Obs. 8. With regard to the dialects it may be observed,

that the Dorians in all the terminations use a long for j?, as
riud, dig, a, dp. The lonians, on the contrary, change a into
26
rj after a vowel or the letter q, as uocpir], rjg, rj, 7]v. fi&x"'Q"i
V^^ ^5 '/"• This, however, is never done in the AcGusative
plural.
Obs.9. This declension has also some words contracted,
as from yt'«, (hence yeujiteTQ)]g,) ksoriri from leovterj^ /ma
yri
from /Lip(X(x, Adrjvu from jtdtp'&u^ 'Egurig hom'EQuiug. They
are declined exactly the same as the examples which have
been given under lids declension viz, those in a like the pure
;
nouns while in those in or] the y absorbs the vowel preceding,

:
as dnlo?], 'Jc/rArj.
SECOND DECLENSION.
6 loyog, the word.
N. o Xoyog N. oi Uyoi
G. ToC loyov N. A. V. TO) Aoj'W G. TWJ' Xoyoiv
D. T(3 l6y(o D. loXg Xoyoig
A. tov Xoyov G. D. ToXv Xoyoiv, A. TOl)j Aoôi/g
V. UyB. V. Uyoi.
TO ovKov, the Jig,

N. avxop
TO N. to: avxa
G. rod avxov N. A. V. TO) avxco G. Tuv avxuv
D. Tw avxcp D. TOiff aDxotff
A. TOP avxov G. D. TOtJ' avxotv, A. Td oOxa
V. avxov. V. avxa.
Attic Form,
6 )/s(bg, the temple.
N. 6 veihg N. Ol VE(0
G. TOV VS(b N. A. V. TW VBfh G. TUy yfiWV
D. TW yew D. rolg PsSg
A. T^v ve(ap G. D. roXv veQv. A. TOU? yfiCO?
V. yew?. V. veu.
r6 avhyeojv, the hall

N. tb d.p(bysijt}v N. Td diPiayeat
G. TOu (iKdj'ew N. A. V. TO) dcpwysoj G. rwp dcPioyeb)V\

D. TO) d»'(i5j'£Q) D. TOi? dtpd)ye(i)g \^
A. Td d.v(byea)v G. D. Tolp &v(x>ye(pp. A. Td di'(d)'£a)
V. di-coyeoiy. V. &p(byEa.
27
Contracted Forms.
6 v6og, vovg, the mind.

N. voog, vovg N. vooi, vol
G. v6ov, vov N. A. V. vow, via G. voDjp, vibv
D. ^6(0, V(ji D. vootgj voXg
A. p6oPj fovv G. D. vooiv, voXv. A. vdovg, vovg

V i'6e, vov. V. ^(Jot, J'Ot.
TO dortov, oOTOvv, the hone.

N. doTsoVj bujovv N. dareaj dara
N. A. V.
G. dOTBOV, dUTOV G. daisiop, daiobv
dariaty 6<nib
D. OCTTf'o), 6ffTa» D. daTBOig^ daroTg
G.D.
A. oaiiov, darovv A. dariaj data
daiEOiv, ddJoXv,
V. âxeov, dajovp. V. daiia, data.
To the contracted forms of this declension may also be re-

ferred 'Irjaovg, differing in the Dative only which ends in ov :
and, (with more propriety than the triptots,) Diminutives in
vg ; as ^lovvg, Kafivg^ Klnvavg
Singular. Singular.
N. 6 Îrjaovg N. 6 ^lovvg
G. TOC Îtjoov G. T0£> ^lOVOV
D. T(5 Îl](J0V D. TW ^lOVOV
A. tov Ît](T0VV A. Toy ^lOVVV
V. Îrjoov. V. ^lOVV.
Observations on the Second Declension.
Obs. 1. The termination in or is neuter, that in og for the

most part masculine. Some few nouns in og occur, which
are of the feminine, and others again which are of the common
gender. These are best learned by actual observation. Among
the feminines in og, however, there are several which are in
reality adjectives with a feminine substantive understood, as,
1^ didXsitTog, the dialect, (qDWi'-rj understood) ; ri dukêiQog, the
diameter, [yQa/jjit^ understood) ; -^ ajoôg, the atom, {oiaia un-
derstood); 1^ ai'vdqog, the desert, (x^^QOi understood) &c. ;
Obs. 2. A
strong analogy subsists between this and the
second declension of Latin nouns thus, the Greek nomina- ;
tives in og and op are sometimes written in os and on in Latin

28
as Alpheos or Alpheus', Ilion or Ilium. Again, the genitive
singular of the second declension in Latin, in words of Greek
origin, ended anciently in u, like the Greek ov^ as Menandm,
ApoUodoru, afterwards Menandri, ApoUodori. The dative sin-
gular of the Latin second declension was originally oi, like
the Greek w, as dominoi, ventoi, and the accusative om, as mor-
bom, servom. In the same manner, the Greek and Latin voca-
tive singular of this declension coincide, they ending respec-
tively in s and e ; and, as the Greeks sometimes retain og for
s in the vocative, so also do the Latins use in some words us
for e, as Deus, &c. The analogy might be extended through-
out the plural also. vid. Ruddimanni Instit. L. G. ed. Stal-
baum. Lips. 1823. Vol. 1. p. 54.
Obs. 3. The poets change the termination ov of the geni-
tive singular into oio, as Aoyoto, avxoio.
Obs. Instead of the vocative in s the form of the nomina-
4.
tive is <plXog & Mevslue, II. d\ 189.
sometimes used, as This
is particularly the case in the Attic dialect. The word 0e6g,
God, always has og in the vocative.
Obs. 5. In the genitive and dative of the dual, the poets
insert an t, as innoi'Cv^ aiudpouf, &uociv.
Obs. 6. The Cohans and Dorians insert an t after the o in
the accusative plural, as they do in the jfirst declension after
the a ; as xdnotg votxoig, for aaTu rovg v6/novg. The poets use
og in the accusative plural when a short syllable is necessary,
as T(i? daavjctQxog dXianexag. Theocr. 5. 112. Twg Xikvdagog, 114.
T(b? X{»cog, 4. 11.
Obs. 7. The name of Attic, which is commonly applied to

the form in wg of this declension, is not a very proper one for
two reasons. 1. Because the Attics did not decline in this
way all nouns in og; and 2. because it is by no means peculiar
to the Attic dialect, but occurs also in the Ionic and Doric
writers. It is, in fact, an old mode of declining, and the num-
ber of words to which it is applied is very small, and even of
some of these there exist forms in og, as 6 kaog, the people, and
d Xe(bg ;6 vaog, the temple, and 6 vewg. In the accusative sin-
gular of these nouns in cag, the Attics often omit the v, as A«^w,
V6(b, Em, for loLychv, vewv, imp. In proper names this is almost
—
always done, as Kw, Keo), Âdoi. The Attics often declined,
after this form, words which otherwise belong to the third
declension, as MLvm from Mlvtog, for Mivcaa yeluiv from yeX^g,
yiloiiog, for yilMxa ;
;
riqwv from T\oMg, for ^qâ.— The last thing

to be remarked is, that the neuter of some adjectives of this
form has often w instead of (av, as dj'rjô; for d/TJ^wv ; and that
only one neuter of this form is found ending in (ag, viz. t6
29
X^^MS, the debt. This last must not be confounded with /êcSi',
an Attic form for ZQ'ôv^ the participle of /^^ " it is necessary"
and which occurs as indeclinable in Eurip. Here. fur. 21. el'ts
TOO xoe<hv (xexa.
Obs. 8. In the contracted forms of the second declension, if
the latter vowel be short, the contraction is in ov ; if long,
the former vowel is dropt ; as the student will perceive from
the declension of voog. The compounds of vooi; and ôog are
not contracted in the neuter plural, nor in the genitive thus
we say s^poa^ eiv6(*iv^ not ei/ya, evvwv. S&og is contracted — :
thus Sing. N. u&og, crag, A. adov, aav

; PL A. adovg, adagj :
aibg ; ffda, aa.

Obs. 9. By the later ecclesiastical writers, vovg was inflected
after the following manner, vovg vodg, vot, yod.
THIRD DECLENSION.
6 67]Q, the wild beast.
Singular Dual. Plural.

N. 6 e^Q^ N. 0* Origsg
G. Tov dtjqog N. A. V. Tcb ^^ê G. TWJ/ 6l]QWV
D. to) 6T]qi D. Toig 6i]qaL
A. t6v OriQCc G. D. roiv drjQOiv, A. Tovff ^^§aff
V. Oiq. V. ^Jjpe?.
TO oca/xa, the body.

N. TO aw,ua N. Td oibftatct
G. ToiJ acbfiarog N. A. V. TW (TC&âTS G. Twv aojfidicov
D. TW a(o/naTi D. TOig Oibftaai,
A. TO awfia G. D. TOii' aoifi&xoiv A. Td aih/naja

V. aw.uoc.
6 firjv, the month.
Singular Dual. Plural.

N. 6 fiT^v N. oi firivsg
G. Tov fi7]v6g N. A. V. TW firivs G. TWV fi7]vwy
D, TCJ firjvl D. TOtg ^jyaf
A. Tov firiva G. D. TOty fii]voty, A. TOyff [i,r\vag
V. f^^y. V. (iTfiveg.
4
30
6 ylyccQ, the giant,

N. 6 yiyag N. ol ylyavtsg
G. ToC ylyavTog N- A. V. TO) yiyavTB G. tS)v ylyavivjv
D. TW ylyavTt D. TOt? ylyaat
A. toy j'/j'«»'Ta G. D. TOtV J'tJ'dyTOtV. A. TOT)g yiyavrag
V. yiyav. V. yLyaPteg,
nalq, the hoy.

N. 6 Tratg N. ot naidsg
G. ôv naiddg N. A. V. Tcb naids G. Tcoi' naldtov
D. TW nccidi D. TO?? naial
A. Tov Ttoclda G. D. TOiy Tialdoiv. A. ToOg naldag
V. Trat.
Observations on the Third Declension.
GENITIVE.
The inflexion of words of this declension, de-
pends chiefly upon the consonants which precede
the termination og of the genitive, and are re-
tained through all the other cases, except some
deviations in the accusative singular.
Obs. 1 . The termination of the genitive singular is og. This

is subject to various rules. 1. It is in some cases annexed
immediately to the nominative, as //Tjy, jMtj^-o?, orwrt]^, oMxrio-og.
2. In the greater part of the nouns which belong to this de-
clension, og is not only added to the nominative, but the long
vowel in the termination of the nominative is changed into the
corresponding short one, as ^ûi^, Xi/uiv-og fîpriq, /ni]TiQ-og. ;
There are, however, exceptions to this remark thus, in some ;
words, particularly monosyllables, the long vowel is retained,

as injurjr, aTjXrjv, x'^Vi nlfhv, (xl{x)v, &.C. 3. When the nomina-
tive ends in a double consonant, I, ()'c, ag, ;/?,) or »//, {Bg, tic,
(pg,) this is separated, and g is changed into o? | is changed

;
into yog, xog, xog ; xp into ôg, nog, cpog : as «rf , aiydg, cpley^,
q>Xs66g ; &ip, (hnog : 4. The nominatives in «?, ei?, ovg, are, for
the most part, formed from the terminations, ccvg, erg, ovg^ and
hence have the genitive in avtog, evxog, ovxog. There are, —
I 3J
however, many deviations from these general rules, but these

are best known by actual practice.
Obs. 2. It has been conjectured that all nouns of this de-
clension originally ended in g, and that the genitive was form-
ed by the insertion of o before ?, as is still the case in a large
class of words, as ^(pig, bcpiog fivg, fiv6g ; ^^w?, riguog Sic. thus
; ;
yivaixg^ og; yvng^ og ; ^^X'^, og ; "'JqaSg, og ; KvxXwng, og. On

this principle, the terminations in dg, rg, dg, vg^ qg^ may be sup-
posed to have dropped their first letter, as il-nlg for ilnldg-
idog ; /aglg for ;â^/TS-iTog ; cpCog for (pmg-uxbg : oQvig for bgvidg-
lOog. Sometimes the preceding vowel was lengthened, as noi)g
fox nodg-odog xxslg for xjEvg-evog.
; Sometimes the last letter
was dropped, as vsjciag for vixtagg-agog gig for glvg. Some- ;
times both letters were dropped, as awfza for aCofiarg-arog ;
fiih for fjshrg-og. The analogy has been extended to the La-
tin third declension, and the termination is supposed to have
been originally in 5, and the genitive to have been formed by
the insertion of i, as it is still in sus, suis; plehs, plebis ; he-
ros, herois ; ih.VLS,pacs, pads ; regs, regis ; lapids, lapidis ; &c.
Among the advocates for this theory, which was first intro-
we believe by Markland, may be mentioned Dr. Murray
duced
[History of European Languages, vol. 2. p. 54.) Professor
Dunbar, on the other hand, has recently published some very
ingenious speculations on this subject, which go very far
towards establishing the position, that the inflections of the
noun, &c. in Greek and Latin, are produced by pronouns.
Thus, the primitive form of the nominative of iXnlg will be
kXnid-og^ changed to ^Xmdg to prevent its being confounded
with the genitive, and softened subsequently to iXnlg. So
bcpig originally made d(pi-og in the nominative novg, noSôg, &;c. ;
The learned Professor's remarks on the other cases of the

noun, as well as on the inflections of the adjective, participle,
&c. are remarkable for their ingenuity and acuteness. vid
Dunbar on tlie Greek and Latin Languages, p. 50. seqq.
ACCUSATIVE.
The accusative singular of nouns not neuter

is formed from the genitive by changing og into
a; as ui]V, firiv-og, iii^v-a.
To this, however, there are the following ex-
ceptions — 1. Nouns in tc, i^g, avq^ ovg, whose ge-
nitive ends in og pure, take v for a ; as ocpig, a
32
serpent, G. ocpLog, A. ocpiv ; (ôTQvq, a hunch of

grapes, G. (jo'vqvoq, A. (Sotjqvv vavg, a ship, G.
—
-,
vabg, A. vavv; [Sovg, an ox,G, poog, A. (ôvv.

Barytons in Lq and vg, whose genitive ends in og
impure, make both a and v; as tQig, strife, G.
tQLdog, A. c^.tdcf and t{)iv ; ^6()vg, an helmet, G.
K6()vôg, A. x6^t;â and k6()vv,
Ohs. 1. Sometimes in the accusative of words in >', the syl-

lable va is omitted, as Ânollb) for ^ytnolluvu ; IJoaeidib for
JJoaecdwvn ; Âdaaw for 2âaao>'a.
06^. 2. â«s alsomakes âa?' dig, Jlog makes dla; XQ^^?
;
makes ;^^6«. The poets frequently use the regular termination

in a.
Obs. 3. has both terminations, drjjuoadeviig
xXf tj, xXeidbg
makes sa and « Grace, has Xi'x^na •yX'^Qig, favour,
?;>'. ^(i^tg,
X&Qiv. The compounds of noi}g have also both terminations, as
^xvnovg, datinoda, and dyxvTTovv.
VOCATIVE.
)
Frequently in the third declension, a noun, which has a

vocative of own, is found, especially among the Attic wri-
its
ters, to make
the vocative like the nominative. The follow-
ing are the general rules by which the vocative of this declen-
sion is formed it must be left to observation, however, in
:
particular cases, whether the vocative be actually formed ac-

cording to them, or be made like the nominative.
The termination of the Vocative either, 1,

shortens the long vowel of the Nominative, as
"ExTCJQ, Hector, V. ^'Extoq ; or, 2, drops the g,
as ^vg, a mouse, V. uv ; or, 3, changes g into v,
as mXag, miserable, V. taXav,
Ohs. 1. The short vowel is substituted in the vocative for

the long vowel of the nominative, generally in those nouns
which have s or o in the genitive as firin^g, G. p7]riQog (by;
S)mcope V. ^^re^ rXriutov, G. rlriuovog, V. ilr\uop

fiTjTQog), ; ;
Xelidinv, G. ;if£A(ôi'oj, V. xsXidof. The words which retain

the long vowel in the genitive, retain it also in the vocative ;
as nXdrm', G. TllikxMvogj V. Ulaioiv ; Aevoq)a)V, G. Set'0(pibvTog,

33
v. A6vo(f)(sPi irjT'^Q, G. b]TriQog,Y. itjii^q. There are only three
of this latter class of nouns which shorten the vowel in the
vocative, viz. ^yinulhjjv, G- ÂnolXtavog^ V. Ân6l.lov IJoasi';
dcbvy G. Iloastdwvog, V. Ildcreidof awiijî, G. acairigog, Y. ameg.

;
Obs. 2. Proper names in a^g make uleig in the vocative ;

for the nominative is properly —
xUr/g, and the vocative xXssg^—
contracted —
alBtg: as, 'HqazXrig (contracted from 'HgaxXirjg),
V. 'HgdixleZg, (contracted from "Hq-jmlBsg.)
Obs. 3. g is dropped in the vocative of nouns whose no-
minative ends in evg, ig, vg^ ovg, and ocig; as, âadsvg, V. (9a-
adev JJaqig^ Y. UaQu
; Ti]dugj V. Tridu
: vovg, V. vov ; nalg^
;
V. Ttal.
Obs. 4. Words in ag and sig, which arise from ccvg and evg^
and have avrog and evjog in the genitive, throw away g and re-
sume V as, Ai'ag (Âi'(Xpg'), G. .^t'ayTOj, V. Alai'
; AiXag IÂt^
; ""
Xavg")^ G.ÂTlaPTOg, Y.^'AtXuv jvipug {rvipavg")^ G. Tuipaviog^

-^
V. rvJ/zav /a^êtg (jâ^/e*'?), G. /a^/eyTO?, V. xaQlsv. In pro-

;
per names, however, the poets often reject the j^, as ^la for
^ta*' 06a for ©oav.
;
OJi-. 5. Words in (o and cog make ot, as âncpb)^ V. 2ancpol ;
di^(b?,V. atfJot.
05^. 6. /vj'i^ has yvvai in the vocative from the old nomina-
tive yvvai^ ; and aj'al has in the vocative ^vct in addressing a
Deity, otherwise îâl.
DATIVE PLURAL.
The Dative Plural appears to have been form-
ed originally from the Nominative plural, by an-
nexing the syllable at, or the vowel v, so that in
neuter nouns, instead of a^ eg was considered the
termination. These old forms remained in use
in the Ionic, Doric, and ôlic Dialects; as,7rarg,
a boy J N. P. Ttaideg, D. P. naidâoi ; as also,
XelQeg, x^lqtooi ; avd()£q, avdQeooc ; ndheg, noXl-
TCQayficcTeOi ; &c.
When Es came together before uct, a triple form arose, viz.

in seaai, saai, and eai as, ^slsa (^îXssg) ^slisai, 11. i. 622,
;
&c. §ilsaat,, II. d. 42. &c. êlsat, Od. n 277. Again, Insa.
{InBBg) inieaai, II. 8'. 137. &c. 'snsaat, Od. d'. 597. &c, ^Tteat,
4*
34
//. d. 77. In other Avords also, t only was annexed to the no-
minative, instead of ai as, drdxisot, Od. 6. 556. from &pa^,
;
dtvaxieg-, SO naideat, /ttripsai &c. ;
In the gradual softening and improvement of the language,

various changes were introduced into these old forms, the most
important of which are here enumerated.
1 The s preceding the single cr was omitted as dendsaaiVj ;
Ssnaeaiv, dinuaiv^ from dsnag Oriqeaai^ OyjQeai, Orjoai^ from

;
6riQ; acojriQeaai, aojTriQeai, aonrioai, from awn^^. Only one ex-

ception occurs to this rule, in the case of words which end in
^g and og, and which have in the nominative plural, e/^c, or its
equivalent in declension fa. These reject only s, and retain
the other as, dXrjdeeaav^ dXi^dieai, uXrjOiai, from (x).i]6^g rsl/euj
; ;
(T6//£ec) TSi/eeaai, Tet/e'eat, leixôi^ from lelyog.

2. If a consonant occurred before at, it was changed accord-
ing to the rule of euphony ; that is, d, 6, t, p, and fr^ were
omitted before (r as, nodeaai, nodeai, nodal, noal, from novg
; ;
d^pldsoat, dgi'ldeai, OQPidat, OQVTai, from oQPtg cpQipsaai, cpqhe- ;
ert, (pQ8val, (fQealj from gi^r/J' ao'yftarsaai, frchjimieai, (jih/uurat,

atbfiaat, from aibua ;
;
notpjeoai, ndvieoi^nd.vrai,^ naaiîTOXmiag. —

The quantity in the dative plural was regulated by the quantity
in the rest of the oblique cases, and in the nominative plural.
Hence xre/c, in the dative plural does not make xieial, but
xreal, from the nominative plural xTavsg novg, not novol, but ;
noal from nodeg; so also, 8(x[umv, dalfiorsg, dalfioat dgvg, dgveg, ;
dQxJal. Again, if, after the rejection of the consonants be- n

fore (xi, the foregoing syllable is short, then the doubtful vow-
els ce, V, become long, as ndai, yiyaat, tevypâi, or «? is
fc,
changed in words in avg into av as ygavg, ygdceg, yqavol and

; ;
from e and o, are made the diphthongs et and ov; as, rvcpdevrsg,
{rvcpdevTsaai, TvcpOevxeoi, Tvcpdevrai,) -tvcpOtlai 8t86vieg, [8i- ;
ddvrsaai, didovxBai, didovxai,) didouai. In words which end in

svg, however, the e becomes sv ; as, Innevg, Innieaai, Innieat^
inniav, Innevai; ^WQisig, dojgievai; âailevg, âadsvai, &c.
3. When (9, n, cp, or y, at, /, precede the termination ai, they
are changed, together with the cr which follows, into the dou-
ble consonants xp and I as,"-^^"^^?, 'u4qd6Boi,^'jQaxpi; aJyeg,
;
at'ysai, ai^l fiigonsg, fisgdueav, fisgoifn xogaxeg, xogdxeat, x6-

;
;
^«|t; rglxBC, iqixeoi,, dgi^L

4. Of those which reject e before at, some change the e
mute into the more sonorous a ; as nuTigsg, {nmiqsat,, by syn-
cope narqiai,) changed to najQaai', civdQsg, {avdgeacn, ^fdQsat,)
changed to(jcrdgdat ; so also, ^Tjigixai Ovyccigdai daigdcn &c. ; ; ;
Obs. 5. The theory for forming the dative plural, as we

have here given it, is stated by Matthiae in his Grammar, and
35
third declension, in the plural, after the second ; as, yBQ6vwig
adopted by nearly the philologists of the day.
all Dunbar's
theory, however, [vid. page 31. Obs. 2. extr.) is directly in op-
position. " The formation of the dative plural of Greek
nouns," observes the Professor, " appears to have been effected
by a double dative Thus, the dative singular of A(5-
singular.
yog was loyov. If we
add to it another form, viz, iFi, in which
the aspirate was pronounced as a sigma, we shall have XoyoUat,
and then, by the omission of one of the iotas, Uyoiai, the Tonic
form the Attic became Xdyoig by dropping the last vowel.
:
The same process took place in the formation of the dative

plural of the third declension. Thus 'Bnog has in the dative
singular Let us subjoin the dative eat, the same as the
'btibi.
Latin et by the omission of the sigma, and we have inei-sai ;
then, by dropping the iota, Ine-sai, a form which occurs often

in Homer and again, by omitting one of the epsilons, ensaij
;
the common dative plural. " OQvig had originally in the dative
singular oqpIOei ; dat. plur. dgviOei-eai, then o^viOe-poi, ogvideaij
oQviOai, and lastly oQviai. In such examples as Xeuv^ the dative
singular was leovxei ; the dat. plur. Uov-re-eai, Xeovxeai, Xeovtat^
Xeofot, and last of all, Xeovxn^ by the well-known conversion of
the V into a vowel, to form with the o a proper diphthong. In
some nouns, such as âaiXevg and ôvg, the subjunctive vowel
of the diphthong, which disappears in the formation of the
genitive and dative, is said to be resumed in the dative plural.
The reason seems to be this The vowel v, though omitted in
:
writing, was evidently used in pronunciation, as in the Latin

lovis : so also in Greek ôFog, dative /ôFf ^ in the dative ;
plural (?oFe-£at, and hence ôeat. By making the usual omis-

sions and contractions, the dative became in the common dia-
lect ôvoi^ Dunbar on the Greek and Latin Languages, p. 92.
CONTRACTED DECL^NSlWCC/>*^^,^
Contracts of the First Declemio^r /
In the First Declension ea is contracted Tiito

ri', as, N. /fc'Cf, G. /tag, yriq ; D. /£«,
yri^ the earth ;
yfi ;
A. ytav^yriv, V. yia^ yi], &c. ; and eac is con-
tracted into rig, as N. 'Eq^taQ, 'Eqiiriq, Mercury ;
G. 'EQfj.bOV, 'Eqaov; D. Eqîta, 'Eqîfi, &c.
36
'Pea, and all other terminations, drop the for-
mer vowel; as, N. eêa, iqa, the earth; G. iQe-
ag, igag, 6z:c. ; N. anlorj^ anXi], simplicity ; G,
anldrjg, aTtXrig, &c.
Contracts of the Second Declension.
In the Second Declension, if the latter vowel

is short, the contraction is in ov ; if long, the for-
mer vowel is dropt; as, N. v6og, vovg, the mind;
G, v6ov» VOX)', D. v6(x), vcT), &c.
Contracts of the Third Declension.
1. Nouns in i;g, DO g,. have only two contractidhs,

viz. vtg andiâg into vg : thus,
6 potQvg, the hunch of grapes.

N. §6xQvg, N. §6xqvEg^ vc,
G. ÔTQVOgj N. A. V. ^dxQVS, G. ÔXQVMVj
D. §6xqvi\ D. ^dxQvaij
A. ^dxgvv, G. D. §6xqvoiv. A. ôxQvag, V?,
V. §6xQV. V. ôxQVSg, vg.
2. Nounsand i have three contractions,

in ig
viz. el* and eag into eig those in ig have
into ei, eeg ;
also the Attic form in the genitive singular, and

genitive and dative dual viz. ecog and uov those
; :
in L follow the common dialect, and have eog and

eoLv: thus,
6 6(pig, the serpent, ^

N. clgotg, N. bcpesg, £tf,
G. hcpsfog, N. A. V. 6V^, G. bcpecaVy
D. ^(jDCi; e*, D. bqisai,

A. h(fiv^ G. D. h<pE(av, A. hcpsag^ sig,
V. «9». V. Sqpeeg, Bvg.
n
TO o[vi]nL, the mustard.

N. alVT^TXt, N. aivi/^nsa^
G. oiv-i^neogj N. A. V. aivT^nes, G. atyrlTrewv,
D. fftyTJTtea*,
A. alvjjnt^ G. D. aivTjnioiv, A. 0"t»"j|7rea,
V, atvrfiBu,
3. Nouns in wg and w have /^ree contractions,

viz. ooq into o{}g, ol*, into ot, and oa into co thus, :
9^ Cftdcbg, the modesty.

N. aidiag. N. aidol.
G. ttlSoog^ ovg^ N. A. V. aidd>. G. uidiav^
D. aiôi", ot, D. «i(5otff.
A. aid 6a J w, G. D. aidolf. A. atdovg.

V. «i(Jor. V. a/Joi.
7] rjXî the echo.
Singular. Dual. Plural

N. ^/(5, N. Â'oi,
G. -îxoog, ovg^ N. A. V. îb. G. iix5>^.

D. ^/6i-, or, D. ^/o?ff,
A. ilXâ^ i6, G. D. ^xolr. A. ^;ôi>?,
V. ^/or. V. iixol.
Nouns in evg, and i;g, make in the Genitive

4.
€coc,and have ybwr contractions, viz. e'C into g^, ee
into ?^, egg and eag into £^g but those in vg alone
:
contract the genitive and dative dual ; thus,
6 âoile{)g, the king.

N. ûadeTug, N. ^ctailhg, elg^
G. âatXiojg, N. A.Y. âadie^ri, G. âadimv^
D. §auiUi\ £?, D. §aadevaij
A. âaileaj G. D. âadioiv. A. ^ccadiagj Btg^
V. âaiXsv. V. âadsig^ slg.
m
6 TttXexvg, the axe.
N. ni^BXvCj N. TiBXexeegj «r?,
G. nekexeojgj N. A. V. nilsxiej rj, G. niXeicsuVj
D. nilBxei', et, D. niXexeai,
A. TtiXexvpj G. D. niXexsiov. A. neXexeag^ elg,
V. niXsxv. V. niXexseg, slg.
Neuters
5. in v make
the Nominative Accusa-
tive and Vocative Plural in ea, 7y, and also con-
tract £l* into £fc, and ee into ?j they have also the
;
common genitive, in eog; thus,

TO aOTV, the city.
N. ^ffxi/, N. Sarsa, jy,
G. daxsogj N. A. V. diatse, G. ^GTicaVj

D. ^cnsi', et, D. dioTsat',
A. âty, G. D. daieoti'. A. &(nea, iy,
V. daxv. V. âxea, r/.
6. Nouns
in ijg, eg, and og, are contracted in
case except in the Nominative and Voca-
etêri/
tive Singular, and Dative Plural; thus,
9^ rQiriQrjg, the trireme.

N. T§"j?'??, N. TQi'^Qeeg, sig,
G. TQn^QBog, ovg, N. A. V. TQiifiqsBj rj, G. TQlTjqBiaV^ wv,
D. TgnfiQEi', eij D. T(>tij(>eat,
A. TQti^Qea, 71, G. D. TQtriQioiv, olv. A. TptTJêttf, etf,
V. TQiriqeg.
Neuters in eg and og make the Nominative Ac-

cusative and Vocative Plural in ea, ^, and the
Genitive Plural in tcov, u)v ; thus,
TO Tuxog, th^ wall.
N. xBlxog, N. TBlxeoifij,
G. Tslxeog, ovg. N. A. V. TSlXESj TJ, G. TCt/t'wj', uy,

D. TBlxBl'f ety D. iBlxBai,
A. Ter;!fog, G. D. TEixioiVy olv. A. TBlxea, rjy
V. relxsttj rj.
39
Proper names in Kltrjg have a double contrac-
tion, which, however, is confined in general to
the Dative ; as,
6 ITeQLytldrjg, x^7]g, Pericles.

Singular.
N. 6 neQixUrjg, xXrig,
G. ToD IIsQixkiog, xlovg^
D. TW neQixXhi, xXisi, xXei^
A. ibv UsQixXisuj xXia, (rarely xX^,)
V. UsglxXeeg, xXsig.
6. Neuters in ag pure and Qag are both synco-

pated and contracted in every case except the
Nominative Accusative and Vocative Singular,
and the Dative Plural thus, 0,
:
t6 TiQtag, the jlesJi,
Singular.
N. rd x^âff,
G. Tov xgiaxog, by Sjmcope xgiaogj by crasis x^^w?.
D. t(5 xqiajij - - - xgia'C^ - - '«?^?,
A. TO x()e'a?,
V. xgiag.
Dual.
N. A. y. Tcl) xgiarSj - x^âs, - X^Ôf,
G. D. TOty XQsdcTOiVj - xêdotv, xêfiy.
Plural.
N. rd xgiaja, - - xgiaoCj - x^â,
G. Twy XQS&TOjv^ - xgeddjv, xêSv,
D. TO? J xgiaat^
A. Ttt xgiaTUy - - xgiaa^ - xê'a,
V x^âxa, - x^âa, x^â.
TO iteqag, the horn.

Singular.
N. TO xigagj
G. TOV xigaTog, by syncope xsâoj, by crasis xigag,
D. TW xigaTij - - x^â*, - - xig(f,
A. Td xigag,
V. xigag.
40
Dual.
N. A. TO) xigajs^ xegas, xiga,
G. D. toiv xsg&toiVj - xsqaoiv^ - xegi^y.
Plural.
N. Td xe'âTa, - xigaa^ xigcc,
G. r5}v xigarcoVj - xsgdoiVj - xBgmv^
D. TOig xigaaij
-'
A. Td XSQaTUj xigccUj xigoc,
V. xigaxa^ - xigaa^ -
7. Some nouns are contracted by the omission

of a vowel.
1. In every case, as,
TO m^, rjQ, the spring. 6 Xaccg, >.ag, Âe 5ôwe.

Singular. Singular.
^ xb 'âg, T^g, N. 6 laag^ kag^
G. xov âgog^ ^9°»> G. TOO Maog^ Aaoff,
D. TW ûgtj ^gtj &C. D. T(3 Adai', laC, &c.
ri dal'g, dag, the torch. 6, xeveoiv, the belly.

Singular. Singular.
N. ^ Satg, (Jag, N. 6 xfijêwj', xsPWVj
G. rrig datdogj difdog, G. ToC xei'swyoj, xsi'W»'og,
D, TT^ datdi^ dad I J &;c. D. T<3 X6vs(bvij xevibHj &c.
2. In part of the cases, as, avrjQ, ^vydtrjQ, firi-

TTjQ, naxriq thus, :
6 avriq, the man.

Singular. Dual Plural.
N. dVTJ^ N. dvigegj dvdgsg,
G. dvigog, &vdg6g N. A. V. &vigB^ &vdg8^ G. dvigcaVj &vdgwVj
D. dv^gij 6.vdglj D. dviJ^dat,
A. dv^â, dvdga^ G. D. dpigoiVj dcvdgolv, A. av^gccg^ ^vdgag^
V. dy^ê?, iivdgsg.
7] ^vyatrjq, the daughter

N. 6vydxi]g, N. dvyocrigeg, gsg^
G. dvyaxigog, gdg, N. A. V. dvyaxigSj ge^ G. duyaxigo)Vj gwp^
D. dvyaxigtj gl^ D. Ovyaxg&ai,
A. dvyuxigctj ga, G. D. dvyarigoiVj goiv. A. duyaxigag, gag,
V. Ovyaxsg. V. dvyaxigeg^ geg.
41
6 TtaT?]^, the father,

N. TtttTriQ, N. naitqeg,
G. nariQOg, gog, N. A. V. TTUTEqe, G. nariqavj gibv^
D. TTttT^dat,
A. nmiqciy G. D. natiqoiv. A. yraxe'âf,
V n&xeq. V. naxiqsg.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION.
Yi vavg^ the ship.
IONIC. ATTIC.
Singular. Singular.
N. ^ vrjvg, N. -^ yavff,
G. rrigvrjog, (veog), G. t^S J'etoff,
D. T^ y^^ D. TJ] vr]t,
A. triv y^«, (yâ), A. T^v jâ£i>',
V. V1]V. V. v<xv.
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. wanting, N. A. V. wanting,
G. D. TtttJ' VEOIV. G. D. TCt.lv VBOXV.
^
Plural. Pliural.
N. at yrjeg, (veeg), N. al vrjBg,
G. TO)*' yj^wv, (yewy), G% tSv veibv,

D. Ttttg VTjVUij D. Tttij vavaly
A. Tttff yâ?, (yeag), A. xdff yavg,
Remarks on some of the Contracted Forms of the Third

Declension.
Nouns in ig and t.
Ohs. 1. The dative singular very frequently occurs in Ionic

writers, with a single t, as (ir[Tv for iWTJrel", 7Z.
v^'. 315.
n6li fo
Herod. 1, 105. dvv&fii, for ûidêV, Herod. 2, 102. cJ^
Tioê'i,
for Herod. 2, 141, &c. Besides these, the form

oj//£t", is used fcl'
by the lonians, as ndae'C, nolec, &c. In Homer and others,

the contracted form bi is one of very common occurrence.
Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative in tv, the form « also oc-
curs, as n6lria, flesiod. Scut. 105. —
The contracted form in the
5
42
plural is frequent in Homer. In the accusative he has the
contraction in ig. This contraction in ig was regular in Attic
in the words oig and cpdolg, as T«g oilg ; totjj q)doXg for (pdoCdag ;
SO also oqvig for bgvidag, Soph. (Ed. T. 966.
Nouns in ev?.
Ohs. 1. The
accusative singular in ^ of nouns in evg is of
rare occurrence. The nominative plural of the same class of
nouns was contracted by the earlier Attic writers into ^s, as
âadrig. The accusative plural, according to the observation
of the old Grammarians, was in the genuine Attic dialect
— iag, not —
et?, and yet the form —
eXg frequently occurs. If
a vowel preceded the termination, the Attics contracted iag
into cig as, uyviag for dyvUag
; jj'oa? for ;ô^«?.
;
The lonians
make uniformly âcnlriog, âadr[C, âadrioc, §a(nlr\agj &c.
Ohs. 2. Words which have a vowel before the termination
svg^ contract in the genitive ^wg into ^g ; as IlEigaievg, TlBiqai-
iojg, contracted IleiQamg ; xoivg, x^^^^t contracted x^^S*
Nouns in rjg, eg, and og.
Ohs. 1. Like rgn^QTjg, are declined alsr»: proper names which

are not patronymics as, 6 JrjfioodBvrjg yet these have some-
; ;
times the accusative according to the first declension, as Tbv

^MHQdTTjv, rbv \4vTia6evTjv, top 'ytqiajocp&vi^v.
Ohs. 2. The Dorians and lonians, in the genitive, use the
contraction evg for ovg as, '^Qiaiocpdvavg, EijuYidsvg, xsdsvg
;
from ;^€tAo?, bgevg from ogog, Oigevg from digog.

Ohs. 3. The JEolians in the genitive and vocative omit ?,
as ûxQ&iov, 2!(i)xgaT6.
Neuters in ocg pure and gag.
Ohs. 1. The declension of xigocg is given according to the

usual form it admits of a doubt, however, whether this mode
;
of inflexion be the true one. The Attics said xegag, xigaTog,

as they did q>gioe^j (pgiawg, and it certainly does not seem cor-
rect to form from it, by syncope, xsgaog with a short penult.
The opinion of Dr. Maltby appears to be a more correct one,
that xegag forms only xigaxog in the genitive and that xigaog ;
comes from aigug xsgaog, not from xigag xegarog. Blomfield

suggests, that, wherever xigaog and xigucop occur in Homer,
we should probably read, xigsog and xegecop. These are, in
fact, true Ionic forms ; xigsog occurs in Herod. 6. 111. whence
we have xigsa, id. 2. 38. 4. 191. and xegiuv is found, id. 4. 183.
43
The reason why xsgag has the long penult in the genitive and
dative singular, and nominative, genitive, and accusative dual
and plural, is that these cases are in reality contracted forms.
Thus HeQuiog from xegdajog, xsqutl from xe^dait, &c. Vid.
Thes. Gr(BC. Poes. ed. Malthy. Ohserv. p. Ixxx. BlomfieMs Re-
marks on Matthi<E's Gr. Or. p. xxxix. Brunck, ad Eurip. Bacck.
909. and Brasse's Greek Gradus, s. v.
Ohs. 2. According to the examples given, the lonians de-
clined also the substantives yow, or yovw, and 86qv. Thus.
N. TO yovv and yovvv, G. toD yovvaiog and yovvdg, D. tw yoi-
varif PI. N. rd youvara and yovva, G- twv yovfdjcav and yov-
vb}v, &c. So N. TO 86qv, G. Tov dovQog and do^dg; D. tw ôt;^£
and (To^/, PL N. t« dovga, G. twv dovQMv, D. toij doigaai and
dovgsaai, &c.
,
Remarks on di'rj^, TrarrJ^, (fee.
05^. 1 . The principle on which d is inserted in the oblique

case of (iyô, has already been explained.
Obs. 2. The particular most worthy the student's attention
is this ; that, firixrjQ, najriQ,and yaaiiô, form the accusative
singular without contraction; as fxrixiQa, naiiqay yaoTiga.
This is done in the case of f^^rr]g, in order to prevent its
being confounded with f^y'irga, it is done in like
ag, a womb;
manner confounded with ndiguj
in Ttarrig, to prevent its being
ag, a paternal land; and in yccaii^g, to prevent its being con-
founded with ydarga, a?, the bottom of a vessel. It should be
remembered, also, that yaajrig makes in the dative plural, yaa-
rrigai., not yaaTgdcri.
*
Remarks on the noun vavg.
Obs. 1. The Doric form was vag, the oblique cases of which
occur in the Attic poets also, not only in the chorusses but
elsewhere as vaog, Eurip. Hec. 1253. vat, Iphig. T. 891, (in
;
the chorus), yae?, Iphig. A. 242. (in the chorus). The accu-
sative vaag occurs in Theocr. 7. 152 22. 17. :
Obs. 2. The Hellenistic writers use >'aa in the accusative

singular, and yaa? in the accusative plural.
Obs. 3. In like manner with vavg is declined i^ ygavg, the
old woman, (Ion. ygrjvg) G. t^j ygonog, D. rfj ygoct, A. Tr\v ygavv,
V. ygav, (Ion. ygv^), PI. N. ai ygaeg and ygêg, (not (xiygavg)y
G. TWJ^ ygaihv, D. ratg ygaval, A. rag ygavg. Yet of this in
general only the nominative sing, accusative sing, and plural,
and the genitive plural are used in the rest of the cases ygala
:
is more common.
44
So also, rj ôvg, G. T^? ô6g, D. Trj /?o/, A. ti^v |9o£|y, (not
/96a). PL N. Oft ôeg (not ôvg), G. tw^ /9owv, D. ralg ôval, A.
rdff ôvg, and f?6«c.
GENERAL REMARKS.
In the genitive and dative singular and plural, the poets an-
nex the syllable cpt, or (v/ith v i(pBXxvaTix6p) cpiv this the ;
Grammarians term ^t paragogicum. When this is done, if

the substantive end in ?/, the g of the genitive is omitted if the ;
substantive end in og or ov^ the o alone remains before qc/, while

in those in og, gen. eog, ovg, the form eg, or evg (the Ionic con-
traction from Eog) enters; as, e| siuvricpi^for tl eivrig (pgt^TQt], rjg, ;
D. qo^t^r^T^qDtJ^, for 9^^t^t^ dTio axQuidcfw, for «7r6 (tt^«iou; ê(5-

;
^tv, Dat. for Oe(^ t'l iQiSeoacpiy, for i| igiSovg; Ccno trTTJêacjD*,
;
for dTTO aii'fiovg xXialricipi, Dat. for xXtff/a*ff ; aijy Sjêaqpt, for avv
;
h/sai- ; TTCtga vuvqjiv^ for Tra^d vuvaiv.

Thetermination ê»' appears to be an appendage of a simi-
lar nature, but is found only in the genitive; fi| dAoêv, for i|
dAo?. In the same manner dev is annexed to the genitive of
the pronouns, f /w, av, ol as Ifisdev (from ^/we'o), ae'êv [aio),
;
edev [ko). Afterwards these forms of nouns were used as ad-

verbs ; as ÂdiqvTjdev, QriSridsv.
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
1. Some nouns have different genders in the
singular and plural.
Ohs. 1. Thus, 6 dlg>Qog, the chariot-seat j in the plural xi
dlq)Q(x ; 6 6eafi6g, the decree, plural to: Oea/ud ;
i^ xiXsvdog, the
way, plural td xtXevda; circle, plural rd xixXa
6 xixXog, the ;
d Xvxfog, the lamp, plural Td Xixva aUog, the corn, plural rd ; 6

ffiTtt 6 arad/.i6g, the station, plural xd aiadfid ; 6 rd^xaô?, T«r-
;
iar«.9, plural xd T^qiaqa.

Ohs. 2. In the substantives above enumerated, the singular
does not occur as neuter. But the following, which are con-
sidered as belonging to this class, are found neuter in the sin-
gular as, xd vma from x6 vmov
;
xd iQBjfiu from x6 Iqeifiov
; ;
xd t,vy& from x6 "Qvyov.
Ohs. 3. The following nouns, neuter in the plural, and mas-

culine in the singular, are of more rare occurrence as xd ;
Sqvjuu, the forests, from xd ^dxxvAa, the fingers, from

6 dgv/xog ;
6 ddxTvXog ; xd TQ^xîXa, the necks, from 6 TQdxrjXog ; xd ^j;7r«,

the filth, from 6 ^vttoj.
4i5
2, Some have different declensions.
Obs, 1. Greek words, in which double forms are used to-

gether in one case, are said to be redundant {ahundantia). Ge-
nerally, however, these double forms are not both peculiar to
one dialect, but each to a different one.
Ohs. 2. Examples follow ; as 6 xao?, the peacock ; Attic
Tac6?, raw; and xa(hv, rawfog Xayog, a hare, Ionic Xayojdg, Atac
;
Xayfag so also vaog, a temple, Attic vethg "kahg^ a people, Attic

; ;
êwg in like manner b6iv,qv and banqvov both occur in Homer,

;
from the first comes 86.yiqvoig [Eurip. Iph. A. 1175.) and from
the latter d&Hqvai {id. Troad. 315.) Instead also of dhdôv^
.oy, another form occurs, divdqog, eog, whence depdgei, depd^Ba,
depdQeojp, dii^dQeai.
Obs. 3. The Attics particularly declined nouns in cS*', ovog,
in (a, ovg ; as ovg, for /e^KJcov, opog drjdii), ovg, for (xrjdiav,
;ffiA,t^c5, ;
ofog. This also takes place in the Ionic dialect.

Obs. 4. A word which is almost universally redundant is
XQihg, XQ^^^S' Another from xQovg occurs, which is declined
like ôvg, {vid. page 44.) and hence we have in the genitive
XQunog and XQoog, dative jir^wr/ and XQ^^h accusative /^wra and
XQoa. The dative has still a third form /ow, which is used
mostly in prose. Adjectives compounded of xQ^vg have also,
among the Attics, usually the termination ;^?w?, as XsvxoxgoDg.
Obs. 5. Some words in the plural are derived from other
forms different from those of the singular as nQsa^svx^g, ;
which has ol nQsadeig in the plural, from nQsaSvg, or TtQsaOig.

Frequently a new form of the nominative arises from an ob-
lique case of the old form, as cpv)â^, cpvlaxog and (pvlaxog, ov ; ;
H&Qjvg, fx&qxvQog and fi&QxvQog, ov didxrug, didtHTogog ; and

;
•
diuictoQog, ov. So from the accusative ^rj/urjiiga, a new nomi-

native Jt]fn^TQa, ag, arose.
3. Some are termed anomalous.
Obs. Those are called anomalous or irregular nouns, whose

oblique cases pre-suppose a nominative different from that in
use, without having double forms in the rest of the cases ;
thus, y^y^, yvpuixog, as from yvpai^ ; yovv, yopmog, as from
ydpug dogv, dogaiog, as from dogag vdcog, vdarog, as from vdag.
; ;
So also Zeig, J log or Z7]v6g, as from Îg or Ztjj'. There are

commonly reckoned ten different forms for the nominative
ZsTjg, viz. Zsvg, Bdeig, Jevg, Jig, Jr^v, ddv, Zr\g, Zi^r, Zdg, Zdv.
These, however, differ only in dialect, and may be reduced to
two, dii and ZtJ*', and yet even these nominatives are obsolete.
5*
46
4. Some double forms of cases pre-suppose
only one form of the nominative, which, how-
ever, are declined according to two different de-
clensions, or different kinds of one declension.
These are caWed Heteroclita, In this manner are
declined,
1. After the first and third declension, substantives in rjg,

yet only in the accusative and vocative ; thus, 2'wx^(ir?/? of
the third declension, makes â)XQ(jcTTjv after the first, and J'w-
ygdctr] after the third. So also ^j^QiaToqxifT/v and ^jtqiaiocpîvrj^
from ^^Qiaio(f(xvT]g and, in the vocative, ^rqeipiadrj after th^
;
first, and ^SxQeipladrjg after the third, from 2:TQeipl(xd7]g. The

lonians especially declined different nouns of the first declen-
sion after the third as deanoTea, and dsaTrdieag, for deanorrjv^
;
deaTTdxag, from deanoxrjg so also nvGaqv-^xsa for yvGegv-Z^n^v ;

:
Uigcrea for neqaTjv.

2. Sometimes a noun is declined after difi*erent forms of
the same declension as syx^^vg, which was declined by the
;
Attics in the singular, eyxelvog, ey/elvi, Sic. and in the plural

iyxi^'f^tgiyx^^^^^-
Ohs. Other changes are not founded upon the circumstance
of the form of the nominative being capable of a double in-
flexion. The number also of obsolete forms of nominatives
would be too much increased, if, for every deviation, another
form, grown into disuse, should be referred to. It seems more
probable, that the proper termination of the case was some-
times changed into the termination of the same case in another
declension, which might easily take place in a language not
as yet perfectly established and fixed. This change is called
fiBianlaa/uog xXtaewg, a transformation of the termination of the
case. The following are the principal kinds of Metaplasm.
1 Proper names in —
xAo? are often declined like those
in — x^^?, and again those in —
y-lrig like those in —
xAo?.
2. Some nouns of the first and second declension have,
particularly in the dative and accusative singular, and in the
genitive also, the termination of the third declension thus
;
we find aidog, aidi, in Homer, for dtdov, atdri so also dlxi for
;
dcXxijxXadL for xlocda, &LC.

3. In the same manner the plural of diflferent neuters in ov,
particularly the dative, is formed after the third declension,
as (jci'dQan68eaat for dt^dganddoig, nqoBacn for nqo^dioig, ngo-
a6nona and nQoacanaat for ngoaojna and ngoaibnotg.
4. The iEtolians, an iEolic tribe, formed the nouns of the
/
third declension, in the plural, after the
for yegovat, from yegojy ;
47
second
TtadrjfKjtroig for nadrifJtaai,
; as, '^boovxok;
from nadrifxa
as the Latins also said, epigrammatis, dilemmatis, for epigram-'
matibus, dilemmatihus.
5. Some nouns are indeclinable.

Ohs. These are, 1. Names of letters, as t6 ^^(joof, tov aXcpoe,
&c. 2. The cardinal nmnbers from nei^xe to hymov.

T(p cliX(fa,
3. Poetic nouns which have lost the last syllable by apocope,

TO dO) for dw/uoc^ to xdâ for naq-qvov. 4. Foreign names which
are not susceptible of Greek inflexions, as 6 ÂGqu&^j toD
6. Some are defective in the number of their

cases.
Ohs. These are, 1. Monoptots, as, to oqoeAo?, and to ^(Jo?,
advantage, only used as nominatives /adlrjg genitive, of /lk^Xtj
;
for ;U«o-(U^, a shoulder, which case is alone in use ^wg, a house, ;
used only in the nominative w idp, friend, used only in the

;
vocative S nonoi, O Gods, used only in the same case. 2.

;
Diptots, as, ovuQ, a vision, -uncxg, a real appearance, used only in

the nominative and accusative. Xlg, a lion, used only in the
nominative, and in the accusative Xti' or llt'oe. 3. Triptots, as,

G. (^XXriXb)v^ D. (xklrikoig, nig, oig, A. alXrilovg, ag, a. So also
N. Dual a/ucpct), G. and D. df^cpolv.
7. Some have no singular, others no plural.
Obs. Thefollowing want the .smo-uZttr. 1. Such as in their

nature, cannot well occur in more than one number as, t(> ;
sytcuTa, the entrails, cxl iiriacai, the Etesian winds. 2. Names

of Festivals, as tu JioHaia, the feast of Bacchus. 3. Names
of Cities, as 'Adrivai, Athens. The following want the plural,
viz. &lg, salt, yri, earth, ttvq, fire, and many others, known by
the sense.
PATRONYMICS.
Patronymics are substantives which signify a
son or a daughter. They are derived from the
proper name of the father, and sometimes also,
from that of the mother. The rules for their
formation follow.
48
Rule 1. From nouns in o; of the second declension come
the forms of patronymics in and /&>»' as from Kqovog come
ldT]g ;
KQovidrjg and KQOflojv, the son of Kronos, i. e. Jupiter. So

also, KodQld7]g, TavTaXldTjQ, AiaKidrjg^ from Kodqog, TavjuXog,
Ai'ocxog. The form in Imp was peculiar to the lonians.
Rule 2. Fromnouns in log comes the form i(xdi]g; as/Z/Ato?,
'HXiddTjg ; "'Ayviog, 'Ayviddr^g •
'Aoxl'^niog, 'Aaidrjniadrjg. So
also, AuEQjifkbrjg from Aaegnog for AueQir^g. A deviation from
this rule is "Alxeldrjg from 'AXxalog, instead of which the form
'AXxivg appears to have been also used. Pindar has 'Alxutdrjg.
{016. 115.)
Rule 3. From nouns in r^g and «c, of the first declension,
comes the form in ddrjg ; as, 'Înn6Ti]g^ 'InnOKxdrjg ; Âlevag^
*Alev6cdTjc. From nouns in «? the Cohans formed patrony-
mics as TfjQudiog, from " T^gug.
in dSiog ;
'
Rule In nouns of the third declension, the genitive

4.
serves as the basis of the derivation. If the penultima of the
genitive be short, the patronymic from og is formed in idr^g ;
as, 'Ayafii/jivbiP, "AynfiijUfovog, 'Ayajue/uvotlSrjg ; Atjt6, Arjrdog^
AijToidrjg ; if it be long, then in iddj]g, as 'Ajuq>i,TQ6b)i', 'Afiq}i-
iQVMVog, ÂuqpiTQva}vi(!cdi]g ; Tekaftcbr, Telauu)t'og, TeX(xjuo)vi<kdTjg.
Obs. 1. Hence nouns which in the Ionic have the
in eig,
genitive in ôg, give rise to the patronymic form rfiddi^g, as
Jlrjlevg, IJijlriog, Hrjlr/Ludijg ; IIsQoevg, lIsQOriog, IleQOifiudrjg.
But since these have also the termination i^g in the genitive,
which continued the prevailing one in the Attic and in the
common dialect,hence arose from JJEgaevg JJeQaBojg, JlsQarsiSrjg.
So also 'AjQBidrjg, from 'AiQsCg.
Obs. 2. The origin of the different forms in iSrjg and ludTjg^
was probably owing to the cultivation of the Greek language
by means of the Hexameter verse, since neither Aya/ns/nfofi:-
^drjg, nor TeXauQptdrjg could enter into that measure.
Obs. 3. The forms in iSrjg, lovidrjg, and iMvi&drig, are often
interchanged. The reason is, that of the proper names in og
another form in i(ov was used, which is properly the patrony-
mic of the first.
Obs. 4. Instead of the form in KJidrjg, the form in iSqg also
iis used, particularly in Attic, as AlaviLdai^ 'AXxuaicovidui, Ae-
Obs. 5. A Doric form of patronymics was in (bvdag, as

'JEnafxiviiivdag.
Rule Patronymics of the female sex have the following
6.
terminations. 1- 'dg and f? as ArjTmug, and Arjibitg, from
;
AriTih so also Bgi'Jr^tg from Bgiaevg, rjog JVijQiftg from Wrjqevg,

: ;
Tjog ; *AiXavjlg from "-^^râf avjog. 2. In iprj and ttovT]

, the ;
49
latter when
the primitive has t or v before the termination og
or as 'AxQlaiog, ÂKqiai^vrj ; 'HlexTgvcov, 'HlsxTQvibi'T] the
(ov- ;
former when the primitive has a consonant before the termina-

tion og or £vc, as^'Adgrjaiog, ^yidgijailvr] ^Jlxaavog^ 'SlxBavivrj ;
;
Nr^qevg^ NiiQiy'T].
Obs. Some nouns have the form only of patronymics with-

out the signification, as Milxu'idrjg^'AQiaxeLdrjg, EvQmidrjg, Si^
(iwvidrjg. Patronymics are also often interchanged with their
primitives thus, sometimes, 'Aleâvdqidrjg for 'AUâvdqog ;
:
HiUbipLdrjg for Îficov ; 'AficpiTqvojv for Âfiq)nqv(A)vnjcdr^g.
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives are declined like substantives.

Declensions of Adjectives are three
The first of three termination^!.
The second of two ;
The third of one.
1 . Adjectives of three terminations end in
M. F. N.
ogy «, ov.
OS, V, ov.
ag, aaa, av.
«ff, atva, (XV,
eig, ctoa, 8V,

«»ff, SCTaa, 6V.
V* eiva, BV,
ovs, oucra, ov.
ovgy ovaaa^ ovv
vSj em, V.
vg, vaa, vv.
""» OVOttj ov.
wv, ovauy ovv.
f»i', aaay b)V.
tag, (aauj bjg.
big, vice, og.
Adjectives in og pure and Qog make the femi-

nine in a; other adjectives in og make it in i^
thus,
50
(jLaxQog, lo7ig.

N. fjaxgog, (i, 6v, N. jiiaxQol, ttl, d,
G. fiaxQOv, ag, ov, N. A. V. luaxQO}, «, d), G. fJttxgSjv, (bp, wr,
D.fiaxQO^, <fj (3, D. fiaxQolg,algjOTg^
A. fiaxqbfj dip, ov, 'G. D. [iOLXqOlPj «?*', Ol*'. A. ixaxqovg^dig, «,
V. fiaxgey d, 6v, V. fiaxQol, ul, tt.
x«^6g, beautiful.

N. xaUg, ri^ bv, N. XttAoi, «i, d,
G. xaXovy 7j?j ov, N. A. V. xaXo), u, d), G. Jta^faJJ', (bVj (bp,
D. Jfa^qJ, V], 0), D. xttAoic, aig, olg,
A. xaXbv, i^j/j 6>', G. D. xaXolv, alv, oZv. A. Xttôug, dc, d,

V. x«^^, •^j 6*'. V. xaXol, ot, d.
Four adjectives, allog, TrjXlxowog, 'coiovTog,

TOOovTog: and four pronouns, og relative, amog
and its compounds, ovtog and tTielvog, make the
neuter in o.
ag.
nag, all. liiXag, black.
Singular. Singular.
N. nag, naaa, nap, N. îlag, aiPtt, av.
G. navxbg, n&arjg, napxbg. G. n^Xavog, atvT]g, avog,
D. napxl, n&ari, navxl. D. /ueXavt, alvrj, art,
A. n&pja, naaav, nap, A. fiiXaPa, aivav, av.
V. nag, naaa, nav. V. ftiXttP, aipa, av.
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. ndvTS, ndauj ndvis, N. A. V. fiikave, ttlvtt, ave,
\
G. D. n&vTOiv, ndaaiv, n&vjoiv.\ G. D. jneXdvoip, alvaip, dpoiv.
Plural. Plural.
N. ndvreg, naaav, n&vxa, juiXavsg, aivai, apa,
G. ndcPTOjp, naaurv, n&PXbiP, juelfkvcov, aipG>v, dvbyv,
D. naai, n<kaaig, naai, (niXaai, ulvaig, aai,
A. n&pxag, ndaag, ndvxa, fiiXocvag, alptxg, ava^
V. ndPTSg, naaai, ndvxa. fiiXuPsg, aiPtti, upcc.
51
ug.
rvcpêlg, having been

XccQieLg, comely,
struck. 1
Singular. f
Singular.
N. Tvcpdeig^ eXaoij iv, N. Xf^Qlsig, eaaa, bv,
G. TVfpdhTog, Elarjg^ hxog, G. jâ^/eyrog, iaarjg, BVTog^
D. rvcpOivxi,^ slari^ ivttj D. /a^fei'Tt, ^(^(7]?, fi»'T*,
A. Tvcpdipzaj sXaav^ iv^ A. jâ^/eyra, eaaav, ev,
V. ivqidelg, Blaa^ iv.
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. xvcpBiPTS, slaa^ ivtij N. A. V. ;^«^/6VT«, cWa, fiyiff,
G. D. TvcpdevTOiVj BlaoctVj ivjoiv. G. D. /a^t^j'TOti', iaaatVj evtoiv.
Plural. Plural.
N. TVcpdivTsg, eiaat, ivxa, N. ;â^/£»'Teg, saaai^ bvtUj
G. tvcpdivTCOVj EcawVj ivtcjVy G. /aQiivrcoVj BoawVj ivxiav^
D. rvcpOeXai, eiaaig^Blaij D. x^Q^^''^î iaaatgj Biai,
A. xvq)6ivTttgj eiaag^ ivxa, A. ;â^/e>'Taff, iaaag^ evra,
V. tv(pdivTeg, elaaij evtcx.
rjv,
zeqrjv, tender.
Singular. Dual.
N. xigijv^ Btva, bv^
G. xigspog^ Blvrjg, Bvog^ N. A. V. xiQSVBy BivoCj BVS,
D. ri^sy*, e/^T^, 6^*,
A. xiQBVUj ElVaVj BVj G. D. xBqivotv^ sLvaiVy ivoyv.
V. T^pei', etya, e>'.
Plural.
N. xigBVBg^ Bivat^ sva,
G. XBQivcav, BI>VU>P, ivoDV^
D. xBQBcn^ Bivaig^ bgi,
A. T^^sya?, Blvag, sva^
V. xigBVBgj Bivai,, sva.
52
ovg.
doig, having given. nXaycovg, flat.

Singular. Singular.
N. do{>g, dovcrUj dbv^ N. nlaxovg, oucrffa, ouv,
G. dofTog, dovarjgj 86>Tog^ G. nXaxovPTog, ovaarjg^ ovPxog^
D. ddvTi,^ doicrri^ doPTtf D. nXaxovPTVj oiaari^ ovpti,,
A. dovTUf dovaaVj dov^ A. nXaxovPTa^ ovoaap, ovv,
V. do^g^ dovauj dbv. ^r TlXaXOVP, } ^
V. , ^ * ovaauj ovP,
or > ovc
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. N. A. V.
ddvTBy dovcrUj ddvTBj OVVTSf
G. D. G. D.
ddvzotpj dovaatVj ddvTOiv. nXaxoi^vtotPj oiaaaip^ oivxovv^
Plural. Plural.
N. 86vT6gy dovaat, ddPToc, N. nXaxovPTBg^ ovaaai^ ovptu^
G. dovrcov^ dova^py ddvrav, G. nXaxoiPtcjPj ovggwPj oipjcjv,
D. dovcrty doiaaig^ dovav^ D. nXaxovaij oiaauigôvai^

A. ddPTag^ dovaag^ doPia^ A. nXaxovPjag, oiiaaag^ ovPta,
V. 86vTBg, dovaai, dopta. V. nXaxovPisg, ovaaai, ovPta.
o^vg, sharp. êvyvvg, joining.
Singular. Singular.
N. dîig, fia, -ii, N. ^Bvyvi>g, vaoi, -dp,
G. 6|eo?, Blagj iog, G. l^svyvvvTogj -varjc^ iptog,

D. 6|î', «i, «f<?, î", «i, D. êu/J'TJj'Tfc, TLiaTjj iptif
A. ^s»)»', «i«»'> 1^, A. êu/yiivra, iJaai', t^v,
V. d|i), sra, i>. V. êi'yj'vc, vaa, ^y.
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. 6îB, eta, iB, N. A. V. ^BvyvîPTB, luaa, tjvre,
G. D. dîoiPy Blaiv, ioiP, G. D. t,BVYvvPTOtPjiaai,PjTL)PTOiP,
Plural. Plural.
N. bîsg, Btg, Blatj ia^ N. ^BvypvPTBg, vcraij ivta,

G. dîojp, Bicop, iup, G. t,Bvyv{}PTOiP, vawp, iprmv^
D. i^t'fft, Blaig^ iatj D. l^Bvypiat, iaaig, iai,
A. 6lâ?, fif, slag, ea, A. l^Bvyvi^PTocg, iaocg, ivra,

Y. \^Bvyv{}PiBgj vaat, -CvTa.
53
CO J/.
ixciv, willing, tvjiiav, about striking,

Singular. Singular.
N. exwVj oOaa, 6v^ N. xvTTWv, ovca, OVPy
G. exovTog, oioTjgj 6vjog, G. xvTTOvvxog^ oiJorjyg, ouyTOff,
D. sx6vjt,^ odari^ 6vxi,, D. xvnovvxi, OToarij ovvxi^
A. exovxa^ ovaav, dv, A. xvnovvxcCf oCaav, oOv,
V. exiaVj ovaa^ bv. V. TVTTUV, ovaUf ovv.
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. tKOVTBj OVUa, 6vT8j N. A. V. XVTtOVfXe, Oddttj OVVXBf
G. D. IxovTOtv, oiaaiv^ 6vxoiv. G. D. xv7io{>vxoi,Vj oiaaiv^ oivxoiv
Plural. Plural.
N. xvnovvxegy ovaai^ ovvxa,
G. kxovjoiv^ ovawVf SvtcdPj G. xvTTodvxtaVy ouffuv, oivxfov^
D. kxovffij ovaaig, ov<ji>^ D. TfTTOuar, oi5aatff, oCfff,
A. ^x6i'Taff, oiaagy 6vxa^ A. TVTroCyTttf, ouffaff, ovvra,

V. ^x6>'Tep, oCaat, 6vx<x. V. xvnovvxBg, ovuat,^ ovvxa.
TLimv, honouring.
Singular. Dual.
N. Jifiwv, waa, wv,
G. xifiwvxog, toon;?, Sviof, N. A. V. XlflihVTe, ih<JCty (aVTBf
D. xifiwvxtj coai^, wyjt,
A. xifiibvxocj (baaVj wy, G. D. xiftiavxotVj (baatv, (bvTOiv.
V. xifi€)Vj (aauj 5iv,
Plural.
N. rtfi5)vxsgj coaat, wrra,
G. xifKavxoiVj WCTWv, cfiyKwv,
D. xifiwaij c&aatff, wort,
A. tifiG)vxagj (bactg^ wvxa^

V. tiftihvxegj waat, wi'Ta.
cog.
rcru^cog, having struck, iatoig, having stood*

Singular. Singular.
N. xsxvqiwg, via, 6ff, N. loTTcbff, waa, d)ff,
G. xeivcpdiog, vt'ac, 6x0?, G. eaxmogy iharjg, WTOf,

D. TfiTutpoTt, via, 6t«, D. Saxmij c&ai^, wrt,
A. xexvcpoxa, may, 6ff, A. saxwxa, waav, cbj,
V TSTuqDW?, vta, 6^-, V. eaicbf, waa, ci)f.
6
54
Dual. Dual.
N. A. V. XBXvcpdzs, via, oxBy N. A. V. kaxmBj toaa, are,
G. D TBTvcpoiotv, vlaiv, diotv. G. D. kaKaioiVy (baaiVj (aioiv.
Plural. Plural.
N. rsrv(p6Teg, vlat, oicCj N. kaiwiBg, (bcrai', Sra,
G. TexvcpdTcaVy ttwi', dxfuv, G. Bo-imoiv, Q)a(bVj (bitoVj
D. T6jvg)6ai, vctti'g, ocrij D. ecTTCOCTt, c6aaij, wo-fr,
A. TBTVcpotagy vlag, oia, A. Baimag, c&aag, wra,

V. TBTvq)6TBg, mat, ora. V. iaimeg, Coaatj ma.
2, Adjectives of two terminations end in,
M. F. N.
OS, or,
«?, «",
cr.
ovg, GUI',
CUV, oy,
ctir.
eVd'oôg, glorious.

N. N.
N. i^ôôg, ov, N. Moô,,, a,
G. ^ycJ^ôu, N.A.Y.lvdd^co, G. eyJolwv,
D. ivdo^co, D. ivdSôtg,
A. ^VJo|ov, G. D. ivddôiv. A. ^*'Jo|ouff, a,
V. Mfdo^B, ov. V. ^VJo|ot, a.
advag, perpetuaL
Singxilar. Dual. Plural.

N. N.
N. defya?, «»', N. &slvavxBg, aVTOf,
G. delvavTog, N. A. V. &elpavxs, G. dcBivavxojv,
D. de/yavrt, D. CtBlvaat,
A. dBlvavxa^ av, G. D. dcsivdpzoiv. A. diBlvavtag, ofyTa,
V. dfi^vai'. V. dBlvavxsg^ ayra.
55
ir
a()Q7jv, male.
N. N.
N. di§§svEg, 8va,
N. A.Y. ^§sv6, G. d.QQh(aVy
D. diggeaty
G. D. &§Q6P01V, A. OiQQBvag, Bva,
V. dggsvEg, sva.
aXrj6rig, true.
N. N.
^lt]d^g, eg, N. dXr]6ieg, sTg, iot, ri,
dXr^deog, oDf, N. A. V. dcXrjdis, ri, G. &lT]di(»Vj G)Vj
D. &Xrjdiaiy
&Xr]6id, ri, kg, G. D. dlrjdiotVy olv. A. &lr]6âgy sig, ia, ^,
dXtjdig. V. dlrjdesg, ctff, ia, ^.
evxccQi^g, acceptable.
Singular. Dual. Pl#al.

N. N.
N. eiix<xQig, t, N. Bix&gtTBg, nu,
G. e{)x<^gnogy N. A. V. BixagiTB, G. 8i;(aglT(av,
D. Bix^QLTt, D. Bhx&giai,
A. 6i3;^{i§tTa, tv, t, G. D. BTuxctgiTOtv. A.
V. siixaQi. V. Bvx^gnBg, ua.
dlTtovg, two footed.

N. N.
dinovg, ovv. N. dlTTOt^Bg, oda,
dinodog, N. A. V. dlTtods, G. dmddcov,
dlnodi, D. dCnocTi,
dlnodtt, ovv, ovv, G. D. dinddoiv. A. dinod ag, oda,
dinovg, ov, ovv. V. dlnodsg, oda.
adanQvq, tearless.
N. N.
d.daxgvg, v, N. dcddxgvBg, vg, va,
&8a}igvog, N. A. V. dd&itgvB, G. (jcdaxgiwv,
adiixgvi., D. dduxgyat,
didaxgw, v, G. D. ddaxgioiv. A. dddxgvag, vg, i/a,
&dotxgv. V. dddxgvBg, vg, va.
56
aljcpQ cov, discreet

N. N.
N. a(aq)Qb)Vj ov, N. a6q)Q0VBg, ova,
G. atacpgovog, N. A. V. ab)q)QOVB, G. aw9)§6»'w»',
D. aii)q)QO(n,
A. a(bq>QOVttj oVj G. D. aojcpgdvoiv. A. (TihcpQOvag, oya,

V. auxpQoy. V. odifpqovBg^ ova.
fieyaXriTcog, magnanimous.
N. N.
N. jUByaXT^TOQEgj ogee,
G. /uByal'/iioQog, N. A. V. /Meya^^TOâ, G, fiByaXtjidQcav,
D. jMgJ'oXTJTO^t, D. êyaiiJTOât,
A. fiByaXT^TOQUj og, G. D. fieyaXijTdQOiv, A. fieyaXT^jogagj oga,
V. fiBydXrjTog. oga.
9
evyB(og, fertile.

N. N.
N. cUyccoj, coy,
G. BijyB(o, N.A.V.e«yf«, G- BUysfoy^
D. eiJ/efi), D. eiV^^Pf*
A. BiiyecDVj G. D. eiYctoy. A. eiiyew?, CO,
V. B^yB(py (a.
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES.
Comparatives are declined in the same manner with ofhcpgoiv,
except that in the Accusative singular, and the Nominative
Accusative and Vocative plural, they syncopate and contract ;
thus,
[lleICwv, greater.
Singular. Dual.
N.
N. flBlt,OiV, flBllOVj
G. fiBiôvog^ N. A. V. fisil;ovB, ^
D. iue/ôyt,
A. /ue/ôya, fXBlôa, ftslô), /Ufi/ôv, G. D. (usildvotP,
V. fiSlÔV.
57
Plural.
N.
N. nei'Qovsg, fisltpeg^ fieltôvg^ fisltflva, fjtsUcpa, fisi^cjj
G. fêll^dfuv,
D. fisitpai,^
A. (xsi'Qovag, fielôag^ fiellôvg, (iElt,ov(i, /xsllôa^ fiBltâ,
V. (isitfipeg^ [leltpeg^ fislôvg, jneltôva, ûe/ôa, fislt^w.
Adjectives of one termination are the Cardi-

nal numbers from Tihte to tuarbv^hoih inclusive.
Others are Masculine and Feminine only; such
are, 1. Adjectives compounded with substantives
which remain unchanged, as fjâxQoxuQ, avroxeiQ,
evQLV, uaxQalcov, fiaxQavx'fjVj from x^'^Qi (?^^9 ccLchv,
and avxriv except those compounded with novg
;
and Tiohq, 2. Those derived from navriq and

firjTrjQ ; as ajtdrwQ, aar^rwQ, baop^r^voiq, 3. Ad-
jectives in rjq^ r]i;og, and wg, corog ; as adjiirig, rjUL^-
vrig, ayyrig,ayvcjg. 4. Adjectives ending in j, or
yj as rih^, acovv^, aiyiXi^), at^Loxjj, 5. Adjectives
;
in cjc, adoQ, and tg, idog ; as 6, t], cpvyag ; 6, rj,

avalKig, The greater number, however, are
found only with substantives of the feminine
gender.
IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.
Mtyag and jcoXvg have only the Nominative
Accusative and Vocative Masculine and Neuter
of the Singular, and borrow the other cases from
[xeydXog, rj, ov, and nolXbg, t^, 6v thus, :
Meyag, great.
Singular.
N. MBfrAS, jneyvcXr], ME'rA,
G. fêydXov, r^g, ou, Dual.
D. fieyikXcD, 7^, w, N. A. V. (xey&Xoi^ a, w,
A. ME^rAN^ fzsydXr^v, ME^TA, G. D. fjiey^loiv^ atv, oiv.
V. ME' FA, fisydlrj, MEfTA.
6*
58
Plural.
N. fisydloi, at, or,
G. jueydiXcov^ wv, o)v^
D. fisy&Xoig, aig, otg,

A. fisydXovg^ ag, a,
A. iney&Xoi, avj a.
TTolvg, much.
Singular.
N. nOA'TS, noXlii, nOA'Y^
G. noXXoi}, -^f, oi>, Dual.
D. noHw, ^, w, N. A. V. noXXih, d, <b,
A, nOA'YN, noXXiiv, nOA'Y, G. D. TtoXXoU'j aiVj olv.

V. nOA'Y, noXXii^ nOA'Y.
Plural.
N. TToAôl, ai, d,
G. TCoXXwv, cbv, &»',
D. TtoXXolg, aig, olg,
A. TToUoi)?, d?, d,
V. TToUoi, ai, d.
Remarks on Adjectives of Three Terminations.

1 . Termination in og.
Obs. 1.Adjectives in og pure, and (to?, have the feminine

in jy in the Ionic dialect thus, q>lXiog, a, or, in Attic, becomes
;
tplXiog^ 7], ovj in Ionic ; and fiaxQog, a, ov, in Attic, is fiixxqog^ rj,
ov, in Ionic.
Obs. 2. Some Adjectives in sag, expressing a substance or
material, are contracted into ovg ; thus,
Contr. ;i'î/CToD?, 5 XQ^^% I xQ^fôvv, J

G. ;^^vae'oi;, > ji'ûae'a?, ) ;^î'ae'ou, )
Contr. ;|f^vaoi5, ^ j^ûarjg, f ;^î;aoC, &c. 5
When another vowel or the letter ^ precedes the termination

oj, the feminine is contracted not into r], but into a, as,
iqhog, woollen, contr. igsovg, igsa, iQSodv.
dgyigeog, silver, contr. d^j'vôu?, d^yv^d, d^yuôuv.
The neuter plural, however, always has a; as td j^^tJorea,

contracted XQ^^^ ; fd dcgyigsa, contracted d^j'u^d.
0^5. 3. Adjectives in dog make rj in the feminine, as hydoog,
hySori, bydoov, the eighth ; Ooog, do-ii, d6ov, swift. But if q pre-
59
cede, they have a ; as dcdgdog, ddgda, &6q6ov, frequent ; &dgovg,
noiseless, is a different form, viz. 6, r\, ddgovg, to ddgouv.
Ohs. 4. Some adjectives in oog are contracted into ovg : as
dnXoog, dmXoog, (fee. These uniformly contract otj into % and
oa into 5 : thus,
M. F. N.
Sing. N. dnXoog, > dnXorj^ > dnXoov, >
Contr. dnXovg, ) ciTiATJ, 5 dnXovv, §
PL N. dTiAoot, ) dnXdat, > d7rA(5a, >
Contr. dnXoT, y dnXaT, § dnXa. y
The compounds of nXovg, navigation, form a class of adjec-

tives totally distinct,and must not be confounded with the nu-
merical adjectives in TicXovg. Thus, d, DnXovg, unnavigahle; -fj,
6, ^, eijnXovg, easy to sail into, &Lc. These are adjectives of

two terminations, and form the neuter singular in ow, and the
neuter plural in oa.
2. Terminations in sig and ovg.
Ohs. 1. Most of the adjectives of this termination have, in

the penultima, the vowels, 77, o, w ; as Tt^rjetf, aifiaTdeig, xi]T(b-
sig; even/a^^£t? must have arisen from xaQuoetg.
Ohs. 2. The terminations tjet^ and oeig, are often contract-
ed viz. 'qeig, 7Jeaa«, tjeVj into ^g, râaa, i)*^, and 6Big, oeaaa, 6sv,
;
into ovg, ovaau, ovf : thus,

N. rifATjg, rifiriaaa, jifxrip ; G. Ti[rr\VTog, Ti^râarig, &c. from
Tifiifieig, rieaaa, rêv.
N. jueXnovg, fusXijovcraa, êXixovv G. fisXnovvjog fieXirovaaTjg ; ,
Slc. {lom luf^Xnoeig^ oeaua, dev.

Ohs. 3. nXajtovg is a contracted form from nXaxdaig. When
it signifies a flat cake, it has ocQiog understood, vid. Bos. El-
lips. Gr.
3. Terminations in vg, eicc, v.
Ohs. 1. The
termination of the feminine sTa is, in Ionic,
â; as oîct, 7)dia, for dêla,
-fidela some adjectives of this : —
termination, have in the accusative, ea for w; as Bvdiu, for
Evduv ; si)Q_ia^ for svqvv,
Ohs. 2. In the accusative plural, the uncontracted form is
as much used in Attic as the contracted; as roig ri/niasag, Xen,
Cyrop. 2. Later Greek writers contract the genitive also, as
^1 ^fitaovg. Bio Chrysost. 7. p. 99. The neuter plural is very
rarely contracted. We have, however, in Theophrastus, Cha-
ract. 2. 'ûlai].
Ohs. 3. These adjectives in vg are also sometimes used as
60
common as dri^vg ieQorTj, Od. e, 467. 'fiSiig avrûif, Od. f/, 369
;
rd? riuLOBag (for '^fiiaeiug'^ tuv veav, Thucyd. 8. 8. r^fiioeog r^^s-

qag, id. 4. 104.
Oi^. 4. In nqiaGvg, instead of the obsolete nQiaOsia, the
feminine in use is ngsaSBiQa and itqiaSa. The former occurs,
i/om. H. in Ven. 32. Eurip. Iphig. T. 963. Aristoph. Acharn.
883. The latter, //. ^, 721, and elsewhere.
4. Termination in coy.
O^^. uv, waa, wv and wv, oDaa, ovp are both contracted
; ;
forms thus, rifi&oiv contracted rt^wwy, Ti/j.a6vaa contr. Ti/awaaj

:
rtfidop contr. Ttiuwy this is the form of the present participle

:
of contracted verbs. And again, ivniaoyv the eldest form,

Ionic TUTiffwv, Attic xvnovv. Feminine jvniaovaa, rvniovaa,
Tvnovva^ Neuter xvneaov^ jvniov, jvnovv^ &;c. This is the form
of what is called the second future participle, which will be
treated of more at large under the verb.
5. Termination in (ag.
Ohs. Some an adjective in cog of

cite Tiiew?, nXia, nlicov^ as
three terminations nUa^ however, does not come from nXecag,
;
but from the old nUog, whence came nliov, Eurip. Alcest. 730.
and instead of which Homer and Hesiod have nlelog. The
same remark applies to the feminine and neuter plural, nUon
and nUa.
Remarks on Adjectives of Two Terminations.
1. Termination in og.
Obs. 1. To this class belong particularly compound adjec-

tives, as, 6, 1^, 6.d6Lvaiog ; 6, i^, <ji.it6la(TTog, &c. But not adjec-
tives which are derived from compound words ; as imdsixTixog,
-jj, 6y, from STndslKvvjui,'^ eidaijuoi'txdg, tJ, op, from evdal/ncop.
Obs. 2. The Grammarians call it an Attic usage, when an

adjective is found in og of two terminations. It is indeed a
peculiar feature of that dialect, although not exclusively con-

fined to it, for the usage occurs also in Homer.
2. Termination in rjg.
Obs. 1. From juovvoysprig comes the feminine fiowoyivsia in

the Poets ; so also rjoiyivsicc, an epithet of Aurora ;
Kvngoyi'
61
vsiK, of Venus; Tgiroyivsioc, of Minerva. 'Hqiysvifig as femi-
nine occurs in Apollon. Rhod. 2. 450.
Obs. 2. Many compounds in r]g, particularly those in tj^j,
have only one termination, and follow the first declension; as
veq;eXriYegEt't]g, dy.uxritt]g^ axeqasxofxrjg, 6lc. In the old lan-
guage, and in iEolic and Doric, the termination in tu was
used ; as innozaj vecpeXrjyeQiTttj d^tiyxrjra, &c.
2. Termination in tg.
Obs. The compound adjectives of. this termination are

mostly declined like the substantives from which they come ;
as from x^Q^S, jt'^^^TO?, comes ev/oiQig, si/^Qnog. The com-
pounds of noXig, however, have in the genitive idog-, as ^tto-
L?, dndXiSog. In the accusative they have a and v ; as (iyrdAt-
da and anoXiv.
4. Termination in ovg.
Obs. 1. The compounds in ovg of three terminations, have

already been treated of. With regard to compounds of two
terminations, it must be observed, that in the case of the
compounds of novg, (which are all of only two terminations,
and properly make nodog in the genitive after the third de-
clension,) the Attics often use the second declension ; as tow
noXvnov, xov noXvTtovv, jovg noXvnovg: this peculiar Attic form is
given in the declension of dlnovg, in the accusative and vo-
cative only, as it is of more frequent occurrence in those two
cases.
Obs. 2. Compounds in ovg of two terminations, like those
in ig, follow the declension of the substantive of which they
are compounded. The compounds of novg have been men-

tioned in Obs. 1. So also, d.v6dovgf dvddovtogy from ddoiig^
ddofjog ; eijyovg, ei^vov^ from vovg^ vovy Slc.
5. Termination in vg.
Obs. The compound adjectives in vg, which are derived

from ddxQv, occur only in the nominative and accusative sin-
gular, in the rest of the cases the form vrog is used ; as ddocx-
QvTov, ddaxQiia, Slc. The declension of adaxQvg, therefore,
as given by Valpey, is rather to be considered as an exercise
for the student, in forming cases by analogy, than a list of
forms which actually occur.
6. Termination in tag.
Obs. 1. Adjectives in ong of this termination, sometimes form

the neuter also in w ; as dyrigcag, neuter dyi^qwv and dyij^&i.
62
Ohs. 2. The compounds of yilcog, yiXcarog, commonly for-
sake the declension of this substantive and follow the Attic
second declension so also those which are formed from xi-
:
Qagy xEQarog, with a change of the « into (o. Both, however,

have the genitive (oiog also thus, (pddyeXugj dixegug neutr.
; ;
nov gen. (a and oijog.

;
Remarks on Adjectives of One Termination,
Ohs. 1. Some werenised also with neuter substantives, in all

the cases except the nominative and accusative singular and
plural; as cpon&ui nregolg, Eurip. Ph(£n. 1052. f.iavi6.aivXvaa-^'
/uaorty, Or. 264. Some were used only as masculine ; as yigoiv^
and adjectives in ag and r^g of the first declension as ysyvdJa?, ;
ideXovTrig. The feminine forms of ngioSvg and fx&xaq were

TiQiaSsiqa and {ndxaiga.
Obs. 2. The neuter, which is deficient, is supplied when
necessary by derivative or kindred forms, as ^Xaxixov, d^Tiax-
tixdvj fiibw/ov^ o/itofiriTQioVj dcyrcoardy, /uaivofievoVj dgofialoy^ Slc.
So the feminine of ye'^wy is supplied by yegaid.
Irregular Declension.
Obs. From the old fxey&log we have S fisydls Zbv, in j^S'

chylus Sept. a. Th- 824. The forms nollog, nolldv^ are Ionic
the regular forms of nolig occur in the Epic writers thus no- ;
Aôff, //. (5', 244. ^, 597. The accusative singular masculine

and neuter, passim. Nominative plural masculine noUeg, II.
§\ 610, &LC. and nolslg, II. A', 707. genitive pi. noUatv^ II. i^
691. 6, 680, (fee. dative, noUat, II. d\ 388. accusative noXiag,
II. &, 559. also noXslg, II. 6, QQ. The nominative nolUg, and
accusative nollov^ however, also occur in Homer. The re-
gular forms of noXig are occasionally met with also in the
Dramatic writers.
DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
Since adjectives show the properties or quali-
ties of objects, they may also be so changed as
to exhibit, by their inflexion, a higher or the
highest degree in which an object possesses those
properties. These inflexions are called Degrees
of Comparison^ of which there are two, the Com"
63
partitive and the Superlative. The Positive is the

proper determination of the adjective, and can-
not properly be considered as a degree of Com-
parison, since it expresses none.
1. The Comparative is most usually formed by
the addition of Tcôg, the Superlative by the ad-
dition of TttTog, to the Nominative; as fiaycdg,
fiaKccQteQog, ânaqtatoq,
1 Adjectives in og drop g before these terminations.

. If the
penultima of the positive be long, o remains unchanged ; as
diTfxog, (hTfiotsgogj dciT/udTarog ; detvog, deivoxegog, dsivoiaxog. If,
however, the penult be short, o is changed into w ; as aog^dg,
ao(p(oiEQog, aocpmaxog crTevdg, uxsPwreQog, axBV(axaxog,
;
2. Adjectives in e^? change eig into iaxsgogj saxaxog ; as x^'

glsig, ;â^t^(TTe90?, ;â^t^CTTaTog ; xi,îf\ei,g, xifXTjiaxBQog, rijurjiaxaxog.
3. Adjectives in a?, i]g, and vg, annex regog and xaxog to the
termination of the neuter ; as fiilag, fieXdvxsgog, fisX&vxaxog ;
&i]di^g, drjdiaxBQog, dcrjdiaxaxog ; s^tgig, sigitxegog, Bigvxocxog.
Adjectives in mv and rjv^ add xBgog and xaxog to the
4. Nom.
Plur. Masc. as acoqo^wv, awqpgoviaxBgog, aucpgoviaxaxog ; rigrjVj
tegsviaxBgog, TBgBviaxaxog.
5. Adjectives in $ make laxsgog and latonog, as dgna^^ (5^-
nocyg,) dgnayiaxBgog, 6.gnaylaxaxog ; ^^(i|, (j?A(ixj) §XaxLaxBgog,
^Xay.Laxaxog.
6. The' Attics compare many other adjectives by laxsgog^
laxaxog ;
alxBgog, alxuxog ; iaxsgog, iaxaxog. In the two last this
is done by the Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus,
XdXog, XaXiaxsgog^ XaXiataTog

7txa)x6g, TtxcaxCffxsgog,
X&ypog, Xayvlararog,
ytsvd^g, xpBvdiaxaxog.
nXBOPixTTjgy nXBOPBxxiaxarog,
fiiaog^ fisaalxaxog.
i'aog, lualxsgog.
riavxog, -âvxalxBgog.
nXijaiogj TiXrjaialTatog,
gadiog. gcidiiaxBgog.
^(fdopog, acpOoviaxsgog.
anovdalog. anovdaiiaxaiog.
iggo)fiivog. iggcofieviaxegog.
64
Observations.
Ohs. 1. The change of the short o into cw, in adjectives
which end in og and have a short penult, was probably caused
by the conditions of the Hexameter verse, by means of which
the Greek language was first formed since otherwise four
;
short syllables would come together. This rule, however,

could not have been observed in xaxo^siv^TEQog^ [Horn. Od. v,
376.) nor in d'i'QvqdiieQov, (11. ^', 446.) since a measure would
thus have been produced equally incompatible with Hexameter
verse.
Obs. 2. In some adjectives o or w is rejected before the
termination of the comparative and superlative ; as, q^lXog, (pll-
TBQog, (plljarog ; for (pddreQog, opilmaxog^ which do not occur
epilog, it will be remembered, however, has also the Attic forms
(piXaiisQog, (filaliaTog, and g)tll(ov^ cplhaiog. The o is also omit-
ted in yEQalTsqog, naXaiTSQog, axolalieqog, &;c.
Obs. 3. The terminations iaiegog, iaraiog, contracted with
the preceding vowel into OToajSQog, oiaxajog, were regularly
used in adjectives in oog contracted ovg, for ofhreqog, odiawg ;
thus, EifodcrTBQog) contracted, evrovaregog ; dnioiaregog, dnXoia-
TBQog ; so also, xaxovoiaTeQog ; (jcOgoTLxrieQog.
Obs. 4. The forms given under No. 6. are such as occur in
the Attic, Ionic, and Doric writers. The student is not to
imagine, however, that the other forms not given are wanting ;
these may possibly have escaped as yet the notice of gram-

marians, or, had we more remaining of the Greek writings,
would very probably be found in them.
II. Some adjectives form the Comparative in

ia)v (neuter cov) and the Superlative in cOTog; as
ridvg, r^diwv, 7]diatog. These Comparatives in lwv
have the penult long in the Attic dialect, but short
elsewhere.
1. Some adjectives ending in og, gog, rjg, and «?, have the
comparative in twy, and the superlative in laxog ; as,
xBQTtvbg^ TsqnvlojVj TiqnvKTTog,

xaxbg^ xaxlcav, xdxiaTog.
(plXog, (piUojv, iflXiajog.
alaxqbg, alaxloiv aVaxiOTog,
ixdqhg, ixO[o)v, ÊxOiarog,
olxrqbg^ o/xt/wv, oi'xTiaiog,
Hiyocs, fiiYiaiog.
ilsyxig. iUyxô^0S»
65
Ohs. 1. xaxo? makes also xaxwreô?, //. /, 106. r\ 321.
aiaxQ^S makes aiaxQoxeqog, though less frequently than alaxtov
ix^Qog makes also ix^Q^^'^'^^s. To the adjectives above men-
tioned may be added nvdgdg, sup. xidiarog ; fiaxQog, comp. fia-
x[(0Vj changed to fi&aawv [yid. Obs. 2.) sup. {x-f^yiiajog for fidcxia^
log ; dUyog, sup. dXlyiarog.
Obs. 2. In some comparatives in ««»', the * is changed^ to-
gether with the foregoing consonant or consonants into aa ;
in the new Attic dialect into tt ; as ^âx^g, iXaxlojv^ changed
to iXdcaacjv or HdtTtoVj iXdxKTTog ; fiiy^g, fieylav, changed to
fxiaacDVy (in Herodotus fiiôjv in Attic /heI^wv^) fiiyiaiog /uaxgdgy
,
;
ftttxlcavchanged to ^&au(av^ [ii/ixiatog for (i&xiajog xqaTi)g^ xqol"

;
imv changed to xq&aaoiv^ (in Herodotus xgiaataVj in Attic xqs-

laaojp,) xq&xiaxog Ta;île (changed, on account of euphony, from
;
its original form Oaxig) tccx^^^ (for daxtav) changed to ddaaav^

i&xi(Txog (for d&xâxog') raxixsgog and rax^xaxog are less Attic.
:
The comparative âaojv or i^zTtuy, is in like manner changed

from 'fixlcot' the positive is unknown, but we have a near ap-
;
proximation to it in the Homeric adverb ^x«, gently, in a very

small degree.
Obs. 3. The last particular worthy of notice is, that some
of the adjectives in vg have other forms besides those in <w»',
laxog-, \has,ylvxi)g makes also ylvxixeqog-^ xax^g, raxTuxsgog
;
§a6vg, ^ndvxsgog ; ^gadyg, ^gadixegog, ^gadvxdrog ; ^gadtg, thus

compared, was more Attic than ^gadlojp, ^gadlaxog. In like
manner, §g»x^S forms sometimes §gaxvtegog, ^gaxûxaxog; and
ridvg make -fidluv less frequently than -fidixsgog. From dxig and
ngiaSvg come, in the comparative only, d)x{)X6gog, ngeaîxegogj
but in the superlative ihxiaxog^ ngiaîaiog.
Ubrary. J
*^. ^/ /I. >».«^-.<* >^
66
Irregular Comparison.
dcgelmVj diQKnog.
(isXtl(ov, ^BXnaiog,
îlregogj ^BXt&TOg,
XQslaacoVj
XQeltTCOVj xgdriawg,
Good. dy^^^Si
xaQQav^
Xootcapf Xoitaxog.
Xwaxog.
(fBQiaTog,
q)iQTBgog, cpigiarog.
cpiQjiOTog.
xaxojTigog,
xaxiaxog,
Bad. xaxbgj
XBQlaxog.
XBlqiaxog.
i /LiaxQdTegogf fiaxgox(kxos
Long, /tiaxgdg,
fii^xiatog.
rfiBiaacoVj
Great, fiiyag, (iiyioxog.
iflBl
flBfCfiJVy
fiixqdxBQogj
fieiotSQog,
Small. fiixQ^gf ubIojv^ /tiBiaxog.
{iJ^ccxi>g) iXixaacav^ iXdîcrxog,
Tixiaxog.
Much. noXi)g, nXBiaxog.

ttXbIojVj
(J
Easy. Q4îog, Q(f(OV, gâxog.
Remarks on the Irregular Comparisons,
Âyadbg.
Ohs. 1. In the application of the several comparatives which

have been given to this adjective, it must be understood to sig-
nify not ov\y good, but strong, and hrave ; qualities which were
thought the most desirable in the early ages of civilization.
Thus, among the Romans, courage was thought the first and
most manly virtue whence virtus from vir. *Ayad6g among
;
the earl)'- Greeks denoted one who was good at plundering, and,
in conformity with its derivation from ^yot, one good at leading
off animate plunder, such as men, cattle, &c. On the contrary,
67
(pigTBQog, (pigtawg, were applied to one skilled in bearing off
inanimate plunder, being derived from (pigo). Hence the Greek
phrase dyetv jtai (pigeiv^ to plunder., which Livy (22, c. 3. 38, —
c. 15.) has expressed by agere etferre. The adjective xaxog
appears to be derived from xixaxa, the perfect middle of «(iw,
allied to xeioj, I sleep, I am inactive ; I sleep, or, am inactive,
while others are abroad to the prey ; i. e. I am a coward, a bad man.
Obs. 2. The proper comparative and superlative of &ya6bg,
are dyadioTegog and (jcyadihiaTog. These, however, occur only
in later writers and such as are not Attic, as Diod. Sic. 16. 85.
• '^/uBivtuv, according to Fischer, is for d/ueviuv, from ^(xBvog,
whence the Latin amcenus. — 'AQeiiuv^ ^giaxog, are formed, in
fact, from "Jqrjg, Mars. —
BsXtIwv properly signifies, more saga-
cious ; usual Attic forms are êXilu)Vj îXjiaiog, though the
its
others occur sometimes in the Attic poets. KgBlacrcjv, xgsljiojv^
have been mentioned already the form x&ggcuv is for the older
xdgaojv •
the true positive is
;
xgcnig, brave, powerful. Aaitcav, —

Aq^wv, properly signifies more desirable. It is generally derived
from Aw, / will, I wish ; it may, however, have been formed
from l(i)tog, which occurs in Theocritus, and be put for Awuwv.
— 0egrEgog, &c. are usually formed from cpsgoj, (^vid. Obs. 1.)
if, however, we imagine a positive (psgrig analogous to this, we
shall have, 1. cpsgidxegog, cpsgiaxarog, by syncope (pigrBgog, cpig-

raxog. 2. ((fsgiaiv)^ (pigiaxog. Fischer derives the former
from (fsgxog, and considers them as contractions for (fegxoxBgog^
cpsgxdxtttog.
Obs. 3. x^^Q^î ;ê/^to-TO?, appear to be altered from j^sêMoy.
From the old positive x^QV'î (probably the same originally
with x^Q^V?i) which has the sense of a comparative, inferior^
(II. (i, 80. (5', 400.) a comparative /eê/wi' was derived, and a
superlative xigiaxog, as from &gr]g, dcgsicov, dgiaxog. From this,
by transposition, came xelguv, /s/^tarog.
Obs. 4. The forms ^qc'wv,gSaxog, assigned to gddiog, appear
to have come from the old word griCog, of which the Ionic
gi]tdiog, and Doric gatdiog, are merely lengthened forms. So
in the comparative, the oldest form was grfCitov, contracted to
gj]tojv^ Doric gakov, Attic g4'^v and the superlative old form
:
grfiaxog, Doric gd'iaxog, Attic ga.axog. There are other forms,

however as, from grlCog comes [grfioxsgog) giqtxBgog, (II. a', 258.
;
c5, 243,) Doric, gutxsgog, gaixegog, Pind. 01. 8, 78.
IV. Sometimes, particularly in the Poets, new

comparatives and superlatives are derived from
comparatives and superlatives already in use:
thus,
68
Comparisons from the Comparative.
XBQBltoVj xBQBidieQogj Xutojv, XcjUegog,
XBiqmv^ XSigdrsgog, TtQdrfQog^ nqojBQalxBQog,
flBlOiVj jUBlOTEQOg^ daoMv, daaoTBQog,
dcQBlMVj dQBlOTSQOgj xttXXluv, KttXXimBgog,
Comparisons from the Superlative

iXdîotog, IXdxicrTOTeQog, 7iQ(j}Tog, nQWTiarog,
XBiQiaxog^ XBiqiojoxaiog.
xidtatogj KvdLaxcnog,
V. Comparatives are also sometimes formed

from nouns, adverbs, prepositions, &c. thus, —
From Nouns.
^Xyog, aXylMPj dXylmog. nXeovixrrjgj xlaxaxog.
âaiXe-bg^ Bitegog, Bixaiog. 7tXV^xrr]g^ tiaxaxog.
hxalQog^ gdxaxog. noiTjg, xiaxuxog.
Qsbg, OBihxBQog. giyog, yiav, yiaxog.
xigdogf SltaVj dlaxog, iSqiaxTjg, xoxBqog.
xXdnxrjg^ xLaxaxog, (pCaq, gdxaxog.
From a Pronoun.
cdxbgj ipse, aixdxaxogf ipsissimus.
From Adverbs,
&v(itegogj rarog. xdrw, xax6xBqog, raxog. •
&(pttg, &CpdqxBqog, xaxog. ndqqct), noqg(bxBqogj raxog,

haw, iamsgog, raxog. nqoaio, nqoatbxBqog, raxog.
^^(bxBqog, raxog. nqiblj nqbi'ialxBqogy raxog.
taxog. dnlaojj dniGiaxBgogj raxog.
'rr^^'V/rflT' laxog. vifjij vipiaxog^
From Prepositions.
ngb, TiqoxBqog, raxog, by syncope nqoccxog, by crasis ngmog,

inkg, -dnBgxBgogf r&xog, by syncope vnaxog.
From Verbs.
Xuj lutoiv, X(^(ov, Xih'Caxog, Xiaarog.
cpiga^, g>igxBgog,
|
^^^^^'^ '
q)egxtaxog.
From a Participle.
i^qoivhog, iggfo/nsviaxBgog, iggcijUBviararoe,
69
Ohs- 1. We
have in English an instance of a double super-
lative, in the phrase Most Highest, in the Psalms, to express
the superlative excellence of the Supreme Being. Our vulgar
term lesser, may also be cited as an instance of a double com-
parative. Such constructions, however, are in violation of the
idiom of our own, and, in fact, of every, language.
. Ohs. 2. We
have some instances of double superlatives in
the Latin language likewise ; thus, extremissimus, TertuU.
Apoll. c. 19. postremissimus, in the oration of C. Gracchus,
i]uoted by Aulus Gellius, 15. 12 minimissimus, Arnob. 5
: : so
also of a kind of double comparatives as, intimior, proximior.
;
The last of these is used not only by Ulpian and Vegetius, but
also by Seneca, Epist. 108. In Plautus, an instance occurs
of a superlative formed from a noun, as occulissimus ; this,
however, is rather to be regarded as a piece of wit on the part
of the poet.
Obs. 3. The forms given above of comparisons from adverbs,
occur more frequently in an adverbial form, as, dywrs'^w, d^w-
Tdrw ; xttxuieQb), xaTwidrw, &c. To these may be added
dyxov, cqmp. dyxoiBQco, and ay/toi' changed to daaov, sup. (iyxo-
r&roi, and ^)';^âTa /LidXa, comp. fiaXXov^ sup. fidhara
;
: so also
from &n6 the preposition, (knmsQoj, d/rtoTaTw.
Obs. 4. Some, among whom is Fischer, derive the compa-
ratives and superlatives given above, not from substantives, ad-
verbs, or prepositions, but from obsolete adjectives. But not
any trace of such adjectives is to be found, either in the Greek
writers themselves, or in the old Grammarians; and, as pre-
positions, with their case, and adverbs, by prefixing the article,
are made to answer the significations of adjectives, there is
no contradiction in supposing that forms of comparison are de-
rived from these adverbs and prepositions, which are used as
adjectives. And, as in many verbs, tenses occur, although the
verbs, from which they must have been more immediately de-
rived, never existed so comparatives and superlatives, of
;
which the positive had no existence, were formed after the

analogy of the substantive.
NUMERALS.
Numbers are either Cardinal, which answer
to the question, " how many ?" or Ordinal, an-
swering to the question, "which of the num-
ber ?"
70
1 .
— Cardinal Numbers.
One. Sing. Two. Dual Two. Plural
N. 'elg, [ilct, ev^ N.
G. hpdg, fxiag, hbg^ N. A. Ji5o, and d{,(a, G. ûwy,
D. evlj (xia^ ivlj G. D. ûeiy and dvolv. D.^wa/.
A. ivciy filaVj sv. A.—
Three. Plural
d. Powr. Plural.
N N.
N. rgsTg, >
N. riaaagsg, riaaaga^
G. T^twy, G. iscrauQMVy
D. xgialf D. riaaagatj
A. rgslg, A. Tj(a<T«90ff, Tiaaaga,
Like «ij are declined,
G. o^Jei'6g, oids/Luag, ovderdgj &c.

N. fiTjdBlg, /UT^dsfila^ fiTjdsVj
G. fiTjdevog, fiTjdsfiTag, jur]86i'6g, &c.
1. The
Cardinal numbers from nivts, five, to Sxatdv, a hun-
dred, are indeclinable. The round numbers from 200 are de-
clined regularly like adjectives. The termination oaioi in- —
dicates 100 ; as diuxoaioi, ai, a, 200 ; igi6.itoaioi, 300, &;c.
2. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds,
the Greeks used the letters of the alphabet. But as there are
only 24 letters, they used 5'> called F«u, or inlarjiLtov, for 6
^, called xojTTra, for 90 and 3j called aav ni, (a tc covered
;
with a reversed C or old sigma ; aav being the name applied

,
to the sigma in the old Greek, and also in Doric) for 900.
3. A mark is placed over the letters to denote the numbers.
Placed under them, it expresses thousands ; thus e is 5, but «
is 5000. The figures of the present year are aw^', J 830.
4. In the expression of numbers by capitals, the following
characters are used viz. :
/, 1, is the mark of Unity. Hj lOOjis the initial of //exaxdi'.

i7, 5, is the initial of IUvtb. X, 1000, - - - Xlhoi.
-«:/, 10, - - - - dixa. 3f, 10,000, - - - M{>gioi.
Each of these may be repeated four times thus, ////, 4, :
JJJ, 30, JJJJ, 40. MM, 20,000, MMM, 30,000, MMMM,

40,000. 77, inclosing a numeral letter, multiplies it by 5 ; thus,
H» 50, &;c.
71
5. The names of the Greek numbers, with the mode of

expressing them by the letters of the alphabet, are as fol-
low:
1 a Big, 40 f^
tBaaaQdcxovjUj
2 ^' dvOj 50 i TlBVTTlXOVXay
60 1' h^Tf{XOPta,
3 / rgelg,
4 (5' xiaaaqBg, 70 6 hSdofx-f^xovxttf
5 i nivie, 80 7i 6y8oi\xovxtt,
6 4 90 ivvBvr^xovxaj
7 I' knTd, 100 4 kxaxbv,
8 A 200 6 dittxdaioi,
9 6' Bvvia, 300 i XQiaxoaioi,

10 i dixa, 400 V xBoaaqaxoaioi^
*
11 id ifdexa, 500 nevxuxouioij
t
12 i6' d(i)dexaj 600 i Bôixroaioi,
13 ^f jQiaxaldsxa^ 700 i BTCXttxbaioi,
14 td' tsaaaQsaxaldBxa, 800 w dxToxoaioi,

15 a nsvtsxaldexaj
hxxaLSsxa,
900
1,000
^
«
ivptaxoaioi,
16 tg XlXioi,
17 *C' knxaxttLdexa^ 2,000 ^ diaxiXiot,

18 trj dxTUtxaldexa^ 5,000 £ TiBvxaxiaxl^toi,
19 id' ipveaxaldsxa, 10,000 flVQlOl,
20 }i ei'xoai, 20,000 X /
didfiiQioi^
21 xd el'xoai Big, 50,000 V nsvxaxia/LivQioi,
30 X' TQidxoyra, 100,000 '? SBxaxia^vQioi.
6. In the composition of numbers, either the smaller pre-

cedes, and the two are joined hj xal; or the greater is placed
first, in which case the conjunction is omitted ; as nsvxs xdl
Bi'xoai, or eixoai nevxs. Yet custom admitted of many devia-
tions thus, Bixoai xal Snxd, Herod. 8. 1. sSdofn^xovxa xalfiia.
;
Id. 8, 2. hSdojLf/ixovxa xal 6xto), Id. 8. 48. When three num-

bers are reckoned together, the greatest comes first, and so on
in succession with the conjunction xal as »'âs Bxaxbv xal
;
ei'xoat xal inxd, Herod, 8. 1. J-âg xgiijoaiai xal SSdo^T^xovxa

xal dxxw, lb. 48.
7. Instead of the numbers compounded with 8 and 9, more
frequent use is made of the circumlocution hv6g (or fnfig) diovxog,
diovaai, or diovxa ; dvolv dtovxsg^ diovaai or diopxa ; in which
the latter word is the participle of 8sw, I want. Thus, vrieg
fiidg diovaai Bi'xoai, 19 ships ; stbu dvQv diovxa BVxoai, 18 years ;
dcvdgBg dvwv diovxBg nBvxTl\xovxa, 48 men. Sometimes the par-
ciple is referred to the subtractive number, and the genitive
absolute is formed ; as ev6g diovxog jqiaxoaiCi hsi, in the 29th
72
year. This usage, however, it will be remembered, does not
take place in Homeric Greek.
8. The cardinal numbers compounded with uw, express, 1.
Together ; as, avv8vo, two together ; ovvjQEig^ three together, &c
2. The signification of Latin distributives; as, avvTQsig ulvv/ne-
vog, taking three at a time. Od. /, 429. avvdvo ^/nsv, we were
two together, by twos. Demosth. in Mid, avvdvo Xo/ovg -^yop^
they led each two companies. Xen. Anab. 6. 3. Sometimes
the prepositions xard;, &fa, &c. are used.
2. Ordinal Numbers.
1. Of the Ordinal Numbers, all under 20, except second,

seventh, and eighth, end in xog. Froiji thence upwards all end
in o(jT6g. Thus, 1st. ngmog, (in speaking of two, nQoiegog), 2d.
dsiTSQog, 3d, rQtiog, 4th. Tera^rog and iBTqaiog^ 5th. nifinxog,
6th. exTog, 7th. eSSo/nog, and kSdofxarog, 8th. oydoog, and oydoa-
rog, 9th. evvonog, evarog, and el'vaiog, 10th. d^xarog, 11th. kfdi-
xarog, 12th. dcodexaiog, duojdexaTog and dvoKaidiiiaiog, 13th.
T^taxatJ^xarog, and TQliog xal dexaTog, 14th. TBaaaQaxatdexaTog,
and TBiaQJog xal dixatog, &c. 20th. etxoajog, 21st. et? x«i slxou-
tdg, fila xal eixooTTJ, and slxooTog ngmog, 30th, T^taxoaT^g, 40th.
rsaaagaxoarog, 50th. nEvxrjxouxdg, 60th. h^rjxoarog, 70th. f^ô-
fiijxoardg, 80th. dydor^xoarog, 90th. hvevijxoaxog, 100th. exaxoa-
zdg, 200th. diaxoaiooxog, 1000th. jftîoarog, 10,000th. /uvgioaxdg,
2. The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet in their na-
tural order to express a consecutive series, or marks of division.
Thus the 24 books of the Iliad and Odyssey, are marked by
the 24 letters, as the stanzas of the 119th Psalm are by the
Hebrew letters.
3. The Greeks, in order to express half or fractional num-
bers in money, measures, and weights, used words compound-
ed of the name of the weight, &c. {fj,vdi,i)6oX6g, rulavxov^'^ with
the adjective termination op, lov, alop appended to it, and i^jU*,
half, and placed before the ordinal number of which the half
is taken as xglxov i^fiixaXapxov 2^ talents, i. e. the first a ta-
; ,
lent, the second a talent, the third a half talent: xixagxop -fi/ui-
t&lavxop, 3^ talents, i. e. the first a talent, the second a talent,
the third a talent, the fourth a half talent : xglxov -fifiidgocxfôv,
2\ drachmae -xixagxov ^juljuvaiov^ 3^ minae hvvaxov 'fiuifxvaiov^
: :
8^ minae. So in Latin Sestertius, two asses and a half, is

;
shortened from Semistertius : the first an As, the second an

As, the third a half As. {tertius semis.) From this must be
distinguished, however, the phrase when those words are in
tlie plural, and joined with the cardinal number as xgia '^fii-
:
73
tdXavra, not 2 J talents, but three half talents, i. e. one talent
and a half: nsptB -fifiiiulavta, five half talents, two talents and
a half nivre -^fitfivalaj 2^ mm?e: tgla rifxifivulaj IJ^minae.
Remarks on the Numerals.

1. Cardinal Numbers.
Elg,
Qbs. 1. The
feminine of elg is derived from I'og, I'a, Vov ; of
which ice or still occurs in Homer, (//. d\ 437,
i't] 319, X', *',
174.) The dative /w for kvl occurs, however, only in //. ^',
422. Hesiod, Th. 145, has htg for sig. The oldest form of
elg, judging from analogy, must have been spg, which bears a
resemblance to our English once. From the neuter of an old
form fietg, may be derived the particle fiiv^ signifying, accord-
ing to its derivation, in the first place, while the particle 8h
may have an analogy with 8i}0y and may denote in the second
place.
Ohs. 2. Instead of ovdelg, fir^dslg, an unattic and incorrect
form is used by later writers as oidelg, fir^deig. In these,
;
however, the feminine resumes the d. This last circumstance

proves conclusively that it is wrong to consider these forms
as coming from oiiie and fii^TS compounded with sig. It is, in
fact, only the customary change of 8 into 6, before an aspirate.
Some of the old Grammarians supposed oidelg to come from
o^ and deig, with which latter form they compared the pronoun
dstfa, but this derivation is opposed by the forms 0Tudsf4la and
ovditBQog.
Ohs. 3. Ovdelg and fii]delg are often separated, and this se-
paration increases their negative signification ; as OTjd" ixp evbg
xQartjdipTeg, having been subdued not even by one, i. e. even by
no one. El;, (iln, ep, from their very nature, can have no plu-
ral ; but ovdelg and fiT]delg have ovdipeg and /nTjdspeg. In the
older language, however, the use of the plural of these forms
was frequently superseded, especially the dative case, by the
forms oidtt/uo-l, ftrjdafiol, (^vid. Steph. Thes. and Herod. 9, c. 58.
oidipeg iv ovda/jolai.) The singular number, however, of these
last mentioned forms was not in use, except in the adverbial
cases oidafiov /Ji]8afiTij ovda/nd.
^<}0.
Ohs. 1. 8vo is the Attic mode of writing. In Homer and

Herodotus it is indeclinable : dvolv is the form for the genitive
and dative ; dveip is more rare, and is used only in the geni-
74
tive. Instead of dvoTv ^the lonians said dviSv. The dative dval
is of rare occurrence.
Obs. 2. Other old forms were, dvog, of which dvu apparently
is merely the dual ; and doiog, the same as diaaog. These
were both used also in the plural. From doiog come the sub-
stantive doi^, doubt, and the verbs ôtd^co, dodQw e^'doidlâ).
•,
Obs. 3. "^//gjw accords with Î'w. In the old Poets it is

frequently indeclinable otherwise, n^tcpolv is used in the geni-
;
tive and dative throughout the three genders.
2. Ordinal Numbers.
Obs. 1. liTQajog, another form for riraQTog, occurs //. v'»

615. Od. /?', 607 Tiefinrog is from the iEolic TjijunB for navTs
: :
iSddfiaTog is the more ancient form of eSdo/nog, and occurs Od.

x', 81 : dydoarog is also an old form of bydoog, and is found Od.
fj 306. Hesiod. e^y. 790 erarog is the most ancient form, and
:
occurs //. /?', 313. Soph. El. 707: hence come etV«Tog, 11. ^',
295. and the common ^pvaiog dvuxuideTcarog is the older form.
:
Hes. ^Y' '^'^^^
Obs. 2. Numerals in atog are derived from the ordinal

numbers, and answer to the question " on what day ?" In
other languages they can only be expressed by several words.
Thus, devrsQaiog, on the second day : TQiralogj on the third day
BlJtoGTttTog, on the twentieth day, Slc. There is, however, no
such numeral from ngmog, but instead of it av6ri/uag may be
used, on the first day. From nQoiegog cames TtQorFQulog, which,
however, is not referred to the person, but joined with -fi/îgUf
as rfi TxqoxsQaicf, -^fibQa, on the day previous ; t"^ iiOjeqaLq i^^^â,
on the day after.
Obs. 3. A second class of derivatives are the numeral
nouns, with an abstract signification as, ^ /novdcg, the unity ;
;
dv&g, the number two; rgidg, the number three, in ecclesiastical

writers, the Holy Trinity ; so also, Tstqiig, nevx&g (likewise
TtEfirtdgand nB/amdg), k^<ig, sSdofiug, dydodg, ivvedg, Ssxdg, ev-
dex&g, &c. The two numbers el'xoai and rgidxavTa, reject be-
fore this termination their peculiar ending as far as x, thus ;
sixdg, tQiaxag. All the remaining numbers adhere to the

analogy, (and the compound ones seldom appear) as, reaaaâ- ;
MOPjiig, neviTjxopidg, exmovr&g, ;ft^Ki?, [ivqiag, &c.

Obs. 4. When other words are compounded with numerals,
then for unity we have ôvo-^ for 2 8i-, for 3 rqi-, for 4 tbiqu- ;
as, jLtovdxegcoog, dlxegajg, rgljurjvov, rgiodog, Tsrg&yctivog. All the

remaining numbers terminate generally in a or o, as nevrdfiS'
75
6hs. 5. The numeral adverbs are as follows ; fiTtal, once;
dig, twice ; rgtg, thrice ; (allthe remaining end in mg) rsrgdxig^
four times; nevx&xig bxz&iiig ^vvB&xig or ivvdxig ; elxoodxig ;
; ;
ixaTOvidxtg; xiXidxig, (fee.

Obs. 6. The multiplicative adjectives, are ; dnXovg, simple,
diTiXovg, double ; TQinXovg, triple; Tsrganlovg, four-fold ; nevju-
nXovg, five-fold, &c.
PRONOUNS. A RTt cur
Pronouns are divided into,
1. Personal. 3. Relative.
ly^, L 8?, % 8, who
o{>, thou.
o5, of kirn. 4. Demonstrative.
oJjxog, ttviT}, lovxo, } ,.
2. Possessive. 5de, ^ds, rbds, r

ifibg, ii, bv, mine. ixBlvogj tj, 0, that.
abg, a^, abi^, thine. aixbg, ii, 6, he, she, it

og,OTsbg,'^,bv,his.
5. Reciprocal.
vfatxegog, a, ov, our,
of us two. Ifiavxov, of myself
aq)utTSQog, a, ov, your, of you aeavxod, of thyself
two. Savxov, of himself.
iiXX/ilo)v, of one another.
flfiixBQog, a, ov, our.

iftexF.Qog, a, ov, your. 6. Indefinites.
rig, rl, any.
aifhsôg, a, or, J
dBlvcc, some one.
l.— Ey^, I.

N. ijfii,
G. Bfiov, or fiov, N. A. vwi', yw, G. iijxibv,
D. iiiiol, or fiol, G. D. vwCv, v(av D. -^(iiv,
A. ifie, or fiL A. i^^Ma?.
2v, thou.
N. or,), N. ifiklg,
G. Orou, N. A. aqpwt, a(pa, G. t5/iSv,
D. croi. G. D. acpw'Cv, a(f^v. D. ifilv^
A. ai. A, ifioig.
76 uy6/(.'?bn
0^, of him.
Singular. Dual. Plural. N.
N.~, N. aq>elg, acpia.
G.o5, N. A. a<)D<u^, G. ag)G>v,
D.or, G. D. aqxatv. D. acpluif
A. I A. crqpa?, aqpâ
2.—Sg , ?j, 0, wjAo, which, what.

Singular. Dual. Plural
N.8?, ^, 8, N. oP, «r, (S,
G. o5, %, o5, N.A.a, 5, &, G. 5*', 5»;, Sv,

D.a, f ^, G. D. ofp, afv, orv. D. ot?, aF?, olg,
A. 8>', ^^ 8. A. oSj, Sg, 5.
OSroff, avTiy, tovto, is declined and prefixes a like the article

thus,
Singular.
M. F. N.
N. olrog, «Stv, TO0TO,
G. roixovj ta{,Trjg, T0l5T0tf,
D. TOlJTCj), TtttjTT^, T0j5t({».
A. TOUTOI', ZOUTO.
Dual.
N. A. toiJtw, Ttt^Ttt, T0t5TW,
G. D. TOlJlOty, TOjJroty.
Plural.
N. OUTO*, aSxae, xauTa,
G. TOtJTCJV, TOliTCOV, TOiiTWV,
D. t0t5T0tff, Tatiratg, TOt5T0tff,
A. TOlkOUff TatJTttff, TauTa.
0^6 is compounded of the Article, and the Particle 8e. It

is declined like the Article throughout.
Aiibg and hxBlvog, are declined like 8?, IJ, 8.
3. From the personal pronouns and avrog, are

compounded, ifiavtov, oeavrov, iavrov.
Singular. Plural.
N. - N.- , , ,
G. iavtov, iauTTJf, eavtov, G. eavtHiv^ eavtibVj savtiby,

D. iavuSf iavf^y eavx^y D. eavToTgy savtuTg, iavtotg,
A. iavKiy, iavTiji', eavtd. A. iavToig, eavtdg, lavid.
77
In like manner are declined tfxavwv and oBavTov, but in the
Singular only they want the Dual and Plural.
:
'JtklriloJV,
Dual. Plural.
N. ,
N. A. (iUrjAw, dcXX^Xoc, G. dlX^Xav,

G. D. dUiJAoty, dUTJâti/. D. d^TJAotj, dXli^latgj
A. dlX-f^lovg, dilli^lagf AXXijla,
4. — Tig, awy.
N. N.
N. rig, Ti,
G. Tt»'6?, N. A. Ttv^, G. Tiviav,

D. Ttvl, G. D. Tirolv. D. Ttai,
A. T*»'d, Ti. A. Ttydff, Ttyd,
JeXva, some one.

Singular. Plural.
N.6, N. o*', osivsg^
G. TOU, TTJg, TOti, delvog, G. Twr, dsLvbiv,
D. TW, D.
A. T0»', TTJV, t6, delva. A.
It is sometimes also indeclinable ; as, tov delva^ tbv toO

stva. Aristoph. Thesm. 622.
Remarks on the Pronouns.

1. Personal Pronouns.
Obs, 1. The Dialects of the Personal Pronouns, at large,
are given in the Remarks on the Dialects, towards the end of
the volume.
Ohs. 2. In the genitive singular, ^/Mov, ctou, o5, are Attic
contractions from the Ionic forms ^^ô, aio, bo. When the
genitive, dative, and accusative singular of iyw are emphatic,
they are written îaov, efiol, ifih otherwise (lovy /nol, /ni. The
;
Dual forms, ^w, voji^ acpG, aqoaJ*' are Attic. In the plural,
; ;
'^fieig^ -dfielg, andare contractions from -fifiisg, ifzieg,

acpelg,
acpieg ; and so of the other cases. In the Dative, however, a
different change occurs ; -fifilv and -bfuv are contracted from
•flîai, ifiiai, and have the r ecpeXxvaxixdv added
8
78
Ohs. 3. The pronoun ol is very seldom used in the Attic
dialect ; since, in order to express a rejflexive meaning, havxov
takes its place. Among the Ionic and Epic writers, however,
it is more frequently employed, not only in a reflexive sense,
but also, and more generally, for the oblique cases of dvxog.
Ohs. 4. According to Theodosius Alexandrinus, (ed. Goet-
ling.) the ancient pronoun of the third person was whence i',
the Latin is, ejus.
2. Possessive Pronouns.
Ohs. eoc, TJ, 6v, occurs only in the singular in the Ionic and
Doric writers, and in the poets og is an abbreviated form
;
from hog acpMtieqag occurs only in the Ionic Poets, as also

:
vutiegog riiuhegog was used sometimes for i/ôg, as ri/nelg for

:
iyci acpEisQog is sometimes used by the Attic poets for the

:
pronoun possessive of the third person singular.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns.
Ohs. 1 . In annexed only to give great-

o5e, the enclitic de is
er strength. Instead of this 8s, the Attics also annex the syl-
lable (5/; as 68L, ?)^/, io8L\ which is analogous to the Latin
hicce.
Ohs. 2. In the pronoun ourog, the lonians frequently msert
e before the termination of the case, as xoview, rourtw*', lovieovg.
The Attics annex an t to this pronoun in all cases and gen-
ders, to give a stronger emphasis as oixoai, a-birjt. In the
;
neuter, this t took the place of o and « as tout/, ravxi. For

;
the same reason the Latins annexed met, te, pte, ce ; as egO'
met, tute, meapte, hicce. Hence ovioai is only used in an ab-
solute designation, oviog with reference also to a pronoun re-
lative which follows it.
Ohs. 3. Instead of * the syllables yi and 8l are annexed to
the cases which end in a short vowel, for the same purpose ;
as xovcoyi^ xavxayl, xovxodl. This appears only to have been

used in familiar discourse, as it occurs in the comic writers
alone. 081 also does not occur in the tragedians.
'
From this
we must distinguish the t which the Attics and lonians fre-
quently annex to the dative plural, as xovxoiav, xaiiuioi.
Ohs. 4. Some adjectives compounded with ovwg follow its
declension, but reject the x throughout as xoaoOroc, xoauvxrj^
;
roaovio, from xonog xoioviog, xoiavrt], TOtoCro, from xolog xrjXi-

: :
xovTog, TTjlixttviT], x-qliitovTo^ from x7]Xixog. The i paragogicun\

is often annexed to these also, as tolovxovI, xoiovrod, Toiuinaitt
xoiavxat.
79
Obs. 5. The Attics sometimes use tovwv for xoCro as tou- ;
rov nelayog, Pausan. 8. 54. (See Obs. 9. below.) So also,

loaoZxov for loaovio^ and tolovtov for roiovro. Xen. Cyrop. 1. 1.
Thucyd. 2. 50. In like manner, to allov for to aUo, Arrian.
Eocp. Alex. 1. 19.
ixelvog has also the t paragogicum ; as, ixsivoat^
0^6". 6.
ixsivovtj exsivovl. For ixBtfoc, the lonians, and likewise the
Attic tragic writers, used xft^'og. The Cohans said xrivog.
The Dorians ttjjô?.
Obs. 7. -r^^To? was used for the third person and yet it has ;
the proper signification of he, she, it, only in the oblique cases
and even in these only when they stand after some other
word or words in the clause. In the nominative, and in the
oblique cases when these last begin a clause, it signifies, not
he or him; but he himself, himself, &c. thus, edor/.Bv utjiolg, he ;
gave to them; od/ EwQcxxag airop, thou hast not seen him; but
auTog licpTj, he himself said it: noiQEyivovTo avjol, they themselves
were present: avxbv euQaxa, I have seen the person himself: av.-
TOtg €d(oxe, he gave to the persons themselves, &c. When the
article immediately precedes, the phrase means the same ; as,
6 avjbg d.v7\o, the same man : to aiio or T'iuro, the same thing.
Obs. 8. airov, a^rqj, attov, &c. with the rough breathing on
the initial syllable, are not from aixog immediately, but are
contracted for iaviov, eavxCj, kocvjov, &c.
Obs. 9. The Attics frequently use rambv, for t6 aird, Aris-
toph. 253. Xen. Ages. 3. 2. id. Anab. 6. 3. &c.
4. Reciprocal Pronouns.
Obs. 1. These pronouns are not compounded of ifx^, ai^ e,
and ctiibg, but of Ij^bo, aio, eo, old genitive forms for i/uov, aoiJ,
o5. These pronouns never occur in Homer as one vowel, but
separate, as i/ue In Herodotus
aviop, ae avxov, % aijrop, &c.
they are separated and transposed auTw /Mo*,; as, aviov i/nsv,
&c. The Attics separate or transpose, when they wish to
convey a reflexive meaning for it is observable, that in these
:
compound pronouns, unless thus arranged, uvxog loses its pe-

culiar force thus, aaviov means thee merely, but aiJroi' as,
;
thee thyself
Obs. 2. Properly, according to their composition, only the
genitive of these pronouns should have been in use. It is
owing to arbitrary usage, that i/neo, aio, and bo, are compound-
ed with other cases of avTog besides the genitive.
Obs. 3. Whenever there is need of a plural for ifiavrov, and
(Tscxvrov, the parts of the compound are declined separately;
as '^fielg adxoij i^fislg a^xol, t]/jiS)v adx&v^ tuibv a^rwy, &LC.
80
5. Indefinite Pronouns.
Ohs. 1. The Indefinite ng, as being an enclitic, is com-

monly used without an accented mark ; the interrogative ilg
{who has the accent always on the in the dissyllable cases,
?) i>
and is thereby distinguished, as also in the nomi

{jlveg^ tIui,)
native singular, by the invariable acute accent, from the inde
finite Ttg.
Obs. 2. The
lonians said for tivog, nvl, &c. rio, and con
tracted, tsv. Dat. t^w.Gen. pi. riuv, Dat. lioig, reoiai. The
Attics contracted nvdg into lov, rivl into tw, in all the genders,
and wrote them without an accent. In the plural they used
only Tiv(bFj rial. There existed also different forms of the
pronouns ng and reog. The Grammarians say, that from Ttvog
a new nominative ilog, tiov, rto, was formed and from this,
;
according to them, came tov, by the lonians resolved into rio

and ria.
6. Remarks on the combination of og and rig.
Obs. The indefinite ng is sometimes subjoined to the

1.
relative Sc, and a new form arises, with the signification, who-
soever, which has each of its constituent parts separately de-
clined as oGTig, ring, oti, (or o rv, to distinguish it from ort,
;
that,) Gen. oîipog, ânvog, oviivog; Dat. WTtvt, rinvi^ &tivi,, &c.
Obs. 2. Homer says o ng, for oang, and retains, with the
rest of the Ionic writers, the o unchanged in all the cases, as
oTsv, Od. Q, 424. and oxrso, Errsv, Od. &, 124. /, 377. q, 121.
for ohxivog, rîunvog. So also in the dative otecd, II. 6, 664. Ac-
cus. owva, Od. &, 204. Nom. PI. Neut. oura, //. /, 450.
Gen. 0TS(x)v, Od. '^, 39, &lc. The Attics retained this in the
genitive and dative singular as oxov, om, for omivog, ^xivi.
;
The form oifav, however, also occurs, Xen. Anab. 7. 6. and

likewise oxoiai in Sophocles and Aristophanes.
Obs. 3. Instead of the neuter plural anva, Homer and He-
rodotus have aaan, from the Doric ad. for xiv6.. The Attics
instead of this say axxa. This last, however, must not be
confounded with ^xxa, which the Attics used in certain com-
binations, particularly with adjectives, for the neuter plural
Ttvd ; as îr axxa, exeq dixxa, tokxvz ^rxa, and for which the
form Haaa occurs, Od, t', 218.
81
VERB.
Verbs are of two kinds ; 1. in ft, 2. in MI.
Verbs in SI are either such as have a consonant before w,
or such as have a vowel, a, e, o, before it. The former are
called barytone verbs because they have the acute accent
;
on the penultima, and the last syllable necessarily has the

grave accent, [daqvp tovov^) not expressed in writing: the lat-
ter are called pure, or contracted, verbs, because w is con-
tracted by the Attics into one vowel with the preceding they :
are also styled circumflex verbs, because, after contraction, the

fa receives a circumflex as (piUoj^ (pdw.
; These, however, are
not at all different from the barytons, since it is merely re-
quired to contract in the present and imperfect.
Verbs have three Voices the Active, Passive, ;
and Middle : Five Moods Indicative, Imperative, ;
Optative, Suhjimctive, and Infinitive:

Nine Tenses Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Plu-
;
perfect, First and Second Future, First and Second

Aorist, and, in the Passive, Paulo-post futurum
Three Numbers Singular, Dual, and Plural,
;
Obs. The older Grammarians, and the earliest modern ones,

reckoned fourteen conjugations seven of barytone verbs, ac-
;
cording to the characteristic consonant of the present tense,

and the formation of the future three of verbs circumflex ; and
;
four of verbs in û. I. Barytone verbs. 1st. in (?, tt, qo, yrr,
Future ip. 2d. in /, x, /, ht. Future I. 3d. in 8, 6, t, Future
in ff. 4th. in C, oô", tt, Future I or a. 5th. in ^, /",»', ?, Fu-
ture w. 6th. w pure, as avo), Future or. 7th. in I and yj, Fu-
ture rioix). 11. Verbs circumflex. 1st. tw. 2d. in (iw. 3d. in
ow. III. Verbs in 1st. in rifxv^ rig, Infin. hai.
jt/fc. 2d. in ri(n,
t]g, Infin. (xvai. 3d. in w,ut, Infin. ovai. 4th. in vjut, Infin. -vvcxi.
The modern and more simple division takes its origin from
Vervey and Weller.
Observations on the Voices of the Greek Verb.
The
Active and Passive Voices having nothing very pecu-
compared with those of the Latin
liar in their signification, as
language, we shall confine ourselves, therefore, to a considera-
tion of the Middle Voice.
8*
82
The Middle Voice, in Greek, is so called, because it has a
middle signification between the Active and Passive Voices,
implying neither action nor passion simply, but an union, in
some degree, of both. Middle Verbs may be divided into Five
Classes, as follows
1. In Middle Verbs of the First Class, the action of tne
Verb is reflected immediately back upon the agent and hence;
Verbs of this Class are exactly equivalent to the Active Voice

joined with the Accusative of the reflexive Pronoun as loim^ ;
I wash another ; Xovofiai, I wash myself; the same as ôvco

ijLiavrov.
2. In Middle Verbs of the Second Class, the agent is the

remote object of the action of the Verb, with respect to whom
it takes place ;so that Middle Verbs of this Class are equiva-
lent to the Active Voice with the Dative of the reflexive Pro-
noun [ijuaviQ, a6(xvjQ, iavjtL); as aloslr, to take up any thing
for another, in order to transfer it to another ; aiQs'iodai, to take
np in order to keep it one's self, to transfer to one's self Hence
Verbs of this Class carry with them the idea of a thing's being
doneybr* one's self
3. Middle Verbs of the Third Class express an action which
took place at the command of the agent, or with regard to it
which is expressed in English by to cause. In other wôrds,
this Class may be said to signify, to cause any thing to he done ;
as YQ^cfM, I write ; YQ(i(po/jai, I cause to be written, I cause the
name, as of an accused person, to be taken dmvn in writing by the
magistrate before whom the process is carried, or, simply, I accuse.
4. The Fourth Class of Middle Verbs includes those which
denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as anivdeadat, to make
libations along with another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to
make a league ; diaXveodi, to dissolve along with another, to dis-
solve by mutual agreement. To this class belong Verbs signi-
fying " to contract," " quarrel," " contend," &lc.
5. The Fifth Class comprehends Middle Verbs of the First
Class, when followed by an Accusative, or some other Case ;
in other words, it embraces all those Middle Verbs which de-

note an action reflected back on the agent himself, and which
are at the same time followed by an Accusative, or other
Case, which that action farther regards as, ^vafiv&adai it, to
;
recall any thing to one's own recollection.

6. As regards the Tenses of the Middle Voice, the student
will take notice,
(a) That the Future Middle has usually an Active, some-
times a Passive sense, while the Future Passive has seldom,
if ever, the signification of the Middle.
83
(b) In many Verbs
the Aorist Passive has a Middle signi-
fication. In such Verbs, either the Aorist Middle is obsolete
or rare, or else it has one of the meanings of the Verb, and
generally the original one, appropriated to itself, and the Pas-
sive Aorist another thus, the Aorist Passive araX^yat, is at-
:
tached with the medial signification to ojiXXeaOai, to journey ;

whereas fjTeiXuadixi, the proper Aorist middle, belongs only to
atikXeadai, to clothe one's self, or send for.
(c) The Perfect Middle, in some Verbs, supplies the place
of the Perfect Active, this latter Tense being obsolete on ac-
count of euphony as exiova, dxrjxoa, eanoQa, XiXoma, oida,
;
ninovdix, iixoit(x^ &c. In many Verbs, however, the Perfect

Middle is found with an Intransitive meaning, clearly based
upon, and deducible from, its Middle meaning. To under-
stand the examples which follow, the student will bear in
mind the peculiar force of the Perfect Tense of the Verb in
all the Voices, viz. its reference to a continued action. Thus:
"Jyvvî, I break. Perf. Middle, eaya, I have caused myself to
he broken, (by not offering, for example, sufficient
resistance,) and I continue broken, i. e. I am broken.
Avolyo), I open. Perf. M. I have caused myself to be
dLPscoya,
opened, (speaking, for example, of a door which

does not ofi'er sufficient resistance in remaining
shut,) a7id I continue open, i. e. / stand open.
*Ey6lQ(x), I awaken. Perf. M. iygTriyoQoc, I have awakened my-

self and continue awake, i. e. I am awake.
^'EXttw, I give hopes. Perf. M. ioXna, I have given myself

hopes, and I continue in hopes, i. e. / hope.
*OXXvfii, I destroy. Perf. M. oXcoXa^ I have destroyed or ruin-
ed myself and I continue ruined, i. e. / am undone.
Ui^yvvini, I fix. Perf. M. nin-qya, I have fixed myself and

continue fixed,!, e. I am fixed.
Mivb)^ I remain. Perf. M. (XEfxova, I have caused myself to
remain, and I continue remaining, i. e. I persevere.
The Perfect Active ^sfiifrjxa, merely signifies, /
have remained.
IlQuacrca, I do. Perf. M. ningaya, I have caused myself to do,
I have acted in such a way as to do; hence ninQaya
xa^wf / have caused myself to do well, I have acted
,
in such away as to do well, and I continue to do well^

i. e. / do well, I am fortunate, or prosperous.
84
The list might be extended farther, but a sufficient number
of examples have been cited to show that the Perfect Middle
can only obtain its Intransitive meaning through its Middle
one. It seems therefore incorrect to term it, as some Gram-
marians have done, the Second Perfect Active.
(d) The Perfect and Pluperfect Passive are often used in
a Middle sense. .This appears in general to be the case,
when the corresponding Middle Tenses are either obsolete
The Doctrine of the Moods and Tenses will

be given at the end of the Syntax.
The Yerh'' Ei^l, to he.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Sing, elfii, eJgor el, ear I,
I am. thou art. he is.
Dual. iaidp, iaidv,

you two are, they two are.
Plur. iafiiv iaxi elal.
we are, ye are, they are.
Imperfect, ?iv , / was.

S. î', ^ or ^v,
D.
P. ^f^BV, âav.
Future, eoofiac, I will be.
S. SGOjuai, eaetat^
D iaofxedov, eaeadov, eaeadov,
P. iadfisOa, eaeade, iaovrai.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present and Imperfect, Yo^l, be thou.
s. i'adi or âo, ^'aro).
D. haiov^ taxoiv^
P. Bars, harfoaap.
85
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present and Imperfect, eirjv, I might he.
S. bXtjv^ ^*V?i ^'^'Vf
D. eirjTOVj BiT^rrjVj
P. errjfiSVf ei'/jTSj ei'rjaav or sjsv.
Future, iaolurjv, I would he,

S. laoifiTjv^ âoto, 'eaotro
D. ijoi/uedovj Uaoiodov^ iaoiadrjv^
P iaoiêda^ saoiods, iaoiPio.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present and Imperfect, 5), / may be.
s.
D. f'
riTOV, 1'
-fitoVy
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present and Imperfect.
eJi'ai, to he.
Future.
%aea6ai^ to be about to be.
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
N. fiy, olaa^ 8j^, being.
G. ovTog, oijarjgj bvjog.
Future.
N. Radius vog^ iaofiivrj^ iao/uevov, about to
G. iaofii povj iaofiivTjg, iaofiipov.
Remarks on ElpX.
Obs. 1 The root of slfil is the old verb iw hence etg and
. ;
bI mthe second person, of which, however, sJ is more used

than the other. It is remarkable that the form slfjii is actually
86
an iEolic one, received into the common dialect. From Ita
the form vj,wi properly arose. The Boeotians, however, a
branch of the Cohans, used bI for ^, and hence said elfil for
^l, which was copied into the Attic and common dialects.
Obs. 2. The original form of the imperfect, appears to have
been, £«, mg, 'de, &c. //. d', 321. e,_887. Herod. 1. 187, &c.
Instead of this. Homer has also ^«, //. e, 808, &;c. which
was probably a purer Ionic form than the first. From this
old imperfect, arose by contraction the Attic ^, ^?, ^, &.c.
thus, su contracted i] ; 'eac, •^ and, with
contr. ijg ;
se contr. ;
the V i(peXxvaTii(6v^ ^y which form is more common than ^.

;
Obs. 3. Instead of ^g, the Attics more commonly said â-

6a instead of -^lov, tjt?^/', they used more frequently âiov^
;
^0T)7v and in the plural âxe for ^rs. In the third person
;
plural, ^J' occurs for âav^ in an inscription in ^schines, in
Ctes. p. 573, and also in Hesiod. Th. 321. Herod. 5. 12 ; but

particularly in the Doric, as in Epicharmus, ap. Athen. 2. p.
250, &c.
Obs. 4. eaoât, the future of dfi\, is borrowed from the mid-
dle. In the second person singular, it has also aaet for ^'aiy,
and in the third person, I'arat by contraction for laexat, this ;
form eaxai is the one most commonly used.

Ohs. 5. A pluperfect form, as it is called, is generally added
in grammars ; as, iji"J?»', ôo, ^ro ; ^/uedov, âdov^ ^âOrjv ; ^//f-
6a, âde, ^pto. This, however, is properly an imperfect mid-
dle, and does not make its appearance in the best grammars:
it is disapproved of by the Grammarians.
Obs. 6. Instead of I'adi in the imperative, there was also an
old form sac, or eaao, Od. ti, 303. f, 200, from which the other
persons are derived almost regularly. The student will be
careful not to confound this lode with a form similar to it in
every respect as regards appearance, viz. I'odi, the imperative
of i'aT]iui, contracted from i'aadc, and borrowed by ei'deoj, I know,
— The form earcDv for earwauv, occurs in Xenophon, Cyrop.
4. 6. and 8. 6.
Obs. 7. The form shv isgiven in all grammars along with
el'rjoav. It is, in fact, the most frequently used of the two. It
occurs also adverbially in the sense of the Latin esto ! well, be
it so ! and appears to have been retained in the language of
common life from the old si's for sI't/, with v i<f)EXxvarix6y; for
the sense requires the singular, not the plural. It is met with
chiefly in Plato and Aristophanes.
87
Verbs in i?.
There are four Conjugations of Verbs in w,

distinguished by the termination of the First
Future.
The First Conjugation in i/^to, as T^;rTca,Ti)ycu,
The Second in ^tu, as Xsyco, Xi^co,
The Third in oco^ as t/w, tlaoj.
The Fourth in a liquid before c5, as i/âUw,
waXcb,
General Observations.
Obs. 1. When the First Person Plural ends in fisv^ the Dual
has no firstperson. The tenses to which this remark applies
are, all those of the Active voice, together with the Aorists of
the Passive.
Obs. 2. In the Present, Perfect, and Future of the Indica-
tive, and all the Subjunctive, the third person plural ends in
at or Tttt; and the second and third persons Dual are the same.
Obs. 3. The Imperfect, Pluperfect, and the two Aorists of
the Indicative, together with all the Optative, form the Dual
in ov^ Tjv. Elmsley, however, on Aristoph. Acharn. 773. says,
that the 2d and 3d persons Dual were always alike.
ACTIVE VOICE.
1. The Principal Parts.
Pres. rvTito), 1st. Fut. tvxjjo). Perf. ti%v(pa,

2d. Aorist, Uxvnov.
2. The Moods and Tenses.

Indie Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part,
Present. Tvnrot) >
xinx-s -Ol/HL -ft) -StP -ft)**
Imperf. Bxvnxov ^
1st. Fut. XVlfJ-O) -Ot/Xl -eiv •(OP
1st. Aor. exvipa xixp-ov -ft) -at
Perfect. XExvcpa i
xixvcp-6 -OlfXl -ft) -Bvai,
Pluperf. exsxvg)Siv y
2d. Aor. Bxvnov rin-s -Olfit -ft) -6 IV -mp
2d. Fut. ^l/4l> -elv -wy.
•
88
3. Numbers and Persons.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present, / strike.
xvnxei'j
ximBxov^ xijnxBxov^
xiTtTBTB, xinxovai.
Imperfect, I was striking.

S. hvnxeg, hvTtxB,
D. hVTtXBXOV, ixvnxixrjVy
P. ixvnxBXB^ ^Tvnxov.
First Future, J 57m// strike.

XVlfJEigj XVlpBl^
D. XVlpBXOVj XVlpETOVj
P. tdy/ofisv. cvipBXBj xvipovac.
First Aorist, I struck.

Mxvtpa^ ^xvipuQj IxVlpBj
ixvipaxoVj ixtnp&xi]Py
ixtutpafiBV, ixvifjaxBj txvipav.
Perfect, I have struck

S. xixv(pay xixvcpag, xixv(pB,
D. XBXv(paxoVj xBxvcpaxoVj
P. xBxiqxxfiBV, xBxvcpaxB^ TBxvcpaai'.
Pluperfect, / had struck.

S. ixsxicpBiP hBXV(pBig, ixBXVCpBl^
D. ixBxvcpBiTOVj ixexvcpBlxrjVy
P. ixBtiqiBlfiBV y BXBXVCpBLXB, tXBXV(fiBia(tV.
Second Aorist, / struck.

hvnov, MxvTtBg^ hvrtBf
ixvTfBxoVj ixvnhijv,
ixinofABV^ hvnexs, hvnov.
Second Future, I shall strike.
S. rv7t(o, xvTtsig, XVJtBlj
D XVUBlXOVy XVTTBltOVy
P. TVTtOVfiBV, XVTtBlXB, xvn^vai.

89
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present, strike,
S. rims, rvTTxhojj
D. rvmsioVj jvmhwv^
P. r{)7iTBTSf rvmitaaav.
First Aorist, strike,

S. tvipovj Tvipdrojj
Perfect, have struck/ '% ^ '

^>
S. TilVCpe, TBTV^BTMy
JT K if
P. T6nuq)8T6y • TSTvq)ii(oaav, '€f ^

Of
Second Aorist, strike, :^ <^??m
S. Tvns, Tvnitco,
D. TineTOVj ivnhwVy
P. xinBTSy Tvnhwdav.
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present, I might he striking,
S. TirtTOifiij rvmoig, tvmoty
D. TvnroiTOV, rvmolzrjVj
P. TvTttoifZBVj rvmoiJBy -CVJtXOlBV.
First Future, / might hereafter strike

S. ii\l)Oi[ib^ Tvipoigy rvxpot,,
D. TviponoVy rvi/JoirrjVj
P. TTUlpOlflSVy tvyjOlTBy XVXpOlBV,
Firstôrist, I might have struck

S. tiipaifiij xvxpaig, xvyjcct^
D. cvipairopj xvrpaixTjVf
p. xiipaifiBVy xvipaixB, xvipaiev.
JEolic First Aorist.

S. TdyjBioCy xvipsiocg^ xvipBis
D. xvipBiaxoVy xvxpBi&xriv
P. xvtf/siafiev Tuy/s/aie, rvipEiav,
9
90
Perfect, I might have been striking,
S. TSTi)(pOl[ll>j tBTVCpOigj TBTVqiOtj
D. TSTVCfOnOV, TSTVq)0lT1]Vf
p. tenL>q)OtfisVy rervqioiTSf TeTvq)Oisv,
Second Aorist, I might have struck,

S. tvnotfiij rvnocgy Tvnoi^
D. tVTfDtTOVf Tvnolxr]V,
P. jvTtoifxspf Tvnoite, zvnoi^BV.
Second Future, / should hereafter strike,

S. ivnoXi-Hy rvnolg^ Tvnol,
D. tvnolioVj tvnolrrjv,
V. jvnotfiet'f xvnolxBj -ivnolBv
SUBJUNCTIV-E MOOD.
Present, / may strike,
S. T^ntUf -ivmrigj TvrtTrj,
D. tvmrjxov^ jvmyroVj
P. rinioifiBV^ xvmrjTS, rvmoDcn.
First Aorist, / may have struck,
D. TVlpJ]lOVj TVXpljTOV^
p. TilpMflBV TVXprjXBy TVyjUfft.
Perfect, / may have been striking,

S. TBxvqim, rBxvq)'rig, TStugpiy,
D. TBtVCpTjXOV, TSXyCpTJXOV,
P. TBxiqxa^BV xBxvcpT^xs, rsxvqxoai.
Second Aorist, / may have struck,

S. TiiTTW, TVTtrig^ xvnri,
D. rvTiTjXOVj xvnrjxoVj
P. xiuTtufisPf TvnrjxBy rvnaai,
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present, T{)7tTnv, to strike.
First Future, tvxûv^ to be going to strike.
First Aorist, riipai, to have struck.
M
Perfect, retvcpevai, to have been striking.
Second Aorist. rvjinv, to have struck.
Second Future, "cvTtelv, to he going to strike
PARTICIPLES.
N. TTuTijcaPf TVTtrovaa, ivmov^
G. TCrtTOPTog, tvmovatjgj Tvntoptog, <fec.
First Future, going to strike.
N. T^^wy, Tvxpovaa^ tvxfjov,
G. T^npovrog, rvifjovarjgj jvifjovrog.
First Aorist, having struck.

N. TTuipocg, xvxjjaaa, ivifjaVf
G. liUJavrog, Tvipdarjg^ ivxpavtog.
Perfect, who has been striking.

N. rSTVcpag, TBrvq>vTa, tBTvcpog,
G. TBxvqiOTogj 'istvq)vlagj TBxvcpowg,
Second Aorist, having struck.

N. rvniavj jvnovaoc^ jvnby,
G. 'tvn6vT0gf xvnovarjg^ xvndvxog.
Second Future, going to strike.
N. tvnav, xvnovaa^ xvnovVj

G. xvnovvxog^ Tvrtovarjg, xvnovvxog.
General Observation.
Obs. In the English expression of the tenses, &c. much

precision is not to be expected. Their use and signification
depend on the conjunctions and participles to which they are
joined. The optative, for example, which, in its genuine
sense, i.expressive of a wish, is never joined with av, is
e,
seldom used in the potential sense without it. Again, the first
and second aorist participles are rendered by havings when, in
fact, the English language has no aorist participle, and having
is the form of its perfect participle. If we were required to
give a strict translation to an aorist participle, and such an
one as would conform nearest to the idiom of our language,
we should be compelled to use a tense of a verb thus, ;
92
rovTO Ttoi-âag dTiîêy, is commonly rendered, having done this
hs departed, when in fact should be, when he did this, he de-
it
varied. So ravia ikaovaag ei/iBv, when he heard these things he

said. Sometimes a conjunction may be inserted in English,
as ldd)p de, iêdQafis jcai xadvX&xzei, and he saw and ran and
kept barking.
, AUGMENT.
Of the Nine Tenses.
Three receive an Augment continued through
all the Moods viz. the Perfect, Pluperfect, and
:
Paulo-post-Futurum.
Three receive an Augment in the Indicative
only viz. the Imperfect, and the tv/o Aorists.
:
Three receive no Augment : viz. the Present

and the two Futures.
There are Two Augments the Syllabic, when ;
the Verb begins with a Consonant; the Tempo-

ral, when the Verb begins with a Vowel. The
Syllabic is so called, because it adds a Syllable
to the word ; the Temporal, because it increases
the time or quantity of the initial vowel.
Obs. 1. In Homer, Hesiod, and other old Poets, the use of

the Augment is very fluctuating. The same word occurs
sometimes with the Augment, and sometimes without it, while
other words again have it regularly. This diversity does not
appear to have been caused by the revisers, the Grammarians,
or transcribers, since the restoration of consistency in this
respect would entirely destroy the measure and rhythm of the
verses. In Herodotus and other prose writers, the Augment
is almost regular, but it is also sometimes omitted. The At-
tics again observed it regularly, except in passages of the
poets where the language was formed upon the model of the
ancient language, as, for example, in the chorusses of the
Dramatic writers.
Obs. 2. The Augment appears originally to have consisted,
in cases, of the prefix s, as well in words beginning with
all
a vowel as in those which began with a consonant. Thus we
still find in the old lopic Poets, kdcpdr^ for r^(f^^] ;
haro for f faro,
93
&c. This kind of Augment occurs more rarely in Herodotus,
and only in certain words as, h&vdavs, eude^ idXcoxa, doQysSj
;
&c. On the other hand, we find in him, oUa, oix6g, for the
Homeric 'douca, ioixihg. The Attics retained this « in some
words as, for example, in eaê, idyi], iuydtg, from ^yoi,fraugo,
;
to distinguish them from ^s«, &c. from dyw^fero : in i&Xwxa

and i(iAw in loixa, Ulna, eogya, because in these three the
:
characteristic of the perfect middle, ot and o, could not be ef-

faced but particularly in verbs beginning with a vowel which
:
is not capable of being lengthened, as tfaOoWf êcoaâi, from

(bê'w; sMPOvfiTjv, from ^piojuat; sovqovp, from oigio).
icovrj/Ltai,
Afterwards, however, the usage was thus far determined, that

e was only prefixed to verbs which began with a consonant
while in others beginning with a vowel, it coalesced with a
long vowel or a diphthong. The first is called, as has been
already stated, the Syllabic Augment, the latter the Temporal.
Obs. 3. The Augment serves to prevent ambiguity ;else
the Imperfect jvtite would be confounded with the Imperative,
and the First Aorist Tj;j//a? with the Participle.
1. Syllabic Augment.
1. Imperfect and the Two Aorists simply

The
prefix an as tzvicuov, eTVijja, ervnov,
£,
2. The Augment of the Perfect tense is form-

ed by repeating the initial consonant of the verb,
and by annexing an e, as thvcpa. This repeti-
tion of the initial consonant is called Reduplica-
tion. If the initial consonant be an aspirate,
then, according to the rules of Euphony, instead
of the aspirate, the corresponding smooth must be
used, as cpilm, I love, perfect, necpiXrjKa, not (pe-
(pilrjKa ; ivM, I sacrifice, perf. tt&vxa, not ^t^vxa.
3. The Augment of the Pluperfect is formed
by prefixing e to the Reduplication of the Perfect,
as ItErvcfELV,
4. The Paulo-post-futurum, which is formed
from the Perfect, has the reduplicative augment
like that tense, as ^^xijxiioâi.
94
Exceptions and Remarks.

Obs. 1.
1. In Verbs beginning with q, after the augment q is dou-

bled, as QlTtTO), I cast, imperfect, b^qvuxov ;
ê'w, I fiuw, imper-
fect, 'e^Qdov.
2. In the three verbs ôiXoftai, I will, Svvafiat, I am able,
fiilloij I am about, the Attics often prefix the temporal instead
of the syllabic augment ; as riSovXofir^p, ^dwAfiriv^ ijûsXôv.
There appears indeed, to be some analogy between these
verbs in point of meaning.:
3. The lonians, and all the Poets except the Attics, often
omit the augment in the imperfect, pluperfect, and the two
aorists ; as xaiovro for ixaiovro', Ticpstoav for kisnuqieiattv ^
dilate for idiûTO /9t] for eSrj.
;
In the pluperfect this is done
even in prose.
4. In Homer, Hesiod, and other poets, the second aorist
active and middle often receive the reduplication, and retain
it throughout the moods as xeyc&juov, X6x««w; for iicdfiop, x-d-
;
/«(U ;from x6.fivb) ; nintdoVj nsnidelv for snidov, niOelv ; from ;
neldo).
Obs. 2.
If the verb begin with g, the perfect and pluperfect do
1.
not take the reduplication, but the q is doubled, and e prefixed,
as qinxoi, l^Qicpa. vid. Obs. 1, Rule 1. Homer, however, has
QBQvnbifiiva^ Od. X! i 59.
2. When a verb begins with a double consonant, instead of
the reduplication, e alone is used, as ^t/tcw, ^^rjfjyxa ; lew,
lêafxai, ; if/dXXa), sipaXita,
3. In most cases also where the verb begins with two con-
sonants, no reduplication takes place, but s alone is used as ;
aneiqb), sanag/nat ;
g)deigoj, scpdagxa ; htIôj, EXiia/aoti,.
To this last, however, there are exceptions. 1. When a

verb begins with two consonants, the first of which is a mute
and the second a liquid, the general rule operates as /(cigpw, ;
yiygaqia ; nviw, ninvevxa ; xXlroj, xixXtxa. But yf, and often

yX, assume only a single e, as yvojgll;(o, iyvwgia/ucxi, ; xaTuyXoj-
Tt'^w, xajEyXojTKTfiivog. 2. The verbs xtdofxai, and fivdofiai, are
also exceptions, and form xixirj/nai, ini/uvrj/uai. 3. The irregu-
lar perfect n^Ttrajuai, must also be excepted.
4. In verbs beginning with X and //, the lonians. Attics, and
others, are accustomed to put ei for Xs and fê, as Xa/uSocrco,
perf. efXrjcpa for XiXrjcpa ;
fxelgofiai, perf. Ei'/uagjuai for fiifiagixai,
5. The Perfect of Latin verbs also sometimes takes a re-
duplication, as do,dedt; pungo, pupugi ; tango, tetigi, &c. It
is worthy of notice, that all the verbs which have this redu-
plication in the perfect, made it anciently in e, proving this
therefore to be a manifest derivation from the Greek form.
Thus, in the early state of the Latin language, they said, ac-
cording to the authority of Aulus Gellius, memordi, peposci,
pepugi, spespondi, Sic. Some verbs, we perceive, still retain
this e in others it is changed.
; Gellius states that Cicero
and Caesar both used these old forms.
IL Temporal Augment,
The Temporal Augment in general changes
a into rj, as ayo), rjyov.
8 into 7], as iXnii^co, rjlntlôv.
X into I, as ixavoj, Ixavov.
into CO, as oTcd'Cci), lona'C,ov,
V into i), as v§qIL(x), v§()l(ôv,

ai mto 7], as aiuo^ fiqov,
av into rjv^ as avtâvco, iqvâvov.
tv into i]v, as evxoaai, rjvxoju^fjv.
oi into (0, as oixiLcj, (oxlLov,
8 is changed in some verbs into u, as g/w, dxov.
80 is changed into eca, as taQtaCco, t(OQTa(ôv,
Of the other vowels already long, a usually
oecomes o]; while 7], w, I, v, admit no augment
whatever ; as, ritTccouaL, iji^TiOfiriv, r]Ti;fjaaL, <&;c.
Exceptions and Remarks.

All these changes from the long to the short vowel, had
1.
their origin in the coalescing or contracting of the syllabic aug-
ment 6 with the initial vowel of the verb ; as eayov^Tiyov; ieXni-
t,op, ^Xnil;oy. Among
these contractions, those of ss into 17,
and much in conformity with the common
eo into w, are not so
rule of contractions, as that of es into ei.
2. The verbs which change s into si, are the following :
Mw, iXxia), igvM.
Wco, 'dnco, iuxi&b).
ITTOfltttf
Uco,
iXlaaca, 6Q7t(a.
Uxco, kgmu^ct).
m
Of these, the verb bttoj has given rise to much discussion.
While some consider it merely as another instance of the
change of e into ei, others maintain that einu, slnof, &c. do
not properly come from ^'ttoj, but from the form si'no), with the
first syllable lengthened after the manner of the lonians ; for
they assert, that, if it be viewed as coming from eno), si would
be an augment, and would be retained throughout the moods
contrary to all analogy.
3. In general where the augment would interfere with eu-
phony, or produce confusion, we find it omitted, and the verb
remaining unchanged. The following instances are particu-
larly worthy of notice.
Verbs in a No augment takes place in &TjSLt,ojiiai, ^TjdeaoM,
:
a/w, olw, only that in «/w the short « is lengthened. The long
« also remains unchanged in the old Attic, in dcfaXoco, (com-
monly ('xvaXlaxti),) urukMxa, dvdXwaa, &c. In the modem At-
tic, however, and in the other dialects, we have alternately
drrilcoaa and i]vuX(x)(ju, and in the perfect cij'rJAwxa and rifdXojxu.
Verbs in e The
s remains unchanged in sQfj7]ysTL;oi),
:
Verbs in These have no augment with the single ex-

ei : ;
ception of slxurto which takes one in the Attic writers, as, el-
xd^w, eficaaa, ei'xaa/iiai ; Att. Tîcaaa, r|xaa^«t.
Verbs in ev The usage in these is far from being certam
:
ev is often changed into rjv in editions, although the readings,

in this respect, are very fluctuating frequently one or more
;
MSS. have jyv where the editions give ev. The Grammarians
for the most part condemn i]v. The verb e{)Qloxa>, with a very
few exceptions, never has i]ik
Verbs in oi Some verbs in ot seldom or never receive the
:
augment. Such are oIi'om, and words compounded of oivjvogf

and ol'aS, as olcovoay.onw^ oiaxopojuCo. Others, as olooj, ot/uiu), oc-
cur only in Tonic, and on that account have no augment.
4. The Attics in some words prefix e instead of the tempo-
ral augment, particularly in verbs which begin with an im-
mutable vowel, as, £«!« for -^s" ,
edX^xa for tjAwx«. They also
prefix the syllabic augment to the temporal, as swoojr, Id^gnxa,
from ogda) instead of which, the Ionic &qmv, wâxa, rarely
;
occur in their works. In the same manner, the compound

dfoiycj makes dviaâ, dvicoyfiai, dvlaya, not d*'w|a, dvioyfiai.
Attic Reduplication.
In verbs which begin with a vowel, the lonians, but still

more the Attics, use a sort of reduplication, repeating the
first letters of the perfect and pluperfect, but instead of the
97
long vowel taking the corresponding short one as, dyrj^'e^xa ;
for TJ)'e(»x«, from (xyeiQCj dQ(I)Qvxoc for ^Qvxtx, from dgvaaw

;
odo)- ;
da for ^d(x, from o^w eiw/i/jexa for rjêxa, from ^(Kcw slriXvOcc
; ;
for iÂuâ, from £^/o,wat dxTJxoa for 7]xoa, from dxovo) cArjâ/zott
; ;
for Âa^ttfc, from ihm.

In ty^Tjyoâ a ^ is added, probably from the abbreviation of
the present tense eygofiai for iyelgo/uat: 6.qalQrjy.(x ccquIqtjûIj ^
are merely Ionic forms for rjâxa, f^Q7Jf^ctl, from alQeco.

In the pluperfect the vowel is made long in the reduplica-
tion a.s ijxrjxoEiv
; &Q(hQVXTO; r^lr}liji(J.r}v^ except only ^îiAyâ,
;
which makes iXrjliidBiv.
III. Augment in Compound Verbs,
1. Verbs compounded with a Preposition take

the Augment between the Preposition and the
Verb, as TiQooâXlta, jiQcotialXov.
1. The
prepositions (with the exception of tisqI,) throw
away the final vowel when they stand in composition before
a vowel as dnix'^j from dno and %w. In the case
; of the
preposition ngo, the o is usually contracted with s ; as nqo\j§rj
for ngoiSi], from ngo and âivio.

2. If, after this elision, the Preposition comes before an as-
pirate, it changes its soft into an aspirate ; as dqoatêw, from
&nb and algiio.
3. 'Ex in composition becomes i^ before a vowel, a^ ix(p£Qco,
iîq)SQov. 'Ev and avv, which change the v before a consonant,
resume it before a vowel, as i/nfiivw, ivi/uBvov. Svv some-
times drops the v, as avt,r]Te(a. P is double after a vowel, as
2. Verbs compounded with ^v and dvq^ if they

are susceptible of the temporal augment, take it
in the middle also between these particles and
the verb ; as evoQKico, evioqkovv dvaaQeoieo) ; :
dvorjQtorovv,
When, however, an immutable vowel or a consonant fol-

lows these particles, the verb either receives the augment at
the beginning, as dvaconico, iduawnow evcpqaivofion, rjicpQalPO' ;
dvatvxio), dsdvaivxrjxa or those beginning with el more

ILirjvi ;
commonly take no augment, as Bûxiofxat, Bicjxovfirjv.

98
General Remarks on the Augment of Compound Verbs.
Ohs. 1. In the case of some compound verbs, whose sim-

ple verb is nearly or quite obsolete, the augment precedes the
preposition. In this, however, the custom is not invariable,
since many verbs of this kind in some writers receive the
augment in the beginning, in others in the middle ; thus, from
xaOsvdio we have both ixdOevdov and x(x6i]vdoi', the latter some-
times in the best writers ; from xdd^/xat we have ixad^/uijv and
X(kdt]^tjv,
Obs. 2. In general all such verbs as are not so much them-

selves compounded with another word, as derived immediately
from a compound word of another part of speech, have the aug-
ment at the beginning; as olxodofxsM, (axodo/novv, from olxodo-
fiog arQarorcedevco, iaigaionedevaa, from aTqnronsdov.
; It will
be found hence, that many verbs, in which the preposition
enters, prefix the augment, they coming immediately from a
compound term as ivaviiovfiai, rivavnov/nrjv^ from ipavrlog
; ;
dcPTiSokw^ Tlvxi66Xovv^ from avnSoX^. It is most usual, how-

ever, even in such verbs, that the augment follow the prepo-
sition, as i^sxXrjalaaav, from ixxXTjaiuô), though it come from
dxxXjjalix nqocprjXBiM, Ttqoequf^Tevaa^ though it come from nQO-
;
q)'/lir]g învxrideia), innsTr[8Evxtt, though it come from inlrrj-

;
dtjg ; (fee.
Obs. 3. Some verbs take an augment both before and after

the preposition; as, <ivoQd6u, iipcagdooy ; ivoxXeto, riv(hxXovv ^
dcvexoiy r^v€ix6fiT]v, Tjvsa/oiuTjv ; TtaQOiveo), inaQiDfTjaa, nenuQcipTj'
xa, inaQ(Dvr]dt]p. A
greater irregularity, however, exists
Still
in the verbs diaxoviot and diandai ; from the former we have,

in the writings of the modern Attics and Atticists, dedirixopjjxa^
and from the other i8l,r^xrjaa, though the verbs respectively
come from diaxopog and dlaixa^ where the a forms the begin-
ning of no new word.
FORMATION OF THE TENSES.

The Imperfect
is formed from the present, by prefixing the Aug-
ment, and changing to into ov, as TVTCva), etvjtTov,
Obs. The lonians and Dorians use a peculiar augment,

which consists in the termination axop, in which case the pro-
per augment is omitted as Txi/unsaxs for en^fiue îaaxs for s):a
; ; ;
ddcfivaaxs for id&fxpa. So also in the passive, noiieaxsxo for

99
inolstTo ;
âUiaxsro for i^dlleio. This form is even used by
an Attic Sophocles Antig. 963. as naveaxB.
writer,
The First Future

is formed from the Present, by changing the last
syllable in the
First Conjugation into i//tu, as tvtztm^ rvifjcj;
in the Second into ^cu, as liyco, Itôj;

Third into aca, as t/oj, tIoo) ;
in the
in the Fourth, by circumflexing the last sylla-
ble, and shortening the penultima, as yjdllw,
These several changes, which are more or less dependant

upon the general principle of euphony, will be found explained
under Obs. 2. next, following.
Verbs in dcj, tcj, and 6w, in general change a

and € into rj, and o into o) as Tiudo), TL^riaco ; (pi-
;
Xio), (filriOM ; drjloco, drjXcooo), (Obs. 4.)

Four verbs change the soft of the first syllable
into an aspirate breathing; viz.
rqecpm^ OqBxpa.
The reason of this change is given in Obs. 6. next fol-

lowing.
Obs. 1. The original termination of the future appears to
have been the same in all verbs, namely, âw, from w. Thus
we find yet, dUaoi from oAw, ^qiao) from ^qm. The primitive
form e'ow underwent a double change partly on account of :
euphony, and partly to distinguish, by different forms, two

senses of a word, in some verbs e, in others a, was rejected.
The first form remained peculiar to the jEolians, and hence
the Grammarians called aqaai, xigaai, in Homer, iEolic forms ;
the second, which was chiefly peculiar to the loni-

rejects a,
ans and Attics, both of whom, the latter regularly, contract i(o
into «. The Attics do this exclusively in verbs whose charac-
teristic is ^, fijVjQ', as dcyyiXXta^ fat. dyyeXw ^QsfJio, fut. ^ge/uib ;
;
/ueVw, fut. fiEvib ; anelQa), fut. ansqo) in the rest they have for
;
the most part a, but in the futures in e'aw, dato oua, faw, they
100
very frequently reject a, and contract what remains, as xaXw
for xttliao), l/.co for ildcrMdiudvfxai for dfioaofxai,^ olxrcw for olxiiaoj.
Thus from the original form of the future eoco, which re-
mained only some verbs, two new forms in aw and e'w con-
in
tracted w, arose ; the latter of which was used chiefly in verbs
whose characteristic was A, û, y, q, the former in the rest.
The former is generally denominated the First Future the ;
other also is called the First Future in verbs whose charac-

teristic is A, fij Vj Q'^ in the rest it is termed the Second Fu-
ture. This Second Future, however, is, after all, an imagi-
nary tense, being a mere invention of the Grammarians, and
ought in strictness to be banished from the common School-
Grammars.
Obs. 2. All the changes mentioned above, as occurring in
the several conjugations, are grounded upon the existence of
the old form iaoo, and the principle of euphony. According
to the rules of euphony, the consonants 8, 6, t, ^, are omitted
before a, and the remaining consonants (9, tt, qp, y^ x, x-> are
imited with the o following, and form the double consonants,
V and I ; while if v precedes, ^, ^, t, ^, it is thrown out, but
that the syllable may remain long, hence
t is inserted after e ;
we have the following changes

1st. Conjugation. Oldest form of the future, Tvmiaa, re-
jecting e, by Syncope, we have rvrtjaoj, rejecting t before cr,
by the rule of euphony, we have jinaco, and lastly, by substi-
tuting the double consonant for na, there results ivipca.
2d. Conjugation. Oldest form of the future, êyâw, reject-
ing the B we have UyaM, and by a substitution of the double
consonant, Ae'^w. There are some classes of verbs, which
fall under this conjugation, in which other and older forms of
the present must be supposed in order to deduce the future in
Iw ; these are,
1. Verbs in tw, as xqA^co, oif/djlâ), dXoU^ca, ar&^ca. It is very

probable that the original form of these verbs was in
yea, as xQ&yia^ ol/nwyoj, Slc. This may be inferred from
the second aorist 'exQuyov^ and from the derivative
fonns olficay/i, dXoXvy/i^ uTaycbp. Hence it is easy to
account for the future in |w thus, oldest form xqayiuM^
;
by syncope xQ&yum, by substituting the double conso-

nant x^dlw and in a similar way of the rest.
:
But some verbs in X>(a have both |w and aw in the future,

as d^Trd^w, nal^ca, avqltfa^ &c. In these |w is the an-
cient form, which is retained in Doric while aw is the ;
later and softened form.

101
Other verbs in ^w take y before $; as xX(5:^cii, xX&y^ca;
nld'Qb), nXdy^M, These come from old forms in //w,
as xXdyyojj nlScyyw hence, oldest form xlayyiacoj by
;
syncope nXdyyaoij by substitution tcXdy^ta and so of :
others.
2. Verbs in frcro) and
ttw, as cpgiaaoj, xaq&aabt, aqodrTW or orqD(i-
Cw, Thegreater part, if not all of these, are derived
from older forms in xw and /w : as cpglucra), from cpqlxa,
whence cpqlarj ; Tagdaaa), from Taq&x^j hence ra^^^-
by syncope ra^dâw, by substitution ra^d^w &c.
crw, ;
There are also verbs in aaw and ttw of the third con-
these are mentioned in the next article.
jugation ;
Oldest form of the future tUom rejecting

3d. Conjugation. ;
e by syncope we have x/aoj. There are some verbs in o-ffoi

and TTw, which are of this conjugation ; as dqôxtia or d^/i6^w,
future dQ/uoaco; nXdaaoj^ nXdaoi ; i/ndaao), Ifidaco', &,€. These
are considered merely as lengthened forms of verbs pure, and
hence have aw in the future.
4th. Conjugation. In verbs whose characteristic is A, ^, y,
Q, the lonians generally, and the Attics exclusively, use the
form e'w, contracted w, for the future, as has been already re-
marked. In this case, however, the penultima, which was
long in the present, is always made short, probably because
the tone then rested chiefly on the last syllable thus rj was ;
changed into a at, gt, ou, into a, e, o, and sv into v. Thus,

;
ai'â», d^w anelqm, ansQw^ &c.

; If the penultima be long by
position, the latter of the two consonants is rejected; as ipaX-
Xiacx), by rejecting one of the ^'s, and by syncope, xpaUo), and
lastly, by contraction xpalih. So also or^Hw, are^di Tsfxvwj ;
TSfidi ; xTslfb), xxevib &c. In the same manner, the doubtful

;
vowels, which were long in the present, become short in the

future; as xqtpm^ xqTi'm :* djudva)^ dfiijiîa.
In some verbs the « which thus arises from the abbrevia-
tion, is often changed into a in dissyllables, because e, in the
rapidity of pronunciation, becomes more indistinct, and ap-
proaches nearer in sound to « or o thus te/uva} makes ts^w ;
and xafiM &c. This is commonly, though incorrectly, styled

;
the 2d. Future.

Obs. 3. The analogy of formation extends in some measure
to the Latin. The Perfect of the third conjugation is formed
from the present, by changing o into si; as scribo, scribsi or
scripsi ; dico, dicsi or dixi ; ; demo, demsi or
Jigo, figsi or fixi
dempsi; carpo carpsi ; &;c.
, To
avoid harshness, a letter is
frequently left out, as parco, parsi; ludo, lusi; &c. The s too
is frequently omitted ; and sometimes in that case it is re-
10
102
sumed in the supine, as scando, scandi, scansum; verto, verti,
versum, &,c.
Obs. 4. Verbs Pure. The following exceptions occur to
the rule given for the formation of the future of verbs in dco,
sfo, and dco :
1 Verbs in dcu, whose final syllable is preceded by the vow-

els e and t, or by the consonants ^ and
q, make the fu-
ture in dcroj ; as Mw, Maw /êididw, fieididau), yeA(iw,
;
^ ysXdao) ; dQ(jc(a, dgdaco to which add XQSjudcj^ TtqefxAao).

;
The following are exceptions XQ^^r XQ^]^^ Ta^dw, ;

',
contracted xl&oi, zlâa and most verbs which have ;
B, o, before the final aw, as (9oaw, ô-âca ulodu, dP.OT]- ;
aoj : however, makes dxoocxffoât.

(XKoodojuai,
The lonians, however, often put an 77, e. g. nsQâca, as the
Dorians universally do an ot, e. g. ôdaco, n^dao).
The verb j(uw, an Attic contracted form for xa/w, and the
verb xXuM, a similar one for xlaioj, both make otvaoj in
the future as, xavaa), jflavau), like the verbs from which
;
they are contracted. Both these verbs, itdoj and xXdoj,

have no contractions, and the student must be careful
not to confound this xXuw with the long «, with xHw,
frango, a contract verb, whose penult is short.
2 Verbs in e'w sometimes make e'aw in the future these are ;
TfiXew, uQxeOi}, It'w, dxio/uat, dltM, e/nea), veixeto, Szc. Some

*
verbs which are comprehended under this head, come
from verbs in w, as dliao), dêaw, uidiaoinai, from olio,
6'^w, al'dofiai and, probably, in reXeM, dgxiM, and the
;
rest which have been mentioned, the future in taw is

from the primitive forms re^w, ri^xw, axouai, oXm, b/um,
vslxca instead of which the forms in ew came subse-
;
quently into use.

Some verbs in e'w have eaco and TJao> in the future, because
there were two forms in the present tense, each of
which had its future one of these forms, however, is
;
always more in use than the other thus, xaUoj and ;
aipeoi, commonly yaXiacx), alriaoj and

in Attic, have ;
deu), nodibi, and noveo), have more commonly ^rjaw, nodi]-

aw, novâio. Other verbs which have e'aw and rjaw,
are ^deco, xrjdia), xonico, noQeo), xor^w, areê'w, cpoQeo).
Some verbs in ^'w I run

have, in the future, silaw, as dii*),
which makes I swim: nXea), I sail:

also deiao/nai: vioj,
ê'w, I Jlow : ;t'£^>, I pour.

Ttveo), I blow : These futures
are probably from the iEolo-Doric Dialect, in which the
Digamma was often expressed by v and they are thus ;
formed to distinguish them from (9»âw, the future of

103
xldrjî ; j/TJaw, the future of i'e'w, >tj^(m, I spin : nlrâto^
the future of nAr|(9w, / Jill : îjaw, the future of ê'w, /
speak : and ;^^ffw, the future of x^'Q^-
3. Verbs in dw, which are not derivative, make oaw, not cSaw,
in the future, as dfioot (whence 6}ivv(il borrows) dôaw
d§(5w, d^dorw ; dvdw, bvoota.
Ohs. 5. Many
Barytone verbs are frequently formed by the
Attics and lonians like contracted verbs, by changing w into
tjCTW : as ^dXloj, ^dlXriaca ; did&axo), didaaxiâco ; xadeTudoj^ xadev-
Jtjctw ; xXalco, xXaiâoj ; vifico, V6fn\a(0 ; which is the only future
in use in this verb ; tijtttw, rvmrûo) ; hence also, ôilofiai^
ôvh\ao{MttL ; olojiiai, Probably
oi'râofiai ; oXôfxai, olx'ôoficti.
this form was occasioned by a custom, on the part of the

lonians, of lengthening many verbs in w, by substituting the
termination «w. The lonians said, for instance, /uuxlofiaij
ovjuSakXsofiai, &c. What might regularly take place in some
verbs,was afterwards transferred by custom to other verbs
also,without implying the necessity or utility of considering
every future in âw, as having for its basis a present in ico.
Obs. 6. The verbs exoi, t^^/w, Tgiipcj, rvqico, were originally
kxco, Ogexo), dqicfw, dvqxo,and were changed with their initial
letter into a soft, for euphony sake, inasmuch as two succes-
sive syllables can seldom commence each with an aspirate :
in the future, however, the second aspirate disappears, and

therefore the first is restored, as e^w, dq^ôt, &c. this is clearly
evinced by the perfect, which in the active is rhqecpa^ and
not tidgecpaj but in the Passive TidQafifiat.
The First Aorist
is formed from the First Future by prefixing

the Augment, and changing co into «, as rviifco,
A doubtful vowel in the penultima of the First

Aorist of the Fourth Conjugation, is made long
a is changed into i^, and e into et, as xîvu), t^qlva ;
1// aX CO, £1/; 7] la ; aiivv w, 7]uvva .
Obs. If the penult of the Present has that of the First at,
Aorist, in the common Dialect has

the Attic r] ; as at]- a, in
/la/i'w, arifiaviby torjûava, Attic ia'qfxr]va. The lonians also
adopt T] instead of a in such verbs, as xadaiqWi xadagia, ixdOaga^
Ionic, ixddTjgn.
104
and fyeyKa are formed from the Pre-

'ÊiTta
sent; t^rjxa, tdcoxa, from the Perfect.
i^xcf,
The following drop the a of the Future

diiceco, 7]>{6ta. xe'w, exeict.
dXsvcOj Tileva, aevco, SGBVa
xalUj huTja. Xiia, ^>ea.
The Perfect
isformed from the First Future by prefixing the
Continued Augment, and changing in the
1st. Conjugation, ifju) into (pa, as tviijcj, rhvcpa ;
in the 2d. Conjugation, ô) into ;^cc, as Xejoi,
in the 3d. Conjugation, ocd into y.a, as Ticrw,

Tmxa
in the 4th, Conjugation, w into xa, as -ijjalw,
sxijalxa.
Dissyllables in lea and qo), change w into xa,
and the e of the First Future into «, as otelw,
totaXxa, from OJieQw, tonagxa, from
aTelXw;
OJidQOJ ; on the contrary, retain
Polysyllables,
the €; as ayyelw, riyytXxa, from ay^êXXw.
Verbs in ivco, vvco, and uv(o, throw away v be-
fore X, and retain the short vowel of the future
which, however, in verbs in dvo), is changed into
a ; as xqivw, xexqixa, from xqivm xuevw, txTaxa, ;
from xTuvo) nXwib, 7it,nlvxa, from tcIvvcj,

;
Verbs in alvo) change v before x into / ; as (pa-

VM, Titcpayxccy from (paivco ; fiiavcj, iiîiiayxa, from
fiiaivb).
Obs. 1. As the Perfect in some verbs pre-supposes a future

in iaoj, so verbs in /«w and vco particularly pre-suppose a future
in '^lacoj and change w into i]ica ; as, vs/nu, vsvifirjxa fisvG), fie-
;
fiivTjya ; dQu/nib, dadQaurjua ; to which the Grammarians also

add, ^QEfxib, êSQijjrjTta ; TQSftw, TeTQefirjxu. So from daiu, or
^(^tw, comes the perfect deddr^xa, as if from a future dw/âm :
105
&om Qio) comes igqiijua ; from ;ira^?w, %sx(xQi]xa. Some suffer
syncope, as ê^lrjxa for ^sSdltjxa dedîrjxa for dedef^rjxa^ from
;
5t',«(U xexfiTjxa for Ksxdfn]xaj from xafivco

;
-ih^rjua for TBjifiT]-
;
xa, from Tsfivoj. In these perfects, the futures in Tjaw, as (?«-

Arjacy, dgct^riaco, fi6vi\<x(a, &;c. are pre-supposed which, how- ;
ever, were hardly in use any more than the forms of the present
fisvib), dgafieu), which some assume.
Obs. 2. In some verbs pure, and also in q>(ico, the lonians
and iEolians reject x in the perfect, in which case rj either
remains unchanged, or becomes a or s, according as it was
derived from « or s in the present. Thus kairjwg for haTi^xibg;
tedyrjihg foj: Tsdf7]xo)g §s6a(bg for ê^r]X(i)g, from (9d:w.
;
Often,
after this, ^yco?, i]6g^ are contracted into (ag, in which case the
lonians and Attics often insert e, as IcxT-Bwg, -smog ; rsdv-sdgj
emog.
The Pluperfect
is formed from the Perfect, by prefixing e to the
Continued Augment, if there is a Reduplication,
and changing a into uv; as Ttrvcpa, iTntvcpeiv,
Obs. The original termination of this tense appears to have

been ea, which occurs in Homer and Herodotus, e. g. in the
perfect middle, nenoWea, Od. I, 44; sisdriTtea, Od. ^', 167.
This Ea was changed, as in the Augment, sometimes into 17,
(whence the Attic and Doric forms fdr]^ ^^X^^Vi) ^-^d some-
times into £1 with the addition of v.
The Second Aorist

is formed from the Present by prefixing the Aug-
ment, changing ca into ov, and shortening the pe-
nultima, as tvnto)^ Uivtiov,
The Penultima is shortened,
1. In vowels, by the change of
/Atj^w, %Xa6ov, (vid. Obs. 3.)
into a, as r ^^l^'^'
\ (paipoj,
!T^°"-
scpavov.
^ navo), enccov
into r, as Islnoj, %Unov.
into 0, as cpSTuym^ ecpvyov.
10*
106
In Dissyllables of the Fourth Conjugation, «
and u are changed into a, as dtQco,tdd()ov; andQO)^
tondqov. In Polysyllables u is changed into e,
as dyeiqeo, riyeQov, (yid, Obs. 2.)
2. In consonants, by the omission of r, and of
the last of two liquids; as tvtitco, tîmov, t//dcX-
lo)^ expdXov,
Some Mutes are changed into others of the
same order; thus,
r ^Xamb), WlaSov.
7t into j?, as < xaXvmb), IkuXuGov, (vid. Obs. 5.)
\ XQvnib), êKQ\j6ov.
r anico, ricpov. (seldom found.)
(seldom found.)
dumb), iioicpov.
n into (p, as^ ôititw, e^^rcifov.

axdmojj eaxacpov. (seldom found.)
Qlmw, l^Q Ricpov.
dQimb), 'ed(joq)Ov. (seldom found.)
<; cr/uixb), sajuvyov.
X into Yj as -|
yjTuxoJ, eifixjyov.
Veros in f to and aocj of the Second Conjuga-

form the Second Aorist in yov of the Third
tion, ;
Conjugation, in dov ; as, jiQaooio, jiQaho, tnâ-

yov c))âCco, (pQccoo), t(p()adov.
; (vid, Obs. 6.)
Verbs pure want the Second Aorist, and the
forms which do occur come from barytone verbs
that are sometimes met with in the present ; thus
edovnov from dovnto) ; tlaxov from XrfAO) ; tuvxov
from (jvxco.
The Second Aorist is wanting also in all de-
rivative verbs formed from other verbs with a
regular termination, like atw, [Co, aivoj, ivw, evio.
All verbs, moreover, which cannot undergo any
of the changes mentioned above, as tQvco, yi)d(pw,
&c, and all verbs in which there would be no dif-
ference between the Second Aorist and Imper-
fect, except in the guantity of the vowel, want
107
the former tense. They may have, however, a

Second Aorist Passive, as iyQd(pi]v.
Of other verbs, the greater part have the First
Aorist, and much the smaller portion the Second,
although it is assumed in the grammar even in
verbs which do not possess it, in order to teach
the formation of other tenses, particularly the
Second Aorist Passive.
Observations on the Second Aonst.
Obs. 1 Tne true mode of forming this tense is undoubtedly

.
from the second future, as it is called, {vid. Obs. 6. below,

and the observations on the second future.)
Obs. 2. From the necessity of a short penultima in the
second aorist, it frequently happens that when two consonants
come together they are transposed, as digycco, 'sdgnxov Trigdw,
;
'inqadov. These forms, however, occur only in the Ionic and

other old poets.
Obs. 3. nkriaaco, to strike the body, makes ênXrjyov ; to
strike the mind, snXayov.
Obs. 4. The change of e into a in the second aorist of Dis-
syllables of the Fourth Conjugation, takes place in some verbs
beginning with a Mute and Liquid, as nXixM, 'enXaicov ; xXin
Tw, sxXanov ; OTgicpoj^ eaxQacpov.
Obs. 5. The aorists WlaSov^ sxaXvSov^ exqvGov^ are sup-
posed to come from the old radical forms, ^Xd6u), xuXvGm, xqv-
6(A}. With regard, howêver, to the verbs which change n of
the present into cp in the second aorist, as ddnio), Qunroj, ()ln-
Tw, dqimb), it must be observed, that many are led to consider
these second aorists as coming from old radical forms tciqcw,
^(jccpM, Qlcpco, dqicpbi
; whereas, on the contrary, these last appear
to have been originally themselves derivative forms instead of
TUTTw, Q&nbi, qLtcm^ TQvna),
Obs. 6.Verbs, which in the present have or aor, receive
t,
in the future either sw or aco, according as they are of the

second or fourth Conjugation. When they form the future in
^M, then ^ and aa are considered as equivalent to /, «, or /.
Hence ^w is from yt'aoj, and by rejecting the a we have yiu),
which by contraction becomes /u, whence the second aorist
yov ;thus, nqdaaiOj nqu^b), {nqayeab), nguysM, Trôtyw,) enqayov.
If again the future of these verbs is in aw, where a has re-
jected the Ungual (J, this d necessarily enters again into the
108
second aorist, as (fQ^ôj, cpq&OM, {(pgadiato^ cpgadi(o, (fgada,) ?gcâ-
dop. This all proceeds on the supposition, however, that the
second aorist is formed from the future, which is undoubtedly
the true mode of deriving it. vid. Obs. 2, on Second Future.
Obs. 6. The / seems to have been considered by the
Greeks as inconsistent with the short penultima hence it is ;
changed into y, as in yjvxoj, ipvôi, (yyuyo)) eipvyov.
The Second Future

is formed from the Second Aorist, by dropping
the Augment, and changing ov into co circumflex-
ed; as tTvnov, tvuth,
Obs. 1. The Second Future is originally the same as the

first. Thus, Tvnrco made rvniaw, rejecting the £, rvnao), i. e.
TiJj^w. The
old form Tvnsao), became, in the Ionic dialect, tv-
niojj and in the Attic, tvtxw. So also Aeye'crcy, Xiyao), Xe^co Io- ;
nic leyio) Attic Xeyw.

; Verbs in Aw, /uco, vw, qm, have only
one form of a future, which ought not to be termed their se-
cond future, but simply their future thus, xpaXeaco, ipaUo)^ ipa-
;
^w. Hence in reality a second Future does not exist.

Obs. 2. From the preceding obsej'vation of Dr. Valpey,
which is supported by the authority of the best Grammarians,
it will be seen at once, that the mode of forming the second
future from the second aorist, is decidedly erroneous. The

latter, in truth, is derived from the former and, as the second ;
future is, in fact, only an Attic form of the original future, so

the second aorist is nothing more than an aorist derived from
this Attic form, and in its meaning differing in no respect
from the first aorist. vid. Observations on the Tenses.
Attic Future.
What called the Attic Future may here be noticed. The
is
form is,indeed, used by the lonians sometimes, but the At-
tics are especially remarkable for its use, and hence the name
it has received. This consists in throwing out a, in aao), iao),
lao), oCTo), of the future, and in making the vowels, which there-
by meet together, coalesce thus, ^le^co for iêldaco, iXw for

;
ii&aa), diaaasdw for diaaxed(iaM, xnXw for ^caXeao), fiaxeladav for

/Xttxiaeadai, ; xo//tu for xoîao) ; nofiiovixeda for xofxiaoixBda ,
dvo-
tXTiG for dLvoixTlata ;
djuovâi for 6,u6aofiai> ;
ilsvdegovai for iXev-
6sQ(aaovai,, &;c. extends to the moods and participles of
It
the future, and to the middle voice.
109
PASSIVE VOICE.
The Moods and Tenses.
Indic. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part.
Present.
tijnx-ov -ol/iiTjv -cofitti -eadai 'duevog
Iraperf. 1 1
Perfect. xitvfzfiat. > -jit/uivog -fijuivog^-qidat -fifiivog

jiiv-tfjo
Pluperf. irsTv^/urjv ) -Ui]v -0)
P. p. Fut. TBriip-o/nai -0tfl1]V -sadai -6fievog

1st. Aor. tJvcpOrjv Tixpd-rjTi -elj}v -w -Tivat -Big
1st. Fut. Tvcpdrâ-ofiai, -OlfiTJV -sadoct -ofisvog
2d. Aor. hivnrjv TTL)7t'1]dl -sIj]v -u -flPUl -Big
2d. Fut. xvnrâ-ofiai. -olfirjv -eadon -ofievog.
Numbers and Persons.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present, I am struck.
S. rintofxai,^ rVTlXTj, fVTfTsrccif
D. Tvnxo/usdoUj ivnxeador, rvnxBodov^
P. Tvnxdfiedcc, jvnTBads, rvnxoviai
Imperfect, I was in the situationôr custom^ of being

struck,
S. ixvTtxdfirjv^ hvTtxoVf hvrtrBxo^
D. hvnxofisdoVy ixvnxBodov^ ixvnxiad?jv^
P. hvTXxoixBday hvnxBodB, ixvmovxo.
Perfect, / have been struck.

S. rhvîfXtti, xhvxf/ai,
D. rBTTL)fl/ils60Vj rixvcpdoPj Tixvqjdov^
P. TBXVflfJBda, tItvcdOb, iBxvfifihoi Blai.
Pluperfect, / had been struck.

S. tXBXV^flTjV^ hixvtfto^ ixhvnxOj
D. irsxvfifiBdov^ exixvqpdov, ixixvgjdrjv^
p. iTBxvfijueda^ hhvcpdBj
Paulo-post-Futurum, I am on the point of being

struck,
S. rBxvipoiuoci, rsxripti, rBxvipBxai,
D. XBxvxpofiedov^ jexvipBadoVy tsxvx/JBadov^
P. jBTvipofxedttj isxvyjBadBy leTvtftovjat,
110
First Aorist, I was struck.

ixvcpdy^g,
hvcpdrjxov^ ixvcfdi^TrjVj
hvcpdrjTSj
First Future, / shall be struck.
Tucpdrjadfisdov, rv(pdi\aeadop,
rvg)di\(Tea66j Tvq)dT\(JOVTai
Second Aorist, I was struck.

irvTtrjg,
hiuTtrjfisv^ iiV7TJ]aav.
Second Future, / shall be struck.

rvn-âBTttij
-tVTiJjadjuedoVj rvTiTâeadop, TvmfiaBadov^
TvnijadfiBdoCj TvniâeadB, ivmâovxat.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present, be struck.
s. TilTtTOV, tVTtxiadojf
D. rinxBoOoVf rv7txia6o)v
P. Ti67fXBad6y tvnxiadojaap.
Perfect, have been struck.

s. tixvifjo, TBxi(p6(o,
D rixvqsdov^ XBxi)(pdo)V^
P xixvq>d6j TExiqiduaav.
First Aorist, be struck.

S. xv<f)dr]xt^ rv(pd^xOi),
D. Tvcpdrjxov^ TVCpd/lXOiVj
P. xicpdrjXBy rvqiO^xtaactv,
Second Aorist, be struck.

S. tVTtTjtfl, xv7iifix(a,
D TTbnijxov^ rvw^xbiv^
P. rvni^xaaay.
Ill /^'^ '^*^^V X
OPTATIVE MOOD. \ ^/^
Present, / might be struck^ O^
^^
S. tvTtToifiTjVj timoio, rvmono, K'/a. <5%
j).xvnxolfi6dov^ -tvntoiadoVy Tvmoladijy, ^'4.
" -^---^-p.
P. jvTfiolfieda, TVTtTOtadSy jvmoivro.
Perfect, / might have been struck,

S. TBTVfifiivog el'rjVj sirjg, eiijj
D. TSTV/ufiivcOj eirjtop, eirjrrjVj
P. TSTVfifiivot si'rjfisVj ei'ijie, el'jjaap.
Paulo-post-Futurum, I might be on the point of

being struck.
S. rsrvipolfir]v^ rSTVipoio, rstvipono,
D. TSTVi/JoifiedoVj rexvxpoiadoVf TBJVipolodrjVj
P. TSTVlpoiflsdUj XBTVlpOiadSj tBTVl/JOlVJO.
First Aorist, / might have been struck.

S. Tvg)6slT]V TVcpOslTjgj tvfpOBir]^
D i:vq)dBi7]Tov, ivcpdBiTjrrjv,
P. TVcpdBiTjfxsv, TV(pdslrjTS, Tvq)66li]crav
First Future, / might be struck hereafter.

S. Tvq)6r](Tolfi7]v, Tvcpdriaoio, TV(f)6riaoiTO,
D. rvcpOrjaoLfiedov ^ TVifd-Ziaoiadov, rvcpdrjaoladrjv,
P. jvcpdrjaolfiBdaj tvcpdrâoiads^ TV(p6T]aoiVTO.
Second Aorist, / might have been struck,

S. TVTtBlTjVj TV7TBlr]g, tvixeItj,
D. TVTtBlrjrov, TVTtBlrjTrjVj
P. rvTtBlTjfisv, tvnBlrjTE, rvnslrjaccv.
Second Future, / might be struck hereafter.

S. TVTtTjaoljUTjVf TVTtriaOtO, TVTTTJcrOtTO,
D. rvntjaoifABdov , rvn-âoiadop, TvnTjaoladrjVj

p. xvnTjaolfiBduj rvmfiaoiaOB, rvnâoivTO,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present, / may be struck.
S. TiuTCrafiai, ttJttttj, rvnrrjTat,
D. Tvnjia/LiEdov jvuTrjadoPy jvmrjadoy,
P. rVTCT^flsOUj tVTtTTjadSj IVniOiVTCH,
112
Perfect, / may have been struck,

S. xSTVfAfiivog w, -^f, ij,
D. rsTVfi/uevoj, ^^^^t ^toi',
P. TSTVflfxivOC (bfiSVj ^TC, Sff*.
First Aerist, / may have been struck.

S. rvcpdib^ tvcpOfig^ '^v<}P^jJ,
D. TVCpdriTOVj 7V(p6riiov^
P. tvgjdwfteVj Tuqo^TJTe, Tvcpdwut,
Second Aorist, I may have been struck.

S. TUTTW, tvn^g, tvnfi^
D. Tvnrirop, rvnr\xov,
P. TvnwfieVf Tvnr[tB, Tvnwut'.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present, fiTfueaâi, to be struck.
Perfect, rtrvcp^.ai, to have been struck,
P. p. Futurum, rtTVijieaâi,, to be on the point of
being struck.
First Aorist, TVcp^TJvai, to have been struck.
First Fnture,TV(p^r]aeoâc, to be going to be struck.
Second Aorist, rvTirivat., to have been struck.
Second Fut. Tvmpeaâi, to be going to be struck.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, being struck.
N. Tvmdfispogj TvnTOfiivTj^ tvnrvfievov,
G. tvmouiroVj tvnTO/îvrjg.^ xvmoîvov, (fee.
Perfect, having been struck.

N. jervfifiivogj tsrvfifiivr]^ rsTVfifiipov^
G. TSTVfiflivOVf TSXVfJ/xii'lJSf TBIVfijuivOV.
Paulo-post-Futurum, being on the point of being

struck.
N. tSTVtpOfXBVogj xexvxpofiivriy vsxvipdfJievoVf
G, XBxvifJOfihov^ xBxvifJOfiivrjg, xsxvyjofiivov.
113
First Aorist, having been struck,

N. tvcpdslg^ Tvcpdslaa, rvcpdsVj
G. rvq>6ii'T0gj Tvq)dslarjg, rvcpdivjog.
First Future, going to be struck,

N. Tvq)dt]a6iiisvog, TTucpdrjaofiivjj^ tv(f}drj(j6fJiBvov^
G. tv<pdijaofiivoVj Tvcpdijaofiiftjgf Tvg}6r]aofiBPOV.
Second Aorist, having been struck^
G. jvnivzog, TVTtela^g^ rvnivjog.
Second Future, going to be struck,
N. TvnT]a6fisvog^ ivnijao^hrj^ cvrtTjaouhov^

G. tvnrâofiivoVj TVTtTjaofiivr^g^ rvnTjaofiivov,
FORMATION OF THE TENSES.

The Present
is formed from the Present Active, by changing
(o into ofiuL, as Tter-w, tvnx-oiiai.
The Imperfect
is formed from the Imperfect Active, by changing
V into iirpf^ as etVTtto-v, irvTCzo-^riv.
The Perfect
is formed from the Perfect Active, by changing,
in the
1st. Cong. 9a pure into ^fiai, as rerv-cpa, Terv-
fiaac
cpa impure into âi,, as rtteQ-cpa, tixtq-îai
In the 2nd. ;fa into yjiai, as lele-xa, lele-yinaL
In the ^d. xa into Ofiai, as jtecpQa-Ka, Tcecpqa-
Gfiai ;
In the 4th. xa into iiai^ as eipal-xa, expaX-ât.,

Verbs of the Third Conjugation in m pure, if
11
114
the penultima of the Perfect be long, change xa

into fiat, as necpilrj-Ka, necpiXTj-fiaL,
Ohs. 1. The following, however, are excepted from this

rule and retain a, dxotJa), TJxouaûat; Ogaiu, TiSqavafiui^ xeXsico^
xsxiXsvufim; xXbIoj, xixXBidficti; xgoio), xixQOVofim ; Ttalw, ni-
Ttaiafxai
; malca, %nrciiafiai> ; as/w, aiaeiafxai.
Ohs. 2. Some have a peculiar usage, and change xa into
,uai, as 'i^(5w, ^go/nm iXdco, ^Xa/nai, and by reduplication Â^â-
;
/uat ; dio), didefiiat, ; 66(0, xiOvfiat ; Ai5(u, XeXvfiai^.
Obs. 3. The perfect of most verbs in atw, mpcn, avco, eicOj
fivw, ooj, ov(a, voi, originally ended in which was afterwards

fioci,
changed to afiat ; hence we find yvtaTog and yvworo?, &c.
Some Verbs shorten the long syllable of the

Perfect Active, as idoina, didofiai,
Obs. On the same principle, ev is changed into v ; thus,

xixevxuj xixvcrfiai, and xi^vfiai,; necpev/a, necpvyfiat, • aiaevxa^
aiav/nai, ; riiBvxa, xixvyfiai.
Dissyllables,whose first syllable hasTê, change

€ into aas TQenu), tttqecpa, teuqaiiiiai but they
: :
resume it in the First Aorist, ttQEip^riv.

Synopsis of the formation of the Perf. Pass, in all its
Persons,
I. S. XBXVfAfiai^ XEXVlfJttlj xixvnxai^

(for xixv(pfzai, xixvcpaatj xhv<f)Tai,)
D. XBXVfMflBdoV^ xexvq)6oVj xixvcpdovj
p. XBxijLlflBda, XSXVCpdB, xexvfxfiivob Blal.
II. S. XiXsyiuat, XiXsâv^ XiXsxxaij

(for X6XBxfioci, XiXBâoct, XiXBxxut,)
D. XbXby^bOoVj XiXs/Oov^ XiXBxdov,
P. XsXiyfiBda, XiXsxds, XEXsyfihoi Btal.
III. S. nineiufiat,
,
ninsiaaij TTBTtBiaxai,
(for nijtBiaaat,)
D. nBTtsLafiBdov, TiinBtoOov, ninBiadoVy
p. TiBTtslafiBda, ninBiads, TTBTtBlUflivOl Blat.
IV. S. niq>aufi(xi,, nig)av(Tai, Tregpayxat,

(for nig)apfiat,)
D. TlBCp&flfiedoV niopavOoVj niq)av6oVj
p. neqxkfZfiBda, Ttiqxxvds, nB(p(x[ji(xhoi eia*.
115
The third person plural is formed from the third person
singular by inserting v before tui, as xeTcgiToci, jtixgivTai,, pro-
bably from the old form, xixQivxavtai But when a consonant
comes before the insertion of v would produce an inh
xat,
monious sound. Hence a periphrasis is formed by the addi-
tion of the verb sli^l to the Perfect Participle thus TSTv/xfiivoc
:
eiul for riivTiPTai.

The 2d. Person Imperative is formed by changing at of the
2d. Person Indie, into o ; as Thvip-av^ riivyj-o the 3d. Person
;
is formed by changing s of the 2d. Pers. PL Indie, into (o; as

<slxvcf)d-e^ TSJvq)d-co.
The Infinitive is formed by changing s of the 2d. Person

Plural Indicative into at, as rsxvcpd-s, tsrvcpd-ai.
When the Perfect Indicative ends in fiai pure, the peri-
phrasis of the Participle with elf^l does not take place in the
Optative, and sometimes not in the Subjunctive ; but /nat in the
Optative is changed into /nrjVj afiav into aifxrjv ; and, in the
Subjunctive, (icut with the preceding vowel into wât as In-
;
die. TBTlfir^fiaiy Opt. xsttfirifxriv, Subj. T8ji/^(bfj,at,
The Pluperfect
is formed from the Perfect by changing fiai into
firjv, and prefixing a to the Continued Augment,
if there is a RedupHcation, as TcVf^-/i«*, ireri^-

firiv.
The Paulo-post-Futurum
is formed from the second person singular of
the Perfect, by changing cci into ofiai, as rirvifj-aiy
Obs. 1. By some, this tense is formed from the First Fu-

ture Middle by prefixing the continued Augment, as rvipofiai,
ritvyjofxai,. Its true formation, however, is from the perfect,
as will be shown in the explanation of the force of the several
tenses.
Obs. 2. No verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, or with the
Temporal Augment, have this tense.
Obs. 3. By the Grammarians of the present day, this tense
is generally styled the Third Future Passive.
The First Aorist

is formed from the Third Person Singular of the
116
Perfect, by dropping the Reduplication, chang-

ing %ai into ^7]v, and the preceding soft into an
aspirate mute, as ttrvji-Tai, iTvcp-^rjv,
Four verbs assume o ; €(}^coT«t, l()()(oo6riv ; fitfji-
iTil7]a6rjv. But aeacaaTojt drops it, as iodo^rjv.

In some verbs the Penultima is shortened :
thus, acpfjQrj'vaL makes acprjQt&i^v ; evQrjTai, evQt^rjv
Obs. In the third person plural of the Aorists, a syncope

often takes place ; thus, ^yegOrjv for ^lyigdijaav ; îtocfiTidev for
The First Future
is formed from the First Aorist, by dropping the

Augment and changing v into ooîai^ as iTicp^r^-v,
The Second Aorist
is formed from the Second Aorist Active, by

changing ov into t^j/, as ervji-ov, iTVTi-rjv,
Obs. 1. No second Aorist passive occurs in drjv^ Orjv^ rrjv^

or from verbs in w pure, except ^x&ijv, id&tjv^ iQQvrjv^ ^cpirjv.
Obs. 2. The Tragic Poets preferred the Passive forms of
the first aorist ; the writers of the new comedy were more
attached to the smoother forms of the second aorist.
The Second Future

is formed from the Second Aorist, by dropping
the Augment, and changing v into aoâi^ as ixi)-
117
MIDDLE VOICE.
The Moods and Tenses,
Indie. Imper. Opt. Subj. InfiTi. Part
Present. rdnr-ofAtti, i
'OV 'Olfirjv -(Ufiat •sadai 'dfievog
Imperf. izvmdfirjv 5
Perfect. xhv7i-a i
-8 -Olfli 'CO -hat -hg
Pluperf.
1st. Aor. iTVl/jd/LtTJV Hyj-ai -ttifijjv -COfXCCl -aadon -djuevog
1st. Fut. riyj-ofiac -oifxrjv -sadat -dfievog
2d. Aor. hvndfXTjV rvn-ov -oifirjv 'COfiav -iadm '6fi6vog
2d. Fut. Tvn-ovfxai -oijUTjp -sladm 'OiiMSVog
Numbers and Persons,

The only Tenses differing from the Active and
Passive forms of verbs in ca, are the First Aorists
Indicative, Imperative, and Optative, and Second
Future Indicative,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
First Aorist, / struck myself.
S. irvifjdjiiyVy iTViparo,
D. irvi/jd/iedoVj hvifjaadov, iTvipdadrjVj
P. hvyj&fxsda, irvxpaads. irvipapTO.
Second Future, / shall strike myself.

S. xvTtovfiat^
D. Tvnoijiiedov, TvnslaOov, rvnelaOov,
P. TVTtovftsda, rvTtovvrai.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
First Aorist, strike thyself
s. TVipai, TVipdadci,
D. TVipaadoVy TvipdaOojVj
P. TvipaadSj rvip&adojaav.
OPTATIVE MOOD.
First Aorist, / might have been struck.
Tvipaio^ ivxpanOy
D. xvipttifiBdov TvipaiaOni^
P jvtpaifisdaf rvipaiorOsj
ir
118
Formation of the Tenses,
The Present and Imperfect

are the same as those of the Passive Voice.
-
The Perfect
isformed from the Second Aorist, by prefixing
the Reduphcation and changing ov into «, as
Obs. Hence Verbs which want the Second Aorist Active,

strictly speaking, have no Perfect Middle.
In Dissyllables, if the Second Aorist has a in

the penultima, from a Present in e or ei, the Per-
fect Middle changes it into o ; as nlixco, tjilayiov,
Tiinloxa ; oneiQoj, eanaqov, ionoqa. But if the
present be in r] or ai^ or have its penult long by
position, then the Perfect Middle changes cu, in
the penultima of the Second Aorist, into ^ ; as
'k't]^m, tlaôv, Itli^â ; cpalvoj, tcpavov, Tii(prjva ;
âXXo), tâXov, Tt^rfka ; xâf w, tKkayov^ TiixXrjya,
Except xpd^ft), MxQayov^ ttixgaya ; ngdaaco, Inquyov^ nenqaya ;
(pq&tfa^ iq>QadoVj necpqada.
If the Second Aorist has g in the penultima,

the Perfect Middle changes it into o ; as eleyov,
liXoya,
If the Second Aorist has i in the penultima,
from a Present in ei, the Perfect Middle changes
it into OL ; as eWo), Ydov, olda ; Tcelô), tniôv, nt-
Obs. 1. The verb sl'xo), makes ôixa; instead of which a
more Attic form was e?xa.

Obs. 2. êldu) makes didoixa, to avoid the frequent repetition
of d in the regular di$bida For the form didia, see irregular
119
verbs. similar change occurs in nino^cpa^ where the regu-

A
lar form ninofina.
is Some Grammarians, however, consider
Sedoixa to be for dideixa.
If L be already in the Present, it is merely made

long; as tqiôj, etqiyov, reTQlya; cpQiooo), tcpQlxov,
Observations on the Perfect Middle,
Obs, 1. Some verbs retain the diphthong of the Present,

thus iCBvda} makes xiasvOa and Jtixvdu (fsiya), nicpevya and ni-
;
(pvya. It is more correct, however, to consider nicpevya as the

perfect active, changed, on account of the number of aspirates,
from7r^g)et;/a, and to regard n^cpvya as the true perfect middle.
Obs. 2. After the Attic Reduplication the vowel is short-
ened, as (kxovoj^ dxrixoct iXsvdoi, ilrilvda.
;
Obs. 3. The Poets frequently make the penultima short,

particularly in the feminine of the participle, because the pro-
per form would be inadmissible in verse as jusfiaxvlai, II. <5',
;
435. from fis/uj]X(hg TedaXvia. II. /, 208, &:c. from x£6r}l6g ;

;
iBlaxvla^ Od. fi', 85. from XsXi^xibg, &c.

Obs. 4. The verb ^rjaaty makes s^Quya ; Utcoj, 'eoXnoc ^'^yw,
;
ôgya Mb), si'toda.

; In eI'djOu, the characteristic o in the perfect
middle is changed into w, perhaps for the sake of euphony, or
in order to give a tense which has the signification of the
present, the sense of duration by means of the form itself,
namely, ecoda, as the lonians and Dorians wrote it, lengthened
into Bi'todoc.
5. We call the Perfect Middle in this work by its old

Obs.
name, and have not adopted the new appellation, of 2d Per-
fect active, which the Grammarians of late have seen fit to
bestow upon it. The reasons for retaining the former name,
will be found at the beginning of the verb, in the Observations
on the Middle Voice.
The Pluperfect
isformed from the Perfect, by prefixing e and
changing a into eiv, as reTV7t-a, k%B'ui)7t-uv,
The First Aorist

is formed from the First Aorist Active, by adding
(AT^v, as tTViâ, itvijjdiirjv.
120
The First Future

is formed from the First Future Active, by chang-
ing (D into ofiai, as t-ui/z-w, Tiî/^-oâ^,
Obs. In the Fourth Conjugation w is changed into ov/lkxi, as

âAw, yjttlovfiai, having the circumflex accent. This form
comes from the old ipaXiaoâvj Ionic xpaXiofiat,, Attic ipaXovfxai.
The Second Aorist

isformed from the Second Aorist Active, by
changing v into larjv, as ttvno-v, iTVTi6-î]v,
The Second Future

isformed from the Second Future Active, by
changing a> into ovfiai, as rvit-co, %vjx-ovaai,
Obs. The Attics said edo/uai, nlo/nai ; instead of idov/nai
from edb), I eat, and / drink. But these are
niovfiai, from rrtVw,
more probably present tenses which were used in a future
sense, like ei/ni, I go, {am going), since the first syllable of
nloûi is usually long. Under this head may also be reckoned
qxiyo/iai, used by later writers.
General Observations on the Three Voices,

ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE.
Obs. 1 The third person plural of the Present, Future, and
.
Perfect, of the Indicative Active, instead of criv or cri', has in

the Doric dialect vn. This appears also to have been the
primitive form, and the t afterwards to have been changed into
c. Hence we have, by the rules of euphony, the long vowel
or diphthong before at in the common form ; thus,
Prest. Tvntovn, xvmovaiy xinxovat.
Fut. jvipovxi, xiipovai, rvipovai.
Perf. xETixpavxt, xexvcpavai^ xeTvq)âi.
The same remark will apply to the future form in w, and the
tenses of the Subjunctive ; thus,
Fut. jusvib), fisvw, (XBvhvxi, fisviovai, fispiovaif (levovab,
Subj. xinxoivxv, xvnxuvcrt, xinxoaav.
121
Obs. 2. From Obs. 1. the student will perceive the analogy

between the third person plural in ov of the imperfect and se-
cond aorist, and that in opxi of the present and future, and also
between the termination in «»' of the third person plural of the
first aorist and that in ccvxt of the perfect.
Obs. 3. The first person plural in /usv is converted in the
Doric dialect into fisg, as ximofiec, Xiyofisg, evdo/ueg, hvyjocfAeg.
Obs. 4. The second person in g was often lengthened in
the old language by the addition of the syllable da, which has
remained in the Êolic, Doric, Ionic, and, in some words, in
the Attic dialect thus, idsXriaOa, sl'nrâdcc, ttXaloioOn.
; In Attic
there particularly occur -âOoc for ^g, from el/ul ; IcprjoOa for
scprig, from (prj^l and especially dlada instead of which the
; ;
proper form 618 ag is very rarely found in the Attic writers.

Ohs. 5. The termination ov of the third person plural im-
perfect and second aorist, was in some of the common dialects
oauv, and remained also in the Alexandrian dialect, (as loxoi-
ôaav, Lycophr. 21.) particularly in the Greek Old Testament,
or Septuagint, and in the New
Testament. Thus we have,
in these last, such forms as ecpdyoaav, (^nr^Xdoaav, TTUQ-f^Woaav,
iX&§o<jav, fdoaav for eq}ayov, dinr^Xdov ^naqriWov , sXaôv, i'dov, &lc.
;
Obs. 6. Instead of the termination eiaav in the third person

plural of the pluperfect, the form saav is more common in
Ionic and Attic ; as dxrjxdsaavy iysyovsaaVj inenXsixsaav.
IMPERATIVE.
Obs. In the third person plural of the Imperative, in Ionic
and Attic, the termination ovTiuf is more usual than e'Twaay, as
naa/6vjb)v for naax^Twaav, Xeyoyrcap for Xeyiiojuav, The same
form was also used by the Dorians. Some Doric writers omit
the V in this form, as noiovvrca, dLnoaTeiX&PTa) hence the Im-
:
peratives in Latin, in the third person, amanto^ docento, audi-

unto, &c.
OPTATIVE.
Obs» 1. Instead of the Optative in oiî, there was also a
form olriv, olrjg, olrj, plural olrj/isp, oirjre, oirjoav, contracted, in
verbs in aw, into wj?*', cJvy?, g)?;, &c. which bears the name of
Attic. It is found chiefly, however, in the contract verbs ; as
cpiXolrjv, noiolrjp, tneqomLrjv, vixiarj, and hence also in the second
future ofbarytons; as (pavoiriv from cpaLpw,{ut. cpav^.

Obs- 2. Instead of the form cei/ni in the first Aorist of the
Optative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive JEolicformy sia,
staff, ete, after the example of the lonians and Dorians, but only
122
in tlie second and third persons singular, and third person plu'
ral. The iEolians use it also in the j^r*^.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Ohs. 1. The third person singular of the Subjunctive, in
Ionic, received the addition of the syllable a*, as Udiâi, kdSri-
QL qiiQriai, for eWy]^ 1<jc6tj^ cpegri.
Obs. 2. In the old poets, the subjunctive active, if the pe-

nultima be long, has, for the most part, in the first and second
persons plural the short vowel instead of the long one, as ^w-
Qi/lôfisv, 11. i?', 72. IqiôixEv, Od, 6, 297. dnoXvaofiep, II. x',
443, &LC. The student must not mistake any of these forms for
futures.
INFINITIVE.
Ohs. The infinitives
in biv and vat, in the ancient language
and in the dialects, had a form in (isv and fievai,. Assuming
the form (xevai, as the primitive one, we should, according to
analogy, proceed thus xvnxEfiBvui, by apocope, rvmifiev, by
;
syncope, ivmiev, by contraction, rvmsip. From tvnihv

comes also by contraction the Doric tvttxsv.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Obs. 1 . The original termination of the second person sin-
gular of the Passive Voice was eaat in the Present, Futures,
and Perfect of the Indicative eao in the Imperfect and Plu-
;
perfect of the Indicative and Present of the Imperative and ;
i]aat in the Present of the Subjunctive. The lonians dropped

the o, and accordingly converted scrat into sat, saw into eo, and
râai into rjai and the common dialect again contracted these
;
forms into ]? and ov, as follows

Ion. Com
Present Ind. x-vTtxsaav, rinxsat, Tvnxri.
Subj. xinxTjaaij xinxTjat, xvitxti.
Imperf. Ind. ixvnxiao, Exvnxeo, ixvnxov

Imp. xvTixiao), xvTtxio, Tvnxov.
To these may be added the coiTesponding parts of the Mid-

dle Voice and also the first aorist, as ixvipdao, ixvipdo, ixvi^co.
;
In the Optative, likewise, the same old form prevailed thus ;
from oiat was formed oco, which, as it does not admit of con
traction, remained the common form.
123
Ohs. 2. The primitive terminations in eaai^ sao, &c. very

probably continued in use in the less polished dialects as fa-
miliar colloquial forms. In the written language, however,
they were retained only in the following cases 1. In such
:
irregular futures as sdo/uai, nlofiat, cp&yoftai^ &c. thus iSiaaif

nlsaaij q)6iyBaai. 2. In some of the contracted verbs as dxô- ;
do/ittt, ctxôciecrar, contracted diyiqoaaav odvv&oâij ddvpuiaai,

;
contracted dSwaaav navxôixai,, xavxaiaat, contracted xau/a-

;
crai, &c. Many of these forms occur in the New Testament.

3. In the passive and middle voices of verbs in fit as, tara- ;
fiai, 2(TTaa(xi; lurufir^v^ tardao, &;c. though these verbs some-
times follow the forms in 4. In the perfect and pluperfect

-»?.
passive of all verbs, with the loss, however, of s as jiivipcct

;
for rstvniaai, izhvipo for iTBTvnsoo.

;
Obs. 3. The Attic form st for the second person is retain-

ed, in modern editions of ancient authors, only in the verbs
ôiXo/iitti, ol'ofiai, and the future of onjofxat, as, ôvXei, ol'si, oipei.
This renders it easy to distinguish these from the Subjunctive

forms, ôvXri^ oI'tj. An examination, however, of ancient manu-
scripts, renders it very certain, that, by Thucydides, Plato,
and the Dramatic writers, the form et was constantly used in
all verbs.
INDICATIVE.
Obs. 1. In the first person dual and plural, the Dorians and
the poets interpose a ff as rvmofxeadop, rvnTdîsada.
;
Obs. 2. In the third person plural of the perfect and pluper-

fect, the lonians and Dorians change the v before rat, and to
into a. This is likewise done in the third person plural of
the Optative. The following rules, in general, regulate this
change.
1 If the third person singular of the perfect and pluper-
fect end in rai or to pure, then, in the third person plural, the
syllable preceding the inserted « is made short, as saxat for
^vTcxi; nBcpiXiajav for necpiXrjvjat ; iaro for t^vto ; 7tsg)ikiaio for
TteqplXrjvxo,
2. If rat, be impure, then the preceding lenis becomes an

aspirate, and if there be a cr, it is changed into d or 6-, as t^-
Xilsxazat for XeXeyfîvovelal; nenXrj-
rvq)arai,{oT TBTV/itfiivoi, slai ;
datat for nenXrjafiivoi slot tTexdjâro for rerayjuevoi âav.

;
3. But the Optative retains its diphthong before a, as ysvoi-

&T0 for yivoivTO ximoiaio for rvmoivro.
;
Obs. In like manner v is sometimes omitted in the third

3.
person plural of the present and imperfect indicative passive
124
and middle, and also in that of the present and aorists of the
Optative.
IMPERATIVE.
Obs. Instead of the termination ojaav in the third person
plural of the imperative, the form av is very much used in
Ionic, Doric, and particularly Attic ; as hniaduv for kniodojaav ;
XTBiviaduv for xisiviadcoaav, Slc.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Obs. The perfect of the Subjunctive, when the perfect In-
dicative ends in fiav pure, as /nsfivM/nai, nsq)da)fiai, is said sel-
dom to occur, and the circumlocution to be more common, as
neq>iXT]/Liivog S, (fee.
OPTATIVE.
Obs. In the Optative aorists, the Attics commonly have in
the plural the form elfisv^ sits, elsv. The prose writers in the
same dialect always have sIbv in the third person plural. This
form is used also by Homer, as TtsQirjdeljuev, Od. n\ 305. dia-
xgivOelte, II. y 192, &c.
,
INFINITIVE.
Obs. The infinitive of the aorist has, in Doric, the termina-
tion rmep for 7\vai^ as Xaadri/nsv for laadrivoti ; diayqidrifiBV for
diaxQidr[V(m\ dcnOTganri/Lisv {or dTTOiQocnriPai', and sometimes also
'^fisvai, as cpavi'i/îevat for (pavrivat ; &Qi,6f4,7]di\fi6vav for dcQidfirÔri-
vat ; dvaSiêvai for diva6r[vai.
DEPONENT VERBS.
The Deponent Verbs are to be distinguished from the Mid-
dle, since they have the form of Passives, but the sense of
Actives, as, aladdro/Liai, Sixo/aai, ylvo/uai, diofiat^ divafxai, &LC.
Some of these, in the Perfect and Aorist, have the form of
the Passive, others of the Middle in others, one of the tenses
;
has the Passive, the other the Middle form, as alod&vofiai^

yjodtj/iiaij rjâdofXTiv ; dixofât, dedsyfiat, ids^dfirjv ;
ylvofiai,, yByi-
vijfiai and yiyovtt, iyBvd/LtTjv; igydtô/uai, BYgyctafxctt, Blqyaa&fitjv ;
^QXO/iiat ^XdoVj dXi^lvda ; -fiyio/iai, riyrjjuai, ^yrjaa/nrjv ;

fiaivofiav^
fid/ofioct, fiBfi&xrjfiai,, if4axBadfiT]v.

fiBfi-qva, ifidvTjV ;
A deponent
of this kind seldom has a perfect of the active form, as oi'xofiut,
oVxtoita.
125
The following is a Synopsis of their form :
Indie. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part.

Present.
•ol^rjv -Budai -ouevog
Imp erf. idex^firjv )
Perfect. yftipog -yfdvog
dide-ô 'YfiBvog
Pluperf. idsdiyûrjv
P. p. Fut. -OlflTjV -BodlXt, -ofisvog
1 Aor. M. '^fiav -ttfisvog
1 Fut. M. -OlflTJV -sadai -oiisvog
A few of these Verbs have a Second Aorist Middle ; as

nvpd'jcvo/iiai, invdofiTjv.
Perhaps it would be more analogical to consider th-em as

Defective Verbs, whose Active is Obsolete, and which want
some of the Passive and Middle Tenses.
Co7itracted Verbs,
Verbs in aw, eco, and oco, are contracted in the

Present and Imperfect Tenses,
Verbs in ao) contract aoj, ao, and aov into w, as
Ttadw, TiuQ), to honour; tLiidoiJEV, Tiij^cbaEv; t^/x-
dovoi, tt^MOv : —
else into cc, as Tifiae, %iâ u is :
subscribed, as Tifidoiî, TiiA^mind. ; Tifidecg, tifiag

&c.
Verbs in sw contract eg into el, and eo into ov,
as cpikee, cplXei
; else they
(pLltoêv, cpilovfiev ; —
drop £, as (piXto), cpiXco, to love; (piXeug, cpiXug.
Verbs in ovj contract o before a long vowel
into w, as x{)vo6oj, xqvaih, to gild; ^before a short —
vowel or ov, into ov, as x^vaoeuB, XQvoovre ; XQv-
GQovOL,XQvaovai: —
otherwise into ot, as XQva6rjq,
XQvoolq, In the Infin* oeiv is contracted into ovv.
12
126
^ ;^
d a
•a o o
^
;^ aT
«3 'g O o
S uo §
3 3* a*
^»
o
~«> -o (Q
u H
"-J
(d
?-•
<a a o
3h to
H
^ jg O
^
.
»» en (0
*i3 no o . -« -to -o
=3
P^
PL,
Q
O ;^ .3 '§ '§ *3 «j O
O =1.
•3 o o i-2^§'
•
-i^^ ;^
fl)
02 .
H
3 f>
-« "S
H W o
2 ' ^ <
§
Q 03
»« >s '§ P4
C3
CO
w Q -» '=*
fa Ps
o ,>.
i^î »-^
Oh
o
> i^'^-s
*a o
«a S o
*3- '5
H
O ^•> «
(u
^
*« -to -o
^ ^ =: 3
o> »3 w o
f"^
««- (0 o
bo
if oT o?
bo
^3 ~w -o a .
—
,
bo
c _î- »3 o
W i3 '3 «3
Sk
P
3
*« "^
3^ to
<s
C5
f to
:$- 4
* O" ><
t»
'S»
b.
'M>
N
"W
, , ,
rH ci CO p-l <N CO r-H ci ei
127
,^ t* t*
S 8
J3 «3 J3
•3.'S 'S
1
»3
'^
o o
«
4'-i-i 1 '^ tA JJ
^
a
S CO CO
, â -2 -S
*3- '5 'S

S
J8 i?r«3
1 ^^^
/
o o o s S" s;? s?
.2 «» jp
»3 o o
*a -to -^ -ij -S -o a
-a
t ^^^
^ ft-
b b b
a-
-1 O S 3
g o
;k ^ o
CO A 03 'C >S -o
i3 «3 «3
O
«3-'S'S Ol o»
P o
<J. o
H to
CO ^ S. S
I4"4 -i-i'-l .3 'g 'g
:^
0}
ce t«
~
o,
.^
g
1
55-
;>
S
H
> 1—
H I-H
CO
13 1
O 2
S3
P >8 Jfr<3
o
»— ^
^ •
Eh *3
-^
o o
;^
s ^-i-i ^ -to P^
ft-
*« -S -o
ft-
48« < a>
la Ph
I?
c4
3>'S '5
<8- »Pt o
til
o" sT s
^>S-§ 8 8
«
•T^-^- b '3
S ,§
,§ '^
. J3 o o
tf, fjt
,if (^ »<»
^j> p^
*s-
^
•t-^
3- o o 2-
a'â-b
*^.^-'S b b g
if oT o^
^2 -« o
o -©
, ^ ftT o ^ -? b
bo
i»
Mi- •1
4
^
H-
H 8» Ni
1 •A
^ ^ ;^
'3' '5 'S W »3 «3 »3 r—
'3 (3 J3
•-T ^- S-
i-H J-ff 1^ -co b

i-^8- t 4.-^ t 2-4
e 8.
t
N
H N: ? S- 3S
.-H ci CO r-^ d CO r-4 ci CO

128
A.
;^ ;^
<* »3 o o
»y o o
» sT aT
^ Oi o
;;« •^
-i! ~co ND
-« '2 ^
«3
CO <3^
«I^ to
b
»a
»a w o
10 o
ctT (0
^^ ^3 'to -o
Q •i
C ^8
O <:C>
«
«o
5L
»3 o o
>
O
1—1
S5-
Q to
o
<ii ,
<3S
to Eh
to
H
O *« '5 '§
o w ^'^^^§ G
13 < O
o •-J ^ -« -o P4
P5
;>
Ph <3S
P-.
:i.
§
)— .„
to
i-» »»
Q CL, •3
"^S
o o
*s> *0 MJ O
G
*C -^ O
<a
8. '5 '§
s' -«
•« *o 1
t^\f ?5 JP
«» % -§
»3 o o
J« J^Jo
sT sT sT "S^'Sf'S
o
ho î 'to -o be
tic ,#^f-f- C ,s
•a m ;^
S"
2L lO '= '=*
23 «d
»3 c o
.3 '§ '§ »3 O o
-o
«§ff ô "^ »b? III"

r<
i o
111 H y. N
•xo
.
1— N CO
, ,
Hi
r-< C^ CO -< N 00
129
$k ^ ;^
(3 <3 <3
aT C C
^J
<3S
b (0
<3* o o Ik
^ "t o
Ik
E la IP-J3
s? s? s?
*0 >m *0
-«
a aL
«;§
13- o o
S
5S-
o o o
a « o
^
R- e 40 o ?l!
<& §..11-
b w "3o o
-3- '5 o ;^
>A s
•N •>
to
fin
G
w / 8 -S O Q CD o o 5
¥- ;^
w A,
2
H • b
!>
to
< PL, a to to
> »3- 'S 'S P^

O
< -3
"^ ^'-r^r r4 « fO
5
Ph Q
O
V2
13- o © «3 -3 -3
» n •<
"3-3 3
a S o a S -o
o
H
3- '5 '5
a
IB JS:-'3 > ^
III
1
.§ '§
*:^ <r •»*
H aa>
1—4
<«
a -S -o S^5^ S^
-a >« -o 03
o
»3- '5 o
•a* •* **
Ph -a -iS b
two ^ -v5 -o ho ^--r^- i4©• S,
« S Ne
CZ2 02
I r^NCO
«3-o o iS '3 (3
r>i
§ 3
(N CO 1-1 (M CO
12*
130
Remarks on the Contract Verbs.
Obs. 1 The uncontracted or original form of these verbs is,

.
as far as relates to verbs in €w, peculiar to the Ionic dialect.

In the other verbs it is wholly disused, with the exception of
a few poetical forms in (iw.
Obs. 2. In verbs in dw, the ôlians pronounced separately
the V subscribed in the second and third persons singular of
the Present Indicative, as -nfi&ig for riîag yBliCCg for ytlag ; ;
Tt^di for Tiâ ;

ye'KaC for yeXa.
Obs. 3. Verbs in aw often change « into e in the Ionic dia-
lect, as o^t'w, OQeofiEV, for o^dw, OQiko/uev ;
xQisiai for xQOnai, &c.
Obs. 4. The Doric dialect, which elsewhere invariably
adopts a for ??, departs from this usage in the case of Con-
tract Verbs, and makes use of i? without the t subscribed in
the place of all contractions in aei, and ee^, as oqr^v for oqav ;
ToX^^rs for TokfiuTs xoafii^v for xoofislv.

; This species of con-
traction finds its way also into the Attic dialect, but in general
only in the following verbs, C«w, nsivdM, dtifi&co, xor\adai. Thus,
for example, ^(iw, ^rj?, îj, ^rjra, &lc. imperf. e^wv, l'^?;?, e^?/, &c.
infin. ^Tjy.
The Doric and Ionic dialects use for eov in the
05^. 5.
firstperson singular, and third person plural, of the imperfect,
the form bw. The Dorians use this kind of contraction also
in verbs in (iw, which, however, were formed in ^w, as d^wqih^
iBW from 6iveQb)ii(xi, just as they said 6.yani(a for ayan6.{t).
ACTIVE VOICE.
IMPERATIVE.
ObS' The remark maderespecting the form ovtbiv for btm-
aav, in the third person plural of the Imperative of barytone
verbs will apply also to contract verbs ; as xotvtovoiPKot' for
MoiP(»vslT(aaav.
OPTATIVE.
Obs. 1 The Optative in ot/jt, particularly in the contract
.
verbs, has also in Attic the termination oItjv or W7]v ; as (pdolrjv^

Tififhrjv ; the third person plural is, as in the common form gpt-
loisvy xifi^Bv. The Attics, however, often use the common

form o/^t, q>/ft, for (>/'?»', (^rjv.
Obs. 2. This form olriv is found also in Ionic and Doric

writers. And, as verbs in &oi were, by the lonians, conju-
gated in ibij we find in their writers dianTjdolrjj iQUTolr], for
131
INFINITIVE.
Ohs. The 1. ^jv for aetv, eety, has been already
Doric form
noticed. The ôlians had a peculiar form for the Infinitive
of contract verbs, in which form the final v was changed into
g, and the improper diphthongs ]^, qc, into the proper «t, and
also oei into oi, ; thus yelalg, nBivaXg, -iiipoXg, dgdolg, for yeXuv,
neivrî'j -dxpovv^ d^dovv.
Obs. 2. The Dorians changed the contracted Infinitive ovv

into in verbs in 6w; as 8i,8^v for 8idovv^
wi', (i. e. dkdovai,) giy5)v
for QtyovVj &c.
PARTICIPLES.
Obs. In the Participle, the Dorians said evaa for iovaa and
&ovaa. The lonians used this form in verbs in e'w, as -d^vsv-
aai for -fifivovaui. The form «o was contracted by the Dorians
into a, as neipavTi for nelvuovTt. The iEolians formed the
terminations of the Participles ending in to*', in elg, because
they formed the verbs in c'w, dco, in rjfn ; thus, ogelg, aioixslg,
from oiirjfxi, axolx^fii.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Obs. 1. The lonians and Dorians lengthen all circumflex
terminations by the insertion of another vowel, whether the
termination be contracted or not thus, 1. In contracted ter-
;
minations, the long vowel which arises from the contraction

is extended by the repetition of itself, or of the short vowel
as oQacig for oQcig eucf for ia
; ogob) for o^w
; ô6(oav for §owai.
;
2. Without the contraction, as ^/"^rJTj for i/u6^ ;

(jotji^ for g)Tj.
The Ionic prose writers only prefix an s to the circumflexed

termination, as diacpvyieiv for diacpvyelv.
Obs. 2. As the lonians form the second person of the com-
mon conjugation in sat and bo, the verbs in ew are subject to a
multiplication of vowels, as notieai^ enaivisai, &c. which, how-
ever, in the case of iso is remedied by an elision of the e, as
inoUo.
VERBS IN MI.
1. of Verbs in ^v in the Attic and in the com-
The number
mon dialect is very small, and in these few there are only
some which have in the greater part of their tenses a form
peculiar to themselves, and different from the conjugation in
w, and which accord with each other in the formation and
132
termination of their tenses ; as rldTjfn, Irjî, 2(rrrjfii, dldufu,
Others again have a peculiar inflexion, in many points differ-
ing from the conjugation of the verbs in the examples ; as
Blfil, I am; sifii, I go ; and others again, as well as all verbs
in u/4^, occur only in the present and imperfect, deriving the

rest of their tenses from the radical form in -vta.
2. These verbs were chiefly used in the iEolo-Doric dia-
lect, and, in the writers of that dialect, verbs very frequently
occur in the form fii, which are otherwise in iw and dw ; as
vLxrjfn for rtJfdw ; oqt^^v for dqAoi ; XQ^f^'' for XQ^^ \ ovrjfii, for
dvioi) ; (piXrjfxv for cpiHoi, Sic.
3. Verbs in ixt, therefore, are properly of ^ôlic origin, or
rather, they existed already in the old Greek language which
was used by Homer and Hesiod, and in which the dialects
were as yet mingled together. The Ionic and Attic dialects,
which first assumed a determinate form, retained some of these
verbs in /ut. The jEolians, however, who retained the most
of the ancient language, made the greatest use of them.
4. Notwithstanding this antiquity, however, these verbs
appear to have come from older forms in d:w, e'w, 6w partly ;
because their futures, and sometimes also their perfects and

aorists, are regularly derived from such verbs, and partly be-
cause they always have a determined relation to such verbs.
Formation of Verbs in Ml.
Verbs in iii are formed from Verbs of the

Third Conjugation in aw, ew, 6co, and vo),
1. By prefixing the Reduplication with X,
2. By changing co into ^l.

3. By lengthening the Penultima.
Exception 1st. In prefixing the Reduplication, if the verb
begin with an aspirated consonant, the corresponding smooth
mute must be employed in its place.
Exception 2nd. If the verb begins with a vowel, or with
7tT, or ar, then t alone is prefixed with the rough breathing
this is called the Improper Reduplication.

Exception 3d. Verbs in vfit have no Reduplication nor ;
have those verbs in //t any, which are formed from trisyllables,
as iCQBfxp&u, xQifivTjfii; the following verb also wants the Re
duplication, viz. (joîut from (p<i<a ;
133
Thus; from aTcco) is formed tarrjfiL, to standi

from ^ko ti^tjilil, to place,
from doo) dldcDî, to give,
from deixvvcj deixwî, to sJieip,
from £Co Irini, to send,
from nxao) Intrnii, to Jly,
Ohs. 1.In the formation of taTjy^t, Irjtn, and ^TtTT^/ji, the se-
•
cond Exception operates in forming ildTût, the first Excep-

:
tion takes effect, since Tl6f]/iic is for didrjjxi in forming dldoj/iti,

:
the regular Rule No. 1. is applied ; and lastly, in forming

delxvvfii, we are governed by the third Exception.
Obs. 2. The most striking difference between verbs in ^*
and verbs in w, is in the 1st. and 3d. persons singular, present
Indicative, and the 2d. person singular of the Imperative.
Verbs in jj^l have only three Tenses of that

form the Present, Imperfect, and Second Aor-
:
ist. They take the other Tenses generally from

verbs in cu ; thus didcJiiL makes d(oaa), dtdcoxa,
from doio.
Verbs in /xt have no 2d. Future, 2d. Aorist Pas-
sive, nor Perfect Middle.
Verbs in vjil, besides having no Reduplication,
want the Second Aorist, and the Optative and
Subjunctive Moods. They borrow the two last
from Verbs in t;w.
ACTIVE VOICE.
-w -6tvav
ild-rjfit -BTt 'SLrjV -0) -evav -hg
Present.
dld.wfii -Olrjv
dslnv-v^t -vdt -ivat -^5
icrrrjv "\
hidrjv
Imperf. > the rest like the Present.
idldcoy
tdelxvvv )
134
saiTjv aT-ildt (TtalTjV orrw arrival arCig
2d. Aor,
{ Wriv
18 (av
dig
dbg
Oeirjv
doirjv
6(b
dS)
Sslvai
dovvai
delg
dovg
The other Tenses are regularly formed from

Verbs in o) : thus,
. . . . -Olfill .... 'BIV -utv
. . . . -Olfil, .... -SIV -biv

1st. Fut.
d(iiig-(a . . . . -Olfll .... -SIV -(OV
. . . . -Olfll, .... -SIV -OiV
EdxrfUa aiT]a-op -aiub -w -at

.""!
Wrjxa
1st. Aor.
SbI^'Op -ttt/XC -01 -Ul> -aff
^ satTjx-a -s -OlfXi -w 1
-ivai -^g
1 tideix-u '6 -OlfiV -w -ivai -(og
Perf.
\ didcax-a -s -Olfil -0) -ivat -0)?
^ dedsix-ot -s -Ol^l -w -ivai -ios
Plup.
iax'^xfitv or Blaffi^Biv ^ iTBOslxetv^ idsdc&icBiVj idcdBlxsiv

Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
iar-Tjfiij rjg, riai, atov, aTOV, dcfisv, axe, 5(7*,
rld-rjî, rig, riai. BTOV, BTOV, BfiSV, BXB, Biai,

dld-u/iii, (US, biat, OTOV, OlOV, ofiBV, oxs, ovaif
dslxv-vfii, vg, Cfft, VTOV, VTOV, ij/uBV, vxBf vai.
Imperfect.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
iaj-rjv, rjg, V^ dxov, ariyv, afiev, axB, aarav,
hid-rjv, rig, V, BTOV, ivTlVj BfiBV, BXB, Baav,
idld-o)v, {«?, to, OTOV, 6xriv, OfXBv, oxB, oaav,
idelxv-vvy vg. V, \Jtov, ixriv. vfiBV, vxs, vaav.
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
MaT-i]V, rig. V, rixov, 'f^xriv. rifiBv, rixB, riaav.
%e-riv, rig, V, Bxov, ixTiv, BfiBVy BXB, Baav^

Md-av^ wg, <w, OTOV, 6XJ]V, ofxBVf OXB, oaav.
135
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
rldB'ji, r
^'"^
TOy, TCtfV, xe, raauv.
dldo^dc r
Second Aorist,
Sing. Dual. Plur.
GTTlTOVj axrJTWV, ax^xe, orxtjxwaay,
dirSf dhaaaVy
ddiSy ddiiaaav.
V ^ OPTATIVE MOOD.
% Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
lUTtti-1]Vf \
r/TOV, ^Tjyv,
rjfiBV, riTB, jjaaVj and
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
6ei-rjv, \
rjfiBVj ijTSj jycray, and
Tig, 17,
BV
su bjunctîVe mood.
'- -Presents ••-*
-:;:—îng..\ .^.^-^.^DuaJ.'^^ \ Plur.
^
,
l-Wt^^-.r/xoy,
\(oroi',Vo}xo>',
sAond Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
ax5, axij?, crxrj, ffXTJXOV, (TX^XOV, ffxS(U6V, crxljxe, axuc*,
BriroPj OriroVj OwfjBv, ^rjxe, ^wa»,
dmoVf dmov, d5)fiBVy dmSf d&at.
136
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present.
iax&vai,. Tidevai. didovai. dsmvivat.
Second Aorist.
at'^vai. SêVvat, dovvat.
PARTICIPLES.
Present. Second Aorist.
lai-d?, aaUf dv. ar&g, at&aoc^ ax&v
Tid-slg, etaa, iv. ^slg, SêlaOf mv.
did-ovg, ovaa 6v. doig. dovaoiy d6v
deim'-itg, vaccy iv.
: FORMATION OF THE TENSES.

The Imperfect
isformed from the Present by prefixing the Aug-
ment and chn.nging ^li into r, as ^cl^rjî, ixi^rjv.
The Second Aorist

is formed from the Imperfect by dropping the
RedupUcation and receiving, in place of the re-
maining initial vowel, the Syllabic Augment, as
iTi^TjV, Myjv ; ididcjv, tdcjv.
Verb has no Reduplication, the Second
If the
Aorist is the same in form with the Imperfect.
^--PASSIVE VOICE.
The Meods andwTenges*
Indie. Imp. Opt. Subj/i» Inf. Part.
aao -alfiijp I
f(b/nS^ '"ôdai -dfxei'og
-EGO 'Blfirjv ^-wîyfi V-cagiat -ifiEvog

Present 'OOO -otjLiyv -oaOai -6fABvog
8l8-ofiav f-(bfi(xi,
delxv-vfiai -vuo -vodai -ifisvog
iTl6efl7]V
Imperf. the rest like the Present.
ididdfirjv
id6i}tv{)fii]v
137
Tenses formed from Verbs in a>.
Ind. Imp. Opt. Subj. Inf. Part.

'Ocao -alfiTjv -(bfiai -aadm tt/iivos
1 rid-Bifiai -siao -Blfirjv -tbfzat -sXadoct BlflBVOg

Perfect.
<^^,^_^^^^
\ did-ofiav 'Ocro -ol^rjv -ibfiai -oudat -ofiivog
\ did-8iy(xai> -Blxdat -BiyfAhog
ijsdelfiTjv
Plup.
ideddfiTjv
r earda-ofiai .... -oifiijv ... -Bodav 'djUBVOi

P. p. F. < TsOsLa-ofiav .... -OlflTjV . . . •8adai> -dfiBvog
\ dedoa-o/iac .... -OlflTJV -Bodai -dfisvog
GT&d-rixi -BlTjV -5 •rival •Bli

ixidrjv xid-rjTi -bLtjv -w -rival -Big
1st. Aor.
mdrjv ddd-TJXl, -bItjv -5 -r\vai> -Bis
idslxdtjv dsiyd-vvai -Big
axadT\a-Ofiav OlflTJV 'Sadat -6/ilBVOS

•OlHTJV -Badat -dfiBvog
1st. Fut.
8odif[(j-oiiat OtfXTJV 'Bodab -6(iBvog
dstxdTâ-ofiai "BaOai -ofiBvog

INDICATIVE MOOD
Present.
Dual. Plur.
i'axa-
xldB-
[abOov, a6oP, udoVj fiBdUf aOs^ vxai,
deiicvV'
Imperfect.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
lax&- '
ixidi-
(jlbOov^ adov, adtjVj fisdttf adSf vxo.
idsixvi'
13
138
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
aOj ad(Ot adoVj aBatv^ oOb, adwcrav
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
laial-
i ftJJV, 0, TO, fzedoVf aOov, adrjv^ fiedoc, adsf VTO
didol-
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
6(xedov^ riaOov^ riadov,

(bfiedov, (badov, (badoVj (btiedix, aadsj (bvxai,.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE
Present. Present.
IcTTd/^sv-og,
ridBodai. TidBfiev-og^
v,oy.
dido ada I. dtd6/nEv-og,
deLxvvadai. deixvvfJLBv-og,
* FORMATION OF THE TENSES. ^

The Present
is formed from the Present Active, by shorten-
ing the penultima, and changing fiL into fiai, as
The Imperfect
isformed from the Present, by prefixing the Aug-
ment, and changing î into ^t^v, as riêfiatj ixi-
139
MIDDLE VOICE.
The Present and Imperfect are the same as in
the Passive.
The Second Aorist.
Indie. Imp. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part.
araao aral^Tjv arwfiai ax&adat atdfisvog
idifiijv &iao
S-iao d-
xêl/iijv
6 1fir])/ S^wfiav
S'Wfiat '&iadat &ifisvog
ddao dolfitjv dlbfiai
dibfiai doaOat ddfisvog
Tenses formed from Verbs in w.

eaxTjadfirjv axria-av -(xlfxriv 'OiflCCt -aadat 'dftevog
iOriK&firjV
1st. Aor.
del^-ai, -alfij]V '(Ofxai, -aaOai -dfisvos
aTTâ-Oftat
&'/ia-ofiat * * * *
1st. Fut. > -olfirjv -sadai, 'dftevog
d(ba'0fxai,
del^-ofiai. . . . .3

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
i fij]v, ao, TO, fj-eOoVj aOov, adrjv. fieOa, ade, vjo.

idd.
IMPERATIVE MOO D.
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
at6i-
> ao, add, aOov, aOoiv, ads, adaaav
66-
OPTATIVE MOOD .
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
ataC-
y flTlV^ 0, TO, fiBdov^ oOov, aOrjVf ftsdoi, ads, vto.
$ol-
140
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Second Aorist.
Sing.^ Dual. Plur.
Gt-Wfiaij rl, ^Ta^J (hfisdov, riadav, riodov,
riadoVj Tiadov, (afieduj riaOsj wyra*
6/ilB6oVj (badoVj wadoPj ibfisdoi, wads J (b}>Tai
INFINITIVE MOOD PARTICIPLE.

Second Aorist. Second Aorist.
ax^Ladai. axd- '\
S-iadat. -d-i- yfXBvog, fiivT], fisvov.

doodca. dd- }
The Second Aorist Middle

isformed from the Imperfect, by dropping the
RedupHcation, as in the Second Aorist Active;
as ii;L^tfii]V, iMfirjV ; iO'vdjjirjv, ioua^riv.
Special Remark respecting the Verb 'lo^rnii.
The Perfect^ Pluperfect^ and Second Aorist^ Ac-

tive^ of LOTrjfj.i, have an intransitive, the rest of
the tenses a transitive, signification. The Per-
fect has also the signification of a present, aris-
ing from its continued meaning, and the Pluper-
fect the signification of an Imperfect Thus, la- :
trjiii, I place; lOTrjv, I was placing ; tOTrjica, 1

have placed myself and continue placed, i. e. 1
stand ; eIottikuv, I had placed myself and con--
tinued placed, i. e. / was standing ; eO'crjv, 1
stood, —
The 1st. Aorist, eOTrjaa, denotes merely
I placed.
General Remarks on Verbs in ui.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE.
Ohs. 1 . The Ionic and Doric dialects often use the forms
in i(Of dw, 6w, in the Present and Imperfect Singular, with the
c^
141
Reduplication, as ndsTg, dtdoTg, idldovg ; whether the contracted
form in the present was used by the Attics also is a matter of
dispute.
Obs. 2. In the third person plural Present Indicative, a»
appears to have come from n, in conformity with what was
stated under the Barytone Verbs. The old termination in rt,
underwent in each case one of two changes: 1. either the
short vowel was lengthened after rejecting v before xt, so that
s became et, o became ov, and a and were changed into 5
and 0; as TidivTi,ridivai, tidsXat'; didovxi^ did6vai,didovat -^ ia-
rccvxi,, LffTavai, lajoLat ; t^svyvTuvzi^ lêvyvvvat^ l^BvyvZai'
or else, 2. ;
the V before the termination was changed, in the Ionic man-

ner, into a, as ridiaat, di86aav, t^Bvyviaai. The form in «a*
is called the Ionic, though often used by the Attics.
Ohs. 3. In 2arTjjui, the Perfect ean^xa is most approved; the
form ecnccxa, which is given in the common grammars, is
chiefly found in later writers only, and in a transitive sense.
The Doric form eaxaxa with a long, is distinct, however, from
this.
Obs. 4. Instead of iaiTjua the form lara, contracted by syn-
cope, is more used ; as EaTa/usv for eati^xajusv ; euTonB for la-
iT^xajSy Slc. Hence the Participle kat(bg for kan^xcag. In
striking out the x from hatrijca, the form suTâ remains ; the
rj is then changed into «, as hax&a, which is farther contracted
into the form lara. In the Participle ânjxwg, the rj remains

unchanged into a, and a contraction into (ng immediately takes
place.
Obs. 5. Some irregularities occur in the formation of the
Perfect of these Verbs. Thus, Verbs in (ii, derived from ^«,
change rj in the penultima of the Perfect into si, as Oâoi, re*
dsixtt. This change of ^ into si, was originally peculiar to the
BoBotians, a branch of the iEolians, but was afterwards retained
in the other dialects, vid, remarks on the verb slfil, to be.
Obs. 6. The First Aorist, in most of these verbs, differs
essentially from the formation of that tense in Verbs in w.
For, instead of retaining the a of the future, the Verbs in fit
generally change it into x, as Oriao), eOrjxa ; âw, i]xa ; dwaca^
M8a)xa. Perhaps these forms in oe were originally Perfects,
but were afterwards used as Aorists, when a peculiar form
was introduced for the Perfect. The forms also of the Aorists
in ««, have not the rest of the Moods, nor the Participles.
Obs. 7. The First Aorist in xa, occurs in good authors only
in the singular number, and third person plural. In the rest
of the persons the Second Aorist is more used, which again
hardly ever occurs in the singular.
13*
142
Obs. 8. The Second Aorist retains the long vowel in the
penultima of the Dual and Plural, except in Tldrj/ui, dtdcofii, and
?J7/ut. The third person plural is often syncopated, as Wav for
Mijaav %dev for Wsaav.
;
IMPERATIVE.
Ols. 1 In the second person of the Present Imperative,
.
the contracted form is very frequent in rlOt/fit, %r}}j.i, and 8Ldwfii^

as rldei^ lei, dldov. For i'uxadi we find more commonly 2ari^.
Obs. 2. In the Second Aorist, the second person is always
dig, dog, not 6iri, dodi. In Compound Verbs, the termination
f^ta is frequently, found for fJ^rl^^, as dvaara for dcvaoT-i^di; na-
pdffza for naQaaxridt.
Obs. 3. The third person plural of the Present and Second
Aorist ends, as in Verbs in a>, frequently in evtuv for jcaaav ;
as nagadivTOJV for nagadhcaaav.
OPTATIVE.
Obs. The
Optative Present and Second Aorist have in the
plural, in the Poets as well as prose vriters, more commonly
6ifi6v, enSj eiBV ; aifisv^ atie, aiev qijxbv, one, oisv.
;
PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES.

Obs. In the second person singular of the Present in the
Passive and Middle, the Ionic dialect drops the a, and the
Attic contracts that resolution, as laTuaaif Ionic i'ataat, Attic
laxf^ ; Wsaoj Ion. Weo, Att. Wov
INDICATIVE.
ObS' The First Aorist Middle of tLdrjixv and dldufiai, want
the rest of the Moods and Participles.
IMPERATIVE.
Obs. The Imperative dov, for diao 6eo, occurs only in the
compounds, as nsgldov, inodov, naQ&dov. In laTu/uai, lUTCt) is
more common than laiaao. The Second Aorist Imperative
and Optative Middle of I'ortrjfii', namely, aidao and OTal/nTjf, are
given in the conjugation of that Verb merely to show the
analogy. They are seldom used.
OPTATIVE.
Obs. Passive, and Second Aorist Middle of
The Present
this Mood, have frequently the form of the Optative of a Ba-
rytone Verb in w, as xldokio^ imOolfxeda, ngduOono, &c.
143
IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN ^v
may be divided into Three Classes, each con-

taining three Verbs.
I. From €0) are derived et^t, to he ; uîv and
Xriai^ to go,
II. From m are derived tT^m, to send ; r]aat,
to sit; eluaL, to clothe one^s self.
III. Keluac, to lie down; torjai, to know ; (pTJlJî^^
to say.
CLASS L
1. ECî, to be,
has been before conjugated, as it is used in some

of its tenses as an auxiliary to the PgAsi¥e Voice
of Verbs in co. jf^f^t **'- ^^%^
2. Eliii, to gL /•/
^-
INDICATIVE M<k>D,^^^^f'*i/
Present. X.,,^'
Sing. Dual. Plur.
Bifiij Eig or Bi, elotj j
hop, hop, |
I'fisVjhs, slatji'ai-oTfocai.
Imperfect.
siVj eig, eij |
hov, htjv, |
tjuey, ns, laav.
Pluperfect.
Second Aorist.
foy, I'eg, t'e,
I
I'sTOv, ierrjv, \ lofisv, lers, hv.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
i'di,or 6ij I'rw,
I
I'lopj hcop,
I
he, nooaav.
Second Aorist.
Iff, lim, j
i'stov, iimvj |
tsjs, ihaaav.
144
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
?ot^t, i'oig^ I'otj j
tonovj lomjVy [ i'oifiBV, i'one, loisv.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Second Aorist.
iiy, i'rigj i'l^,
j
i'rjtov, I'tjioVj j
Kw«er, i'rjxBy i'uai.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE
Present. Second Aorist
etvat or i'evaij iwi', lovaocj idv.
j
MIDDLE VOICE
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Perfect.
eta, slag, ele, I iiaxov, kiarov, j
ilafisv, ilaxs, elaat,
Attic ?}Va and Ja, <fec. j |
Pluperfect.
rênoi', T^siji]i
or '^/Mfiy, i^re, âav.
First Future. First Aorist.

Eiaofiat, sia&fifjv.
[
Remarks on ElfiL, to go,
Ohs. \. The Verb eF/^t in the Present has regularly the sig-
nification of the Future, both in the Ionic and Attic writers,
especially in the latter, as elî xal dyyeXib, Eurip. / will go and
announce teat, tnixî^Qôofiev, Dem. we will go and endea-
; Hfiev
vour. We
have in English an usage precisely analogous, in
the verb " to go" Thus we say, ^^ I am going to run," " / am
going to do it." A colloquial and vulgar barbarism renders
this still more apparent, viz. " / am going to go." In Homer
also we have forms of expression precisely analogous, as (?»)
d* i'spai, literally ^^ he went to go;" (?^ 8e Oesiv, ''he went to
run.'" In these, however, the future force is obscured by the
145
use of the imperfect, since the true force of the phrase is that,
he was going to go while some other action was at the same
time pending.
Obs. 2. In the second person singular Present Indicative,
s2 is more used in Attic than ejg.
Obs. 3. The Imperfect and Second Aorist belong to Epic
poetry but I's and i'sv^ Xirjv and Xaav are all that can be found
;
except in composition. Matthias makes \ov an old poetic Im-

perfect and slv^ elg, b1, in the Imperfect, to be a mere inven-
;
tion of the Grammarians which do not occur.

Obs. 4. The mode of conjugating ei/ni, as far as regards e?a,
îa, fâ, and fi^tv, has been retained. It is the opinion of Butt-
mann, however, in which he is joined by Matthiae, that jleiv
is merely a form of the Imperfect elv^ analogous to rieldeiv,
îov, \eaav, which in time, on account of its resemblance to
the Pluperfect, was conjugated as such but that râ is ori-
;
ginally the Ionic form, as £«, â, for ^v, from sl^l. This ^«
has the * subscribed on account of the radical form I'm. In
^'ety, however, it appears to have been retained improperly,
merely from its common derivation as a Pluperfect from â.

In confirmation of this opinion it is added, that these forms
never have the sense of the Perfect or Pluperfect, but only
that of the Imperfect and Aorist râ is written in Ionic y\Cu.
:
Blomfield, however, in his remarks on Matthiae's grammar,

considers fâ to be actually the First Aorist from ei'w, or elixi^
eo thus Tjiffa contracted into â, as ^'j^svora into ^';^6i;«, and
;
(from yiiu) into exjya.

I'xjyora He farther observes, that in his
opinion it may always be construed as an Aorist.
Obs. 5. The Imperative i'di is more used than e7.
3, ^'Irjî, to go,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
Imperfect,
ieaav.
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present.
iBltj.
146
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Present. Present.
MIDDLE VOICE.
'
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
l6-[iui, aui^ raij fisdop, adov, aOoVy ixsda, ads^ vxai.
| j
Imperfect.
U'lit^v^ GO, TO, \
fiedoPj adov, adrjv^ j
fisOa^ ads, vjo,
IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Present. Present.
tsaoj UaOa, ]
Ufiev-og, t], op.
CLASS II.
1. "J^ftt, to send.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
itjfiij i'rjg, tJjatj |
êiov, I'stop, ' 'iefisv, fere, UXai,
Imperfect.
trjp, Itjg, Irjf 2swp, UttjPj |
?£/ifij/, tsTB, i'eaav.
I
First Future.
§[or-a», Bigy 81, erovj exov, |
ofiBP, bts, ovat.
I
First Aorist. Perfect. Pluperfect.

^xa. 1
slxa. sixBtP.
I
Second Aorist.
^v, ^ff, ^, CTOv, Itj?v, ifiBP, Its, eaay.
I I
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Udi, UtcOj I
FfiTor, tl^Tw*',
I
f^TS, thmaav.
147
First Aorist. Perfect.
Second Aorist.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
%§f, Itw,
I
fiTOv, Stwv^
I
Ire, haaav,
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present,
iel-Tjp, rjg, 77, )
jjtom, r]T7]v, |
tjêv, tjts, ijaav.
First Future. Perfect.
Second Aorist.
st-tiv, rig, 7}, Tixov, ijttjv^ ]
ijftsv^ rjxe, ijaar,
I
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Perfect.
«?X-W, 77TOV, TJTOVj W/igl', J/Tff, ft)Or»,
1J?, -J^, I I
Second Aorist.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present. First Future.
Perfect. Second Aorist

elxivai, s^vat,
I
PARTICIPLES.
Present. First Future.
Perfect. Second Aorist.

ejxa)ff, BiKvlUj elxdg, «^ff, elaa, iv.
j
148
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur. ^
Imperfect.
ti-fti]V uo, TO, (ibOov, adoVy adrjv^
|
fisOa, ade^ vto.
I
Perfect.
sJ-fiatf uctij rat, ' fiedov^ a6ov\ adov^ |
[leOa, aOs^ vjat.
Pluperfect.
et-fi^v, uo, TO, fiBdov, adoVj adi]v, (nsdccj ads, vjo.
I J
P. p. Future. First Aorist. First Future.

e2(T0fiai.
I
edrjv and eiOrjv, I idâofiai.
^2
MIDDLE VOICE.
C!'^ Present and Imperfect like the Passive.
First Aorist,
Sing. Dual. Plur,
ilx-&(ir]Vf w, ttTO, dfisdov, aadov, dadrjv, j
d/isOa, aads, avro.
I
First Future.
â-o/uat, Tji, eTat, |
dfiedov, sadov, sodov, |
ofisOov, sods, optoci.
Second Aorist.
ifiijVf eao, ho, \ sfieOov, Ea6ov,sadrjv, \
sfiBday euds, ipto
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Second Aorist.
iao, sadat, eadov, iaOcov, |
aads, iaduaav,
[
OPTATIVE MOOD.
First Future.
•âol'fiijv, 0, TO, fisdov, adovy a&fjv,
|
fteda, ads, vto.
I
Second Aorist.
tX'ftijrf P, TO, fisdoVy aOov, adrjv,
|
jusda, ada, vto.
I
149
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Second Aorist.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
First Future. Second Aorist.
riaeadat, iadai,
|
PARTICIPLES.
First Future. Second Aorist.
^GOfiBv-og, 7], oVj B^6v~og, rjy ov.
I
Remarks onÎrnii,
Obs. 1. This Verb has scarcely any irregularities, but is

formed like rldr^fzi.
Obs. 2. The Attics in the Second Aorist have eifisv^ etts^

elaav thus, avelusf, apelrs^ avsXaav dicpeXfteVj acpsXre^ &(p6laap.
; ;
Obs. 3. "/»?;«*, in the Active Voice, signifies / send another;

*'/6|M«i, Middle Voice, / send myself. Hence it is gene-
in the
rally used in the latter Voice in the sense of wishing thus, ;
tstat alva)g, Hom. Od. /?', 327. He earnestly wishes. In this

sense it is the root of 2fieôg, a desire, and of If^slQco, to desire.
2. ^ Hîai^ to sit,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
ijâat, âat, -^Tai, |
rifiedov, rjaôv, riadov, ]
rifieda, âds^ ^vrat.
Imperfect.
V*?*"'? ^^^> V^> 1 "lf*^^0Vj âdoVj âdrjv^ [
^fiBda, â^s, \vjo,
^
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Present. Present.
âdat. ?iu8V'0gj ij^ ov,
I
14
150
Remarks on^ Hâi,

Obs. 1. For ^vTut, in the third person plural, the lonians use
ecttttv, as Tcariarai for x&drjvrat, Herod. 1, 199, and the Poets
eiaxai, II. ^', 137. So also in the Imperfect, the Ionic form
is earo, and the poetic bIuto, for ^vto,
Obs. 2. The compound xfi^?/wat is more common than the
simple rjuai. This has also an Optative, xadol/urjf, and a Sub-
junctive, xddiafiai. In the Imperfect it has ixadiîirjv and xa-
O^fiTjVj ixadijTo and aaOriajo. The Grammarians consider xa-
Oififiriv and xaOriuxo the better forms.
3. Elfiat, to clothe one^s self,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present and Imperfect.
H/naij eiaai, etrat, and elvTat.
Pluperfect.
stfiTjVj sTao and e'aao, elvto.
eho, elgo, as:ô, and ego.
First Aorist.
sla- \
san- > (i/ij^y, w, aio, d/iisdop, aodov^d/.adijv^ j
dfxedaâadsâvTO,
I
esicr- J
PARTICIPLES.
Present and Perfect. First Aorist.
Bifiivog. eaadfisvog.
j
Remarks on Elpiai,
Obs. This Verb considered as Middle. The Active
may be
is the radical e'w or evw/nc, forming eVw in the First Future,
and elaa in the First Aorist. In the Infinitive of the First
Aorist, elaoct, it has the (r generally doubled, as taaw fiiv, Horn.
Od. Q , 79. / will clothe him.
CLASS III.
1. KeXuai, to lie down,

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
MBl-iiai, (ja*, Tttt, ftedov, aOov^ odov, |
ê6a, ads, vxat.
I
151
i
Imperfect.
iitsl.fitjVf aOf TO, fiBdavj adov, adr^Pj fiedoc, ads^ vjo
I |
First Future.
xsla-ofittt, 1^, eiat, |
ofisdop, eaOoVj sadov^ |
ditisda, sade^ ovTai,
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
xslaOj xslada^ xsXadov^ xsladcov, )
xelade^ xelaOuaav
J
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present.
xeoi-iirjVy o, to, |
fisdop, adop, cdj]Vj
|
fisOa^ ads, vto
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present. First Aorist.
xiojfiai. xslaojfiai.
I
Present. Present.
xBladat. xei(i6v-og, rjj op.
j
Remark on Kuâi,
Ohs. xsTfiai is from the Ionic xiofiai. From the form of the
Imperative and Infinitive xieao, xieadai, xeXcro, xeladav, it is con-
jugated as a Perfect. The lonians said xiaxaL for xslpxair', and
ixittxo for Ixsipxo. The Subjunctive xr\xav occurs //. t , 32.
2. ^'larjiiiL, to know.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present,
Sing. Dual. Plur.
> acr*.
|and fjisp and
Imperfect.
ia-rjPj ijgj 17, |
arop, axtjp, jWêv, aie, aaav and a^.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
tj-adtj and ^t, (irw, axop andTOv, dxcav,
I are and t5, (iT<ufra>',
and Tw, and twi', xaaap and twi'.

152
Present. Present.
MIDDLE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present,
faa-fiatf era*, tui, |
fieOof, adov^ aOov^ |
fieOct, aOe, vjott.
Imperfect.
la&-fi7jVf (TO, TO, f^BdoVj udov, od^v^ /<eâ, aê, vro,
J I
Present. Present.
Xaaadai. 1 ladfisv-og, rj^ ov
Remarks o7i^'Iorjî,
Ohs. 1. The Verb Xarifii occurs in the singular only in Do-
ric writers, as iW^t, Pind. Pyth. 4, 441. Theocr. 5, 119. So

faari for i'atjai, Theocr. 15, 146. Participle i'aag, in the da-
tive i'aapTi, Pind. Pyth. 3, 52. In common use, the dual and
plural are only used, as iarov^ i'aTov (for iaarov), i'cr/nsv, Vate^
(for I'aafiBv, i'aaxs,) i'aaat. These are attached to olda ; thus
ojda, ojada, olde, Dual, iaroy^ i'aTOv, PI. Va/nsv^ i'ate, i'aaai.
Obs. 2. For XafxBv^ the lonians have i8[iev, virhich arose
either from changing a into ^, or was more probably abbreviated
from otda/iisv,
Obs. 3. 'Enlaxafiai is not, as some have imagined, formed

from ^(TTjfii, but appears properly to be the middle voice of
icplaxriî, the same as igîaTrjfit top vovv^ retaining the Ionic
form for ^(platuixai.
4. ^rjfil, to say,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
g)i]liil, 9)1^?, (pijol, j
cpatbvj cparbv^ j
(pu(ihv, (park, <paal.
Imperfect.
ly-T/y, i?ff, 1?, aioy, diJ^y, |
afiav, ais, aaav and av.
I
153
First Future.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
^•)j<r-w, £tff, sij j
CTOv, STOVj o/zspy fixe, ovai.
I
First Aorist.
Second Aorist.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present.
q>al-i]v, rjg, 17, TjfisVy i]T6j Tjaav
flSVj TS, 6V.
First Aorist.
<piia-aifiij aig^ at, auoVj alTTjv^ j
aifisv^ anSy atev
J
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
Present. Present.
First Aorist. First Future.
Second Aorist. First Aorist.

(privat,. qoTJoraff.
j
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE.
Perfect. niq>axav.
j
nBq>6(.adoi.
14*
154
MIDDLE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
•
Sing. Dual. Plur.
qia-fictifj aaij Tat, I fiEdoVj aOov^ aOoVj fisOa^ aOs^ vtoti,.
J
Imperfect.
iq)&-fit]Vj ao, to, |
fiedov, adoVj adrjVj |
fieduj ude, vxo.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
q)6ca-(a, Oco,
]
Oov^ Ooov, j
6sj Oaaav.
Present. Present.
qidadai, qxx/iiev-og, jy, ov.
]
Remarks on ^rnii,
Obs. In place of 'eq>T]v,
1. in the Imperfect In-
ecprjg, ^cpr],
dicative Active, the form ^»', frequently used ; as ^

îg, ^^ is
8' og, said he
;
^v^ d' lyw, said I. A
form for the Present is
^fil, which occurs in Aristophanes, Nub. 1145 Ran. 37. ;
Obs. 2. The imperfect £(pT]y, &c. is generally placed after

one or more words of the speaker, like the Latin inquit, even
when another word of the same signification precedes as, :
'Odh KvQog sItie, oiv slg xatQov i]xetg, ecp?]. Xen. Cyrop. 3, 1, 8.
Obs. The infinitive (pavai is always used in the sense of
past time, e. g. (p&vav t6v ^Scax^dirj, " that Socrates has said."
A General List of Irregular and Defective Verbs,
There are few Verbs in the Greek language,

which can be regularly conjugated in all their
Moods and Tenses. Some of these deficiencies
may be traced to harmony of others, it is diffi- :
cult to assign the causes. Defective Tenses are

supplied either from obsolete forms of the same
Verbs, from kindred forms in other dialects, or
from some other Verbs in use. To assist the
155
learner in tracing these tenses to their respective

Themes or Roots, the following list has been
compiled. It consists of analogies, as far as
they can be applied to any species of Verbs; but
in general it contains the particular formation of
each tense in common use.
Of the following Verbs, those which are used
only in the Present and Imperfect, will be found
in the first column; the next column will con-
tain the obsolete Roots, followed by the Tenses,
which are formed from them.
A.
To ad-^'A'âfiaiy dj'dtw, dy&aofj.ui^riYaa&fiTjvîfiyaafiai'j^Y&a'
mire, 6r]v.
break, Ayvvoj, > ccyco, oc|w, ^(fa, ^x^} -fiyov.
"Aypvfiij S F(i/w, ^'a|w,i I'a/a, eotyov, idyrjPy âya.2
To act, "Aybi, \
dtlw, > dj'dj'w, Viyayov, ^yay6[irjv,
please, 'Adco, > ddio), dd-qaco^ ^Jjyjca, ^dov and iadov^

'Avdavoiy J £a(ya.3
Verbs in atca, frequentatives^ as Tô/a^w, to

run oft en J^
Verbs in oj^co, derivatives^^ as c^^coxa^ca, from
diioxo), to pursue.
Verbs in aim, derivatives^^ di^ KEQaico, from tcbqcccd,
to mix,
1. "Ayw, to break, conjugated with the Digamma, Fayw, forms £Fa|a,

tFaxa, eFayov. But as the Digamma is seldom expressed in writing,
the words will be eaâ, saxa, eayov.
2. The aorist J5|a is not used by good writers. We
have likewise in
the passive voice, perf, nyfiai 1. aor. îx^^"] fut. dxQwonai ; and an old
;
form which remained in Doric, dyfjyoxa or dyuyoxci and dyfjoxa.

3. This seems to be put for 'ivaSa. That SJw had the Digamma ap-
pears from evaSe, Odyss. tt', 28.
4. Verbs of these three classes, and others in this list of the same form
have generally the Pres. and Imperf. only,
5. in this list, Derivatives are those which are derived from other
Verbs.
6. From Substantives and Adjectives, verbs in aoj, cw, dw, evw, a^w, iâ,
aivoi, WW, are generally derived; as Tifido.) from n/^^, ^tXcw, from îXos,
156
To takCf Mgiojj
siXdf^Tjv.^
perceive, Aiad6i.vo(i(xij occadio), uladTf[(TOnai, âOi^fiav, âOofiijv,

increase, ÂldaLvoj,
> dXdeca, ^cX^)^â(a, ^Xdr]x«.
i dXixca, dXs^dfijjv.
ward off, ÂXi^co,
\ dcXB^SQ), dXe^TJaw.
shu7i, ÂXiofiac^ dXevo), ^Xsvaa, T^Xsvd/uTjv^ and fiXed-
fitjv by Syncope.
roll, ÂXivdico, dcXlo), dXiaoj, ^Xtxa.
^ dXoo), dXia-aoj, aofiai, viXaaa, riXcoxa

take, ÂXiaxw. < and sdXcaxa, v^wfiaiy v^Xav
i, and idXoiv?'
find out, *AX(palv(a, dX(f>i(a, dXcpriaa.

sin, ^
AixaqTdfta, d/iaQjia) dfiaQxr^-am, aofictt, 'fifidQTr]-(Ta,
xa, (xai, 7\(iaQiov, Poet. ij/U-

Sqotov.
open, *Av(i)Y(a,
dvco^w, dvoiyio). Imp. fivtbyovVj dvojyiâo).
^voya and dpcbyTj/ni; Imp. dvfayrjdt, ^y(axdi.
dtvoya,^
he hated, Âne^ddvofiat, dnexditb, dnexdr[ao(xai, drc/ixOrifiat, dn-
please, Âgiaxoi, dqim, dgi-aco, co/uai, tjêffa, ijQead-

jUTjVj ^qeofxai, tiQEadtjv.
To in- 'Av^dvco,
crease, Aii^co,
'Ai^co,
be dis- ÂxOofiai,, dxBica, dxdeaofiai, rixdiadTjVj dxde-
pleased.
Verbs in am, frequentatives^ as tjccratu, to come

frequently,
Sr{k(i} from (5»7Aof, JovXrfw, from 6ov\oi, Sikuô), from JtAcn, tXin^co from eXirig^
ctifiaivco from o-ij/â, firiKWCxi from firjKOi, &C.
1, dXdnriv is a later Alexandrian form.
2. fi\oiKa and fiXojv, are used in a passive sense, as is also aXcj(To/iot, the
future middle.
3, In the Attic poets this verb always occurs in the perfect without
an augment, but with it in the pluperfect.
4. apoi has, according to its two significations, two different futures.
In the sense of " to annex," *' to adapt" it has fut. apao), aor. r^p(Ta, &c.
In the sense of " ô render favourable," " to conciliate" it agrees in flex-
ion with the former only in apcravres Kara dvfiov, 11. d, 136, tipape, Qv^6v eSaS^,
Od. e, 95. Otherwise it niakes fut. dpiaa, &c.
157
Verbs in lao), signifying desire, as fia^riTido), to

desire to learn.
Verbs in aco, signifying imitation, as x^^^^ ^^
be white as snow.
'6&C0, §i\aofiai, %6rjutt, i^râd/nrjv^ îîj-

xa, î6aa, 2d. Fut. §iofiai,?
fiai,,
gOj Baivco,^ ^l6dco, Part. Pres. îScov.

^lOrjftt, 2. A. h6r]v, Subj. ^slb). Part. Pr.
to cast, B&XXq), Û(a, ^X-âo), î6Xr]-xtt, fiatj iSXrfiriv^

§Xrid'ûo(iat>.
WaXoVj âXXico, âXXrâca.

^XrifiL, 'i^X7]v, 2d. A. Opt. M. 2d. Pers.
^XbIo.
ôXica, §EôXa.
\
§lo(a, îcaadfiat, êSico-xa, ftat, e^tov,
live, Biibaxo),
1
1
§mî, iSloiv.
bud, §Xagdv(o, ^Xageto, ^Xag-qaw, êSXdi^rjxci, WXaqov,

ôaxito, ôaKrj-aw, aofiat, ^s66(TXi]xa.
feed, Boaxw,
will, BoTuXofiat, ôvXeo), ôvXiliaofiui^ ÊSoiXrjfiai, iSovXi^drir,

^Q(t)(Tw, fsSgcaxa.
eat. BQcaajtb),
V.
BiSofhaxo)
SgdiOoifit.
Verbs in /?w, preceded by a consonant, as (psQ-

§(y, to feed.
grow
old > '
f yAQW'i P^- Inf. yi]Qavai, Part, yriq&g.
1. This verb has with the lonians the causative signification, "to
bringy This signification is exclusive in the fut. act. Pfiaa, and 1st.
aor. £/??j(7fl,
2. Btofiat occurs in Homer in the sense of ^fiaojjai, " I shall live;*^

properly, " / shall walk upon the earth." Here the subjunctive receives
the sense of the future, as is probably the case in rfo/iat for irtwftat, al-
though elsewhere it is never used thus.
158
yevico, ye^TJo-OjUat, kyevria&firjv, ysyivTjfiat,
beconnJ, rtyvofiav, iyspT^di^v, iyBvofxrjVf yiyova.
rivoâv,^ yelvoi, yslvofiaVf iyeivdfiTjv,
ydco, yiyacc.
5yv6(o, yvia-aco, ao/xaij ^yvca-xa, ofiat^ }y-
know, riyvcaaxcij.
v(aad7]Vf yvcoadTâofiai.
r^vihaxw,
\ yv(afzi, eyvav.
J.
r daeca, da^-aco, aofiai, deddtjxa and diSaa,
learn, Jalo), / dBda-îfiai, iddr^v^ (^dedrja, 2 Aor
* M. Subj. âTJzat, to burn.)
divide^ ,
Jaico, diklÔ), d(k-acjj aofxai, edaaUj idaad/nrjp, J"^-
da-xa^ afiai.
bite, jd6ixv(x), d^f^xw, ^rj-|w, |0(Uat, sSrjâ, dedij-X'î
Yf*"î
idi^xOrjv, edaxov.
sleep, .daqd&voa. dagdico, 8aq6Tf[rfoâi, deddgdi^xa, iddgdrjv^
edagdov and edgadov.
fear,
# 5sfJt|Mt,Imper. Sididi' and deldidc.
dstaca,
dideixa,
i dlco, Miov, Perf. M. didva.
ask, Jiofiat, deico, dsiâofiai, dedii]fiai, idsi^dijVj dsrjdi^-'

aofiat.
teach, Ji,8&ax(a,
didaaxito, dtdaaxiâta.
dsdldaxcc,
Tofly, JcdgdaxoD, crw, (TOfiai, Mgaaa, didgaxa.
I
di8Q6L^(a, ^ dgrifit, edgrjv and edgav.
1. To the old root yevw, which corresponds with the Latin gigno, be-
long two significations; the causative beget, and the immediate or
intransitive am born, become. The voices are anomalously intermin-
gled. The whole, as found in actual use, may be reduced to a two-
fold present ; as follows
1. yeivonai, has only the signification of birth, (poetically in the pre-
sent tense) am born. In the aorist, eyeivdiir)v is used transitively,
beget, bear.
2. yiyvofiai (Ancient and Attic ; more recently yivoiJiai) fut. yEvfiaofiai,
&c. The
future, 2d. aorist and perfects passive and middle sig-
nify intransitively born, or simply become. To these unites itself
the signification of simply to be, and eyevoixrjv and yeyova are also
used as perfects to eivat.
2. yiyvoffKO) Ancient and Attic more recently yivcoaKo.
;
3. The perfect StSia is either formed from SeSoiKu, by omitting «•, as in

Se6aa, yiyaa, and changing the diphthong into the short vowel, as i-xs-
vidjieu, itKTTjv, from or else it is immediately derived from
neTToiBa, eoiKa ;
the present Sia> ; as in

apwya. This form in the plural suffers
6i6ovTra,
syncope ; as, StStfiev SiSirt, pluperf. tSiSicrav, for hSiancv, SsSiaTc, tisdUaav.
In Attic U6ia is only used by the poets.
4. The student must be careful not to confound this with the regular
contracted verb r^paw, to do.
159
^*^''^' ^"^'^^ ^'^^^*'' ^^^^-''«» y*""' and xi?-
tUnh, Joxica;^ (
r ûj'dw, dvvificrofiai'jidvvi](r&fisv,d8d{>vr](4<xt'f
be able J Mvafâi, } idvv^dr]v.

"
* dvv&âtj idvv&adrjv.
rise, Jvvco, ,,g^^'

^ ^.^;^
Verbs in do, preceded by a consonant, as kv-

IMco, to roll.
E.
excite, "Eyelgu,^ iysgw, ^yqofiriv, iygT^yoQcc.
eaoj, >
^^^^^ Moxa and idi^doxa^ iJTJJo/ua*.
Verbs in e^w, derivatives, as ^leyiô), from

(pleyot), to hum,
see or JFl'^w,* \
know, sl'ao), f sideoo, sldiâa, eWrj-aa, za, Plup. ^Sbiv,
sl'dov, mv, r 6lS7]iiit, Pr. Opt. stdelrjv, Inf. 8i(5^ya^
Verbs in eivo), poetical, as iQeelvco, to ask,
1. The regular forms of this verb,mz. SoKfiacj, iioKtiaa, &c. occur only
in the Poets and old prose writers.
2. This verb originally connects the immediate signification enter,
with the causative enclose. In the common usage it has only the latter
{to enclose, to sink, &c.) and retains this meaning in the future and 1st.
aorist, Svaw, e6vaa, passivc tSvdriv. The middle voice 6voiiai, I enclose
myself, passes into the intransitive meaning enter, descend, &c. which,
however, again reverts to a transitive meaning, as, enter a garment,
that is, to dress. These significations of the immediate kind are re-
tained in the active voice, in the perfect SeSwa, and the 2d Aorist, Uw,
Swat, 66s, 6v9i, Sire. The form Svvco is more recent, and is equivalent in
signification to the middle Smfiai.
3. The middle voice has the signification " / arouse myself," i. e. /
am wakeful, I watch.
4. EtJo) has two senses, see and know- In the first signification it
occurs only in the 2d aorist, eUov, in Homer Uov, imperative iSi, opt.
UoiiJti, subj. Uo), infin. iScTv, part. iSc5v. These forms are used to supply
the defective tense of hpau), which has no 2d. aorist. In the sense of to
know, it does not occur in the present instead of the present, and in
;
the same sense, the perfect o76a is used. The manner of inflecting
o76a (some parts of which are not found in good writers, viz. oUaftev,
oUare, olSaci) may be seen in the remarks upon larifii, among the verbs
—
in pj. Besides these two meanings, uSu) has also in the old poets a pas-
sive form in the sense of to appear, to resemble, to be seen.
160
say^ slnBiVj^ elnov, Bins, slna, elndVf sinixaf sTTtm,
^^^"^^ iQi^(TOfiat, sVgrj-xa, fiat, elgidjjv.

Iq^ât, )
Verbs in elco, signifying desire, formed from

Futiyes, as d^JEia), to desire to see, from otttco, F.
To drive, 'EXaiva^ iX&w, il&aw^^Xaaa^^Xcca&firjv y^Xaita2i£idi

MrjAraxa, ^Xafiai, eXi'iXafiat and
n^laafiai^ i^Xa.drjv and -fiXdadjjv.
am employ-
"ETta,^ I 2d. Aor. Manov,' aitslv,' an6v.
ea, pursue, y
ask, Êgofiai,^ riqofitjv^ ^qsaSav, Iqâofiai.
perish, "Eqqco, iggsta, ^^îjaw, ^^grjaa.
J 1 >r> a. ^ egvdib), igvOrtaco.
make red,
,
Eovdalvca, < ^ 'A x >
1. The second aorist ellTrov, &c. is more common than the 1st. aorist,
elira, &c.With this aorist use has associated the fut. tpai (Ionic epeay) from
eipui —As the present of this verb, ^///n' is used ; sometimes also dyopeieiv.
In some compounds 'Seyoy furnishes the present, as dvriXeyco, avTeTirov.
As regards the form of the perfect e'ipriKa, we must suppose either that
eppriKa, Ippjjfiai Were also used, or that the ei weis arbitrarily considered
as an augment, which might be again taken from the verb, as if the
present tense had been pcoi. For otherwise the derivatives pi/â, p/jo-t?,
pnTcop from h-pripai, ei-pricrai, ei-priTai, cannot be explained. To this arbi-
trary root may be referred also IppiQriv or eppfidnv, priBrjvai, prjOe'n. 'Eipcdn
in Herodotus is analogous to dpriKa, eiprirai, as evpr/rat, evptdr}v. Others
derive eppfidrjv from a peculiar form pew, which, however, if it ever did
exist, was first derived from sXpriKa in the same arbitrary manner.
2. See preceding note.
3. The root of eXaui/w, is which, besides kXda, and eXaivco, admits
eXo),
the forms eXXw, cJ'Xw, eiXew, to bring together, compel, drive into a
I'XXo),
corner. From ciXw, cXXw, comes the Homeric eXtraj, i\(sai, to crowd to-
gether, to drive together-, from fiXew, dTrftXfo), comes dTrtCXrtQdq in Hero-
dotus from sXXw comes, perhaps, also the Homeric td\r\v, dêig, dXnmi,
;
(as i(TTd\r)v from otcWm), at least it agrees entirely in its signification

with I'XXw, eiXeo), and hence points to a similar origin. From eXXw ap-
pear likewise to come aeWa, a storm ; do\i]q, collective, assembled. From
lo\a the perf. mid. the form ovXog, as ovXai rpix^s. The iEolians said —
iXavw for iXavvw, the BoBotians used cXaw.
4. Of this ancient verb compounds for the most part only are in use
it has ti for an augment, as 6uXt:ov. The 2d. aorist forms are rather
poetical. The verb liropâi, I follow, has an aorist which corresponds
wish the active lirw, except that in the indicative it is aspirated ; ccrirdfjuiv,
arov, airidQai, which forms occur chiefly in composition.
5. This verb occurs in the common language only as an aorist, fip6-
Htjv, ^pcTo, whence also the other moods are found. The defective parts
are supplied from tpoiraa.
161
come, ÊQXOfiai',^ iXevdoj, ^Xvdw^ Syn.

iXsiaofiai, ^Xevaa,
^dov, Perf. M. ^vda and
iXT^Xvda.
eat, "Eado),
'EaOLo),
sleep, Eida,
Eiglaxa, eigio), eiJ^Tjaw, s^/grjadjUTjv , bvqtj-xcCj
find,
fiai^j sigidTjv, e^QBdriaofiai',
Evgovj sigduTjv.
axBOJ, <T;îj-aw, aofiat,, âxV'^^, /""*»
have, "Exco,^ kaxÔrjVj axB6t\uo[xai, %oxov

iaxo/iiTjv.
(Txnfii', 2d. A. Imp. (Txk.

cook, "Eyjco,
live,
\ W^, Kv^. W'' and Ci
To gird, Zmvvvoj,
Zihvvvfiij
0.
be willing, 0iXoj, S^BXio), i^-fi^TJcw, i6iXj]aa, ridBXrjxoc.

sharpen, S-^yoj, ^rjlw, Wrjâ, idtj^dcfitjv, tier]-
touch. Qiyy6.v(a, &lyw, S-l-^M, ôjnui, Wiyov.
1. This verb is used only in the present and imperfect yet veiv is ;
very frequently met with for fipx^firiv. The Attics do not use the future
eXevdoitai from but take in its stead elî in the sense of the future.
eXevOo),
Some later Attic writers, however, use the form hXivaonai.
2. As iTTO) has a 2d. aorist, formed by inserting a so from 'ixoi is ;
formed a 2d. aorist, tcrxpv^ in the middle Icrxoiiriv, and, in the same man-
ner as in idTzov, ancTv, (xnoov, this e is omitted in the rest of the moods, as
if it had been an augment. From this cax'"', ^'x" i^ niade into t^xw,
(as tvia-rroi from tve-xcj) which, in Attic more particularly, often occurs
in the same sense as ex'^- T^^ forms of the aorist without e are again
made the basis of other forms (as orTrETvof aTrcvSeiv,) and from the present
crx^f^, which is only imaginary, comes, on the one hand, the fut. t%>}o-&j,
middle, a:x/i<TO[iai) which the Grammarians without reason call more
Attic than ef^/xat) perf eV^'j'ca, &c. which are chiefly used in composi-
tion.
3. The old classic writers use the tenses from ffiSa, îcbaojiat^ l/Sioa-a,
PsPiMTai, in preference to those from |aw. And
yet ^^jo-ovo-t occurs in
Plato, Rep. 5, p. 36. ^d&>, is one of the few verbs which instead of the
vowel of contraction a, have a Doric ri ; as ^dw, ^^j, ^3 j eôjv, £^»jj, e^ri, &c.
15
162
'd-vda, xidvrjua^ ridvaa, ridvsixa and
ridveia, xidvewg^ {waa^ gen.
WTO?).
du. -^dvw, Wavov, 2. F. M. d-ttvovjuai.
Tsdpi^XMj TedPT^-ôj, ofiai.
jidprjfiVj Pr. Imper. jeOvadt^ Opt. teO-
valr]Pj Inf. redpdpuij Part.
TBdpixg, 2 Aor. Wpi]v.
leap.
06gvvfii,, > ôgicOj S-ogiâo}, edogoPj &OQOv(iat.
&g(aaxb)j
placCf 'idgTuPCOj Idgica, idgvau, 2dgvatt, IdgvadfitjP, 23"

gV'Xa^ ât, idgiOrjp and Id-
gvpdrjP,
cause to sU. 'm^", \ f "'

^}'^'"'r'
^^'""'-
Verbs in ^tw, derivatives from Verbs, as ttoXc-

jM^fcô) from noXeÊO), to fight.
direct, 'IdiPCJ, idvaca, Wvaa.
2x0}, i|o,aai, l^(jcfi>]pj ^Yfiuij 1x6-
come , 'Ixpsoftat, ^rjp.
i%op.
Uaw. iXdaofiaij iXuaiLfirjp^ I'ltjxa,
appease, 'Il&axoftai,
iX&adrjv, iXaadriuofiai,
iXdcÔfiai,
( ?Ajy^t 2loidi, Pr. M. llufxtti.
Tofiy, 'Îmrifjii,
> mdo), TTTTJaw, nintrjxa, nimixfiat.
BTttTjV,
K.
to burn, JCa/w,^
X'^b), ^sxTja and txeict, hxrj&firjv and
xavaoi,
ixsi&fiTjP , sxaov, £X(k7]p.
xixavxa, \
xsg&(a, xegdaca, ixigaaa, ixsgaad-
mix, KegttPPio), [irjp, xixegaa/Liai, ixsgda-
Keg6iPPvfiv, drjp, xsgaadâofiai.
KlgPTjfii, xg&o). xgdao), xexga-xa, (jiai, ixgd-
6tjp, xgadâo/nai.
1. In Attic Kdw is used, having the long a and being without contrac-
tions : fut. Kavau, &C.
163
gain, KegSalvta,
xegdi^-ao), aofiav, ixigdrjauy
HBqdavh,
xsxiQdj]Ha.
xettegdayxa,
find, xiXTfiaofiai, ixLxriaa, kxi,xri(J&'
KLxrjfii, UTjy, exixov.

shout, KX&rca,
Perf. M. xixXrjya.
xixXttYxa,
weep,
xXaUco, xXav/iata.
hear, Klvco, xXvfiv, Imper. xXvdt and xixXvdt.

xoqiaoa, ixogeaoc, ^xoqscd-
satisfy, KOQSVPVO),
(iTjv, xixoQi]xa, fiat, ixO"
Koqevvvfii,
giadijv.
xqBfi&aoi, exqefiaaa, ixQBfia-
hang,
aafXTjv, ixgsfidadtjv,
Kqsfiapvijfii,
xgi/nafiai.
kill, Kreivo),
XTSVW, exTTjv, 2 A. M. Ixt&firiv, Inf.
ixxaxa, and XTQcadat, Part, xidfxevog.
MxTOvi]xa,
i xvXlco, xvXtao), ixvXlaoc, ixvXladrjv.
roll, KvXlvdo),
( xvXivdico xvXipdiâoj.
fawn, Kvvio3,
^
xilxo. xiua, îxvaa and ^xvaaa.
Kvvr^croit,
c Hx^, Aij-^w, ôfzai, XiXrjX'^) Att.

To draw
Aayx^vfa,^ b];Xi]xoc, Yfiai, %Xaxov, Perf.
lots.
M. XsXoyxo^'
1. In attic KXaoi is used, having the long a and being without contrac-
tions, like KCLiJi: fut. Kkmaa, &c.
2. Notto be confounded with the regular Kopeo), ftaoi, to sweep.
3. The aorist passive tKpEijdadnv is common to the middle and intran-
sitive signification: but the future passive x-pE/xao-flô-o/zat belongs solely
to Kpsjiavvviit. In consequence of this the intransitive has a peculiar fu-
ture, KpEiifi(TO[iai, I will hang.
4. Between \fiâ) and Xayx^vo there seems to have been an mterme-
diate form \aYx<^- Hence the old perfect \£\oyx>i, which occurs in
Doric and Ionic, rarely in Attic. From the Sd. aorist, £>âxov, Homer
uses a new verb XeXd;;^^, in a transitive sense, " to depart." 11. i}, 80. rf,
350. x't 343. i//', 76. We
have also \t\axfi<^<îi^tv in Hesychius.
164
X^8a XrjÔMat, XiXrjgia, Att, slXijcpa,
XeXrjjLtfittt, and ei'lrjuûai,
iXTl^cpdtjv and elXif^qjdrjv Xr^q)"

^
receivcj AocfiSdt Oriaofxai^ eXuOof, iXaSofxrjv

XaSeco, XsX6i6i]iict.
Xd/u6cOj Xduipo/uat^ iXafnp&fir]v^ XiXaft-

uai^ eXttUq)6rjV.
be con- Aavd6iV(a^ X^dco, Imp. iXi^dof, Xrj-ub), aofiaij
cealed, or XeXfjauat, and XiXaafxai,,
escape J ^Xrâdrjv^ %Xudov^ IXado^
f*r]v, XiXrjda.
M.
learn, Mavddvco.
drjita, îfiaOov.
obtain, MiXQTtTCO, fi&TTco, %(j.anov^ fianehv.

fight, fxa^îtji, fitt/y'iao/iiatand fiaxicro/uai, ifia-
Xea&fiTjv^ and ifiaxr]a&fiT]v^
(iBH&xrjixai^ 2 Y./uaxovfiat
about tobe, MiXXoj, fieXXio), /neXXTâci), i/UEXXrâa.
care, MiXaJ^ (xeXeca, fXByrâot^ iueXr]a(xutv, fxsfiiXrj-xa,

fiat, and fiifiSXrjuaij dfisXrjdijPf
s/jbXoVj fiB/LiT^Xa,
/u/yo), fii-^(o, ôfiat, efitâ, /ui/ii-xa, /.««*,
To min- Miyvico,
fisfiiôuai, ifilx6r]v, 2. A. P.
gle, MLyvvfii,
ifiiyrjv^ fityViOOfiai.
remem- Mi(xvi\axoi, f^vdu, ixvrâo)^ aofiat, 'i/nvrjaa, efxvqa&fxrjVy
ber, fiifivTjiiai, fiefivTâofiai, i/ivj^ff'
Otjv, (XPTjadTfiaofiav.
remain, Mlfivto, fisvioi, /xifispyxa.
wipe off, Moqyvvb), '\
M6qyvvfii, > fidgyco, (ioq^w, iuog^dfltjv.

*
O/uoQyvvfn, J
helloiD, Mi yea, \
flEfiVXa, > flVHOCb), ^VKTJffW.
yfivxov, J
1. For £cX?}^rtt, Euripides (Ion. 1113.) uses XrXj?/^/iaj, whence the Doric
XtXanrai in Hes3'chius. The form XeXa/Jgva is Ionic, and analogous to
aveKT6vriKa from ancKTova. Another old form is Xdô/xai.
2. From lâQov Homer has a new verb XsAaflo), in a transitive sense,
" to make to forgets 11. /3\ 600.
3. Both iiaxncojtai and jiax'ûai are used in the derivative tenses.
The first, however, is common : 'Eâx^ffa/^'?*' occurs in Attic, e/ia;^;7ja<S-
unv in Homer.
4. This verb is chiefly used as an impersonal.
165
JV.
inhabit JVaico^ ydw, vdaofiatj ^Vaaa, hvaadfiijv, ivda-

drill.
Verbs in i/dcco, > derivatives^ as negvccco from

veoD,
I,
) TieQcco), to pass over.
O.
be pained,' Od&^co,
smelly " O^w,
dlîaca and ^^tJctoj, figfiorof.
Perf. M. S(Ja,i
;?t<;eZ/, Oidalvw^
Oidikvco, > oldicoy oi5r|(ra), ^dij-aa, xa.
think, Ol'o/ioci,^
S ote'w, olâofiai, (arjfiai, (hfirjv, (O'Ôijv,
go, Ol'xof^ccL, ) oix^coj 0lxr{O0(iai, (o/jy-xa, fjiav.
2. A.(^x6iLii]v, (bxinyia.
To slide,* Oliodaivoj
V dXiadicOf &Xla67]-(Tci, xa, ^Xiadov^ iiXlaOrjv.
' OXiaOdvoj,
r oAt'w, 6A^(rw, ^Xeaa, ibXe-xa^ ficci, and
destroy, '
OXXico,
/ dXcbXsxcc^ &Xladr]v^ &Xov^ il^Xo-
f firiv^ oXovficci, ^Xa and oAwâ.

*
t dfxdco, ofidaco, ihfioaa, &fioa(kii7jv , ^fioxoc
swear, 0,uvvb),
"
? and ofKa-jnoxa, (xai, 2, F. M.
Ofivvfzt, '
d/LtOVfittt.
imprint, Wfiogywfi
t dvico^ dvr^-aoi), aofiat, ^vrjaa, &V7ja(i/Lir]v
assist, " Ovijfii',
'
} and d)rdjj7]v^ ^vtjjuui, &v<idj]V,
OfLvrifiij
t 2. Aor. &pajur]v.
rise, Wgvico, > ogo), bguoj, iagaa, ^Qfiai^ ogcoQa and
Ogvv/nij ^ &QOQCX, ^gdjUTjP.
smell, '
OacpQociPOfiat,, daq)Qio), dacpQrâofiai, ôcpqofirjv.
'
owe. Oqps/Awj \ocpsiXB(a, dcpBiXrâa, (bgoetArjxa, ^qisiXov,
^'bcpXo), > and iocpXov.
'OcpXi (ivca, ) dcpXib), dcpX'âco, ^(pXrjxa,
has the sense of the present.

1. *OSb)Sa,
2. In the Imperfect we have Monriv and u^/jhiv. In the rest of the per-
sons and moods oHonai only is the basis. The active forms oUco and <5iw,
are retained in some dialects, in Homer both are frequent. The Spar-
tan woman, in Aristophanes Dysistr. 156. uses o'lw. Thomas Maguter,
p. 645. states that the Grammarians made a distinction between olnai,
and oXonai^ applying the one to certain, determinate things, the other to
indeterminate things. This distinction is so nice that hardly any lan-
guage, except one of books, could ever have observed it,
15*
166
n.
niidta, nsiaofiao, BcBOt. for n-Ziaofiaif

Mnj]aa, hnaOov, nirijOa.
suffer, n&axî nadioo, naO'îcrca, in&driau, nenddTjxa,
Perf. M- ninovda, ninoa-da
and x*^-
pass, UsQvdca,
TtEgdco,^ Syn. ngdco, nq&uoi, ninqu-na,
IlEQVrjfll^
jiiai, TtBTtqaaofxai,, eng&drjv,
IlmQ&ajcco,
nQadrâofiat.
JJqlafiai,,
boil, Usaaoj, TtBTtTO), niipw^ Êneipa, nertsfiintti, enicpdrjv.
\ TTSTd^w, Tterdaw, erreTaaa, nenhaxoc and
lay open, Usxavvio},
> ninTaxttj niTcexaafAai, nimaa-
JJsidvvvfit,'^
J fion and nimafiui, ^nerdcadTjv.
\ m^yat, tttjIw, £7iJ^|a, inr/^&firjVj nenrj'.
fasten,
\ Xa, yfiai', iTf/ixdTjv, in&yyjv,
Ili^yvvfiif
J nay/iaojLiai, ninrjya.
ndo). 7T(6aw, Tiinoj'Xu, fjiai and nino-
fJKXt, inodrjv.
To drink.
nlo), Pres. M. nlofiui^ nlaofiai^ sniov
2. F. M. niovy,tti,
imfii, Imper. nXdi.
give to
nL(o, nlaco, ^niaa.
drink,
fill. riiTtkrjfiv, nX6iW, TrAiâw, 'inXrjaa, inXrja&iiyiv^ ni
n'ifinXrjî, nXTja/naij inX-qadrjv, ninXijda
IIlfXTrX&vojj nX-Ziui, Imp. Pass. ^nXr]fir]V.
fall. nintoj,
nsaio), 'dnsaov, 2. F. M. neaovfiai.
sneeze, IIx&Qvvfiai^ njttlQUj enxaqov.
inquire. JJvfddvofiat, TTBvdoj, Ttsiaofxai, Ttinvafiaij invdofjiTjv^
TtvOovâi.
1, Tltpaoij to pass into another country ; Trcpi/dw, to pass for the purpose
of selling ; Trpiajiai, in the Middle Voice, to buy a person, or thing,
brought from another country.
2, The old verb iriroiiai is the root, by which was expressed the
spreading' of the wings in flying, and afterwards merely the general
idea of spreading.
3, The forms n-io-cj, litiaa, have the meaning "give to drink" The
present passive n-to/xat, with t long, is used in a future sense "lam
about to drink;" instead of this, the later writers used the form movfiai,
which is censured by the Grammarians, The future m<7oiiai is adduced
from Antiphanes by Eustathius, and the verbal mards seems to refer to
an old perfect passive TzsTtajxai.
167
dOf 'PiW ) ^y^^ Att. ^gdca, SQôj, ^gyfiai, bVqy^

QE^b), nai, and segyfâi, Perf. M.
[
^^QBÔC, s eogya.
flow. 'Fi(o, ^vioj,
, C S'ioffw, ^rjlw, Iggriâ, iggrj^d^riv,

break, Prjyvvoi),
sggjjya, and eggwya, ig-
\
I g&yrjv^ gayriaoâv.
f ?»", gwao), ^ggoj-aa, xa^ fiai and

strength- 'PMVvia,
afxai, iggihaOrjv^ igg(i)O0,
en, Piavvvfii,
I farewell.
aSioj, aSiaoj, laSsua^ 'daSexa and

quench, SSswva,
scatter, SKsSawixa, crxs^dw, axsddiaw^ iaxida-acc, Ofiai,

J
^xeSdvvvfiL, iaxed(kadi]v.
(
r axX&ot), axXriaojuat, 1. A. £axrjXn,Ea~
,^ „ ni }.
xXi]xa, iaxXr]wg.
dry up, Sxmco,
^ ^^^^^^^ p^^ j^^ ^^^.^^^^
Verbs in crxco,^ derivatives, form their tenses

from their primitives, as evqiOKcj, evQeo), evQifjocj,
&;c. to find.
ffTtBl-uco, aojj.ai>, âitBiaa, ia-

offer liba- Univdco,
tion,
7isladt]v.
1. According to Hermann {De Em. G. G.p.293.) there are two radi-

cal forms, ep'^w, and epyw. From the first came epScrw, and by transpo-
sition peîo, {piSffcj); from the second eopya, l>|w, tpâ, and by transposi-
tion pc^co, epela.
2. Verbs in o-ato), which have a great affinity to Verbs in pi, are derived
from Primitives in aw, ew, dw, and xw, and are formed by the insertion
of K after the o- of the 1st. Future thus from yripdo, yripaaoi, is formed
:
yrtpa<TKW, to grow old ; from dpEM, dpia-M, dpcaKU, to please ; from Pt6(x), Pico'
ffw, 0ic3aKO}, to live ; and from heQvw, ixedvoM, ixeOvcrKto, to be drunk.
Some of these, like Verbs in m, prefix the Reduplication, as yiyi^wo-^rw,
toknow, from yvcoacj TtTpwo-zco), to wound, from rfjwo-w. Some change the
;
vowel of the penultima, as nfSd, fi0f]<ro), hâoKw, to grow up.

168
spread,
ajogso),
2T0Q£VVVfll,
tOQEadfiJ]v, iaidgEodi^v.
2TQb)VVV0i, axQoojj aTQibaco, %aTqoiaa, iurgaad--

2TQibvVV^l,
have. 2xed^, axeoj.
T.
bear, TaXdca, \ xXdbi, tXi/luo}iai, ritXrjxa.
5 xlriî, ^xXrjv.
XE/ui(0^ rsfi-iâa).
to cut J Ti/uvb),
t^t||w, hjurj^cx, rerfJTj-Ku, juai,
irjic/iOTjv, eT[xayov,h(i6.yr]v,
Tfxayrôoûi.
bring T/xtcu, i T£xw, Te-|w, ^0/iai, ijixO^v^ etsxov,
forth, I ljex6l^l]V, TETOXtt.
f Tgdb), jgrâto, erQ7]aa, rijgrj-xa, /uai',
bore TiTQUM,
< Exgrfiiif.
through, TirQTifAi,
\mquivw, 1. A. hboriva.
wound, TiTQfaaxo), XQOb), TQcbaU), OOJUUl, ÊIQCOGU, xiTQCa-
,uai, hgcoOrjv, rgwdiâofiat.
r dga/uico, dEdgd/urjv-xcc, fjai.
To run, Tq^xm,
^ dgijuoj, sSgix/uov^ 2. F. M- dga/novfiai,
f didgo/Lia.
eat, Tg^yco, i qxxyo), qxjcyoîai^ 2. F. M. qâyovâi,

ETQCcyOV, \ Ecpuyop.
^ Tu/f'w, TUj^rj'aw, ervxrjfra, XETVxrjxa.
hCf Tvyxdi'd), ^ XEVXW, EXEVâ, XEVÔjUUl^XEXEVXa^XEXVy-
'
juat,x£xvôfiai, hvx6i]v, exvxov.
promise, YmaxvEOfxat, bnoaxioi,

' vnoax'>'i(xofiat^ vnidxrjuai, -Cniax-
eOijV, ofirjv.
Verbs in vho^ derivatives, as (pîvbô), from

(p^to), to consume*
Verbs in voj, polysyllables, as oêvvico, to
quench,
1. The kindred verbs revx^^ ^^'^ rvyxavM, must be carefully distin-

guished as respects meaning the first denotes to prepare, and is regu-
:
lar in its formation, the second to attain,to happen. The verb Tvyx<ivo}
has the meaning to happen, to find one's self, only in the present, imper-
fect, and 2d aorist, viz. ruy;;^^^^, cTvyxavov, and 'irvyov the rest of the :
tenses (and also ervôv likewise) have the signification to attain.

169
say^ gxiaxoj,
'oi'ojj ot'fftu, ol'aofioci^ ol'adrjv, oladriaofiai.

ivixoj, 1. A. ^êyxa, ripsyxdf^rjv^ 'îvi^dTjVj
^veyxov, rjveyxdfiTjv.
ivixb), 1. A. r\vsix(x^ r^vsix&^riv^ ^VTf^vcyp.cei,
heart <îQ(»,
Ivixta, Per. M. Ivr^voxa.
q)OQeoj, q)0QâcOj ecpogrjaa, ns(f6qrjfiai, Syn.
gP^£W,l (JD^rJCTW, (fee.
(pgrifii, Imper. A. 2. cpgig.

i[ cpdaoi, cpdaaoij (pdiôofiaij îcpOa-ua, xa. ^
'
prevent, (|
q)drifu, sg)driv.
corrupt, fl^dlvcOj (pdtiOj (fOl-aoi), aofxai^ ecpdiaa^ scpdi-xa, [lav.

pro- fPvta^
duce, fPuaa)^ ? (pviîi, Ecpvv.
nig)vxa,
X.
rejoice f XalgcOj \ X<xQi(o^ X(*Qr[a(a, ;â^TJoro,Mat, ix&qrjv.
xixaQxa, J xexocQ'^dOfioci.
i jâ^w, êxotdov, xixudot,
obtain, Xavddvo),
\ X^l^, x^'-^^l^^'"
gape, Xdaicco,
Xaaxdl^ca, \ xixnâ,
^
colour, Xqojvvvu,
\ XQooj, XQ'^^'î xixQ(o-fiat and (Tfiai.
XQ(JiVVVp.l^
hury, Xot}pp{)co,
Xfhvvvfxi^ y XOi)adTâop.ai,
drive, 'Sldico,
Eiadovv,
VERBAL NOUNS
are formed from Tenses of the Indicative, by dropping the
augment and changing the termination.
1. $jO£&) is used only in composition, as tKcppsTv, to bring out, ela^pfjETv^
to bring in, to bring through.
Sia({>psiv, The old Grammarians derive it
from 7rpo-w; as (ppoimov, 0pou(5')f, from Trponijuov, TTfjooSos.
2. $vw signifies to produce ; ^vm, in the middle sense, to suffer Okie's
self to be produced,, or to be born. The Perf. TTe<pvKa, as well as the 2,
Aor. £<}>vv, (pvvai, and (pis, have a Passive signification.
170
Some are formed from the Present, as divaiâg^ strength,
from dvva/uai, to be able
; xXemrjg, a thief, from ytUnia), to steal.
Some few from the Aorists, as ô|« from sdoû ; dr'ixi] from
Idrjyia ; (pvyi] from sqivyov n&dog from enaOov.
;
The larger proportion, however, are formed from the Per-

fect.
1. From the Perfect Active, distinguished by x, /, or <jp, in
the last syllable, as q>Qixri from nicpîxa dida^ri from dedlSaxa ; ;
ygacpri from yiyqaqju.

2. From the Perfect Passive, as follows :
From the 1st pers. sing, are derived Nouns ending in /ôg,
[xTj, f/<x)v, fia, /uiog. The letter /n being the characteristic.
—M02 Those ending in /aog, signify either a per-
$ formance of the action of the Verb as xo- ;
laafivCf an infliction of punishment, or some-

thing used in inflicting such action as 8sa- ;
[ibg, a chain or bond.

—MH Those in ^rj, which are few in number,
seem generally to signify some effect pro-
duced by the action of the Verb as /^«/^- ;
|U^, a a mention.
line, /^^rifit],
'MSIN Those in /uwi', generally signify a person
or thing, endowed with the power, or faculty,
or disposition, to perform the action of the
/ Verb as /nvrnuujy, one who remembers, ini^cr-
;
'
fio)v, one who is forgetful, iniairiJiiMv, one who
is skilled, ^,ucuv, one skilled in throwing, Âsjj-
f^cov, compassionate.
'MA. Those in fâ, signify the very thing pro-

^ duced by the action of the Verb, or upon
which that act is performed, or about which
^ it is employed: as sqvucc, a fortification, (the
'
thing strengthened), nrvyfza, a fold, do/ua, a
gift, (the thing given.)
-MIOS Those in /uiog, have a sort of passive sig-
nification, and denote some fitness or suit-
ableness to the action of the Verb, as aeS&a-
fiiog, venerable, iQ&afiiog, amiable, ditiafziog,
curable.
From the 2d. Pers. Sing, of the same Tense, are derived
Nouns Substantive in dig, !«?, and ipi-g, which signify the action
of the Verb abstractedly considered, as vriaig, spinning, Uîg,
reading, §Uipvg, seeing. The letter a is the characteristic.
— 12 From these verbals in <? are derived Nouns
"—I —IA2 Substantive in m and ta^, and Nouns Adjec-
171
—SIM02 tive in aifiog as, from uivOsGig and 6iaig,
;
are formed awdeala, an agreement, and Qv-

alag, Baccha, and from noatg comes TToai/uog,
potable. These last in aifiog commonly have
a passive signification, like those in fiiog
above mentioned, and like them may general-
ly be translated by the Latin Verbals in bilis
and dus, or the corresponding English term
able, as (jcgdaifiog, execrandus, detestable, yeX-
daiuog, ridendus, laughable, oix-Zâifiog, inhabit-
able, ^Q(aai/uog, eatable.
From the third Pers. Sing, of the same Tenses, are formed
a great variety of Nouns, having i as the characteristic, of
which,
-THS-THP-TSIP Those in tj??, ri]Q,twq, signify the agent
who performed the act indicated by the Verb,
as noiTjirig, drjgeviriQ, Q7]tojq.
— TIS—TPIA Thosein îg, TQig, TQia and tbiqu, are of
— TEIPA the feminine gender, and have a like signifi-
cation with the last mentioned, as oUhig,
oixriaTQig, fjadr^TQia, noa/uiîeiga.
^TYS Those in tvg, derived from this 3d. Pers.
Perf. Ind. Pass, signify commonly the art of
performing the act of the Verb, as xidaQiar-ug,
the art of playing on the harp, o^/t^cttv?, the
art of dancing, (j.yoq(xxi)g, eloquence, dt-novziaivg,
the art of throwing the javelin.
"TOS Those in Tog commonly have a Passive
signification, and are Adjectives applied to
the object of the Verb's action, as algsibg,
eligible, alveibg, laudable, e-igejog, discoverable.
There is a great resemblance between
these and the above mentioned Adjectives in
uifiog, so that the same word is sometimes
found in both forms, as nojog, and Tidai/uog,
potable, olyiTjibg and olmliuifxog, habitable.
—K02 Those in nog have an Active signification,
denoting ability to perform the action of the
Verb or some relation to such action, as ei-
QSTixdg, inventive, nolefiixdg, warlike, oIxtjtc-
xbg, disposed to seek an habitation, xTTjtixbg,
skilled in acquiring.
THPI02- THPIA Those in x'îQiog, T^gia, r-Zigiov^ denote some
-THPION aptitude or efficacy in the subject, as diXeh]-
t-Zigiog, repulsive, remedial. The feminine and
172
neuter terminations are used as Substantives
as lêvrrigia [tb/vt] being understood,) the art
of taking birds with i|6?, bird lime^ xoAaaiij-
qiov (xf^glovj understood,) a place of punish-
ment. The termination rriQiov has almost
always a particular reference to place, as
- dsafiojT'/iQiov, a prison^
a place of confnement
dixacrnfigiov, a court, a place for dispensing
justice; Sic. Occasionally, however, nouns
with this termination depart from analogy
thus dcvanavT-Zigiov^ besides denoting a resting-
place, signifies also a time for enjoying rest.
—TP02—TPA-^ Those in rqog, rga, and tqov^ may be con-
—TPON sidered as derived by syncope from the last
mentioned Nouns, and the feminine and neu-
ter terminations are in like manner used
Substantively, to denote some instrument or
thing, by assistance of which, or in conside-
ration of which, the action of the Verb is
performed, as dmsaxQn, a needle, dgx^'^^^Q'^, the
orchestra, or that part of the stage in which
the chorus danced, dtdaxrgov^ the reward of the
teacher, largo v, the physician's fee. With
words of this class, dLgyigiov may be under-
stood, as XQ^^*^ or ngayfia may with (poSrjxgov,
drigaxgov, <fec.
"TPIAS To these derivatives from the third person

are to be added a few Nouns in xgi-ag, which
signify one who acts from habit, as dATJr^ta?,
a sinner, dLvxgiag, one who lives in, or frequents ^
caves.
ÊOS-EON And
lastly, those in eog, of which the neu-
gender eov answers to the Latin Gerund
ter
in dum, as noi-qjhv, faciendum, ygamiov, scri-
bendum.
By way of exercise, the above analogical rules may be ap-
plied to the following derivatives as from xoafiECD, orno.
;
xoaf^rjfia, x6fi?]aig, xoafir^tiig, xoafi'/itcdg, xoafn^TBiga^ xoa/itjtdgf

xoafirjttxbg, xoafZTjigov.
From xadalgoj, purgo.

xadag^bg, x&docgfia, x&dagaig^ xaâ^T^g, xadaqT^g, xadagtixbg,
xaâ^TTj^tOff, xadagjiov.
From xoX&tfa, pumo.

xoXaafibgj xdlaafia, xdlaaiSf xolaarrigj xoXaati^giog^ xolaaiij-
QiOVj xoiaauHog.
173
From [lavO&vb), disco,
ftikdfjfiix, fi6.drjavg^ juadtjxiig, (xadr(tQi,a^ fxadj^TQig, fiaOijxog^ fiadr]'

tiov.
3. From come Nomis terminating in a,
the Perfect Middle
«f, evg, ?/, as g)doQa from ecpdoga^ POfidcg from vivofia^
Jjig, ts, og ;
Toxevg from titoxa, jgocpri from Thqocpa^ tvtttjq from xixvira^ Bo-
Us from §i6oXa^ xofibg from xixofia, &;c.
ADVERBS.
Those which requh'e particular notice, as dis-
tinguished from the Latin, are the following
Adverbs ending in â, 6i, oi, at, XV^ ^^^ Z^'^j
signify motion in a place ; as ivi;av6a, here ; ovqa-

v6(î, in heave?! ; oYxoi, at home; ^^rivrjOi, at
Athens ; jiavTaxri and 7cavi;axov, every where.
Adverbs ending in 6e and Qev, denote motion
from a place ; as ovqavoê and ovQavoêv, from
Heaven,
Adverbs ending in de, Cs, and crs, denote mo-
tion to a place ; as ovQav6vde and ovqavoae, to
Heaven ; xctfôiCe, to the ground.
Ohs. 1. Adverbs in dv were originally,no doubt, genitive
cases ; for, nouns with this termination sometimes stand as
genitives (thus, 'Ihodt ttqo, II. d\ 557. riwdt ngo, II, I', 50,
;
&c.) and in others the common termination also of the geni-

tive occurs in the same sense as 6dij poetic form, and o5, ;
noOt and nov.

Ohs. 2, Adverbs in oX appear to have been old Datives, and
to have the i adscribed according to the old mode of writing,
instead of having it subscribed thus, oi'xot, TTedol, ^lad/uol^ for
;
ol'yca, nediZ, 'loOiuio, with the preposition iv understood.
Obs. 3. Adverbs in cri were originally datives plural from

the Ionic dialect. After, however, that this at was once con-
sidered merely as an adverbial termination, and no longer as a
termination of the dative plural, it was annexed also to other
names in « as Olvfinlaai, at Olympia; nlaxaiaai^ atPlat(BCB.
;
'
Ohs. 4. The Adverbs nov, tttj, nol, o/rou, &;c. are all oblique
cases from the obsolete pronouns nog and onog. Hence also
nddev, TxdaSj nodi, as 'lUodsv, ' Illodi, 'Ilioae.
16
174
Obs. 5. Adverbs in 6sv appear to have been also old geni-
tives, or rather the termination 6ev was added to nouns as a
badge of the genitive, just as we find cpi paragogicum added to
the oblique cases of some nouns in the Poets and afterwards, ;
these forms in 6sv were used as Adverbs. In the Ionic dia-

lect dsv becomes in the Poets 6e on account of the metre. '
Obs. 6. The termination 8e (according to another pronun-

ciation, as) is generally annexed to the accusative case with-
out alteration, as olxovds^ nsdiovde, aXads, ^lagadiJ^vads. If a
precede the <5, instead of od the letter is put, as 'Adi]va'Cs for 'Q
^Ô-qvaade, QiffiaQs for Qr^Scxade, duQats for Ovguads. When

this had once obtained as the termination of words of place,
it was annexed also to other words without respect to the form
of the accusative, as OXvunln'Qe^ Movyv/talê^h-om Olvuvnia^

' ^
Movvv/ia thus also cpvyuds for eig cpvyr^v , in Homer ; o'ixads

;
and olKovde, in Homer and the Attics.

Obs. 7. The Dorians, in place of the termination (5^, used
8eg or 8ig, as ol'xadeg. Homer also has X'^f^'^-^tg in place of
%tt/iiaQF. Homer sometimes puts the termination 8s twice, as
ov86 86fxor8e^ II. n 445, &C. ,
Obs. 8. The terminations â, 6i^ oi, ai, xv and x^^^ supply
the place of the preposition ev ; those in dev and Os^ of the
preposition tx and those in 8e^ t,s, ue, of the preposition elg
;
or nQog.
Obs. 9. Some Adverbs have such an affinity, that beginning
with a Vowel, they are Indefinites, with n Interrogatives, with
T Redditives.
Indefinite. hiterrogative. Redditive.

c Which Way r Which Way? Tr,8e. f This Way
Tj, oTTi] <
^ By what ir\ < By what or < By this
t Mea
Means. t Means ? laviri, ( Means
How far. r How far So far.
^ For what rea- 71(3 } For what Rea For that Rea-
( son. (. son 1
,| son.
Sre dndre TTOTS^ TOTF^
} ^,^^^^^ When ? Then,
odsv, OTTodev, Whence. noOev, Whence ? Todev, Thence,

o6i, Where, nvdi, Where ? rod I, There.
oaot^, How much, noaoVj How much 1 TOffoy, So Much.
olov, After what TToXoVj After what ToTof, After that
Manner. Manner ? Manner,
dadxig, How often. Tioadxig, How often ? loauxig, So often.
175
ADVERBIAL PARTICLES,
Used only in Composition.
from avev^ without, as dfydgog,

'Privation,,
without water.
'c Increase, from aray, much, as ix^vXog.
•
a or ay, siffnifying<^ I
° J ° muchi wooded.
)
j i
Union, from «//«, together, as ^Xoôg, a

consort.
The following signify increase

(xQi, from diQO), to connect. igi', from ego), to connect.
/?ou, from ôvg, an ox. L,oc, iEolic for did.
§Qi', from ^QiOxjg, strong. Aa, from llav, much.
^«, from duavg, thick. Xi, (the same.)
Jvg signifies difficulty, as dvo'vvxtb), to he un-

happy.
Ne and vrj signify privation^ like the Latin ne,
as r7^2,£t]g, without pity.
PREPOSITIONS.
Six are Monosyllables : £ig, £X or eg, eV, 7r^6,
TTôg, aw.
Twelve Dissyllables aâ^^l, ava, aw, anh, dia,
:
ETcl,xard, fierce, naqa, Tceql, vjceQ, V7t6.

In composition, ^ve of these increase the sig-
nification Eig, BK or ej, oriui/, ttcÎ, vtveq.
:
Six sometimes increase, and sometimes change

avtl, ccTcb, dia, xara, naqa, nqbg.
One diminishes: vrco.
One changes : fiera.
CONJUNCTIONS
are exhibited with the Moods, to which they are
joined, in the SYNTAX.
176
Preliminary Observations on the
GREEK SYNTAX.
The following remarks on the general principles of con-
struction are given previous to thecommon rules of Syntax,
for the benefit of the more advanced student. They will be
found to contain a much more liberal view of the language,
than that which is given by resorting to the doctrine of El-
lipses.
I. GENITIVE.
The Greek language takes a much wider range in its use
of the genitive case than the Latin. In Greek, words of all
kinds may be followed by other \W)rds in the genitive, when
the latter class limit and show in ivhat respect the meaning of
the former is to be taken.
In the case of Verbs : as Âdrjvouoi ê, &g nodcov bIx^'^j ^ôi^-
deov^ " the Athenians brought relief, as they had themselves
vnth respect to their feet, i. e. " as fast as they could run ;"
''^
>caX(l)g exeiv fêdrjg^ " to have one's self well with respect to in-
toxication," i. e. " to be pretty drunk ;" <hg kxdnsQog tig evvolag
^ [xvrif.irjg exoi, " as each one had himself with respect to favour
or remembrance," i. e. " as each one wished well to a party
or remembered the past ;" el rixeiv tov §iov, " to have come
on well with respect to the means of subsistence," i. e. " to
be in prosperous circumstances InelyEodab agrjog, " to urge
;"
one's self on with respect to the fight," i. e. " to be eager for

the fight ;" dvUvoct trig icpddov, " to slacken with respect to
one's approach," i. e. " to slacken in one's approach ;"
acpdXXsaOui iXnldog, " to be deceived with respect to hope," i. e.
" to be deceived in one's hope ;" xuTiayct t^? xeqiaXrig, " I
am broken with respect to my head," i. e. "I have broken my
head."
In the case of Adjectives: as avyyvibfioiv tu>v ^vOqwuIvohv dfi^
agrriuttjoiv, «'forgiving with respect to human errors ;" cinaig

fgaevog yovou, " childless with respect to male offspring ;"
Tifirig S^Tifiog n&arjg euioi, " let him be unhonoured with respect
to all honour," i. e. " let all respect be denied him ;" ^yyvQ
trig n6Xs(og, " near with respect to the city," i. e. " near the
city ;" ^vvinsaov ig rovxo dcpdyxr]g, " they fell into this with
respect to necessity," i. e. " they fell into this necessity ;"

is Toaovjo ftlaovg Îdov, *'
they came to so much with respect to
177
hatred," i. e. " they fell into so much hatred ;" iv Toim rta-
âxevrig âav, " they were in this state ivith respect to prepa-
ration," i. e. " they were in this state of preparation ;" y^
nXela xanwv^ «< a land full with respect to evils," i. e. " full of
evils ;" agfia xsvov iivloxov, " a chariot empty with respect to
a driver," i. e. " without a driver ;" /nsltcai^ nargog, " greater
with respect to his father," i. e. " greater than his father."
The principles to be deduced from all this are easy and
natural.
1. That all v/ords which represent a situation or operation
of the mind which is directed to an object, but without affecting
it, are followed by a genitive such are the verbs " to re-
;
member," " to forget," " to concern one's self about any

thing," "to neglect," "to consider," "to reflect," "to under-
stand," " to be desirous of," &c. and the adjectives " expe-
;
rienced," " ignorant," " remembering," " desirous," &:c.

2. All words which indicdte fulness, to be full, defect, empti-
ness, &c. are followed by a genitive because the word which
;
expresses of what any thing is full or empty, indicates the

respect in which the signification of the governing word is
taken. Under this head fall the adjectives " full," " rich,"
" abounding in," " empty," " deprived of," " destitute of;" the
verbs " to fill," " to want," " to bereave," " to deliver," " to
desist from," " to cease from ;" adverbs denoting abundance,
want, sufliciency, deprivation, &c.
3. The same original signification of the genitive appears
to be the basis of the construction of the comparative with the
genitive thus fiettojv Tjargog signified, " greater with respect
:
to his father." From this construction, all words which in-

volved a comparison, took the object of this comparison in the
genitive such are verbs which signify " to surpass," or the
:
contrary, " to be surpassed," " to be inferior to another ;" as

&c. those also w^hich signify "to rule,"
nsqiylvoficxi, riirao/iiui, ;
or the opposite, together with many verbs which are derived

from substantives, and are equivalent to the primitive with the
substantive verb, as xvgievsiv, (âvgiog fTrai) noigapslv, (^xolga-
;
vog slfai) agêiv, {agxMv eh'oci)

; : —
such again are adjectives
and substantives in which the same idea of government
is im-
plied ; as " master over pleasure ;" i^xtwc
iyygdrrig ridovric,
-fldoprig, " a slave to pleasure ;" rirra lov n6f.mTog, " defeat by
means of drinking," i. e. " intemperance in drinking ;" iyttgd-

rata novou, " mastery over labour."
To this same head must be referred all words which imply
a comparison with respect to value, or require a definition of
value as, for example, aîog, which properly signifies " equi-
;
16*
178
valent," " equal in value ;" so that &îov tovtov, which we com-
monly render " worthy of this," strictly rendered would be,
" equal in value with respect to this-" Hence too the adjec-
tive uvdîog, and the adverbial forms dîiog and dpa^lutg take
the genitive ; and hence, moreover, this case is joined with all
words in which a determination of value is contained ; as, for
example, verbs signifying " to buy," " to sell," " to exchange,"
&c. On this is founded the general rule — " The price of a
thing is put in the genitive."
And head belong all words which express a
lastly, to this
difference, and in which, of course, a comparison is implied,
as dioc(poQog, stegog^ aXXog, ullolog, dXloigiog thus, dnjccpogof lov-
:
70V, " different with respect to this," i. e. " different from this ;"
hsQov Toviov, " other with respect to this," i. e. " other than
this."
4. From the meaning of the genitive " tvith respect to" we
deduce also the general meaning of the cause of any thing's
being done, in which case the genitive is to be rendered by
" on account of." Thus, with Verbs ûpuwv xe/oXumifotj
:
*' enraged on account

of the Greeks," i. e. " with the Greeks;"
nsvdiicibg c/ouaa toO dtJeAgjoD ledvrjKoiog, " melancholy on ac-
count of the death of her brother ;" cpdovelv tivL uoq)iug, " to
envy any one on account q/* wisdom ;" 6v8iSlaai tuS 6eQ, tovtoji'^
" to upbraid the god on account of these things." Hence
the genitive is found with verbs signifying " to accuse," " to
criminate," with verbs of praying, with verbs of beginning;
the genitive being that of the person or thing, on account of
which the accusation is made, the prayer offered up, or the
affair begun. So too the genitive stands alone in exclama-
tions, with and without an interjection, or a word that ex-
presses admiration, indignation, compassion, &c. as ^'AtcoIIov^ ;
-lov _;âCT^rj,aaTO^, " Apollo what a swallow !" ^Sl Zsv âadev,
!
TTjg XenTdirjTog xwv " O king Jupiter

(pgevibv, the acuteness of!
his mind!" " the misfortune !" In all the instances

Trig xv/rig,
above enumerated under this head, and in others of a similar
nature, the Grammarians very unnecessarily supply sfsna, or
some equivalent term.
11. The second principal relation which is expressed by the
genitive, is that of the proportion of a whole to its parts in ;
other words, the genitive is put partitively This use is com-

.
mon to theGreek, the Latin, and other languages, except that

in Greek has a much more extensive range. Thus, in the
it
latter language the genitive is put with Verbs of all kinds, even
with those which govern the accusative, when the action does
not refer to the whole object, but only to a part. This is ex-
179
pressed in English by the omission of the article in the singti-
lar, or by the word " some ;" as, n&aas <5' dXo?, " he sprinkled
salt over it ;" omrâui xgeiav, " to roast some of the flesh ;"
iyCi oida joyp i/uwv riUxnajibv^ " I know some of those of the
same age with myself; ^vadelv %b)v TuiPiiby top ^wx^cixiyv,

" to bind Socrates with some of the fillets ;" —
r^g y^S axefiov,
" they laid waste apart of the land." On the like principle the
genitive is put with many other verbs which signify partici-
pation, or in which at least this idea is implied such are the :
verbs /usxexeif, xoirwpelVj avkXa/iSdcvsiVj fiiteaTt, ngoa-^xsiv^ [le-
Upon this principle of the reference to a part, is founded

the construction by which, with the verbs " to take," " to
seize," " to touch," " to carry," &c. the part by which any
thing is taken is put in the genitive, while the whole is put in
the accusative; as ihjiGovjo trig t^wprjg top OqovjtjPj "they took
—
Orontes by the girdle." The same construction is retained
also with the verbs which signify the opposite of " to take,"
or " to seize," viz. " to let go," " to loose," " not to obtain any
thing," " to miss," &c. ; as ucpieTai tov doQaiog, " he lets go
the spear ;" whereas <iq)itpat, xb 86qv in the accusative, would
signify, " he hurls the spear ;" in the first, reference being
made to a part, in the latter, to the whole.
Upon this principle also arises the construction of the su-
perlative with the genitive, the substantive being put in that
case which marks the class from which the superlative takes
the chief one as a part.
III.The genitive is used also to mark the person or thing
to which any thing belongs, whether it be a property, or qua-
lity, habit, duty, &c. and those also from which any thing
;
arises. Probably here also an obscure idea of the relation of

this quality, duty, &c. to that which possesses it, as of a part
to the whole, is the basis of the construction. Hence the
common rules, that "verbs Aervoiing possession, property, duty,
&c. govern the genitive," and that the ^^ material of which any
thing ismade is put in the genitive."
IV. The genitive
is also put with verbs compounded with
prepositions which govern the genitive, that is to say, when
these prepositions may be separated from the verb, and placed
immediately before the case, without altering the signification
of the verb as dPTinagexsip xl xipog, for naga/sip xt ApxL xipog
;
;
anonijdap UQ/uaxog, for nrjdixp uq) ag/uaxog ^îQXBudat, oixlag,

;
for sQ/ecfdai e'l oixlag not, however, upxdeyeip xipdg, " to

:
contradict any one," for xiri because Xiyeip dvxi xiPog, would
;
give an entirely different sense, viz. " to speak in the place

of any one."
180
V. The genitive serves also to determine place and aW, in
answer to the questions, '< where ?" " when ?" &c. Hence
the adverbs ou, ttoO, ottou, tijêre .''
which are, in fact, old geni-
tives, and refer to part of general place and of general time.
2. DATIVE.
The Dative in Greek expresses two senses, one that of the
Dative in other languages, answering to the question, " to
whom ?" and another that of the Latin ablative.
I. The Dative expresses the distant object of a transitive
or intransitive action, with reference to which this action takes

place. It answers thus, in most cases, as in Latin and Eng-
lish, to the question, " towhom ?" as didorai il jivi^ " to give
any thing to neideadai nvt, " to obey any one."
any one ;"
Thus also with adjectives cplXog tivl^ ^x^Q^? Tti^t, svvovg nvi,
:
&c. A
larger proportion of verbs, however, are joined with
the Dative in Greek than in Latin.
II. The Greek Dative also supplies the place of the Latin
Ablative, and in this case expresses the relation of connexion
or companionship, in answer to the questions, " with whom ?"
" with what ?" of an instrument or mean in answer to the
question " whereby ?" of an impulse or excitement, " from
what ?" of an external cause, " by what means ?" " on what
account ?" " for what ?" &c.
III. TheDative expresses the relation of the measure, de-
gree, &;c. with the comparative. Hence the Datives noAA<y,
dhyC), ^QocxsT, with the comparative.
IV. It is put in definitions of time and place, in answer to
the question " when ? and where ?"
3. ACCUSATIVE.
The Accusative, as in other languages, marks the person
or thing which is affected by the action of the accompanying
Verb, i. e. which suffers a change of any kind. The Verbs
which govern an accusative are hence called Verbs active or
transitive, i. e. which show an action passing on to an object,
and affecting and determining it in any actual manner. There
are, however, other verbs not properly transitive, which yet
govern an accusative in Greek this is particularly the case
;
in those verbs which do not mark the passive object of the

action, but the object to which the action has only generally
an immediate reference ; as nQoayvveli-, 8oovq)OQeiv, asGeTv, cpOu-
vBiv^ imrqoTTBiusiv, indeinsiv, &c. In these and others of a
181
similar nature, the construction with the Dative would appear
to be the most natural One.
II. Many verbs which signify an emotion, or feeling, with
regard to an object, as, " to be ashamed," " afraid," " to cpm-
passionate any one," are accompanied by an accusative, which
expresses the object, and at the same time the effective cause
of this emotion as, ataxvvofxui, xbv Qeov, " I revere the Deity,"
;
aldeladixnovg aqx^ving^ "to respect rulers;" inoiHTslQioviv^ "I

compassionate him ;" vfiag Msfb, " I pity you." The same
takes place with some neuter verbs which express an emotion,
although, even without indicating the object, they convey a
perfect idea; such are (jcXyslv, daQqelv^ inixuiQslv^ &c.
Many verbs have the accusative not only of the nearer and
more immediate object of the action, but also of the more
remote object of it, i. e. the person or thing to which the
action with its immediate object passes, which in English
is generally expressed by a dative as el or x(xyt(i>g notelp rtv<i^
;
*' to do good or harm to any one ;" el or xaxwg Xiysiv ripd, " to
speak well or ill of any one." Hence these verbs often take
two accusatives at the same time such are noislp, nQdizeiy,
:
(5â^, eodsip^ " to do;" Xiysii', slitslv^ ^yoQsvsiv, "to speak of,
or, against ;" i^wzav, " to ask," attelv^ dnattEiVy " to ask," " to
require," " to desire ;" dLcpaiQEladui^ dnoarsQeiv^ Slc. "to take
away," " to deprive of a thing ;" dtduaxsiv^ " to teach ;" ixdv-
aai, ivdvaat, " to put off" or" on," &C.
Other uses of the accusative are enumerated under the rules
of Syntax.
SYNTAX. I Library,
THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VEKB.
The Nominative Case is the subject of the
Verb ; as, ^
1. With regard to the Personal Pronouns as Nominatives, they are

seldom expressed unless some emphasis is required. In other cases also
the Nominative to the Verb is omitted, where' the verb expresses an
action usually performed by the agent denoted by the nominative as ;
aa\m^£i, the trumpeter gives a signal ; the noun aaXmKrfis being implied
182
A Verb agrees with its nominative in Number

and Person ; as,
^coxQdxTjg eq)i], Socrates said.
'
OcpdaXfito X&fxnerov^ His two eyes shine.
Kat(^dov(Tt,p ogvtdeg, Birds sing.
A Neuter plural is generally joined with a Verb

Singular ; as,
^' Oqea tqe/us, Mountains trembled.^
from the verb. So also cKfipvê (scil. 6 K^pv(), the herald made proclama-
tion. This usage also prevails where in English we supply it, and an
operation of nature or of circumstances is indicated, as vei, it rains
{vid. Syntax of Impersonal Verbs.) Instances, on the other hand, fre-
quently occur, where the nominative stands without a verb in thesCj ;
some part of eh ai is generally understood; as"EX>r7i/ eyCo, I am a Greeks

supply £J/<t.. This is most frequently the case with eVoi/ô?, and with
verbals in tcov. The most remarkable construction, however, is that
in which the nominative is converted into an accusative, and made to
depend upon another verb as olSa ac rig eI, I know thee who thou art, for
;
o26a Tis <rv £?, I know who thou art. So also ^6ee yap Kara Ovuov dSsXfedDy ws
^roi/eiro, for wj inovziro d5i\<p6i. Hom.
1. As a Noun of multitude Singular may be followed by a Verb Plu-
ral, so a Neuter Plural is often taken in a collective sense, and follow-
ed by a Verb Singular. Thus when Homer says Sovpa oitrnne, he means
the collection of planks and timber, with which the ships were constructed.
The Plural Noun is sometimes Masculine or Feminine, but it is
used in a collective sense as dx^XraL djxipai uekioiv, Pindar SiSoKrat
; ;
rMiioves (j)vyai, Euripides. Heyne has altered tne passages in Pindar

where this construction occurs; but see Herm.-de Metris, p. 246. seqq.
and also Boeckh's edition of Pindar, where the common readings are
defended and retained. The Grammarians call this schema Pindari-
cimi, and, Bocotium.
This idiom is more observed by the Attics than by the older writers
in the Ionic and Doric dialects. The latter often join the neuter plural
with a plural verb; as, oiVs n vmv SpKia tcaovrai. 11. x, '^^- dufixava —
epya yevovro, 11. X', 310. The sclioliasts, in commenting on these passages,
observe, that they are constructed apxa'^xCig. The Attics also sometimes
join the neuter plural with the plural verb, especially in two cases; 1.
when the neuter plural signifies living persons : 3. when the abstract
is put for the concrete, and anim-ate creatures, not things, are referred
to.— PerhapsJ®e constructions of neuters plural with singular verbs
may beî^fttnted for on the principle of the association of ideas
neuter afflPânimate objects being considered generally, but animate
agents individually.
This construction is not confined to the Greek language. It is^re-
quent in the Hebrew: see Exodus xxi. 4. Job. xii. 7. Isaiah ii. 11.
Psalm Ixxxiii. 7, &c. In French this mode is common in every Gen-
der in an Impersonal for#: 11 est des hommes, il est des femmes. But
the Verb in that case precedes the Nominative, il vient de sonner dix
heures ; if the Nominative precedes, it has a Verb Plural, dix heures
viennent de sonner.
183
A Dual Nominative is sometimes joined with

a verb Plural ; as.
"'A^cpat Xiyovat Both say-^
SUBSTANTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE.

Substantives signifying the same thing agree
in Case ; as,
Kva^dgrjg, 6 naig rov Âaivdyov, Cyaxares, the son of Asty-
1, In prose this construction is general.

In the same manner a Dual Substantive, as it signifies more than
one, may have an adjective Plural but the Verb or Adjective can sel-
;
dom be of the Dual number, when the Noun implies more than two.
Battm^nn {Ausf. Gr. Gr. vol. 1. p. 135.) makes the Dual to have been
an old form ofthe 'plural, which became gradually restricted to the de-
noting of two. Hence in the earlier state of the language we do ac-
tually find the Dual used when more than two are meant. This is
strongly corroborated by the imitations of later writers, as Aratus, 968
Oppian, 1, 72. According to Gluintilian (1, 5, 42.) some persons in his
time wished to consider the Latin forms in ere, of the third person plu-
ral of the perfect, as dual forms in contradistinction to those in erunt.
The attempt did not succeed but it serves to show, however, that the
;
separate use of a dual form in Greek owed its origin, no doubt, to a

similar though more successful effort on the part of the early Greek
Grammarians.
2. One is frequently understood, when some inti-
of the Substantives
mate and usual relation expressed, as 'A\iâv6poi h (îXiinrov, Alex-
is
ander the son of Philip, supply vldi or Traij ; 'O'kvfj.TTidg h 'A'XiâvSpov,
Olympias the mother of Alexander, supply iinrrip. So also h Tkjj^povktkov,
the' son of Sophroniscus ; h ruv TXavKOi (sc. dvyaTrjp), the daughter of
Glaucus ; eis rhv îX'nfiTov (sc. x'^pav^, into the land of Philip; ra Ttjs
of the city. The ellipsis of some case of

ffoXfwj (sc. TrpayixaTo), the affairs
vlosor naTi is very common in tracing genealogies, while, on the other
hand, the omissions of dvydrrip is much less frequent. Thus, Qvyarspa
61 avTiiv \cyov<n elvai A-VTea-itJuog, rov TiaaiAcvov, tov OspoavSpov, tov Jlo^vveiKeos.
They say that she was a daughter of Autesion, who was the son of Tisa-
menes, who was the son of Thersander, who was the son of Pohjiiices.
Herod. Moreover, as o in the singular refers to vlog or Trar? under-
stood, so o[ in the plural indicates an ellipsis of v\o\ or Trarêj. Thus,
ol yovioyv 6imf\jioiv, (sc. TrarJe?,) the SOUS of distinguished families. Plut.
The presence or absence of the article, in these forms of construction,
makes an important difference in the sense for example, Sw/cjodr*?? 6Saj-
;
^povidKov, implies that Socrates was either the only son of Sophroniscus,
or else that he was that Socrates who had Sophroniscus for his father, in
order to be distinguished from others of the same name, and who were
the sons of other parents whereas Lwx-pdr;?? Sw^povto-xov, means that he
;
had Sophroniscus for his father and not some one else. Hence this lat-
ter form is used in pleadings, decrees, &c. wherever a strict and legal
designation of an individual is required.
184
THE SUBSTANTIVE AND THE ADJECTIVE.

An Adjective agrees with its Substantive in
Gender, Number, and Case ; as,
"Avdqsg dcyadol. Good men.

'Ofidtat xaxal. Evil communications.
'Edpsa noXla. Many nations.^
To this rule belong Articles, Pronominal Adjectives, and

Participles.
An Adjective of the MascuHne Gender is some-

times found with a Feminine Substantive ; as,
Tw yvvalxe, Xenoplion, The two women?
1. The Adjective is often found without any substantive with which

it agrees, the latter having been omitted, or being easy to be supplied
by the mind. In this case the Adjective is said to be used substantively,
as 6 ao(f>6i, the wise man, suppl. avrip ;^ avv6()0i, the desert, suppl. yri ; ol
xoWol, the multitude, suppl. dvOpunroi; TO. Ifxa, my property, suppl. ^pfinara.
So also the Pronouns ovmg, ckeivos, rig, &c.
2. The Attic construction is used in order to generalize the sense, as
Oeds and Deus are applied to both sexes for a divine, avGpunos and homo,
for a human, person. Thus ducente Deo in Virgil refers to Venus, and
avTt^v rriv Qeov, in Herodotus, to Minerva. Perhaps also this form is
adopted to dignify the female sex. On this principle, when a woman
speaks of herself in the Plural Number, a mode of speech adopted by
the great, she uses the Masculine Gender: as ol TrpoOvficKnvres, Eurip.
spoken by Alcestis of herself; ktzvovhev, oJ-tp e^£(i>vaai.tev, hy Medea;
TraOovrEi, viâprriKOTeg, Sophocles, by Antigone. Thus, also, when a cho-
rus of women speak of themselves. This mode is confined to the Dual
d Plural. But if a woman speaks of herself in the Singular, she
ês the Feminine Gender and also when she speaks of the Fem.ale
;
race in general: as 'Kpanara, rr,v evdsTav {'o6ov) Tre(pvKafjicv aoipal fxaXicTa.

T]
Eurip, Med. The direct road is the best in which we women are natu-
rally most skilled. The Coryphaea, as the representative of the chorus,
appears sometimes to have used the masculine gender with the singu-
lar number, as in Euripides, Hippol. 1107. The Masculine Article is
joined with a Feminine Noun in the Dual only.
Compound and Derivative Adjectives in o? are considered by the
Attic writers as of two terminations, consequently used as Feminine

as well as Masculine,
Comparatives and Superlatives of three terminations sometimes ex-
press the Feminine by the Masculine termination : as, dnopurepos h
Xfupig, Thucydides. So also, in the same writer, h'aenPo'XfoTepos AoKpis. r,
These comparatives are thus used by Thucydides, because the radical

adjective of the positive is common or of tM-o terminations. It is, after
all, however, a very rare construction, since comparatives and super-
latives of adjectives which are common, or of those which are used as
common, have usually three terminations.
185
r
A Substantive is sometimes used as an Adjec-
tive ; as,
rlâuav 'ElX&da idldaê^ Her. He taught the Greek Ian.'
guage}
The Substantive is often changed into a Ge-

nitive Plural, preceded by a Pronoun or Arti-
cle; as,
01 dcyadoi twv dv8Q(bv, Isocrates, Honourable men.^
THE ARTICLE.
The Article is used to mark a distinction or
emphasis. With the Infinitive it supplies the
place of Nouns, Gerunds, and Supines. With
a Participle, it is translated by the Relative and
Indicative. With utv and dt it signifies partly,
and is often used for ornament ; as,
2fc__
When the Adjective put in the Neuter after a difFerent Gender,
is
XPW'^ is understood ashf)d6v h a^^rideia, Soph.

; Thus triste Inputs stabu-
lis, Virg. The ellipsis is sometimes supplied, as ri xp^'l"^ ^pdcrus Soph.
;
We must not, however, suppose that %fi7/'«, or some equivalent term,

is always understood since it frequently happens, that the neuter gen-
:
der is used by the writer simply because the thing mentioned has no
proper predicate, or because one does not immediately suggest itself to
the mind. vid. Herm. ad Viger. p. 575.
1. So Jlcus anus, Pliny, An old Jig-tree. This combination is com-
mon in English thus, sea-water, house-dog. 'EXXas may be considered
;
as an Adjective used as a Substantive.

2. So nigrce lanarum nullum colorem bibunt, Plin.
This construction is also found, in Attic writers, in the Singular, as
rfiv nXELcrrriv Tfjg crTpartSi, Thuc.
In the Greek idiom the Genitive of the Persona] is used instead of
the Possessive Pronouns, as rhv uriApa fiov n^s?, Xen. You honour my
mother. But the latter are sometimes found with the article, particu-
larly in the orators, as nV h/iopoiav riw ineripav ol noWoi j.u(70v(Tt, IsOC.
But wherever any emphasis is required, the Possessive and not the
Personal Pronoun must be used. Hence, in the Lord's prayer, the
phrase Harep fijXMv denotes that God is the father of the whole human
race; and is equivalent to Father of us {all.) Whereas narep fiidrEps
would be emphatic, and consequently improper, denoting, our Father,
and implying that God is the Father of (pily a part of his creatures.
Most commonly, however, the Possessiv'^.is altogether omitted in ideas
that always stand in necessary connexion,' as those of natural relations,
father, son, friend; hand, foot, &c.; and its place is supplied by the
Article alone.
17
186
Aluxv'ôg 6 xQuyfodbg, jEschylus, the tragedian.
To. £^w, The things vnthout.
''Ev tqJ cpgovelf, In wisdom.
'0 igxojLiei'og, He that cometh.
T yivog,
rfi /nev ^yadbv^ lij dk (paiXov, Mankind
<j(v6Q(b7i£iov
are partly good and partly bad.

"H fixTj vixrâaaa rbv xodfxov -^ nlartg, Faith, the victory
-fi
vhich overcomes the world.
THE RELATIVE AND THE ARTICLE.

The Relative often agrees with its Antecedent
in case, by attraction ; as,
"El' TaTg soQTalg, aig riyofiev, Aristophanes, In the festivals^
which we celebrated.^
The Article is poetically used for the Rela-

tive; as,
Um^q, 8 a* ^rgsips, Horn. Your father who educated you-
The
Article in the Neuter Gender, before a
Genitive, signifies elliptically possession or rela-
Hon; as,
'
Gebg xd twv divdqwnMv dioixsT, Isoc. God directs the affairs
of men?
THE GENITIVE.^
One
Substantive governs another, signifying
a different thing, in the Genitive; as,
1. As \\iQ Relative and the Article have the same origin, as they are
frequently used the one for the other, and the Feminine in both is dis-
tinguished only by the accent, they are joined under one head.
2. This is called attraction, as the Antecedent attracts the Relative
into its case. This Attic form has been imitated in Latin <S4 quid ;
agas eorum, quorurti consuesti, Cicero.

The»Relative, in this construction, sometimes precedes the Substan-
tive as, (xvv
; £;^£is Svvdjjia, Xen.
1} The principle of attraction pervades
the whole Greek language, and is based upon the association of ideas
in the mind of the writer.
3. Sometimes the ellipsis is supplied, as to. tujv Orjâiav -Kpaynara KUKwi
£;Êi, Isoc.
In some cases the relation between the Article and the Noun follow-
ing is so close, that the distinction of the property and the thing itself
is scarcely perceptible, asto-a riis rixî dêiag exsi rag ixcraô'Xas, Fortune
has sudden revolutions. Tmis to indv, to. if-ia, are sometimes equivalent
'
to cyi), &C.
4. The primary signification of the Genitive is the origin, or cause,
from which a thing proceeds, or possession. To these may be traced
SiXag, riXioVy Light of the sun.
An Adjective in the Neuter Gender, without

a Substantive, governs the Genitive ; as,
To XoLTcbv {usQog) ttjj r^Bqag^ The rest of the day.
Adjectives signifying plenty^ worthy condemna-

tw?i, power ^ and their contraries ; and those which
sio-nify an emotion of the mind ; require the Geni-
tive ;^ as,
'"Eqya nXslajov ^|ta, Works worthy of the highest value.

T(bv /aXeTrwv ansigog diaSuoari^ You shall live without trouble."
rvfivuoia fxsaia (jcvdgwv^ Places of exercise full of men.
'Afctitiog acpQoavyrjg, Not blameable for imprudence.
The matter of which a thing is made, and

also the measure of a thing, are put in the Geni-
tive ; as,
Tbv dicpqov tnolijasv laxvQ(av ^vXcjv, Xen. He built the cha-

riot of strong wood."^
or
Cost or value, crime
eminence, are put in Ipfe, Genitive ;
^
punishment, difference
as,
most of the uses to which that case is applied. But in construction, it

must depend either on a Substantive, or a Preposition, expressed or
understood, {vid. Preliminary remarks on the Greek Syntax.)
1. To this rule a clause is commonly added which states, that verbals
compounded with the privative a, also govern the genitive. The truth
is, however, that in such constructions the genitive is merely the more
exact definition of the idea contained in the adjective, and is to be ex-
plained by the general principles of the language for the privative a,
;
cannot well designate either the genitive or any other case.

2. The genitive of the material is considered by some Grammarians
as depending on U or 0.1:0 understood, and an argument in favôur of
this ellipsis is drawn from the circumstance of ek and dird being some-
times found expressed. In all such passages as these, however, the
presence of a preposition seems to be required in order to express a
stronger and more direct reference to the material than could be done
by the common construction, especially if a passive participle be like-
wise used thus, n-Xora Ik rPjs dKCLvOrji TTOtsVjUva. Hcrod. Ovpri eK ixvpiKrjs ttc-
;
TT0U}jxi.i>r]. Herod. 'i6Q.a £5 ddajiavToq T£rcvyjxi.va. Theocr. e'lfxaTa drrd ^vXmv ire-
vnnixtva. Herod. The true principle on which the genitive of the ma-
terial depends will be found explained in the Preliminary Remarks.
Sometimes the dative is used for the genitive, when the material of
which any thing is made may be considered also as the means by which
it is made ; as, al [xlv yap KcpaEaai TSr£vx_o-Tai, al 6' tkitpavri. Od, t', 503,
188
Jbg aîdv t^/ziv dgaxfirig, Anacreon, Give him to us for nine
pence.^
rgdcpo/uul ue ôi'/îoig, Lysias,
I accuse you of adultery?
^lacpiQOjy aXXuv, Plato, Different from the others.
rtb*'
X&qfiu n&vxbiv imxîov, Pindar, joy surpassing all. A

Eipl and yivoâi, signifying possession, proper-
ty, or duty, govern the Genitive ; as,
'0 niTtQaaxoêvog hegov yLpsrat,, He, who is sold, becomes the
property of another.
Fart of time is put in the Genitive ; as,

fGegovg re x«t jiêt^wyog, Xen. In summer and winter.^
Exclamations of grief and surprise are put in

the Genitive ; as,
Trig fjuQlag, Aristoph. What folly !^
1. The principle on which this construction depends has been ex-
plained in the Preliminary Remarks, The prepositions derr, with the
genitive, sometimes accompanies the verbs signifying " to exchange,''^
whenever a stronger or more direct reference to the thing or things ex-
changed is required than can be given by the common construction
thus, KaWiov iariv olvt'l 9vrirov ffdJiiaroi ddavarov 66âv dvTiKaray.Xaâcrdai kcI
^vxvv. Isocr. On the same principle, of a stronger reference, the same
verbs are used occasionally with Tpos and an accusative as, r,iûvag ;
Trpvs rjSovai, Kill Xvirag Trpd? "Xv-rras Koi (p60ov KaraWaTTECfdai. PlatO. Instead of
the genitive the dative also is put as, ei/uXAaâo-a (p6vov <pavdTM. Eurip.
;
2. This genitive is besides often accompanied by other substantives, or

prepositions, on which it depends ; thus, xpsvyeiv in airia <p6pov. De-
mosth, iypaxparo (^fit) tovtmv avraiv IfEKa. Plut. ypacpeaOai riva ypa(pin> (poi'ov
Tpavitaros. ,£schin. dnoypa(p£a-9ai <p6vov SUrji: Antiph. Other verbs of
accusing, &c. are, on account of the nature of their composition, dif-
ferently constructed. Those compounded with Kara take the person in
the genitive, and the crime, or the punishment, in the accusative as ;
KamyopeTv n Ttv6s: the Verb lyKoXcXv has the person in the dative, and
the crime in the accusative as iyKoKwv J' ejiol (bovovs. Soph.
; The pu-
nishment sometimes in the genitive, yet seldom any word ex-
is also
cept CavnTov aS, Kal Onvarov Si ovTOt Kpivovai. Xen. avOpcorrMV KaTnxprjfKrdEi'-
;
Tiov davarov <pyyTii. Plato.

ii The adjective ivoxoi, which properly is
constructed with the dative, sometimes takes the genitive as, ov6ds ;
euoxos t(TTi XeiTTOTaîov ovSi SeiXiag. Lys. It takes also the genitive of the
punishment; as, cvoxoi Scdfiov yeyovaai. Demosth,
3. This is governed by cm, sometimes expressed, as U' hn^pm. Her.
When the Dative is used, it is governed by iv understood, and some-
times expressed as, Iv rw Avtm Oipei, Thuc. The ellipsis of itcl is a con-
;
venient one for the young student; the philosophical principle, how-
ever, on which this use of the genitive is founded, seems to be in reality
the reference to a part of time. vid. Preliminary Remarks. See also
the notes to the rule for the genitive absolute,
4. 0(//ot is often prefixed, as oXiioi rdv Ko/fwy, Aristoph, i. e. hiKu. (vid.
Preliminary Remarks.
189
Comparatives are followed by a Genitive ; as,
\4vctQxôL9 j"£t KP^ oin âii xaxov, Sophocles, There is no

greater evil than anarch]/.^
Partitives, Comparatives, Superlatives, Inter-

rogatives, and Numerals, govern the Genitive,
Plural; as, i
Mdvog ^QOiav^ The only one of mortals.

01 veojrsQOi, dvOgibnuv^ The younger of men.
KiXXiaTog noTa/awv, The most beautiful of rivers.
Verbs signifying the senses, are followed by a

Genitive, excepting verbs of sight, which require
the Accusative ; as,
Trov âgr-uQiov dHrjXoaTS, Isoc. You have heard the witnesses.''^
1. Most Grammarians make the genitive of comparison depend on

aiTi orTrp6 understood. Sometimes these prepositions are expressed ;
as, liciôva avTi rijs avrov naTpas. Soph. dvrl tov raôvs Kpeiaaui. Eurip,
olaiv i) rvpavvls vQo iXivdepiris rjv da-aaTOTtpov. Herod. In these and Other
similar constructions, however, the preposition will be found to impart
a force to the comparison which it would not otherwise possess; and
hence the reason of its being added. The true principle on which ihe
genitive of comparison depends will be found stated in the Preliminary
Remarks.
2. Verbs of seeing always govern an Accusative." Many of the
others likewise govern an Accusative with the Attic writers. The
Verb Akovm most commonly governs the Accusative of the sound, and
the Genitive of that which produces it; but neither without exception.
The use of the Accusative after verbs of seeing, seems to have arisen
from the circumstance, of the Greeks considering the eye as deriving
its images from its own operations on the objects presented to it
whereas the other senses were supposed to be acted, upon by external
objects, not to act upon them. When the Attics therefore made other
verbs than those of sight govern an accusative, they ascribed to them-
selves, from a feeling of national vanity, a greater refinement in all
the organs of sense than was supposed to be possessed by their neigh-
bours, for they placed hearing^ &c. on a level with sight, and made the
former senses as active in their operations on external objects as the
faculty of vision.
'AKov<î, signifying to hear one's self called, or simpiy to he called, has
the construction of Verbs of existence as ovt dKovaoîai koIkos, Soph.
;
Ii is often used with the Adverbs ev, kokcSs, and (caXol?, and followed by
iiro or napa with a Genitive as KUKMi axoveiv vvo ruiv no\iTO)v, Isoc.
;
Thus Cicero, Est hominis ingenui telle bene audire ab omnibus. So

Milton, Or hearst thou rather pure etherial stream. Perhaps the con-
struction of aKovu) as a Verb of existence, may be explained on the prin-
ciple of the IN'cniinative with the Infinitive as dKovzi LanaQeiTt]? Kai Jai-
;
17*
190
Ogi^g ohv aal yvpalxctg ^^w tov negiôlov iairjxvlag ; Cebes.
Do you see then also females standing without the enclosure ?
Verbs of beginnings admiring^ wanting remem- ^
hering, and the like, with their contraries, govern

the Genitive ;^ as,
^^^^;^5Te ûxoXtxag f'xoidag, Theocr. Begin the pastoral strain.
Tig oi>x dtv dydaaiTO trig aêxTj? ; Dem. Who would not ad-
mire virtue 1
To igixv twv u(a(fq6v(x)v ^ iEsch. To love the discreet.
*A(iilst,g tibv q)iXCov, Xen. You neglect your friends.
Verbs derived from Comparatives, or in v^hich

the idea of Comparison is involved, together
with many verbs coming from nouns, and equi-
valent in meaning to the primitive with a verb,
require the Genitive ; as,
Hnaadai To be inferior to any one.
rivog, Xen.
'YaTsgrjas Xen. He arrived after the battle.
trig ficcxr/g,
'ExvQijivvevB Koqivdov, Herod. He was king of Corinth.
*EUysTO lovTbiv dgxîf, Xen. He was said to command these
The Genitive is put with verbs of all kinds,

even with those which govern an Accusative,
when the action does not refer to the whole ob-
ject, but to a part ; as,
ndaas d' dUg, Horn. He sprinkled some salt.
*
OnjriuaL Horn.
icQB(bv, To roast some flesh.
Trig yrig hEfiov, Thuc They laid waste a part of the country.
Êyo) olda tcov ifiMv ri'UxiojTCjVj Plato. / know some of those
of the same age as myself.
A Noun and Participle are put absolute in the

Genitive;^ as,
'HXiov TsXXovrog, Soph. The sun rising.
novuv, He a Samaritan and a demoniac ; for ukovsi avrog ovofia^ta-

is called
6ai, or K\T)9rjvat, Tionapdrrii xal Saijiovojv, he hears himself named, or called, &c,
1. For an explanation of this and the two next rules, vid. Prelimi-
nary Remarks.
2. The original force of the Genitive absolute was an expression of
time. Now, as wktos means by night time, so also, ijxov KaOeiSovros raij-
ra i-»ivsTo, means at the tim£ that I slept this happened. If this duration
191
DATIVE.i
Adjectives signifying profit^ obedience^ fitness,

trust, clearness, facility , and their contraries ; and
of time is ascertained by an historical person, the preposition etti is

often used with these Genitives. Thus tm Kxpov 0aai\cvovTos. in the reign
of Cyrus. This construction of the Genitive absolute is adopted not
only to denote time, but every idea expressed in English by if, since,
because, in that, &c. as Qeov 6i66vTog, if God give ; tovto^v ovrois i^dvrojvj
since these things are thus circumstanced ; iiriKEinevoiv twv rroXr.jiiwv t^ n-dXcj,
while the etiemij besieged the city.
In certain cases nominatives and accusatives absolute are used.
With such impersonals as cêvtiv, it is permitted, npeirei, it is becoming,
&c. the absolute case is always the nominative or accusative of the
neuter participle as Jja ri jieveig, t^dv dTruvai why dost thou remain,
; ;
when it is lawful to depart 7 Datives absolute are also used, particu-

larly in statements of time ;as -KEîiovTi rw tviavToi ttoXiv (paivovai (l>povpav
tTn tI)v'''H.\iv, as the year elapsed they make another demonstration against
Elis. The nominative absolute is of rare occurrence.
By absolute, with the exception of the nominative, nothing more is
meant than that the governing word is understood thus, with the ge-
;
nitive £-: may be understood with the dative, <tvv, im, or nera with the
; ;
accusative, hetol. The nominative absolute, however, which, as in

English, is the only true absolute case, always supposes its proper verb;
thus, dvoiâvTCi tov adJuaroi iropovi, TraXiv yiverai rd irvp. When they have O^pen-
ed the pores of the body, re is kindled anew. Here dvoiâvres is equiva-
f
lent to Srav dvoiâvTES Mcri, the same with di/oi^wo-j.
In the use of the Genitive absolute the Greek differs from the Latin.
For, where the Latin, in the use of the ablative absolute, is obliged, on
account of the want of a participle in the perfect active, to turn the
sentence, and to use the perfect participle passive the Greek, on the
;
other hand, whose principal tenses all have their own participles, can
retain the active construction, and then the participle is referred to the
subject of the principal proposition thus, viso lupo diffugerunt oves (for
;
quum lupum vidisseiit) is in Greek iSovaai tov \vkov al o<£j drrapvyov, not
oipOivrus TOV \vKov. Thus, tOO, ravra dKovaas rjadr], his audilis, &C. and in
all similar cases. And this construction is universally admissible,
when the accompanying action, which is expressed by the participle,
belongs definitely to the subject of the principal proposition whereas ;
the passive construction obtains where the action expressed by the par-
ticiple does not refer, or does not refer entirely, to the subject of the
principal proposition thus, rwi/ TroXc/ziwi/ dcjidevTuv, efvyov 01 rroXTrai, when
;
they (not merely the citizens) saw the enemy, the citizens fled. The con-
struction with the genitive absolute is used properly, only when the
action which is expressed by the participle has its peculiar subject,
distinct from that of the principal verb.
1. This case is generally used as the Dative in Latin. It expresses
the object to which the action is directed, or for which it is intended.
It implies acquisition and loss. It is placed after £i>(, &c. in the sense
of habeo, and after Verbs signifying likeness, agreement, trust, resistance,
relation, &c. It follows Verbs compounded with dj/rJ, h, Im, rrapa, npog,
civ, vTcd. It is frequently governed by Iv, em, cvv, or some other Prepo-
sition, understood, (vid. Preliminary Remarks.)
192
those compounded with avv and ofiov, govern the

Dative ; as,
^H/uiv sarac xQôifiov^ It will he useful to us-
2vvxQ6q)og ^r^ dnXoTTjiij Accustomed to simplicity
'EXsvOegcp divdgl Einiov^ to be wished for hy a liberal man.
The instrument and maimer of an action are put

in the Dative ;^ as,
Âqyvqiaig loyxocicn (i&xov, jcal n&pra XQajrâEig, Oracle to
Philip, FigJit with silver weapons^ and you will conquer the
world.
^HkaoB ^lq>st xal eneqive Sola, Hom. He struck him with a
sword, and killed him by stratagem."^
Verbs of servings giving^ rejoicings obeying,

and the hke, with their contra-
trusting, fighting ,
ries, govern the Dative ; as
BotjObiv %^ ncnqldi, To help his country.

Ei'y.eiv adxoig, To yield to misfortujies.
Mdxeodixv TOtc noleîotg, To fight against enemies,

ridg (xvr^fi aii^ novel, Every man labours for himself
Verbs signifying to accomjjany or follow, to

blame, to converse, to pray, to use, are followed
by a Dative ; as,
TqJ j-r^gg e.-TovTo, Hom. Him ships followed.
IJiarovg riyod lovg lolg d/uaQrcxvo/nivoig inncjuibvTag, Plutarcll.
"^Think those faithful, who reprove your faults.
2Q(foig 6/udS)v, xavTog ixB-Ziaei aocpbg, Menander. Associating
with the wise, you yourself will also become wise.
Eijxeadai dit. To pray to God.
nqoGdioig xQôOai, Xen. To use sheep?
1. This case in these instances may be called the Ablative, and the
analog^y with the Latin will be preserved.
2. Instead of the Dative, the Prepositions 6ia, kv, M, Kara, are some-
times used with their proper cases as maiptoQai tm TrAotirw, Xen. iv î\u
;
jr>r?yaf, Eurip.
To this rule may be referred the excess or deficiency of rneasure, as
dvOpoi-Kwv fiaKpu) apctrrng, Her. The measure of excess is sometimes found
in the Accusative, especially in the old Poets ; as irarpos ttoAXoV dfteivwv,
much braver than his father.
3. Many Verbs have a Dative of the person, and a Genitive of the
thing; as diKpic/^TiTw.^ Koipuviu^ /<eraJ< Jw/xj, 7reT£;ij;w, crvyy(i'wo-;fWj ^flo^-w j and
193
Elul, put for e/w, to have, governs the Da-

tive ; as,
" Oaoig ovx -fi^ Îcpixa^ As many as had not bread.
An Impersonal Verb governs the Dative ; as,

Êêaxi fxoi (knievat. It is lawful for me to go away.^
Some Passive Verbs have the Dative of the

agent after them ; as,
Tb êyedog ixstpQ T(bp nsngayjuivojv^ the greatness of his ac'
tions.
Poetical writers, for the Genitive, frequently

use the Dative ; as.
Ova '^yocfxifivovi ilivdocvs dvfj(5, It did not please the mind oj
Agamemnon.
Neuter Adjectives in tiov, govern the Person

and the Thing in the case of the
in the Dative,
Verb, from which they are derived ; as,
Tl &v aiiG noirirhv el'sv, Xen. What must he do ?
'YfiXv Tuvia TiQtticreop, Dem. You must do these things."^
the Itnpersonals SeT, //tXct, i/STani'Xei., fiireaTi, irpoafiKZi ; aS wv tyuy (rni ov

(j>6ovfi(TO)^ Xen. aoi rraiSr^v ri Set, Eurip, Xpr), Trpenzt, and Sci, it behovcth,
govern the Accusative with the Infinitive, according to the language
of the Grammarians and hi and x9^^ signifying necessity or want,
;
tWeircEi, jjitXei, &c. govem the Dative of the person and the Genitive ot
the thing.
1. Perhaps the only true Impersonals are those where we supply it,
and some operation of nature or of circumstances is denoted as vet, ;
it raiiis. The Verbs commonly called Impersonal, are so only in

name, for they have an actual subject, which is expressed either by an
Infinitive or other dependent clause. Thus, in the example under the
rule, the Nominative to s'êort is the infinitive diritvai, and the passage
is equivalent to to dzicvai cêtH fioi, the going awmj is laioful to vie. So
also, hi vuag TsvTo TriyieTv, it behoves you to do this, is the same as, the
doing this ts incumbent upon you-
2. These Adjectives imply necessity, and have in the neuter the force
of the Latin Gerund. The whole construction has been imitated in
Latin : Quam viam nobis guoque ingrediendum sit, Cic. uEternas
quoniam poenas in morte timeiidum, Lucretius.
Verbals in riog correspond to the Future Participle Passive in La-
tin ; as, TTurfTzx;, faciendus. wrtuf, bibendus. These al-so have the Per-
son in the Dative, like those in riov, but agree with the Noun, express-
ing the thing, in Gender, Number, and Case; as ravra vjiiv Trotrtriix iari^
h(zc vobis facienda sunt. This form in rea is more common in Attic
194
Substantives sometimes have a Dative after

them; as,
*Anb T^g ^xciarw duxfe/uTjOEMg^ From the distribution to each.
INouns signifying the time or place in which a

person or thing exists, are put in the Dative ; as,
Tr^ In the earth.
yf^^
MuQadiafi, At Marathon.
'Adrivaig, At Athens.
Avrfi Tjj -fiuEQa, On the same day.
'
avToq, the same, is followed by a Dative ; as,
T^g avtrig slal trjfxiag (^|tot ol cvyxQvnjovteg roTg iâ/jagru-
vovai, Isoc. Those who conceal, are deserving of the same
punishment as those who commit, a fault.^
ACCUSATIVE.^
Verbs signifying actively govern the Accusa-
tive ; as,
KvXlvdei TT^v acpaXqav^ He rolls the hall?
The Accusative is of universal use, with xccTa

understood as, ;''
than Sometimes, however, the person is put in the accusative,

riov.
when the verbal loses a portion of its strong reference to what must be
done, and approximates in meaning to the impersonal Jer with the infini-
tive, denoting what ought to be done as, Ovhvl Tp6i:M (pufilv cKni'rai d6i-
;
Kr]Tinv elvai Plato the same as oihvl rpOKixi tpanlv (>j/jas) ScTv EKOi/rag dSiKcTt'
;
:
;
Do we assert that we ought in no way voluntarily to commit injustice ?

The two constructions are united in Plat. Rep. 5, p. 12. Ed. Bip. ovkovv
KoX ///ii"!/ vEvariov — D^triiôvTai.
1. here understood. Thus in Latin, Idemfacit occidenii, Hor.

Soy is
Et nunc ille eadem nobis juratus in arma, Ovid,
2. The Accusative expresses the object of the action. It is, therefore,
as in Latin, governed either by a Verb Active, or by a Preposition ex-

pressed or understood.
As in Latin, Verbs of entreating., concealing, and teaching., govern
two Ace. Verbs Neuter also often assume an Active signification and ;
both are followed by an Ace. of their own signification.

The Accusative seems to be the favourite Case of the Attics, who
frequently use it for the Genitive and the Dative.
3. A
peculiar idiom frequently occurs in Greek, in which, what
should regularly be the Nominative is found in the Accusative, govern-
ed by the Verb; as olla d •Û el., 1 know thee n-ho thou art. for olia rii nv
ei, I know who thou art. This is sometimes anitated in Latin.
4. Or 6ia, eis, Tcpij irpds. Kara is the most general, as it embraces the
195
Jsivog fJt&xVî ^schylus. Terrible in fight.
fleigS) TO jiiEV (Twua eivat cpiXonovog, Tr\v de ^'VX'^v g>iXoa6g>ogy
[soc. Endeavour to be in body fond of labour, and in^ mind a
lover of wisdom.^
Verbs of sense, with the Attics, generally go-
vern an Accusative ; as,
*Axovci} tavTcc, I hear these things.
Verbs signifying to do or speak well or ill^ tv

give or take away, to admonish, to clothe or un-
clothe, etc. govern an Accusative of the Person,
and another of the Thing f as,
IloXXd dcyaddt xiiv noXiv ^nolrjcrs, Isoc. He conferred many
services on the city.^
El'Qyaa/uai xaxd rov olxov, Thuc. I have done evil to the
house.
ÂnoaxeqeX fxs ra /^TJ/zaza, Isoc He deprives me of my pro-
perty.
El'fiaxa fis iêdvaav^ Horn. They stripped me of my clothes.*
Distance and space are put in the Accusa-

tive ; as,
*Ecpsuog (jcnixst (xno JSagdicov tqiwv '^fisQWv odov, Xen, Ephe-
sus is distant from Sardis three day s^ journey.^
parts, qualities, and

; Sui is applied to the cause ; eis, nepl, and
relations
irpog, to motion. They
are sometimes expressed as Ss Kara awna kuXos, ;
Karh vovv 6' nv Epigr.

tffrli' afiopd)')^,
The Accusative sometimes appears in the beginning of a sentence,

•without a regimen expressed; as rovg 'E\Mvas oiSlv aaflg XtycTat, Xen.
Quod spectat ad.
1. This construction is frequent in Latin poetry: Crinem soluta,
Virg. Humeros amictus, Hor.
2. One of these Accusatives is governed by Kara understood.
3. To the Accusative of the thing are frequently joined the Adverbs
er, /caXtof, KaKwi^ instead of KoXa, KaKa, &c. The Verb alone, implying
treatment, may have the same construction as Zevj ^te ravr' iSpaaev.
;
Aristoph.
4. Verbs of adjuring and swearing are also found with two Accusa-
tives as, dpfct^w (T£ ovpavuv, Qrpheus.
; Thus in Latin, Hac eadem Ter^
ram, Mare, Sidera juro, Virg.
A change of Voice implies a change in the Case of the Person ; but
the case of the Thing is preserved as hfJicTs nXeia-Ta evepycrovjxeQn, Xen.
;
Ofnaariov ekSvoucvo^, Dem. Thus in Latin, Induitur faciem cultumque

DianfB, Ovid. Inscripti nomina regum, Virg.
5. The Accusative of Distance and Space, and that of Time, are
both governed by a Preposition understood.
196
Continuance of time is put in the Accusa-

tive; as.
^'EfiBivep -fifiigag xêiff, He abode three days.
VERBS PASSIVE.
Verbs of a Passive signification are followed
by a Genitive governed by vno or nqog, by cctto
rarely ;^ as,
*0 vovg inb oi'vov dva(fdslqsiav^ Isoc. The understanding is
impaired by wine,
INFINITIVE.
One Verb governs another in the Infinitive;
as,
QUoi UyeiVj I wish to speak.
The used to signify what is

infinitive is often
expressed in Latin by ad and the gerund, or by
the participle in dus ; as,
"Edojxsv ai5r6 dovXca cpoQriaai. He gave it to a slave to carry.
'
CipdQMTtog TCEcpvxs cpiXf.lv , Man was formed to love.
ITixoexoS ifJôivTot^ iquxav. I present myself to he questioned.
'HlQov idelv as. I came to see you.
The infinitive is governed by an adjective (or

substantive) expressing^Z/zess or qualification; as,
ÊnirriSeiog tcolbIv ri. Fit to do any thing.
Oh dsivog XeysLv. Not powerful in speaking.
Whenever an infinitive, qualifying the preced-

ing phrase or clause, does not admit of a suffici-
ently obvious construction, particularly in con-
1. Frequently, however, the Dative is appended to passive verbs,
with or without especially to the perfect passive of verbs whose
vtt6,
perfect active is not much used; as, ravra '\i\eKTai hjxiv, for MAcâ rav.-
ra. Some Verbs, which in the Active are followed by the Genitive or
Dative of the person, and the Accusative of the thing, are preceded in
the Passive by the Nominative of the person ; as ol rwv 'Adrjvaioiv ettite-
Tpannivoi fvXuKfiv, Thuc. They who were intrusted toith the defence of
i/ie Athenians, or they to lohom the defence of the Athenians was intrusted.
Thus, Leevo suspensi loculos, tabulamque lacerto, Hot.
197
sequence of other \ôrds being interposed, it is

commonly introduced by iooxt or wg as, ;
^Hv di nenaidevfUBPog ovT(ag,&UT8 n&vv qadiojg 's^siv dcQxovPTu.^
He was so brought up as very easily to have what sufficed him.
The infinitive is used as a neuter substantive,

not only singly, but in connexion with phrases,
provided with an article, and subject to all the
constructions of nouns ; as.
To cpvX&âi, rAyada tou xx'/âaaOai, âA,67to&reôv, To preserve
property is harder than to acquire it.
To jUEv ovp inioQuov Kulelv jiva, avev tou to. nsngayfiiva deix-
vvvui^ loidoQla iaiLv. To call one perjured^ without showing his
deeds, is calumny.
The infinitive mood has an accusative before

it; as,
tjHxav xbv Ovqavop dwaarsvaav wv navrdg. They say that
Uranus ruled over the universe.
The infinitive mood has a nominative before

it when the reference is tQt the same person im-
plied by the nominative of the preceding verb ;
and in this construction the nominative before
the infinitive is omitted, except when an empha-
sis is laid upon it ; as,^
"Eq)rj elvai arqajtiyog. He said that he was a general, [avjog
understood before elvai.)
"Ecpi] avTog ^Jvut, arQaitjy'dg, ovx exeivovg. He said that he
himself was a general, not they.
1. Sometimes a participle takes tlie place of the infinitive see an ;
explanation of this construction in the notes upon the syntax of the

participle.
2. The
principle of the construction of a nominative with the infini-
tivê, whenever there
is no change of person, is deserving of the stu-
dent's attentive consideration, and will afford a key to the grammatical
resolution of many phrases and forms of construction which would
otherwise be unintelligible. The Latin poets imitate this construction ;
thus, Rettulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos. Ovid. Uxor invicti Jovis esse
nescis. Horat. Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse paratus. Id. Some-
times even without the infinitive as, Sensit medios delapsus in hostes.
;
Virg. The Latin prose writers, however, always use the strict gram-
matical form, viz. the accusative with the pronoun se. The construc-
tion of a nominative with the infinitive may be referred to the general
principle of Attraction, or, in other words, to the association of ideas.
18
198
' EvofiliôvTO o^d' avTol aoj6r]aea6ui. They thought that they
themselves would not be saved.
Instead of the Infinitive preceded by the Ac-

cusative, the Indicative preceded by b%i or wg,^ is
commonly used ; as,
rvwOi OTt iyia uXr^dii Xiyoj, Xen. Know that I speak truth.
M-jfO) o)g ixBlvog ov-noXefxeT, Dern. / say that he does not make
war?
The Infinitive of the Present, Future, and

"Or( and ws are really Pronouns; the former the Neuter of offn?,
1.
jjrjs the latter the same as J^s, in an Adveibial form.
; This will clearly
explain the construction yvoiOi on, knoxo that iyd dMdn \eyw, 1 speak
: ;
truth. Aeyu) cjf, / my that or thus; Ue'ivos ov ToXc^tr, he does not make
war. So, And they told hivi that Jesus passeih by. Luke 18. It is not
necessary that rls should be always joined with o?. find in Homer, We
VtyvutTKUv 01 avTos viretpsye. %£rp«f 'A-dXXwi/; i. e. Tiyvc'itTKoyv o, Knowiltg
this Apollo stretched his hand over him.
:
"On is sometimes used at the end of a sentence, in a manner which

strongly elucidates this explanation dXX ovk d-iTu6u]aeis,o76' oVt, Aristoph.
;
But you vjill not restore it, 1 know that.

Sometimes otl is added to strengthen the force of another Pronoun
a practice common to the best Greek and Latin writers: d\X' ovv eywy'
oi) TravcTOfjai, tovt t'o-0' 'on, Aristoph. Hoc ipsuTJi scias.
The Greeks in narrations frequently use the Present Tense, when
oTi introduces the wôrds of the person w^ho is the subject of the narra-
tive. "On, in such constructions, may either be rendered " as follows,''^
or, what is far preferable, may be regarded as equivalent to the invert-
ed commas in English, and remain consequently untranslated. But
the Latins, in the idiom of the Accusative and Infinitive, place the
Verb in the Perfect Tense,
"Oti sometimes signifies that, or to the end thai. In this sense the
Latin uli, generally shortened into ut, is the same word. Here it is
still the Pronoun, and the full expression is Jia on, for that, for this.
The two words often coalesce, and become 6i6n. Thus Shakspeare.
Par that I am some ttcelve or fourteen vwonshines lag of a, brother.
Sometimes on signifies elliptically what is the reason that as ejlirni — ;
on Tonaov £-)(io(Taro ûX(ioi'AiT6\\oiv, Hom. Here the full expression is

eiiTQi ri ecrnv mnov on —
let Mm Say zchat is the reason for this, Phoibus is
so enraged; or r5iu oti.
It is likewise frequently used for because, and is there too governed by
cut, for this reason.
These observations will easily suggest an analogical solution of the
origin and use of the word in other languages.
2. This construction has seldom been imitated in Latin. But on has
been rendered by quod, quia, and even quoniavy, in the Vulgate, a trans-
lation which disgusted the classical reader, and which was succeeded
by the more elegant versions of Beza and of Castalio. Yet we find
some instances of that use of quod. Equidem scio jam flius quod amet
mens, Ter. Pramoneo, nunqtiam' scripta quod ilia legal, Ovid.
199
Aorists, preceded by the Verb fêXlco, expresses

the Future; as,
JÎiXXco TsOydvaij Plato, I am about to die'
The of some Verbs is preceded by

Infiuitive
€/cu, in the sense of dvvaaai ; as,
Mijdh Mxovaip sItibIp, Dem. They have nothing to say}
The Infinitive is often governed by another

Verb an Imperative sense, understood ; as,
in
M^xB avy' ddavdioiai /^.a/eadai, Hom. (oâ, beware, or -d^tXs,
wish, und.) Nor contend thou with the immortals,^
The Infinitive is sometimes put absolutely,

without another Verb expressed ; as,
'Jig dnXwg elnslv, Dem. To speak plainly.
JoxElv ijnol, Soph. As it appears to me.^
3Iiygov delp, Isoc. Nearly.'^
PARTICIPLE.^
The Infinitive is often elegantly preceded by
1. Thus, De Diis neque ut shit, neque ut non sint, habeo dicere, Cic.
2. Thus in Italian, 7W7i dir niente, take care to say nothing. Matthise,
Gr. Gr. vol. 2. p. 284, considers it probable that this usage of the Infi-
nitive was a remnant of the ancient simplicity of the language, from
which the action required was expressed by means of the Verb absolute,
or the Mood of the Verb which of itself indicated the action, without
any reference to other parts of speech,
3. When a particle is joined to the Infinitive with the meaning of
after, when, before, until, &>c. there is supposed to be an ellipsis of <tv[i-
(iaivsi, or (rvvt(ir), OX (7vn/3air], or cTVjx0rj, (according as the context requires
a Present or a Past Tense, the Optative or Subjunctive Mood). When,

however, the particle has the meaning of as or so, then s^coTt, SsT, sUdg
ecTTl, or something equivalent, is supposed to be understood thus, ws oinXwg
:
ehcTv, is for w? EÊiTTi clttXcos elireiv, {as far as speak plain-

it is permitted) to
ly. So when he saw him, for wj awiPt] iScTv avrdv, when
also, w? Ihlv avrov,
(it happened he saw him ; nplv dXcKropa (poivrjrxai, before the cock crew,
tha,t)
for npiv avviffr), &c. before (it happened thai) the cock crew.
4. The Infinitive is sometimes understood; as 6\iyovi:aps66drt, Lysias,
(hiv und.)': avvi\ovTi, Dem. (fpdaat. und.)
5. The distinction between the participle and the infinitive forms one
of the most important parts of the Greek syntax. If a verb is govern-—
ed by another verb, or by an adjective, a double relation is established,
according to which the use of the infinitive or participle is determined.
1. Either the leading verb or adjective conveys in itself a perfect and
independent idea; or, 2. it has no perfect idea, but expresses an action
which first becomes perfect by the addition of its reference. Thus the
verbs, I pray, I persuade, I will, &c. always require an addition which
200
the verbs dfxi, yivoâi, cpaivoiiai^ vnaqx^^ «/^>
Y.vqo) '^ as,
expresses, /or pray, to what I persuade any one, what I will.

w/ifl^ I
Now, when such an imperfect verb or adjective refers to a verb, this
reference expresses either the consequence in view, the end, or else
merely the object of the first verb or adjective. Thus, in the phrases,
I will write. I command you to write, I admonish you to go, &c. the Eng-
lish infinitive is the consequence in view of the first verb, and is, in
most cases, expressed in Latin by ut. On the contrary, in the phrases
/ saw him fall, I heard him say, scio vie esse mortalem, intelligo me errasse,
the infinitive is merely the object, not the end, of the verbs to see, hear,
know, perceive. Upon these premises are founded the following rules :
Rule 1. When an imperfect verb or adjective is followed by a verb

which expresses a thing to be done, the latter in Greek is put in the in-
finitive without a conjunction. Thus, Stonai aov tXduv, I entreat thee to
come ; irapaivM aoi ypcKpeiv, I exhort thee to write ; l-Ktiaev ijxE TTopneaOai, he
persuaded me to go ; e/zwAvo-ei/ ^^t ypaipsiv, he prevented me from writing.
Thus the infinitive sometimes answers to the infinitive in Latin after
the verbs nolo, cupio, conor, audeo, &c. when the subject of the two
actions is the same, and sometimes to the conjunctions, -Jii, ne, quominus;
as, oro te ut venias, hortor te ut scribas, persuasit mihi ut proficiscerer,
impedivit me quominus scriberem. To the rule in Greek, however, tiri-
HsXeia-dai constitutes a regular exception, being followed by oVwj with
the finite verb.
Rule 3. Whenan imperfect verb is accompanied by another, which
marks merely the object of the former, the latter is put in the partici-
ple, sometimes where in Latin also the participle is used, as video te
scribentem, audio te docentem, bpio ae ypoKpovra, ukovu as SiSdaKovra and •
sometimes after verbs, which indicate a perception by means of the

external senses, or the understanding, where in Latin the accusative
with the infinitive is used as scio me esse mortalem, sentio te iratum.
;
esse, &C. ol6a Ovrjrds we, aiaQavonai at ^(âXsTraLVOvra.

The distinction of the construction with the infinitive, and with the
participle, is most clearly shown, when the same verb takes, according
to its different senses, sometimes one, sometimes the other, mood thus
;
liavdaveiv, to perceive, has the participle, as, iva fiaQri aocptaTrn mv tov Aids
voiQtarcpoi. ^schyl. that he may perceive thai he is a more dull contriver
than Jove ; whereas navBaveiv, to learn, has the infinitive, as p-aOfiaavrai
evapTtovadai. Xen. they will learn to oppose. Thus too, yiyvtô-Ksiv, to per-
ceive, has the participle, but to learn, the infinitive. It must be remem-
bered, however, that the verbs, to say, to announce, constitute a regular
exception to this rule, as well as, to mean, to think, to hope, which last
take the infinitive, the former also on with the finite verb.
1. The Participle is sometimes used alone, eiiil being understood
as fifiKMv Kapn Pd\Ev, nr £vi Kf]KOi PpiOnfxcvr; (tarrl und.) Hom. A popfy bends
the head, which in a garden is weighed down. This ellipsis is found in
Latin, not only in the Poets, but in the Historians, particularly in Ta-
citus. To this construction may be generally referred what is called
the Nominative absolute. Thus (pv\a^ tAey^wi/ (pvXaKa, Soph, {rjv und.)
Sentinel was blaming sentinel. a-adeU St, TraTSas t^ ififis huormopov KTr}a-duevos,
(_o7 und.) Eurip.
The Participle of £«>i is often understood as ol h rsXet, {Svres und.)

;
Thuc, Those who are in power. Td irpdi Troal, (^Svra und.) Soph. The
things present.
201
Xdgig j^d^tv iuTlv tIxtovo" del, Soph- kindness always A
produces a kindness.'^
Oix ixdgog {inriQêv Ihv^ Dem. He was not an enemy.
Top Xdyov uov Oâv/udaag sxo), Plato. / have admired your
With a Participle rvyxccvco signifies by chance ;

Iccv^dvcj, privately or ignorantly ; (p6dvco,^ pre-
viously ; as,
TvxBlv cwv, Her.

''Eq)r] He said that he chanced to be-
'EXddofiev diaqiigovrsgj Plato. We
were not aware that we
differed.'^
(liddvw ro-vg cpLlovg BvsqyBtinv, Xen. / anticipate my friends
in conferring benefits.
The Participle is used after driko(;^ (pavtqbg,

dcpavrig, 6lc, ;
Avxbg Tovro noiwv cpavegog ^r, Arist. He manifestly did this.^
1. Thus eiixl is used as an auxiliary with Participles ; as TedpTjKores

Eiei', TJlUC. eoTio (piXrjOeig, Eurip. ncTaircntTonivoi rjaav, Thuc. reTXriires elu'tp,
Horn.
2. This is imitated in the Latin Participle Passive, Neque ea res fal-
sum me hdbuit, Sallust. Similar to this are the French and English
idioms.
3. The
primitive meaning of (jtddvo) is, to get beforehand, to be before-
hand with, to anticipate. Among the many peculiar phrases in which
it bears a part, the following may be enumerated as the most remark-
able. In all of them the primitive force of ^davu may be easily traced.
Thus, CipBrjcrav roAXw ol YiKvOai tov; Hcpaai cttI nV yt(j>vpav dTriKdfiCvot, Hcrod.
The Scythians came to the bridge long before the Persians, ^ddveiv ds nd-
\iv. Xen. To reach the city first. Ov yap etpdri fioi avu^daa dTV^^ta xai fi
EvOvs i-KExîpr]aav k. r. A. Scarcely had misfortune befallen me, than they

immediately attempted, &C. Ov yap (pOdvovan napd. dvSpa dTUKvtvîEvai, KoXtv
yaarpl Xaxovui, Hippoc. For they no sooner come to the men than they
conceive ; properly, coming to, &c. they are not beforehand with what I
am going to mention, viz. tliey conceive. Ovk dv <p6dvoi? Tiaiwv tdvto,
Eurip. You cannot be too quick in doing this, or, do it immediately. Tot-
yap (pvTevMv iraiSas ovk ct av (pOdvois. Eurip. Do not therefore any longer
defer raising a family. Ovk dv ((iddvon irepaivuv. Plato. Quickly finish.
Ov (pddvoiT CT dv OvfiaKOVTEi, Eurip. for ov ^QdvoLTE dWo ti -rdaj^ôvTEs ^plv ^
OvfiaKciv, you will quickly die. The sense of <p9dvoi underwent, however,
a change in writers of a late epoch ; thus in Ptolemasus de Judic. Facul-
tate, p. 5. (pQdvEi means extends ; and in the Analecta, 2. p. 155. we have
vTzo yEVfâros EcpOdvEro, he was Snatched away by the stream, i. e. before he
could help himself.

4. Thus in Latin, Nee vixit male qui natus moriensque fefellit, Hor.
5. This is more elegant than avrdg tovto ttoiuv (pavspdig vv^ or than aordv
TOVTO iroieiv cpai'epov rju, or than on avrog tovto £7ro(£{ favEpov riv.
18*
202
The Participle is used instead of the Infini-

tive, after Verbs signifying to persevere^ to desist^
to perceive^ to show, or an affection of the mind ;
as,
Tt\v slQTivTjv ^yovTsg diaxeXovair, Isoc. They continue pre-
serving peace
Oeof ou Aijlw 7TQoat(kTr]v e/coy, Soph. / shall not cease having
God for my defender,
^ladt dicpiyfiEVT], Aristoph. Know that thou art come
êi^b) aocpog ysy(bg, Eurip. / shall show that I am wise.
MefifTjao dvdQcoTTog iby, Simonides. Remember that you are
a man.
'
Osbg TToXl-dxig xo^lgst Toi)g fikv juixQCvg fisydkovg noiwv tovg
da (iBy&lovg /uixgovg, Xen. God is often delighted in making
the little great, and the great little.^
ADVERBS
are followed by the Genitive, Dative, or Accu-
sative f either because they were originally
Nouns, or because those cases are governed by
a Preposition understood.'*
1. The principle on which this rule is founded has been explained
in the notes at the commencement of the Syntax of the Participle.
2. LvvoiSa is found with various Cases: ivvoiSa tjiavriL o-oôj a>v, Plato.
SfiavTM ^vvfi^siv ovcilv firio-TaÊVMj Plato.
This last expression must be referred to the force of attraction,
which is particularly exerted on Participles. Attraction is indeed of
universal influence in Greek construction. It seems as if, on many
occasions, of two words relating to each other, but in different construc-
tions, the Greeks wished one only to be in a particular Case, and the
other to be attracted by it into the same Case.
A few additional instances will be here given. OvSsvl ttws-ot' ov6' ala-
Ypws ovS' uK\£Mi (iTTePr), rovi Uirag tXefiaavTi, Isoc. It hax never been disgrace-
Jul or ingloriotis in any one to pity the suppliant : eXifiaavn is here attract-
ed into the Csse of ov6ev\. TiKonovfjEvoi evpia-Kov ovSajjiMg av aXXwf tovto Statrpa-
^dnevos, Isoc. Having considered, I found that I could by no means other-
wise execvie the business : iiairpaâêvoi is attracted into the Case ofaKonov-
\ievoi. OvTE vvv fjoi fierauiXct ovrcac di:o\oyr)c:oi)ivM, Plato. / do not noW re-
pent having thus defended myself; for drroXoyfiaaffdai. Thus in Latin,
Sed non sustineo esse conscius mihi dissimulanti.
3. "iSt and lôv, behold, which are sometimes, like the Latin en and
ecce, found with a Nominative, are really Verbs, and govern the Accu-
sative ; as iJov (IE, Eurip.
4. Adverbs with the article prefixed, are sometimes used for Adjec-
tives, as Iv rw Tffiv %f)ovM, Soph. In the former time. In the same manner
they are used for Substantives, as ol n-iXoj, Soph. The neighbours, ui
irdfu, Eurip. The illustrious.
203
Examples of the formei

nXriv^ rejection, nlrip ifiov, ^schyl. Excepting me}
XijcQiv^for the sake, x'^Qf'^'^'Earoqog, Horn. For the sake of
Hector.
XojQlg, separation, /wî? twv dcvdgwv, Her. Without the men.
Tov Jibs iv(onioVj Plut. In the sight of God.
Examples of the latter,
"Avsv dpofidiMv. Plato, ((iTTo und.) Without names.

Âfxa laG, Horn, (ovv und.) With the people.
N(xl fxot? rods axrinjQov, Hom. [eni und.) I swear by this
sceptre.^
Adverbs of time are sometimes changed into

Adjectives ; as,
Od xQ^ nupvvxiov evdeip ôvXj]q}6Qor a^dQu, Hom. A man of
counsel ought not to sleep the whole night}
Adverbs of quality are elegantly joined with

the Verbs g/w, Tiaa/w, nouio, cptQco, (pvfj.i, /^cco-
jjai, &CC, ; as,
'IldeMQ Bxs Ttgog anaving, Isoc. Be pleasant to all-
El ndaxety, el noieXv^ Dem. To receive, to confer, benefts.
Two or more Negatives strengthen the Nega-

tion ; as,
Oox êajtv oldhv, Eurip. There is nothing.
OvdsnOTS ovdev oi fiî yevrjiat r(bv deovTCDP, Dem. Nothing
that is necessary will ever be done}'
1. nxî/ sometimes assumes the nature of a Disjunctive, and is follow-

ed by every Case, according to the government of the Verb with which
it is connected as ovîv ecnv aXXo (jxipftaKov, ir\f}v \6yog, IsOC. ov Qcftis ;rX»>
;
ToTg jiaOfiTaiaiv "Xeyeiv, Aristoph.

2. The particle fxh, of itself, neither affirms nor denies, but adds
strength to that which is affirmed or denied. In affirmations fib. is usu-
ally preceded by vol in negations the particle ov, or something equiva-
;
lent, is added.
3. The Preposition is sometimes expressed cKas dn-' eoivrcov, Her. //£-
;
^jOif en tfiov, Hom. r^Xe dird a-')(^£Sins, Hom. 'dfia cvv avroig, Plut.
4. Thus Nee minus JEneas se matutinus agebat, Virg. Nee
in Latin,
vcspertinus circumgemit ursus ovile, Hor.
5. In Latin, two Negatives make an Affirmative ; yet the Greek idiom
has been imitated: Neque tu hand dicas tihi non pradidum, Ter.
The Greek idiom is of frequent occurrence in Plautus, and other old
writers, though sometimes found in more recent ones, a.' in Propertius,
2. 15. ult. and Ovid. Pont. L 1. 66.
204
But if the two Negatives belong to two dif-

ferent Verbs, they form an Affirmative ; as,
Oidev eaiLv oit ovk insaxBxo^ He promised every thing.
PREPOSITIONS
govern the Genitive, Dative, or Accusative.^
-
GENITIVE.
Prepositions governing the Genitive.
"jLtio, avTi, ix or gj, nqo,
DATIVE.
Êv, ovv,
ACCUSATIVE.
Eig or eg.
GENITIVE and ACCUSATIVE.
DATIVE and ACCUSATIVE.
1, The principal relations of things to one another are expressed in

Greek by three Cases origin and possession by the Genitive, acquisition
;
and communication by the Dative, and action by the Accusative. The

other relations, of time and place, cause and ejfect, motion and rest, con-
nexion and oppositin7i, are expressed by Prepositions.
In the origin of language and of civilization. Prepositions were few;
but when the progress of arts increased the relations of things, they
became more numerous. In succeeding ages, when the extension of
mathematical, and the improvements in philosophical, science, produc-
ed new combination.-! of language, and required a greater precision
of expression, the number of Prepositions was necessarily increased.
But that great variety, which became expedient in modern times, has
been applied to the Greek language, and produced some confusion and
difficulty to the learner. Twenty different meanings have been as-
signed to a Greek Preposition nor were those meanings marked with
;
slight shares of difference the same Preposition has been made to bear
:
the most opposite senses: to and /rom, /or and against, above and below.
Some successful efforts have lately been made to clear these perplex-
ities. One primary, natural sense lias been assigned to each JPreposi-
tion to that sense may be referred all the other significations, arising
:
from analogical or figurative relations, easily flowing from it, and re-
gulated by the Case to which the Preposition is prefixed. From the
combinations of the Prepositions with the different Cases arises that
variety which forms one of the beauties of the Greek language. But
that variety is consistent.
'
205
GENITIVE, DATIVE, and ACCUSATIVE.
Afjicpl, em, aera, naQa, Tce()l, ngbg. vnb.
Avxl,
The primitive meaning of this preposition is against, and it
is perpetually used of one thing set or placed against another,

by way of exchange, comparison, or equivalence. It denotes,
therefore, that one object is exchanged for another, is given
instead of it, comes in its place, &c. Hence we obtain the
two general meanings, ybr; instead of; and hence also this
preposition takes the genitive, because that case expresses the
idea o{ removal out of a place, abstraction, Slc Thus,
For. XdQig dvrl ^(iQiTog. Favour for favour.
Instead of EIq-tivt] dpil tioIbjuov.
. Peace instead of war.
Hence we may naturally deduce the following kindred
meanings 1. in the place of; as, dvTl toD nurqbg, in the place
:
of his father. 2. equal to ; as, dvriQ dvrl noXXwv^ a hero equal

to many (i. e. fit to be matched against many). 3. on account
of; as, dvd' oiov on what account (i. e. set or placed as an

;
equivalent against what?). 4. in consideration of; as, dvri

Twv fêyuXojf oi'daat x'^Q'-î ihey are grateful in consideration of
(i. e. they set their gratitude as a return against) the great fa-
vours they have received. In composition it denotes, 1. equa-

lity as, dvxLdsog, equal to a god (i. e. fit to be matched aaginst
;
a god). 2. reciprocity as, dvTifxsTQib), I return in the same

;
measure or proportion, (i. e, I set measure against measure).

3. comparison as, dvjixQlvoj, I compare, (i. e. I judge of two
;
things by facing one against another). 4. But more common-

ly it denotes opposition ; as, di^rndaaojj I draw up against an
enemy.
""
Anb.
This preposition is properly used in reference to an object
which before was on, with, at, another (not in, nor merely in
the near vicinity another,) from which it
of, is now separated
Hence dnb generally shows a removal, and its primary mean-
ing is From; thus.
From. Â(fT\xs iaviov dnb xov nigyov. He threw himself

from the tower.
This primary meaning gives rise to many others ; as, 1.

Inniov ûxsadut, to fight on horseback, (i. e.from horses). 2.
d(jp'
yeviadai dnb SuZnvov^ to have done supper, (i. e. to h&from sup-

206 • ^
per). 3. &cp ianigag, beginning with the evening (i. e. from the
evening, a vesperd). 4. ol 6.nb ttj? axoag, the Stoics, (i. e. those

from the porch,) ol dno ttj; 'Jtnadr^^lag, the Academics (i. e.
those /ro/n the Academy). 5. nicpvev un' (kgyvgeoio §iolo, he killed
by means of a silver bow. (i. e- by the aid which proceeded
from a silver bow). 6. unb leiag "Qr^v^ to live upon, (i. e. from)
plunder ; 7. dcp' eaviov, of one'' s self (i. e. from one's own in-
clination). 8. dno anovdrig, with zeal, (i. e. from the influence of
zeal). 9. dcnb ^v/j/uuxtag avTOPo/noi, independent according to the
alliance, (i. e. from the terms of the alliance). 10. 6 dno twv
noXsfilojv q)66og,fearon account of the enemy, (i. e. fear proceed-
ing from In composition dnh denotes 1. depar-
the enemy).
ture ;as, dnigxojuat, I go away from a place. 2. separation as, ;
dnodiaarelXo}, I place quite asunder, (i. e. I separate one from

another). 3, negation as, dnocprîia, I deny, (i. e. do not assent
;
to, but speak away from, a thing). 4. privation as, dnofxapOdvu),

;
I unlearn, learn in a different way from, I learn away

(i. e. 1
from, my previous mode of learning). 5. an augmentative force,

as,iQeldoj, I fx, dnsQsldix), I fix firmly, (i. e.I fixfrom an object,
allowing nothing intermediate to interrupt the connection) ;
thus, dnrjQBvadii-qv rfjv bipiv, I kept my sight fixed (i. e. I kept

my sight jTrom the object referred to, in one unbroken continu-
ation, looking off towards no other object).
'Ek or ej.
This preposition, in its original meaning, is employed only

in reference to such objects as proceed from the interior of
another object, or from the most intimate connectix)n with it.
Hence we obtain the general meanings of. Out of, from ; as,
Out of. M'ag ^K âXaplvog ayev vriag. Ajax brought ships
out of Salamis.
From. *Ex trig noXfug (pEiyeiv. To flee from the city.
This meaning o^from, however, differs materially from the

same meaning as assigned to the proposition dno. Thus, dnb
Trig nolswg qievyeiv, implies merely that the person has been
near the city, whereas ix zTJg nuXsajg cpsvyetv pre-supposes that
one has been in the city. From the two general meanings
just given, we may deduce others of a kindred nature. 1. ex
naidwv^from boyhood, (i. e. out of the very state or time of boy-

hood). 2. is aim'og, from all eternity, (i. e. out of eternity ;
pre-supposing an intimate commingling and connection with
eternity whereas dno aiS)vog is much weaker in meaning as
: ;
did. arofiuTog rwf dytojp tCov dn' alMvog nQ0(p7]iwv, by the mouth of
his holy prophets which have been from ancient times). 3. ix (pv-
207
(TEcog dodslg, given hy nature, (i. e. out o/the riclies or bounties
of nature). 4. £>t AuxEdulfiovog Uavaaviag, Pausanias of Lace-

d(Bmon, (i. e. out ofLacedaemon). 5. ^x ToiTov,for this reason,
(i. e. by reason of a motive proceeding out of this). 6. ix rwv
v6fib)v, according to the laws, (i. e. in conformity with the in-
junctions which speak out from the laws). 7. ^1 dcQicrjov, after
dinner, (i. e. having come out of participation in dinner). 8.
ix xanvov, beyond the smoke, (i. e. out of the smoke). 9. ix ne-
Qiovalag, abundantly, (i. e. out of one's abundance). 9. ex tov
nodog xgs/ndaat iiva, to hang one by the foot, (i. e. the state or
condition of hanging commences with the foot, the point of
suspension, out of which the relation of hanging originates).
1 0. ^x rrig oi//fog xov dvelgov, in consequence of the vision seen in
the drearn, (i. e. by reason of the things which proceeded out
of the vision when seen in the dream). 11. ra i^ 'EXXrivoji' tsI-
Xeoe, the fortif cations built by the Greeks, (i. e. the fortifications
which resulted from, which proceeded out of, the labours of
the Greeks). Hence rd tl dvOgwrnoi' ngay/nuja, deeds which can
only be done by man, or, in other words, great, extraordinary
deeds. In composition it denotes, 1. separation or division;
as, ixxgivM, I select, I separate from. 2. prefeiênce or pre-emi-
nence ; (i. e. rising above, having one's self
as, 'iôxog, eminent,
out of, others). Completion or success in the action expressed
3.
by the verb ; as, (pevyw^ I try to escape, or run away ; sxcpevyoj,
I succeed in running away, I escape. So ac6^w and ixawlôj, &c.
ITq6.
This preposition is commonly used in speaking of place,
and then also of time, and connects the idea of precedence or
priority with the usual signification of the genitive. Its pri-
mitive meaning is Before ; as,
Before. Tlgh dvgwv qxxivBd'' ^fuv. He appeared to us before

the doors.
Hence we obtain the following kindred meanings 1 nqb : .
aXkwv^ more than others, (i. e. before, or in advance of, others,

as regards the exercise of any quality). 2. nqb nollov noisladm,
to value very highly, (i. e. tovalue before much, to value higher
than much). 3. didleiBLv nqb avaxjog, to labour for, or at the
command of, the king, (i. e. to labour in front of, before, the
king the latter keeping aloof and commanding, while another
;
goes before and executes). In a similar way, nqb (pdov noisiv^

to do for a friend, implies that one goes before and executes
the wishes of a friend. 4. nqb cpoSov, through fear, (i. e. fear
being the impelling cause, and urging forwards one who is
208
lefore, in front of, it). 5. when joined with dTio, dia, nsgl, with-
out a case the sense is strengthened as anonqb, afar off, (i. e.
;
away from the front of an object, and consequently at a dis-

tance from it), diangd, through and through, (i. e. through
.
171 front ; not resisted by the surface of a body, but passing
completely through) inmqb, farther before, more forwards, (i. e.

.
on the front ; referring to something appended to, adhering to,

or placed upon, the front of an object, and consequently more
or less in advance of the object itself.) In composition ngb
has the general force of, before, in front of forwards, oi which
examples will readily suggest themselves.
DATIVE.— £»'.
This preposition used only with verbs or clauses indica-
is
tive of rest, as the Latin in with the ablative. Hence ^v is
joined in Greek with the dative only, this being the case which
expresses that in, on, or with which any thing rests or remains.
The primary meaning of iv is In; as.
In. ^ Ev Tw 0£c5 TO lilog iarl. The end is in God.
Hence we deduce the following kindred meanings: 1. tv
oin(^, at home, (i. e. in the house). 2. iv iuvrQeyifeio, he came
to himself (i. e. he was in himself again), 3. iv MaqaOiJ^Pi, at
Marathon, (i. e. in the plain of Marathon). 4. tv t/noi don, it
depends on me, (i. e. it is in my power). 5. ^v xa/st, speedily,
(i. e. mhaste). 6. kv dvvafisi, elvai, to he able, {i.e. to he in i\iQ
possession of power or means). 7. ^v -îSopfj sh'ai, to please, to
will a thing, (i. e. to be in a pleased, a willing, state of mind).
8. ev Efiol dqnavg, hold against me, (i. e. bold in what relates to
me, bold as far as regards me). 9. ev cpocQ/uocHco iaxl, it serves as
a remedy, (i. e. it is in the character, place, or stead, of a re-
medy). 10. i*' dfiolco noielaOai, to esteem equally, (i. e. to rank in
an equal degree). 11. ev aieqxxvoig, adorned with chaplets, (i. e.
in an array, or adornment, of chaplets). 12. iv ol'vw, at wine,
(i. e. in the midst of the festivities of the table). 13. It is
sometimes used, however, when proximity only is implied, as
iv Aaxsdalfiovi, near LacedcBmon ; iv Mavrivela, near Mantinea.
{Xen. Hellen. 7. 5. 18). In this usage it appears to be equi-
valent to the English phrase, "m
the vicinity of, &c." 14.
It is frequently put with its case for an adjective or participle ;
as, ndvTsg iv pdoco, all sick,{i. e. all in a state of sickness). 15.

It is sometimes followed by a genitive, but then a dative is al-
ways understood as, ^v adov (ot';^© understood) in the shades ;
;
ip dtdaaxdXov (ol'xcp understood) in the master^ s house. 16. It

209
sometimes stands alone, with its case understood ; as, iv dk dii
xal Aea^lovg elle, amongst others he took also the Lesbians
(^ÎXotg understood). So also ^v dk Uaiva, among the animals
was a lioness ; (<9tjôi? understood). 17. Sometimes ^y and sig
are exchanged (for an explanation of which construction, see
;
remarks at the end of the prepositions). In composition this,

preposition has the general force of m, among.
Where ai)v is used, it implies that the object is an integral

part of another, something inherent in it and therefore it takes
;
the dative, since this case expresses that in or on which any

thing rests. In this it differs from fiera., since fiexa expresses
a looser connection, while avv always implies a nearer and
more intimate union. The primary meaning of ai)v is with
together with ; thus.
With. 2vv 0e(5. With Gocfs assistance.
Hence we obtain other kindred meanings 1. uiiv tw v6(iM, :
according conformity with the law). 2. ai)V

to the law, (i. e. in
tqJ aw ayaddi, to thy advantage, (i. e. accompanied with advan-
tage to thee). 3. ovv rdtg" ElXi]at ejvui, to be on the side of the

Greeks, (i. e. to side with the Greeks). 4. ol aiv a-urw, his
companions, (i. e. those with him). In composition it denotes
1. concurrence in action; as, gv^tjopem, I labour along with
another. 2. association ; a,s,cfvrsi/ui, I associate with. 3. union,

as, avjUTiXino), I entwine together, or interweave. 4. collection ;
as, (Tvf4q}iQa}, I bring together, I collect. 5. The completion and
fulfilment ofan action as, avfxnlriôM, I Jill up, I complete.
;
(The preposition here denotes the presence of all the compo-

nent parts, with which, when
collected together, the action is
completed and strengthens the meaning of a
fulfilled). 6. It
verb as, avyTionib}, I break to pieces, (i. e. I beat or strike the
;
component parts of a thing together, and thus loosen the con-

nexion between them). 7. In the verbs awAxdofiai, uvllvnh-
{lui, avvaXyeoi), avfin&Gxoi, avfznsvdio), &c. grief felt in common
is expressed.
ACCUSATIVE.— î? or k.
The primitive meaning of this preposition is into, and hence

ittakes the accusative, this case expressing that towards which
any thing approaches or tends, and into which it enters ox pene-^
trates. Thus,
Into. Elg datv ^Xdsv. He came into the city.
19
210
Hence we deduce other kindred meanings : 1. 'Îdev stg xiit
ÊlMStt^ He came to Greece, (i. e. he not only came
to the bor-
ders, but penetrated also into the country itself). 2. v^vog sig
'Anokkiava, a hymn to Apollo, (i. e. a hymn, not slightly touch-
ing upon, but entering into, the praises of Apollo). 3. B^vovg
sig Toy dr^fiov, well disposed towards the people, (i. e. a state of
mind which enters into, and concerns itself about, the interests
of the people). 4. dfiuqiavBiv sig nva, to offend against a per-
son, (i. e. to cause, by one's misconduct, an angry feeling to
enter into another's breast). 5. diaê^lrjixhog Big Maxe86vagy
calumniated among the Macedonians, (i. e. an injurious report
concerning another having been made to enter into the minds
of the Macedonians). 6. id /nev elg Midovuav^ as to what con-
cerns Medusa, (i. e. as to what enters into, and forms part of,
the account relatiA'-e to Medusa). 7. noXla. xaXa egya drreqDTjya*/-
10 sig ndvTug dfOgfanovg, many noble deeds have been displayed
before all men, (i. e. have been displayed before, and have enter-
ed into, the memories of all men). 8. fiux^giog necpvx' dcf^Q, nlriv

sig duyarSgocg. He is a happy man, except as far as regards his
daughters, (i. e. his happiness stops at his daughters, and does
not enter into, or form part of, the things appertaining to them).
9. ansvdofiav elg A/^^^^y I o,^ hastening to Achilles, (i. e. I am
hastening to go in to Achilles). 10. ig xi, how long ? (i. e. into
what point of time ?) 11. sig ianegav, towards evening, (i. e.
having penetrated a little into the beginning of evening). 12.
elg ttTtal, once for all, (i. e. having gone deeply and seriously
into the first performance of an action, and expressing thereby
a determination not to repeat it, but to let it serve once for all).
13. With numerals it signifies about ; as, sig xQiaxoaiovg iy^~
vovio, they were about three hundred, (i. e. they entered or ad-
vanced into the number three hundred, though they did not
reach to the full limit and extent of that number ; they wanted
but little of being /m/Z three hundred strong). 14. It is some-
times followed by a genitive, but then an accusative is always
understood ; as, sig adov^ to the shades, [ohop or xdnov under-
stood.) In composition it has the general force of into, to,
unto, &c. as elacpiqo}, I bring into, &c.
GENITIVE and ACCUSATIVE.—^td.

This preposition, in its original import, signifies through.
Hence it takes, in this sense, the genitive since, at least in
;
the local meaning, the idea of passing through includes in it-

self also that o( passing out or proceeding from, &c. Thus,
Gen. Through, î^ xeijuwvog, through the winter.
211
Sometimes, however, Side marks the direction of an action
upon an object, and in consequence is joined with the accusa-
tive. When thus followed by an accusative case, it has the
general meaning of on account of: as,
Ace. On account of. îcc cpOovov. On account of envy.
I. From the general meaning of dta with the genitive, we

deduce other kindred meanings 1. It marks the instrument;
:
since that through which the thing done passes, as it were, to

its accomplishment, is said to be the medium of that accom-
plishment, inasmuch as it lies in the midst, between the voli-
tion and the action as, dia neXavog yqikcpeiv^ to write with ink,
;
(i. e. through the means of ink). So also, dt iUq)avTog si'dojXa,

idols of ivory, (i. e. made through the means afforded by ivory
as a material). 2. 8ta. nvog tiq^ttbiv, to do a thing hy means of
another, (i. e. through the agency of another). 3. Sta nlajscog,
by reason of a promise given^ e. through the effect produced
(i.
by a promise given). navjog, always, (i. e. through all

4. dia
time). 5. 8ta /naxgov, after a long time, (i. e. through a long
intervening period of time. In each of these phrases xgovov
is understood). 6. 8ia nivTB -fi/xsQuv^ every five days, (i. e.
through intervals of five days each). 7. xw/nai didi noXXov, villa^
ges placed at a considerable distance from each other, (i. e. villa-
ges which one meets with, after passing through long interme-
diate distances). 8. dia ^qaxiup sinelv, to say in afeio words,
(i. e. through the medium of a few words). 9. dia. xstgcbv exsiv,
to have in one^s hands, to take care of, to look to, (i. e. to have a
thing in one's hands, and to pass it through them from one
hand to the other to handle to exercise more or less obser-
; ;
vation and care towards a thing). 10. didc ixvi\(xr}g rldsadaij to

remind, (i. e. to put a thing through another's remembrance).
11. didc ndvTcov aSiog deag, worthy of being noticed among ally
(i. e. through the midst of all). 12. dl aiiiag ^sxbiv, to accuse,
(i. e. to hold a person bound, by due form of law, to go through
aT charge preferred against him and answer to it). So also, di,

dnlug, eifai, to be accused, (i, e. to be going through an accusa-
tion, and striving to clear one's self from it). 13. With the
verbs Uvai, sgxôdav, Xa/Lt6dvsiv, &;c. it constitutes other and si
milar periphrases ; as, Sia jvxr,g iivai, to be fortunate, (i. e. to
be going through a career of fortunate operations) did. (p66ov:
EQXBodoLi, to be in fear, (i. e. to be going through the state of

being in fear) dC oI'xtou XuSsTp, to pity, (i. e. literally, to take
:
through pity or compassion to make another experience the

;
full extent of one's compassionate feelings, by leading him, as

it were, through the very midst of those feelings).
212
II. With the accusative, as already remarked, 8ta denotes
the direction of an action upon. a definite object, and signifies
generally on account of. But as the object and the occasion,
or cause, of an action are nearly related, (the object being in
one sense the occasion), hence dla, with an accusative, though
translated on account of, for the sake of, is often, if not always,
exactly equivalent to through. This meaning of through^
however, diflJers, as will readily be perceived, from that which
dia has with the genitive, in its carrying with it a reference tp
some action exerted upon a definite object, and therefore tak-
ing not the genitive but the accusative case.
From the general meaning of, on account of, for the sake of
which 8ia has with the accusative, may be deduced other kin-
dred meanings : 1. ov 8l ifjh, not hy me, {not on account of a.ny
thing 1 have done not through my fault). 2. dia at ravTu ygdc-
;
qxxi, I write this for thee, (i. e. on thy account ; through the re-
gard which I feel towards thee). 3. 8i 6v rgonov^ by what

means, (i. e. on account of the performance of what things ;
through the effect produced by what means). 4. ^td Tovg Oeovg

by the protection of the gods, (i. e. on account of the aid afford-
ed by the gods through the protection extended by the gods).
;
5. In the early state of the language, before the use of the

prepositions was definitely settled, we find didc with the accu-
sative sometimes having the simple force of dta with the geni-
tive ; thus, vixia dl d/u6Qoah]v, during the divine night. Ho-
mer v-Cxia dv dgqivalfjv, during the dark night. Horn. Even
:
in these and other passages, however, of a similar nature, there

may be perhaps a remote and obscure reference to the injlu-
ence of night, &c.
III. In composition, îd has often the force of the particle
dis in English, and of dis, trans, tra, in Latin ; marking 1.
separation as, diaana(h, I tear asunder, (i. e. I tear a thing
;
through the middle, or any other part). 2. division as, dtufiE-

;
Qitbi, I divide into parts, (i. e. I make a separation through the
different parts of a thing). 3. arrangement ;as, diux&oab), I

dispose, I arrange, (i. e. I make an arrangement through the
several parts of a thing ; I place each part of a thing in se^m-
r«ê order ; dispono). 4. passage through ; as, dianXia), I sail
through, I sail over. 5. reciprocation ; as, diaXeyo/iiat,, I converse
with another, (i. e. I speak, after having passed through a cer-
tain interval of time in silence, during which time he with
whom I converse is speaking ; I speak in turn). 6. opposi-
tion or competition as, dtddeii\ I sing by turns, (i. e. referring
;
to two musical competitors, who, during the contest, have their

respective intervals of silence and exhibition of skill). This
213
verb diddo), has also another meaning viz. / sing out of tune,
;
(i. e. I sing through the barriers interposed by melody and the
rules of the verse I sing through, or overleap, the bars of the

;
measure). 7. perseverance as, dianovdto, I elaborate, I bring

;
to perfection with much toil, (i. e. I labour through every inter-

posing difficulty as persevero in Latin, from per and severus ;
;
I adhere rigidly to my purpose through all intervening obsta-

cles).
KaTa.
This preposition originally means down, implying the mo-
tion downwards, of one body towards another. Now when one
body moves against another, either it moves with sufficient
force to dislodge the quiescent body from its previous state of
rest, or else the quiescent body resists the moving body so
powerfully, that the latter is compelled to stop at, and remain
even with,ihe former. The preposition xard is used, therefore,
to express each of these kinds of motion and as the genitive,
;
in Greek, expresses the idea of removal from a place, while the

accusative, on the other hand, denotes that on which any thing
exercises a direct and immediate influence, without any refer-
ence to change of place hence ««Ta is joined with the geni-
;
tive in order to express more fully the first kind of motion,

and with the accusative in order to denote the second. Hence
also, the primitive force of icaxd with the genitive is doion
against, or simply against ; and with the accusative, even with.
From these two sources flow all the various meanings in which
Haxa has been used. Thus, with the genitive ;
I, x«t' Alax^ôv Koyog, a speech against jTlschines : so also,

}.6yog xcxTcc xivbg, a speech against any one. In these and simi-
lar examples the idea oi motion from place is always implied.
Thus, iEschines, through conscious guilt shrinks from the
accusation of' Demosthenes. And, indeed, generally speak-
ing, in the case of every accusation, since the accused is com-
pelled to remain silent, while the accuser is advancing with
his proofs ; and since the guilt or innocence of the party ac-
cused cannot usually be known until after he has answered
his accuser the mind pre-supposes a receding, in a greater
;
or less degree, on the part of the former, from the charge pre-
ferred against him, whether it be only an apparent receding
in consequence of his remaining silent while his accuser ad-
vances with a bold and confident air, and seems to convict him
of his offence or whether it be an actual receding, arising
;
either from guilt, or from some prudential motive, in order

19*
214
tliathe may advance in turn against the charge with more
coolness and deliberation. 2. tqIu iyxwinicc tcaff i/nwv ra nul-
Itaxa, three beautiful panegyrics pronounced upon you. Here
the literal force of xaid is down against, meaning by against
(not hostility, but) simply motion towards, and the idea of
change of place, is implied in those on whom the panegyric is
pronounced shrinking from it through modesty. 3. xaxd y^g
x&drjfiai,, I am sitting on the ground. Here the surface of the
ground has been disturbed by the body coming in contact with
it. 4. xtttd yrig dntoni^nca, I send him under the earth. That
is, I send against the earth, which opens to receive him, and
he descends to the shades. 5. aax ^vd^dmov xal i'nnov -ib
iQmv liyBToci ; the term animal is used both in reference to man
and to the horse. the idea of a burthen is conveyed i. e.
Here ;
the term animal is put upon, is applied to, man and the horse ;
and a partial yielding of each to the burthen is pre-supposed
by the mind. 6. dfxoaai xaff Isqwv releloop, to swear by a solemn
sacrifice. This forms a beautiful example. The sacrifice is
burning, the oath is put down upon the sacrifice, and both to-
gether ascend to the skies. 7. xad' Ixur6fi6i]g kvîxadat, to make
a solemn vow at the offering of a hecatomb. This admits of
precisely the same explanation as the preceding phrase. 8.
naff Ibq^v Tsksiojv haxiav^ to give a sumptuous entertainment
with a solemn sacrifice. That is, to entertain down against a
solemn sacrifice. Here the action implied by xaru is exerted
against that por/tion of the sacrifice which is not burnt in ho-
nour of the Gods, and the idea of change of place is contained
in the consumption of the remains of the victim by the guests.
9. xard: yl\ko(fov, down the hill- Here the idea of change of
place is implied in the declivity of the hill receding, as it were,
beneath the body which has come down against, and is rapidly
traversing, its surface. So in Homer, §^ dk xai' Ovlv/unoio
xa^rji'wy, he descended from the heights of Olympus. Here the
idea of change of place is beautifully and strongly expressed.
Not only does the declivity of the mountain recede beneath the
rapid footsteps, but the very mountain tops tremble under the
tread, of the irritated god. The idea of descent and conse-
quent change of place is also implied in the following exam-
ples ; as, xad" ol-qg xr\g nsQi/WQCv, through the whole region
around, i. e. down through, along : xara t^? xs(paXi]g, down the
head : lÔQxit,(a as xazd xov Gsov xov t,(bpTog, I adjure thee by
the living God, i. e. God himself being invoked to descend as
a witness xaxil dt'Tjrwv dcrdQibncov, among mortal men, i. e. down
:
the race of mortal men, from the first to the last the idea ot ;
change of place being implied in one generation passing in re-

215
view.after another. Sometimes the Poets use it with a dative ,
as, itoLt' 0Qeaq)i, among the mountains.

II. With the accusative, xard carries with it, as has already
been remarked, the primitive import of even with. Hence we
deduce the following significations 1. xax' ^qx^?, in the he-
:
ginning, (i. e. even with the beginning). 2. J^wTd y^j^, on the

ground, (i. e. even with the ground). 3. Jfaxd axridog ^âXsj he
struck him on the breast, (i. e. even with the breast). 4. xard
Tov nogdôp iyivovTO, they came near to the harbour, (i. e. even
with, close up to). 5. aarcc rbv jonov^ at the place, (i. e. even
with the place). 6. 'riWe nax avtbv, he came to him, (i. e. he
came even with him). 7. itaru Keqavqav^ over against Corcy-
ra, (i. even with, abreast of). 8. xat' dqjOaXfiovg, before one's
e.
eyes, even with one's eyes). 9. naTo. ibv vofiov^ accord-
(i. e.
ing to the law, (i. e. even with, conformable to). 10. j<«<9' olrjv
TT^v TioXiVj throughout the whole city, (i. e. even with the whole
city). 11. x«^' havrhv^ by himself, (i. e. even with himself). 12.
yax' hog, every year, (i, Oi. even with each. year). 13. xax
snog, word for word, (i. e. even with each word), &c. In these
and other similar instances it will easily appear that there is
no reference whatever to any change of place, but to some ob-
ject which is fully acted upon, and yet, at the same time, pre-
sents ^full resistance to that which acts upon it.
In composition, ôtja often gives additional force to the sense
of the simple term as (poQjl'Co), I load, aaxacpoQTi'QM, I over-
;
load, (1. Q.I weigh down with a burthen). 2. It denotes oppo-

sition ; as KQlvoi, I judge, xaTaxQlvoj, I decide against, I condemn,
(i. e. I judge down against another). 3. iprjcfLôûi, I give a
vote, xarucprjcpiô/Liai, I give a contrary vote, (i. e. I vote against
my former vote). 4. descent ; as, âino, I go, xuTttâlvoj, I
descend.
'
YntQ.
The primitive meaning of this preposition is over, above,

with which are associated the kindred ideas of power, au-
thority, protection, &c. As the genitive is that case which
denotes motion from, -insQ is always joined with it when we
want to express yVom lohom that power emanates, on whose ac-
count that authority is exercised, or that protection afforded
Slc. with the genitive has the general meaning
Hence iutt^q,
oi for, on account of, &c. With the accusative, on the other

hand, it denotes the exercise of power, authority, protection,
&LC. upon a given object, without any reference to motion pro-
ceeding from that object. Hence <>nlQ with the accusative
may commonly be rendered by over, above, more than, against
&c. Thus,
216
I. STQttTTjyslv {)nsQ iuibv ttjj 'â[ag. To be general fa/' you
in Asia, (i. e. literally, above from you ; the authority (v/rc^),
emanating yrowiyoM {yfxb^v), and to be exercised in your behalf).
2. fi&xeadai, -vneg nfog, to fight for any onc,{i. e. to stand over
(i^neg) in an attitude of protection, either figuratively or really,
and to fight in consequence of some solicitation, wish, &c.
proceeding from some one (ripog)). 3. dediipatiTisQ nvog, to fear
for any one^s safety, (i. e. to place one's self, in thought, in an
attitude of anxious observation over another, and to feel soli-
citous for his safety, in consequence of something proceeding
from, or connected with, him, which interests one in his be-
half; as, dediei'at vtieq (xdslcpov, to fear for a brother, (i. e. in
consequence of that kindred feeling of affection and sympathy
which, proceeding from a brother as its exciting cause, connects
us with him in the bonds of fraternal love). 4. TuneQ nuiqbg
xai [xi]iqbg,for, or, on account of father and mother, (i. e. to place
one's self, either in thought or in reality, over a father and mo-
ther in an attitude of watchful regard, and to be urged to the
performance of some act for their welfare, by filial affection,
which proceeds yrom them as the exciting cause). 5. vnegrwv
y.rjnwv ovgog xeliui, the keeper lies above the gardens, (i. e. the
keeper has his post above the gardens, whence he may watch
them to more advantage, and the exciting cause proceeds from
the gardens, for he is their keeper). 6. e^ Jidioniag z^g i57i£^
Aly'J7TTOu,from Ethiopia which is beyond Egypt, (i. e. which
lies above in reference to Egypt). Here the relation proceeds
from Egypt and Êthiopia, as far as regards the land of
;
Egypt, is situated above : in other words, it is more to the south

than Egypt. So also, to ooog to -buhq Ttysag^ the mountain
which lies above Tegea : here the principle of relation proceeds
from Tegea and the mountain in question lies above, or be-
;
yond, as far as that cit is concerned. So also, tcc If-yo/ueva

TLineQ kxdaTcop, the thin^ s that are mentioned respecting each
here <)niq denotes th? certain things are said over certain per-
sons as the exciting cause of those remarks, and as the subject
of them. 7. ' Qedg iJjte^ fi/uibi' eail, God is for us, (i. e. God
is in the heavens in the attitude of a protector, because we have
done something to merit that protection the cause of his be-
:'
ing our protector emanates /rom ourselves).

II. With the accusative ineq denotes over, above, &c. with-
out any reference to motion from the object on which its ac-
tion is exerted. Hence it carries with it, when construed
with the accusative, the idea of power, superiority, &c. origi-
nating in a thing itself, and not emanating, or derived, /ro»j
another. Thus, 1. ineg av6Q(an6v iaxt, it is beyond 7nan's
217
power, (i. above man). 2. <}nBQ ribv dofôv, over the house.
e. it is
3. ftt avdûg^ more than forty men, (i. e. above
iiie^ T£ffcre^T] >f 01'
forty men). 4. 6ntQ tov xuiqoi', unseasonably, (i. e. over, in ad-
vance of, the proper opportunity). 5. <>nhQ (ioqop, against des-
tiny, (i. 6. over, more than, fate had decreed-)
111. In composition, it retains its general signification of
over, above, for, &c. thus, i}neoayudog, eminently good, (i. e. over,
more than, simply good) vnsQixidsladai, to be excessively asham-
:
ed, (i. e. to be above, more than, simply ashamed) vneQi/eiv,

:
to hold over : inEQ^(xxhod(xi, to fight for something : vneqayo-

qeveiv, to harangue in favour of any one : {)neQdhog, beyond sea,
(i. e. over sea).
DATIVE and ACCUSATIVE.— '^*'«.

The primitive meaning of this preposition is motion upwards.
Hence it carries with it the general signification of up, up on,
up along, &c. It is generally joined with an accusative. In
poetry, however, it sometimes governs a dative. From its
primitive meaning of up, up on, up along, are deduced various
kindred meanings. Thus,
I. 'Ava. T(i o^vy, by the mountains, (i. e. up along the moun-
tains). 2. Âva. TYiv 'EkXdda, through Greece, (i. e. up along

Greece referring properly to motion from the coast into the
;
interior). 3. uva i6v 8lov, during life, (i. e. up along life; com-
paring the progress through life to the toilsome ascent of a
mountain, the summit of which brings us nearer to heaven).
4. dvu /ueqog, by turns, alternately, (i. e. up along each part,
through each part). 5. (xva nevre^five by five, (i. e. counting
up a certain number of fives separately; up each five). 6.
Ccfa nQ(x)iovg, among the first, (i. e. up among the first, and not
down among the second, third, and fourth). 7. dcvu îaov^ mo-
derately, (i. e. up a middle course). 8. (xva tov ttotuûp nUetv,
to sail against the current, (i- e. to sail up the river). 9. diPu
XQovov, in process of time, after an interval of time, (i. e. up
along time the idea of ascent, being naturally implied from
;
the accumulation of years, one upon the other), 10. ava. xb

GTofâ, through the mouth, (i. e. up along the mouth, the head
being naturally somewhat depressed and bent forward towards
the table in eating). 11. dvu tcQdiog, by force, (i. e. up along
strength collecting and reckoning up our strength, and em-
;
ploying it as a means). 12. arte du/aov, in mind, (i. e. up along

the mind, commencing with its least and ending with its strong-
est powers taking the whole range of the mind).
:
II. With the Poets this preposition is sometimes found with

218
a dative case. As the dative expresses that in, on, or with
which, any thing rests, remains, &c. it is hence accompanied
by dva whenever we wish to convey the combined ideas of
elevation and rest. Thus, 1. /(>ua£'o) (ivd axjJTifô), vpon a gold-
en sceptre. Horn. II. <i. 15. (alluding to certain fillets,rewam-
ing attached to the top of a golden sceptre). 2. evdsi, d' dva
axdmcL) ^tog aleiog. The eagle sleeps on the sceptre of Jove.
Pind. Pyth- 1.10. So also, xqvaitug dv' innoig^ in a golden
chariot. Pind. 01. .1. 66. {vid. Boeckh. ad loc). The idea of
rest is here implied by the individual alluded to being seated
in the chariot. 3. dvd vavrrlr^ in ships. Eurip. Iph. A. 759.
III. In composition it denotes, 1. motion upwards as, ;
dva§uiioi^ I ascend. 2. repetition ; as, dtudidduxM, I teach

again, I teach anew, (i. e. after teaching a subject throughout,
down to the very end, I go back and teach again alo7ig the top
of it, I re-commence my instructions). 3. In many cases,
however, of composition with verbs, it strengthens the mean-
ing of the simple verb by the force of its primitive significa-
tion ; thus, dvaôdbt, I cry aloud, (i. e. / se7id up a cry) dva-:
yeXdui, I laugh aloud, (i. e. / raise a laugh) dvayQucfw, I re-

:
gister, (i. e. / write up public records) dvudelxw/xi, I shew,

:
(i. e. / hold up to view) dfudireoj, I whirl, (i. e. up and down

:
in a rotatory motion) dvudixoûi,, I stand hail, (i. e. / take

:
upon myself to become surety for another) 4. Frequently

:
also verbs compounded with dvd have the signiiication of hack

added to their original meaning; as, dvaxuUM, I call hack, I
recall : dpuxlboj, I lean hack, I recline, &c. The verb dvana-
^£w admits of a very easy explanation. Thus, if I call an-
other hack to any place, it evidently implies that the place to
which he is recalled was the one from which he originally
advanced. I therefore call him from the place which he has
reached, up along that place where the motion forwards ori-
ginated, and from which he started in the first instance that ;
is, 1 call him hack. The

verb dvuy.liiM properly denotes the
elevation of the face upwards as the body is thrown back in a
reclining posture.
GENITIVE, DATIVE, and ACCUSATIVE.—'^«g)*.

The primitive force of this preposition is around, round
ahout, and it is joined with the genitive, dative, and accusative.
With each of these three cases it retains its primitive mean-
ing of ahout, round ahout. Besides this, it conveys with the
genitive the idea of something issuing from, or occasioned hy
with the dativcj rest or continuance in, on, or with any object
219
and with the accusative, an approach, tendency, or reference
towards any object.
I. With the genitive. ]. dâcpi n6vov 6 novog^ toil upon toil,
(i. e. toil exerted round about other previous toil, and succeed-
ing to, or, in other words, emanating from, it). 2, dL^(fl <I>oi-
§ov,for the love of Apollo, (i. e. doing something round about
Apollo, in a figurative sense, on account of some kindness
conferred by him on us, some favour proceeding from him). 3-
cpaput, (i/ucpl Oewv xaXa, to speak well of the gods, (i. e. to speak
well round about the gods, in consequence of blessings issuing
from them towards us). 4. d/acpl trig noXeoog, in the environs of,
or, round about the city, (i. e. round about from the city, or, round
about in respect of the city).
II. With the dative. 1. ^f^cp lbp,oiaiv idvaono ib^x^î kuXH/.,
he put on the fine armour, (i. e. he put the fine armour round
about his person, and it depended from, or rested upon, his
shoulders in other words, his shoulders supported the prin-
:
cipal superincumbent weight of the armour). 2. ^fiql fi(^x^

nocfavTu €tQr\adijo, let thus much have been said concerning the
fight. (Here the presence of the perfect elQrâdoi, with its re-
ference to continuance of action, naturally calls for dcîcpl with
the dative ; and the passage is equivalent to, " let thus much
have been said and remain said round about, on the subject of
the battle"). 3. d.fjcpi de tw duvdra avrov, as to what regards
his death, (i. e. as to what has been said round about or report-
ed, on the subject of his death). 4 axi& rwl loyovg avkantx^
lovg fisp ÂTQsidwv xdra, rovg (5' «,aqp' OdvaasT, he darkly uttered
'
hints against the Atridce and about Ulysses, (i. e. what he said
respecting Ulysses was still more obscure than what he utter-
ed against the Atridaj it was spoken round about on the sub-
:
ject of Ulysses). 5. dfiopl d' d^' ama aXXoi enopjo, others fol-
lowed after him, (i. e. others followed round about, whose move-
ments depended upon his). 6. d^cpl ocplfft nhdog oqmqs, sorrow
arose among them, (i. e. sorrow arose round about, and remain-
ed resting among, them). 7. rotfid' ujucpl ywaixl -nolvv xQovov
alyea n&axeiv, to suffer woes for a long period, about such a wo-
man. (Here the dative conveys the idea of the united woes
of the Greeks centering in, and being identified with., Helen as
their exciting cause). 8. d^cp' 'EXivri xal xrriuaat ndai fxdxsa
6(ti^to fight for Helen and all her wealth. (Here Helen and
the wealth she brought from Sparta, are supposed to be plac
ed in the midst as a prize, round about which the combatants
are to fight, while the dative implies that the hopes and the
fears of the parties centre in Helen and her wealth, and remain
fixed upon so tempting a prize). 9. xd^âXep apdga xuxu
220
xOovdg, dcfi(pl d' dcg ajJToi sl^sto, he threw the man upon the ground,
and down upon him, (i. e. his own person covered round
sat
about his prostrate foe, and remained resting upon him). 10.
TcsTiuQ/itivri djucp^ ovv/eaatv, pierced with his talons. (Here the
presence of the perfect participle nenaQuivrj requires, as in the
second example, the dative case with (k/ucpl, and the literal mean-
ing of the phrase is " having been pierced and remaining pierc-
ed round about, with the talons still continuing in the wound").
III. With the accusative. 1. dcfjcpl k6lîvov %x^ ^d nolla, I
am almost always occupied about my forge, (i. e. I am occupied
round about my forge, and constantly going towards it.) 2.
6.^q} ala %laat 'u^_;ifatOT)c, to force the Greeks towards the sea,
(i. e. to force the Greeks towards the sea, and the places
round about it). 3. ciûgpi t« k^dofirixovTa err/, about seventy
years, (i. e. round about seventy years, and advancing rapidly
towards that period). 4. Joined with a proper name, it is used
in three different senses First. It denotes the person sig-
nified by the proper name, with his companions, followers, &c.
as, ol djucpl nsiaicfTQaioi^, Pisistratus with his troops : ol (jcucpl
TOP '
Ogifia, Orpheus and his followers : in these and similar
phrases, the accusative denotes that the movements and ac-
tions of those who are engaged round about the principal per-
sonage, look to, are directed towards, are governed by, his
movements. Secondly, (i,«gri with the accusative of a proper
name, sometimes denotes merely the person whom the proper
name expresses. This construction appears to result from an
increased force being given to the meaning of the accusative,
by which the person towards whom the actions and move-
ments of the rest are directed, occupies, in consequence of
his rank or some other circumstance connected with him, the
largest share- of the mind's attention. Thus, ol d' &ju(pl Ugla-
juov xal ndvdooy ride Qvfioljvv, Adifinov re KXvzlov ff 'Ixetdora ,
t', 6t,oy Âqrjog. Priam and Panthous and Thymoetes, and

Lampus and Clytius, and Hicetaon, offspring of Mars. So
also : tqlg y«9 ttJ y' ilddfjeg ineiqrâavd' oi &Qtaroi, d/uq)^ Ai'apre
ûw Hal dcyaxlvTOf Îdojuevria,for thrice have the bravest warriors
advancing assailed it, the two Ajaces, and the distinguished Ido-
meneus. — Thirdly. It denotes, especially in later writers, the
companions, &;c. of the person named, without himself; as,
ol di.{X(fi naQfisvidrjv xal Zr[p(ava kraTQCi, the friends of Parmeni-
des and Zeno. 10. From these must be distinguished, how-

ever, the cases in which the preposition is not followed by a
proper name, but by another substantive, or when the article
is neuter. Thus, ol df^qpl rriv Sriqav, the hunters ; rdt df^q>i toy
nolsfiov, what belongs to war, &c. {vid. preposition negl).
221
III. In composition, it has the general force oi about, round
about; as, (ifJ<fi'^(k^ôj, I throw around. Sometimes it has the
meaning of dfAifoiiQinidev^ on both sides; as, ufiifL^ôTog^ defend-
ing on every side, (i. e. defending round about).
The original meaning of this preposition is close upon, and

it joined with the genitive, dative, and accusative.
is When
it is followed by a genitive, it conveys, together with its own.
original mfeaning, the several ideas denoted by the genitive

case such as, part of time, part of place, something proceed-
;
ing from, &c. something emanating from, &c. and it may ge-
nerally be rendered by the phrase in respect of With the
dative there is a constant reference to continuance, or rest in,
upon, or with, an object; with the accusative, motion or di-
rection towards. These three respective meanings of the ge-
nitive, dative, and accusative, when combined each in turn
with the primitive signification of inl, produce the following
resuUs. Thus,
I. With thegenitive. 1. tnl Kvqov, under Cyrus, (i. e. close
upon in respect of Cyrus referring to ôw qx proceeding from,
;
and exercised by, Cyrus). 2. ^rxl ttj? ai^roC d^^j under his
government, (i. e. close upon in respect of his government). 3.
ini j(i)p TiQ&êojv, by deeds, (i. e. close upon in respect of deeds ;
referring to some
effect proceeding from them). 4. inl xigcog
^yetVj to lead an army by one of its wings, (i. e. close upon in
respect of a wing; referring to part of general place). 5. iq>
kauTov, by himself, (i. e. close upon in respect of himself). 6.
inl i^g yrig xixianlntsiv^ to fall upon the ground, (i. e. closeupon
in respect of the ground ; referring to part of place). 7. inl
j(by 'EkXi^vtxiby noleMv, among the Grecian cities, (i. e. close
upon in respect of the Grecian cities ; the reference being the
same as in the preceding example). 8. inl nolliap, among ma-

ny things, (i. e. close upon in respect of many things same ;
reference). 9. inl joip legibv dfjoaai, to swear by the sacred vic-

tims, (i. e.standing near, close by, the victims). 10. inl Toaoi-
T0J»' fiugrvQMv, before so many witnesses, (i. e. near to, close by,
so many witnesses). 11. in d/ucpiaîjiritov dnodel^sMg, by in-
dubitable proof (i. e. close upon, in the immediate vicinity of,
(fee.) 12. ol in iôvalag, persons in ojice, magistrates, (i. e
close upon authority). 13. (knonXeovTsg in' oi'xov, sailing di-
rectly homewards, (i. e. close upon home). 14. i^ inl trig nolsiag
odog, the road to the city, (i. e. close upon, leading directly down
upon, the city). Perhaps in these two last examples the geni-
20
222
tive and not the accusative is used, by reason of an obscure
reference to motion from. Thus, to sail homewards implies
a previous departure from home and a road leading to a city,
;
is to the inhabitants a road leading from it). 15. inl T^twv,

inl rsTT&Qojv, by three, by four at a time, or, three deep, four
deep, (i. e. close upon three, close upon four in other words, ;
each number of three or four following close after the one that
went before it).
II. With the dative, 1. tcp w, on which condition, (i. e. close
upon and remaining firmly in which). 2. enl touto), during

this time, (i. e. close upon and continuing connected with this
period of time). 3. inl lovxoig, in addition to these, besides,
(i. e. closeupon and connected with these). 4. tnl t(S xsQihi,
for gain, (i. e. close upon and connected toith the purpose of
gain). 5. s,-il noD.a, at a high rate, (i. e. close upon and conti-
nuing in a high rate). 6. inl t(5 navil 3l(^,for his whole life,
(i. e. close upon and not deviating from the course of his whole
life). 7. inl vi]nlM fiov Tidyj]xs}', he died leaving me yet a child,

(i. e. his death happened close upon the period when I was still
remaining in a state of childhood). 8. iq) %u1:p vn^Qx^''^ it de-

pends on us, (i. e. it is closely and intimately connected with our
means). 9. inl fxoL ian, it is in my power, (i. e. it is closely
and intimately connected with my ability to perform). 10. &l-

Xoi in' akloig, one after another^ (i. e. adhering closely one to
the other). 11.6 inl naai, laxdalc, he that was stationed last
of all, (i. e. he that Avas stationed close upon and in immediate
connexion with all the rest of the army). 12. inl tw rrurî
iipoûixae^ he named him after his father, (i. e. his name was
closely, or immediately, identified with that of his father, and
remained so). 13. inl roaovno axQuzeviiaTi^ with such an army,
(i. e. close upon and continuing in connexion with such an army
as the instrument of action). 14. inl TQmaai /.taxsadai,, to

fight ivith the Trojans, (i'. e. to remain fighting in close combat
with the Trojans). 15. icp -^/uiga^for the whole day, (i. e. in
immediate and continued connection with the day). 16. inl tq
noiafiia, along the river, (i. e. close upon and not departing from
the river).
III. With the accusative. 1. inl r^v 'AttlxYiv inoQsvero, he
went to Attica, upon and in the direction of Attica).
(i. e. close
2. inl nofTov^ for how much, (i. Q. close upon and tending towards
how much). 3. inl iriv aluv, on the ground, (i. e. close upon
and in the direction ofihe ground). 4. snl iriv kaxiap y.aOisêadai,
to be seated on the hearth, (i. e. to be seated close upon the
hearth, with the eyes earnestly directed towards it as the source
of safety and refuge). 5. tt;»' noXiv icp kavrbv noi-âaadai^ to
223
bring the city under subjection to himself, bring the city (i. e. to
into close connection as regards himself. voice The middle

here carries with it the additional idea of its being done, /or
himself, /or his own private advantage). 6. havibv^ tn iôv-
ulav rroiriaaadai, to establish himself in power, (to make him-
self close upon, and to direct all his movements towards, the
acquisition of, authority). 7. inl xig '^dovag aiQUTsvofiai, I make
war upon pleasures, (i. e. I engage in close warfare against
pleasures).
IV. In composition, denotes, 1. addition; Rs,enidldoj/ni,
fcTri
I give in addition, give or place something upon a pre-

(i. e. I
vious gift). 2. increase or augmentation as, snwdvvog, caus- ;
ing increased pain, (i. e. producing pain upon former pain ; or,
causing pain upon pain). 3. It denotes likewise reciprocal
action as, intyaialot, intermarriage, (i. e. one's marrying ano-
;
ther, upon ihcit other^s agreeing to marry him) : Iniôrideia, mu-

tual assistance, one's aiding another «j90w, or in conse-
(i. e.
quence of, that other's having aided him). 4. It most com-
monly has in composition, however, the force of thereupon, de-
noting that one action takes place in consequence of another
which has preceded it.
The original meaning of this preposition is with, and it is

followed by the genitive, dative, and accusative. When con-
strued with the genitive, it takes nearly the same sense as
aiiv with the dative, except that avv indicates a nearer and
more intimate union. Whatever is with, in company with, any
person or thing, in a strict sense depends on q\ from that per-
son or thing hence iiBxa takes the genitive in this sense
;
;
whereas ovv implies that the object is an integral part of ano-

ther, something inherent in it, and therefore takes the dative,
as expressing that in or on which any thing rests. When
construed with the dative, which is an usage confined solely
to the Poets, hbxq. signifies among, between, in, by. With the
accusative, indicates direction behind, after, in the rear of a.
it
thing. so used, partly of place, and partly of time since

It is ;
events which succeed each other in time, constitute a series

of objects following after each other.
I. With the genitive. 1. f^sr' sfiov, with me. 2. fisruxaigov,
according to circumstances, (i. e. m conjmiction with a suitable
opportunity). 3. fêx aQeir^g -nqoixetevv, to excel by means oj
virtue, (i.conjunction with, and in consequence of the
e. in
aid resulting /row, the practice of virtue). 4. In Homer, êrd,
with a genitive and neuter verb, denotes together with ; in com-
224
mon with ; as, f^Bxa d/udibiv nXvs y.al râ6\ he
drank and ate iO'
common, vjith his servants- Homer never uses
getJier, or, in
it, when followed by the genitive, with any other than a neu-
ter verb. Subsequent writers, however, join it, when a geni-

tive follows, with an active ve^rb, in order to express the joint
action of two or more persons as, ijAaae, lovg ivayalg Kleo-
;
fiiPTjg fiszdc 'A6av(xib)v^

Cleomenes, in conjunction with the Athe-
nians, drove out the polluted. Thucydides. 5. In Plutarch,
Alex. 77. there is a deviation, in the construction of /nerdi, from
previous usage ; as, rr^p ^TUiatQav nqoauyuyovaa /ustcc t^j
(xdeX(frig dcnexreive, having led forth Statira, she slew her toge-
ther with her sister.
II. With a dative, as has been remarked, êra occurs only
in the Poets : as, 1. vcpuive fzeia (fgeolp, he planned in his mind.
Hesiod. (i. e. he planned together with his mind, and kept at
the same time his deliberations concealed within his own
breast). 2. xaXjai 6' ^g^wovro juera nvoirig avifioio, his locks
were agitated hy the blast. Homer, (i. e. kept floating with the
blast, or, amid the blast).
III. With an
accusative. 1. fiex' d/uvinova nrjXslojva, next
after the valiant son of Peleus. 2. /ust" dcfuiiuovag Aidionriag, to
the good Ethiopians, (i. e. going after, seeking for, journeying
towards them). 3. In the Attic writers it is joined with ti/jsqu ;
thus, fxeff riJUEQav, in the day-time. Eurip. jusja rgltjiv ri/uEQap,

on the third day. Plato. ovib vvxrog ovts f.ieff ^^bquu^ neither
hy night nor by day. Plato. The principle on which the use
of the accusative here depends has been explained in the in-
troductory remarks on this preposition. 4. f^sTo. xf'iQf^s bx^^'î
to have in one's hands, vid. Introductory Remarks.
IV. In composition it denotes, 1. change as, ^sTaiiOrjfn^ I ;
transpose, I change the 'place of a thing, (i. e. I put a thing in

a place, after having previously put it in some other place).
So also jusTudoyib), I change my opinion, (i. e. I think, after
having previously thought I think again, or anew). In the
;
same way may be explained every verb compounded with fna-

Td and indicating change. 2. reciprocity as, fiSTdyyeXog, a ;
messenger sent between two parties.
UaQd.
The primary meaning of this preposition seems to regard
one thing placed along side of another. It is construed with
the genitive, dative, and accusative. With the genitive, it is
properly used in reference to an object, which comes from the
near vicinity of another, and, in prose, is usually connected
only with words which imply animated existence. With the
225
dative, properly signifies near, by the side of.
it With the ac-
cusative, denotes motion towards^ to, or by the side of, or, in
it
the near vicinity of any thing. Thus,

I. With the genitive. 1. ^Xdslv nccQu Tivog, to come from any
one. 2. dyyeXXetv tiuqu tivog, to announce on the part ofwiy one.

3. fiavO&vBiv naga Tivog, to learn from any one- 4. ^ naqa xov-
Twv evvoia, the kindness of those persons, (i. e. proceeding from,
shown by, them). 5. ol naga tov JVixlov, the messengers of Ni-
das, (i. e. those /row Nicias). 6. tcaTi^yogslxav nagd. rcov 'lou-
duio)f, he is accused by the Jews, (i. e. the accusation against
him proceeds from the Jevirs).
II. With the dative. 1. naga tw âadsT, with the king, (i. e.
near to, by, or on the side of, the king). 2. naga uoi, with you, or,
on you, or, m
your power. 3. nagdi. /nvrjairigcnv, among the
suitors.
III. With the accusative.
1. Travel: vrâg, towards the ships. 2.
naga Kau^vasa, Cambyses. 3. nag' oXor jfiv ^lov^ through
to
one's whole life, (i. e. moving parallel with the whole course of
one's life). 4. naga Tqp noaiv, in drinking, (i. e. accompanying
drinking, moving by the side of it). 5. nag avxa rd (iJiXTJ^waxof,
at the very moment of the unjust transaction, (i. e. moving on
at the side, or in the near vicinity, of the unjust transaction).
6. nagdt. t^v (piatv, contrary to nature, (i. e. passing by nature,
disregarding it). 7. naga ro dUaioy, contrary to justice, (i. e.
passing by iustice). 8. nag' &gav^ unseasonably, {i. g. passing
by a proper season). 9. nag a^lap, undeservedly, (i. e. passing
by desert). 10. naga id aXXa 'cjha, beyond all other animals,
(i. e. passing by, or beyond, all other animals). 11. oj)x laxv
naga xavx ciXXa, there is nothing else besides this, (i. e. there
is nothing accompanying it, nothing moving at the side ; it is
by itself). 12. naga xiiv vfiszigav dfiiXeiav, on account of your
negligence, (i. e. moving on in the near vicinity of your negli-
gence, accompanying your negligence, attendant upon it as a
consequence). 13. naga xovio, in consequence of this, (i. e.
attendant upon this as a natural consequence). 14. naga noX-d^
by much, (i. e. moving on by the side of much). 15. nag' dXl~
yov, by little. 16. naga fj,txgbv 7]X6sv anodavelv^ he had nearly
lost his life, (i. e. he came close to the side of a little, &c.) 17.
naga noXv hXladav xiiv ndXcv riXdsv, he mas far from taking the
(i. e. he came close to
city, the side of much, &c.) 18. naga
xoaovxoVj by so much, so far. 19. nag' dXlyov noiBladai, to think
little of 20. naga ixr[va xgLxov, every third month. 21. nag
-flfxegav, every day.
IV. In composition it frequently marks, 1. a faulty, or de-
fective action ; as, nagaâCvoj, I transgress, (i. e. I pass by, I
20*
226
disregard) TtaQn^XerTb}, I see imperfectly, (i. e. I look aside :
:
I do not look full at an object). 2. It signifies aside as, ;
nocQBvdeaig, insertion, (i. e. something put in by the side of other

thingsL 3. a near equality as, naQo/noiog, nearly alike, (i. e
;
by the near to the state, of being alike). It has also many

side,
other meanings, but they all flow so easily and naturally from
the primitive as not to require any particular mention here.
UeqI.
The original signification of this preposition is about,
around. It serves to express the idea of surrounding or in-
closing on all sides ; and consequently from Tia^d, which
differs
merely denotes previous proximity, i. on one side. When
e.
construed with the genitive, it is commonly to be translated
by of, concerning, about, all of which, in their primitive signi-
fication, are properly used in relation to any thing proceeding
from one object towards another. With the dative, there is,
besides the primitive force of tisqI, the idea of rest or continu-
ance ; with the accusative, there is a reference to motion on or
upon. Thus,
I. With the genitive. 1. neQl nrog Xiysiv^ to speak of or,
concerning any one. (In such cases, the person speaking con-
ceives himself as being at or around the object inasmuch as ;
he has brought it within the compass of his knowledge, and

has made it his own, either by actual inspection or contem-
plation and then what he says, comes, as it were, from the
;
object). 2. ^dLXôOai, tteqI naiqldog^ to fight for one^s country,

(i. e. to fight round about one's country, in consequence of a
right to demand our aid which naturally proceeds from her).
3. TVQuvvldog nsQi^for the sake of power, (i. e. acting, carrying
on operations, round about power, in consequence of some at-
tractive charm proceeding from it). 4. noieladav negl noXXov,
to value highly, (i. e. to act, or employ one's self, about a thing,
in consequence of a great value emanating from it). 5. -fiyela.
6ai negl /hixqov, to think little of, (i. e. to think of a thing in
respect of a slight advantage proceeding from it to think
;
slightly of it). 6. nsgl noXXov iailv riutf, he is of great impor-

tance to us, (i. e. he is round about to us in respect of a great
advantage in other words, we keep round about him in con-
;
sequence of a great advantage which is to result). 7. In Ho-

mer TiBQi with the genitive denotes superiority ; as, tibqI ndv-
tbiv ifipevai ^XXbiv, to be above all others. Perhaps this pecu-
liar meaning may have arisen in the following manner To :
be round about all, implies superior activity, care, attention,

227
&LC. and if n&vxiavÛwv, in the genitive, imply that this acti-
vity, care, attention, &c. are exerted in consequence of a re-
quest or a tacit consent proceeding from all the rest, who are
conscious of the superiority of the individual in these respects,
hence may be deduced the kindred idea of general pre-emi-
nence on his part.
II. With the dative. 1 . ubqI xr^ %stQl ^gvaovv daxjiXiov (pBQet,Vj
towear a golden ring on his hand, (i. e. round about, and re-
maining on, the hand). 2. negl y(]iQ dls noifiivi Xawv^for he
feared for the shepherd of the people, (i. e. his fears were active
round about and remained continually connected with, &;c.).
3. neql (f 66w, from fear, (i. e. remaining round about fear be- ;
ing directly under its influence).

III. With the accusative. 1. wkohj' <Po[vixsg niqi naaav riiv
2iKeXiav, Phoenicians dwelt in the whole of Sicily, round about.
(The circumstance of their dwelling in the island implies a
previous coming to it, and hence the use of the accusative).
2. neql rovTovg xovg /Qovovg, about this time, (i. e. round about,
and advancing towards, this point of time). 3. neql Xvxvmv
^cp^G, about night-fall; literally, about the hour of lighting
lamps. 4. nsql iqiaxiXiovg, about three thousand, (i. e. round
about, and verging towards-, three thousand). 5. i^w/za^Tdi'eiy
715^1 Tiva, to offend against any one, (i. e. to offend about, and
towards or against, one). 5. Xiysiv nigv ji, to speak upon any
subject, (i. e. to speak about and upon it). 6. nsql rt elvai, to
be occiipied about any thing, (i. e. to be about, and to direct one's
efforts towards, any thing). 7. It is used in circumlocution
with a proper name, like <i/u(fl as, ol neql Zcoyqc^Trjv^ Socrates,
;
or Socrates and his disciples, or the scholars and friends of So-

crates.) See the remarks on (i/ncpl when thus construed). 8
In circumlocutions with nouns that are not proper names as, ;
Ttt neql t^*' d^sTî', virtue, the same as (xqeiri alone. So also,
ol neql q)doaoq)lav^ those who study philosophy : ol neql 7iii]v 6t|-
qar^ the hunters : &c.

I V. In composition neql often strengthens the sense ; as,
neqleqyog, performing any action with extraordinary care and
diligence, (i. e. being carefully engaged in examining round
about and in seeing that nothing is left undone). So also

it,
neqiaXyrig afflicted deeply, (i. e. remaining round about sorrow ;
not leaving it). 2. In general, however, it has the meaning

of round about, as well as the other shades of meaning which
immediately result from it. Thus, neqiaiqecj, I take away what
is round about : neqiâlPM, I walk round about : neqiaqyvq6(0j
J silver over : nsqieldu, I contemplate, &c.
228
This preposition, in its original signification, is used to ex-

press thcLtfrom which any thing proceeds or emanates towards
one's self. Hence it accords in this signification with the
genitive, and is joined to it. It is followed also by the dative
and accusative. When construed with the dative, it has the
same original meaning as Ttaga, but more commonly means,
in the immediate vicinity of. With the accusative, it indicates
direction /r(9m any thing to, or towards, another. Thus,
I. With the genitive. 1. to noieifisvov nqbg AaxBdaiôvlojv^
that which has been done by the LacedcBmomans, (referring to
an act proceeding or emanating from them). 2. ngbg dpdgbs
aoqiov iaxl, it is the part of a wise man, (i. e. it hangs or de-
pends /rowi, it forms part of, a wise man's duty). 3. nqbg dv/uov,
of his free will, cordially, (i. e. spontaneously emanating from his
own breast). 4. ejyai ngbg jivbg, to be on any one's side, (i. e. to
hang upon, ox from, one). 5. nqbg xivbg eXvai, to be an advan-
tage to any one, (i. e. to proceed or emanate from any thing
towards one). 6. nqbg narqbg, on the father's side ; nqbg fir]X'
qbg, on the mother'' s side, (i. e. to hang or depend from, &c.) 7.
ol nqbg a^fiarog, the relations, {i. e. they whom an intimacy re-
gards wMch. proceeds from hlooA). 8. It is used in oaths and
entreaties ; as, aal ae nqbg tov aov rittvov xal 6e(bv ixvovjticcc, and
I conjure you by your son and by the gods, (i. e. by that pater-
nal feeling which may be said to proceed from your son, and by
that feeling of veneration which may be said to emanate from
the Gods, as the exciting causes of these respective emotions).
9. TO) <5' auro) /uaqrvqoi eaioiv nqbg ts dsibv (jarAqcov, nqbg re dyrj-
7(bt> and let them both themselves be witnesses before
(kvdqcanojp,
the blessed gods and before mortal men, (i. e. let them testify
truly to the fact, on account of that feeling of respect which
they must naturally have as well for the gods as for the rest of
their own species. Here the feeling may be said to emanate
from the gods B-xidi from men, as equally the exciting causes of it).
With a dative. 1. nqbg rovioig, in addition to these things,
II.
(i. remaining in the immediate vicinity of these things, and
e.
consequently added to, or united with, them). 2, yiveadat nqbg
roXg nqdyuttcri, to be occupied with business, (i. e. to be in the
immediate vicinity of business and to remain therein). 3. nqbg
jolg xqiTulg, with, or before the judges, (i. e. in their immediate
neighbourhood or presence).
III. With an accusative. 1. nqbg noneqa xbv abp, to or
towards your father. 2. nqbg ixaxqbv"' OXvfxnov, towards vast
Olympus. 3. axonelv nqbg ji, to look to, or consider, any thing.
229
4. nQog Xoyov, with regard to the matter. 5. rtgog to ^Hxigtov^
for the best, (i. e. directed towards that which is best). 6. nqbg
ovdh', on no account, (i. e. directed towards, referring to, no con-
sideration). 7. TTQug ravia, on this account; accordingly. 8.
TiQog TO /ueyeOog irig noleug, in comparison with the size of the
city, (i. e. with reference to the size of the city). 9. nqbg v^Sgiv^
with a contumelious manner, (i. e. looking towards, resembhng,
insolence of manner). 10. od nqog rovg v^sjiqavg Xoyovg, not
according to your words, or, not taking your words as a pattern.
11. nQog dal/uova, against the will of the god, (i- e. looking
boldly towards the god facing and opposing his decrees).
;
IV. In composition it generally signifies, 1. addition ; as,

nooadidbtjui, I give ; I give besides.
in addition 2. towards; as,
nqoanUb), I sail towards. against; as, nQoamalM, I stumble
3.
against. 4. clearness, or adaptation as, nqoaaxiXlM, I put on
;
a garment, making it fit closely around the body, (i. e. 1 bring

it nearer to the body).
'Ynh.
This preposition is used in its original meaning, in refer-
ence to an object which comes from the under part of another
object. In its com.mon use it is connected with passive verbs,
in order to mark the subject from which the action proceeds,
or in whose power it was that the action should or should not
take place. It is evident that inb implies more than naqa, or
even (i^ro, since it always expresses efiiciency in connexion with
design, purpose, &c. while with naqd. it often remains unde-
termined whether the action is the result of design, &lc. or
not. With the dative i>7rb denotes continuance under, indicat-
ing submission, subjection, and also, in a stronger manner than
the genitive, the instrument by (i. e. under the abiding influ-
ence of) which, a certain effect is produced. With the accu-
sative i}nb properly expresses local direction towards the under
part of thing, under, &c.
any Thus,
I. the genitive, 1. rimeadat -bno jivog, to be struck by
With
any one (referring to its being under the control of him fiom
whom the blow proceeded, whether he should give it or not).
2. unoBuvelv by any one. 3. inn dyyilMv
-vnb rivog, to be slain
(potktBiv, to tell by messengers, (i. e. to tell from under the lips
of messengers). 4. inb xriQvxog, by means of a herald. 5. ino
{xaarlyMv, by means of whips, (i. e. by means of the effect re-
sulting from any thing being placed under the action of whips).
II. With the dative, 1. -bnb fj&GTtyi, by means of, or with, a
whip. 2. inb xr^Qvui, by a herald. 3. i^tto p&qtvgi, by witnesses.
3. ^rro TtJ't elvai, to be in subjection to one^ (i. e. to remain under
230
one's authority). 4. t57i6 crogowTdTW XsIqwvi TBdga^/nivog, brought
up under most wise Chiron.
the In these, and in ever}'" other
instance of tub being construed with the dative, there will be
found more or less reference to an action which has lasted for
some space of time.
III. With an accusative. 1. -tnb ri^v ynhv iipat, to go under
the earth. 2. -vno ttj*' ecu, towards the east, {L e. towards that
region of the world which lies beneath the eastern sky). 3. -iin
avyag oQav rt, to examine any thing at the light, (i. e- to bring it
to, and examine it under, the light). 4. inb triv elq^vriv^ on the
eve of the peace^ (i. e. just beginning to move under, and feel the
influence of, peace. Like the preposition sub in Latin, with
the accusative). 5. i57i6 7oi)g uvrovg XQ^^^^S, about the same
time, (i. moving under, and being acted upon by. the same
e. just
space of time). 6. ûnb xt, in some measure, somewhat, (i. e.
moving under and acted upon by an object in some degree).
IV. In composition vnb retains the above significations but ;
often imports likewise, decrease or diminution as, inoyeko),

1. ;
I smile, (i. e, I keep under a laugh) ino^gix^, I moisten a :
little, (i. e. I moisten in a degree under, or less than, what is
usual or requisite) -iTieXaivoj, I urge on gently, (i. e. 1 urge on

:
in a degree under, or less violent than, what is usual or might

be required). 2. privacy as, Tundyu), I withdraw privately ; I
;
retire, (i. e. I lead under ox concealed from observation, I with-

draw from observation, whether it be myself or another). 3.
the beginning of an action as, -vnocfxtvaxw, to begin to shine,
;
(i. e. to shine a little to shine under, or with less brilliancy

;
than, its full power not to have attained as yet its meridian
;
splendour).
General Remarks on the Prepositions.

Obs. 1. Prepositions are often used in an adverbial sense, their case
being understood especially h in Ionic, signifying amongst others,
;
amongst them, &c. according as the context requires. So also Trpos in

Attic, implying besides, particularhj
Obs. 2. Hence in Ionic writers they are often put twice, once without
a case, adverbially, and again with a case, or in composition with a
verb as, av'
; 'OSvacvg T:o\vjxr]Tig dviararo, up arose the sage Ulysses. Ho-
*?'
mer, 'Ev 61 Ka\ iv MiiKpi, among others, in Memphis also. Herod.

Obs. 3. In composition with verbs, the prepositions are always used
adverbially. Hence in the old state of the language, in Homer and
Herodotus, it is customary to find the preposition and the verb separat-
ed by other words, and the former sometimes coming immediately af-
ter the verb as, hfitv Atto "Soiydv ajivvai. Homer.
;
'Aird jxiv (TeMVTOV 6j>£o-af.
Herodotus, In these and other similar cases, this is not properly a
Tresis, i, e. the separation of a word at that time used in its compound-
ed form but the prepositions at that time served really as adverbs,
;
231
which were put either immediately before, or after the verbs. Latterly,
however, particularly in Attic, the composition became more close, and
the prepositions were considered as a part of the verb. In Attic wri-
ters the proper tmesis is extremely rare. Otherwise, however, a simple
verb is sometimes put, and with it a preposition with its case, where,
on other occasions, a verb compounded with that preposition is put as, ;
i'Trep Tiva £%£(»' for virepc^CLv riva.

Obs. 4. The prepositions are often separated from their case; as, Iv
yap as rfj wktI tuvt^ dvaiponai. In Attic this takes place, according to
rule, with the conjunctions fiev. Si, yap ovv as, tv filv dpnvri, tv [liv yap et~
;
pfivi}, es [ilv ovv ras 'Afl/jvaj; and with npos, with the genitive, when it sig-
nifies per.
Obs. 5. Prepositions likewise are often put after their case ; as, veSv
airo Koi K\i(nau)v, particularly in the Ionic and Doric writers, and in the
Attic poets. This takes place, in the Attic prose writers, only in nepi
with the genitive, of which the instances are frequent.
Obs. 6. When a preposition should stand twice with two different
nouns, it is often put only once by the Poets, and that too with the se-
cond noun ; as, 5^ d\ds "n etti yrjs. Homer. S;^tffr)j 6' o6og £5 TavTo AeXipwv KOLird
AavXiai liyei. SophocleS.
Obs. 7. Prepositions which mark a removal, derivation, or motion
from a place, viz. drco, and Ik, as well as those which signify motion to
a place, as ck, are often interchanged with those which mark rest in a
place, as iv, and vice versa.
Conjunctions and Adverbial Conjunctions, which

govern the
INDICATIVE.
AWe, sWe,^ I wish, before the If a, where.
Past Tenses. that, Imp. Fut. Aor.
''Ivtt^
Aurlxa,^ as soon as. Kaineg, although.

^'AxQi and fi^XQ''} as far as. Miacpa, until
Ei'fTFg, although Mil, lest.
'Enel,3 Ônov, whilst.
'EnslnsQ,
Q, Rafter, since. "OcpQay whilst. Past.
Êneixoi
OPTATIVE.
Aide, el'de, I wish, Present, and Ivoc
Fut.
V ^ > that, Past.
Interrog. Participles, with <iv. Ilibg &v, how 1
1. Ar0e, Eifls, and other Particles, are sometimes joined with the Im-
perfect and 2d Aorist of oâ'Xw, as aW ocpeXes ayovos t' in'cvai, Hom.
2. AvTiKa introduces also an example or instance of any thing that
has been said ; for instance ; as for example.
3. 'EtcI is used elliptically, before both the indicative and imperative,
especially when what is spoken appears so certain that the person ad-
dressed may be defied to dispute it. As, iiru dnoKpivai, " For (if it be not
so) answer me."
232
SUBJUNCTIVE.
^y, Mv, tjv, if. K&v, altogether.
^
Enav^ ineiduv, since. Ônwg, how, that.
"Eojg, &Vj until, "Orav, whenever.
*HvneQ^ although. "Og)Qa, whilst, Pr.
"' UqIv hv^ before.
o>. > that, Pr. and Fut.
"Jig &v, that.
INDICATIVE and OPTATIVE.

On, that. j
" Oncag, how, that.
INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, and SUBJUNCTIVE.

^^XQt, fiixQ'') until.
El,îf when.
Mri^ forbidding.^
Mrinbjg, lest.
INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, and

INFINITIVE.
"^Jp, xe,3 Potential. JJqIv, before.
"EoDg, as long as. 'Jig, that.
Mi^noTe, lest.
INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, and INFINITIVE.

'Enet^, } . ^Slare, so that.^
Êneidt], ^
1. Et and o-z are used by the Dramatic Poets with the Indicative and
Optative only. By Homer d is used with the Subjunctive also, joined
to av or ATE. El yap with the Indicative and Optative is used for utinain.
When d is used with an Imp. or an Aor. Indicative, the Verb in the
corresponding clause, preceding or following, is put in the Indie, with
av, as d jxr) tot Ittovovv, vvv av ovk dxppaivojjrjVj Aristoph.
2. My), forbidding, with, the Present, governs the Imperative; with
the Future the Indicative; with the Aorist, when it refers to the Past,
the Optative when it refers to the Future, the Subjunctive.
;
3. These Particles, av used in prose, and ke and kev in verse, give a

Potential sense to the Verb. Thus in the Imp. dx'^^ signifies / had,
elx^v av, 1 would have. In the 2d. Aor. unov means I said, dnov av, I
would have said.
The Present Optative with av is often used by tragic writers in the
sense of a Future Indicative; thus ijlsvoih' av. Soph. I will stay.
""Av, joined with indefinite pronouns and adjectives, signifies soever,
as &iTuvd' ov' av >£yw, Aristoph. Whatsoever words I may speak: oti kcv
Hom. Whatever J may nod.
KaTavcvcrio,
*Av in this case follows the Noun or Particle, and precedes the Verb.
"Av is sometimes understood as, vyÔov tyw, Theocr, i. e. av, I would
;
have come.
4c. These have 3i/, expressed or understood, with the Optative.
233
OPTATIVE and SUBJUNCTIVE.
Ettbuv, after. Mi], lest.
J
Conjunctions Postpositive are yd^, /uev, ds, re, jolvvv.

These are Prepositive, and Postpositive, dv, ^â, dî, Hva.
The rest are Prepositive.
Signification of some of the Particles, .
^^ga. 1. Most common meaning Mere/bre. 2. Where it ap-

pears expletive it would seem, in fact, to have a meaning analo-
gous to in the nature of things, of course, ex ordine. Sic. 3.
When interrogative it has the force of num ? The difference
between dg ov and ^ga fi-fi is, that &q oi5, nonne, requires an
affirmative answer 5â fxri, num, a negative, as dcQu does
;
alone but fxi] imparts some degree of dubiousness to the ques-

;
tion, and that for the purpose sometimes of irony.

rs is a restrictive particle. 1. Its most common meanings
are at least, indeed, certainly, however, &c. as bI fxi] olov^juigog
ye, " if not the whole, at least a part :" syojys, I indeed, I at
least, I for my part, &c. In English, however, the sense of
ye, in most combinations, can only be rendered by heightening
the tone of the word to which it refers.
raQ. For, always follows other wôrds, in which respect it
resembles the Latin enim. It often occurs in answers, when
it must be referred to something not expressed, as to val or o{),
ovdei' &avjiiaaibv, dgd&g Xiyeig, and the like. Thus, in answers,

eari yag omoj is equivalent to J-at (" yes,") or dgdibg Xeyeig (*' you
speak rightly,") yag eotlv ovjco.
di\. In prose never begins a sentence or member of a sen-
tence in verse it sometimes does, but not in Attic writers
;
1. It signifies, certainly, surely, without doubt, &c. Nvv dij

with a past tense is, just now, a little while since. 2. This par-
ticle is also very commonly used in continuation of a recital
in which it is usually rendered igitur, then. 3. When joined
with aal it signifies, now, by this time, already, xal dri is also
used in asseverations, indeed.
Jrinov and diînovdev, signify 1. doubtless, of course, and also,
2. ironically, to be sure, forsooth.
^ridev signifies 1. dnl) zov drf (i. e. dcno tov vvp), forthwith, in-
stantly. has an affirmative force, but rather in deceit and
2. It
simulation, than in declaration of truth. Hence it may often
be rendered, as if forsooth, ostensibly, as was pretended.
Jrira. 1. Appears to be put for dii, now. 2. It is used in ex-
21
234
hortmg, beseeching, &;c. yes^ do, pray, I entreat. 3. It is em-
ployed in questions, and answers to tandem, prithee ; and 4.
in affirmation or asseveration, indeed, truly.
Kal and ts serve for the simple union, both of single ideas,
and of entire parts of a proposition. The connection by re is
more usual in the elder and poetic language than in Attic
prose, and generally this particle is not merely put once between
the two ideas to be connected, but joined to each of the con-
nected parts, as TtaxriQ dpdQwv xb &B(bv ts. This connection by
TB —
T6 occurs with Attic prose writers only in the union of
strongly opposed ideas, as cpigsip XQ^ rd xb dai/novia dcpayxatug xd
XB and xibf tioIbÎmv ikvdQsliog. Thucyd. 2. 64. With Homer,
however, frequently, and, with the Attic poets, not rarely, in the
union of kindred ideas, 1, xb xat connects more closely than
the simple xai, and is chiefly used when ideas are to be repre-
sented as united in one supposition. Hence this kind of com-
bination is also chiefly used when opposite ideas are to be as-
—
signed as closely connected, thus, ;i'^??(7ro^ xb x«l novrjqoi ayaOii.
XB xai xttxi't. For this reason we also say aUw? ts xal, parti-
cularly also, especially, (i. e. in other respects, on other grounds,
and also,) because aXlMg already expresses a natural and strong
antithesis to that —
which follows. 2. x«t xal, as well as, both
— and. This combination can only be adopted, when the com-
bined ideas are of different kinds, but never in those which are
perfectly homogeneous. Hence several substantives can al-
—
ways be connected by xal xal, as dcnixxBivav xal naXdag xal
yvpuLxag, — but of adjectives, only those which contain nothing
homogeneous in their idea, as d^'dQ^novg si5^T]orf ^^ xal dyadovg xai
xaxovg, or ital nivrjjag xal nXovoiovg, and the like ; not noXtg xat
fj^BydX?] xal no'kv&fdQMrrog, but juey&krj xb xal noXvdvdQMrtog.
Mhv. The opposition in which one member of a proposition
stands to another can be stronger or slighter, and in both cases
the Greeks use /u^*' and 8b for connection. The English
particles indeed and hut can only be used to designate the
stronger opposition, and hence we are often deficient in de-
finite expressions for the Greek fiiv and 8b, which we then
translate sometimes by and, also, sometimes by hut, on the
contrary, yet, sometimes by partly —partly, as well —
as also,
sometimes finally by now, moreover, and the like. 1 When i^bv
.
is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought necessarily

turns to an opposite member with 8e. Several cases never-
theless occurs, where, with (xh preceding, the expected 8b
does not actually euver. Namely, either the antithesis to the
member found with fiev expressly exists, but declares itself so
clearly by the position and subject that c^^ can be omitted
235
(this is chiefly the case when temporal and local adverbs are
used, which stand in a natural opposition between themselves,
as ivTavdix and iael, nqmov and sTteira, &;c.) —or the antithesis
is indicated by another particle, as dll^, aixdg, uvtb, Slc. — or
the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not expressly as-
signed in the discourse. This last is chiefly the case when per-
sonal and demonstrative pronouns are used at the beginning of
a proposition in combination with fj-sv, as iyco /êv ngoriQTjficci, I
have formed the resolution (another probably not.) xal ravia
fief d-q roiavta. These things are so circumstanced (but others
differently). 2.Although where fiiv occurs de must be sup-
posed to follow, yet reversely, 8& does not necessarily imply a
preceding fih, but can be joined, without fiiv preceding, to
every proposition containing a farther developement and di-
vision of single consecutive circumstances, although the con-
nection is then not so close as in the case of fiiv and dL Also,
ê is frequently used at the beginning of a discourse, addresses,
and questions, or in answers, where it always indicates an op-
position conceived in the mind.
risQ. This particle is in signification intimately allied to ye,
and denotes, conformably to its derivation from nsQl, compre-
hension, or inclusion, whence, like ye, it is employed to
strengthen single ideas. It very frequently enters into com-
bination with relative pronouns, as also with temporal, causal^
and conditional particles, to confirm their signification. The
sense of this particle also is generally indicated in English
merely by a stronger intonation of the word although it fre-
;
quently also may be translated by very, ever. In combination

with a participle we often translate it by although, or how much
soever. Thus, Xiysi, uneq Xeyet, dLxata ndvia. He says all
—
whatever he does say, justly. ^rjrs ais rovd" dyaOog neq "itav,
,
dnoDclQeo novQrjv, and thou, he thou never so excellent, (i. e. how-

ever excellent thou art) deprive him not of this virgin, — eXneq, if
at all, provided that, if indeed. —
inelnsQ, seeing that, since. —
xainsQ, with a participle, although.
nibg, how, is an adverb of manner. It is used, 1. in inter-
rogation, as Tidjg ovy. ^îdglan jouiov ;how can he but be worthy
of this ? 2. rtibg yag and nibg yag ^v are used elliptically after
negative sentences, and nCag yag o\j after affirmative sentences,
as ixeXva (ihv u|ta j^d^no? nui Inaivov xgivo), nwg yug oi' I judge
;
those things deserving of thanks and praise ; for how can I

judge otherwise? of course I judge them so. 3. This particle,
even not interrogatively used, retains its accent, when it sig-
nifies, insome certain manner, emphatically. And when, in
this sense, ttw? (xhv —n^g 8k are opposed, in one manner^ in
236
another manner, or, in some respects, in other respects, cus-
tom retains the circumflex, although analogy requires niag fx^v,
nwg ds, &c. The circumflex is also retained when Tiibg signi-
fies, how, in what manner, without a question. But when it
signifies indeterminately, in some manner or other; some how
in a manner ; it becomes an enclitic, and loses its accent.
Jlov signifies 1. where? 2. whither? 3. It retains its cir-
cumflex accent, even when used materially, as t6 yuQ nov avrd
ji iaiL Ti, x.T.X. Aristot. although analogy would require it to
be written noi).
Jlov, an enclitic, signifies, 1. Any where, or somewhere. 2.
It is used in speaking of things with some degree of uncer-
tainty and caution, probably, perhaps, as I guess, if I mistake
not, &c.
T6ixa. The primary signification is quickly, speedily, soon.
This is its only sense in Homer. Next it signifies perhaps,
and is used as synonymous with I'aug by Plato and others. To
augment its signification, it is joined with other equivalent
words, as i&x ^^^ ^^ '^^X^''^ ^"^ tovtov ijdUei. Demosth. xtijâ d'
i/Lv ytrojg ova idelot. Aristoph.
Tol, an enclitic, rarely standing alone, except in poetry, sig-
nifies truly, surely, certai?ily, at least, indeed. It is more fre-
quently compounded with conjunctions and particles, 1. with
dii and ^ as, ^roi, drijoi, having nearly the same signification
;
as the simple toi. 2. With oj3, as oiJrot, certainly not, assuredly

not, not at all. 3. With ydcg and ovv, as ToiyuQ, roiyaQTot, roiyuQ-
ovp, therefore, hence, on this account. 4. With wv, as toIvw^
therefore, wherefore, Slc. This particle lol is properly the old
dative case (when o was used for w, the latter not having been
as yet introduced into the alphabet, and when the adscript t
was used, if indeed it were not always). Hence toI is equiva-
lent to TQ>.
This particle has various uses. 1. It is elegantly con-

fig.
strued with participles in the genitive ; as neql Qatdog cprjalv 6
KksiTug/og Wij uUlag yevoiuivj]g x. r. I. " Clitarchus speaks of
Thais as having been the cause^"* &c. 2. It is joined in a simi-
lar manner with accusatives also, vo/ult(ov or the like being un-
derstood, as ev/STO ds TXQog zo-bg d-Eoi)g dnX(bg rdyaOdc diddrat, (hg
roiig &sovg xdXXiara eldoxug. He used to pray to the gods simply
to give him what was good, since he thought the gods knew best.
3. 'Slg, &g ye, &g drj, (hg olf, to? yovv^ sometimes signify ybr, i. e.
considered as, or, considered with reference or regard to, as >]>'
^6 OTids ddivaxog, (hg Aaxsdaifioviog, Binelv. Nor was he ineloquent
for (i. e. considered as) a Lacedcemonian. Thucyd. ^vtiq, ojg
Sî t6ts, a man, for those times, (i. e. considered with reference
237
to the age he lived in), xofupdg nov xal darstog. So also, roZgyov
i^TjxQlâiaey (og ys (or, &g 5-i\,) xat' avdgcojiov. He finished the
work with great exactness for a man, (the limited capacity and
faculties of human beings being considered). 4. 'Slg also sig-
nifies, when, whilst, as soon as, &c. In this sense it is
elegantly repeated to express the celerity of an occurrence ;
as, &g 6ld\ &g fnv fxaXXov edv xoXog. As soon as he saw them, im-
mediately, &c. 5. It is often expressive of a wish in verse,
;
by itself; as S Zsv, ihg XaXiScav ndv &n6Xoiro yivog : Callim.

Jupiter, ut Chalyhon omne genus pereat. But in prose eXds ys
is often joined with it, or ys alone, some other word interven-
ing as, &g el'ds ys xal iê/uiaat, dwaibv ^v. Lucian. 6. It has
;
sometimes the signification of on, that. 7. Like ort it is also

put before superlative adverbs and adjectives, &c. and strength-
ens the meaning, as cbg rd/iaTa, as quickly as possible. 8. Some-
times &g and ort are conjoined before superlatives, when ovxmg
may be understood, as tb? ort fidXiara, in the same degree as
what is most so. 9. 'fig is often joined with an infinitive, in the
sense of quemadmodum, or quantum, as, or as far as. Thus
tog: elx&aai^ as far as one may conjecture. oV efiovye doxslv, as I
think. &g elnelv^soto speak. &g i/ua si /uFiuvriadat.,asfar as Iwell
remember. 10. It is sometimes put before ^xaarog, as cbg exoca-
toi, severally, quisque pro se. 11. With the accent it stands for
ovTOjg, so : care, however, must be taken not to confound &g for
ovTtog, with (bg changed to wg because followed by an enclitic.
12. 'fig with numerals, signifies about, as &g hxaxbv, about a

hundred. 13. 'P-g is sometimes put for slg or nqbg. In these
constructions, &g is not properly a preposition, but a particle,
which is frequently joined with prepositions signifying direction
towards a point, to indicate that the idea of the preposition
must not be taken in a strict and definite sense, as cog nqog, &g
sig, as towards, as to, i. e. towards, to. By reason of this fre-
quent combination with prepositions, &g became gradually used
as a preposition itself, and, as such, denotes approach, yet al-
ways with the collateral idea, that the approach is made at a
distance, and with timidity or reverence. Hence it is chiefly,
though not exclusively, used with persons as (hg joiig -d^soig
;
—
&g rov âcTiXsa.
Negative Particles,
The Greeks employ for negation the two particles oi (oi5x,
oix) and fn\, whose composition with other particles produces
a double series of negatives, which, in certain combinations of
21*
238
propositions, and under certain relations of sense, are used in-
terchangeably, according to the same rule as the simple oZ and
/"»} themselves.
The difference between /utj and ov is, that oi denies a thing
itself, îj a thought of a thing. Hence oi3 is used absolutely,
and independently of any foregoing verb expressed or under-
stood, as ovx sail tuvtu, this is not so : whereas with /uij, there
must be either expressed or understood some verb significant
of thought, suspicion, will as fi'fi zaCra yhrjrav^ viz. (poSov/uat,
;
I fear lest this may happen : fir] tovto dQ(>carig^ viz. oga. See that
you do not do this. Sometimes, however, it is rather the thought
or will itself that is understood than any particular verb expres-
sive of it as /uri xevds.
;
From this primary and constant difference between fii\ and

oi is derived the distinction made by grammarians, that ov
denies and /u^ forbids. Oi roX/nriasig is, you will not dare,
to one, who, we know, has not audacity enough to do so and
so fi^ Tolix-âsig is, dare not, to one who in our opinion is au-
:
dacious enough to do what we know the former will not do.

Hence it appears too why //i], not ov, is joined with conditional
particles ; as, el /u^, iav firi, oiav firi, &c. not bI oi, i&v ov, &c.
for by their very nature these particles indicate that something
is proposed as a supposition or thought of some one. And, in
the same manner, the relative og is used with juri, when we
intend it to have an hypothetical signification as, rig de dovvai
;
dvvarat eriQa, & fxri eêi avrog who can give things to another,
;
if he has them not himself? Had the expression been a oln

s/ei adtog the sense would have been, the things which a per-
;
son has not himself, how can he give to another ?

When /WJ] is joined with participles, as is very frequently the
case, the sense is properly, if there be such : thus, 6 matsiMv
eig aiibv ov xglvsrai, 6 de /ui] niOTeiMV ^8r, xsxQnai, on jui] nenta-
rsvxev Eigjoovo/itaTov jiiopoyevovg viovjov-&eov. lohn. 3. 18. Here
it is ov xQivBxai, because it is simply and fully denied that the be-
liever is ever subject to condemnation but it is f^r\ niaxevbiv as

;
expressing negation in a supposed case, and 6 fXTi mcTTevuv is

equivalent to should there be any one who does not believe. Sic.
while the phrase ov nicne-vMy would imply same definite indi-
vidual who actually does not believe. So it is on /n^ nBnla-
tsvHsv, i. e. because, by supposition, he has not believed ; where-
as on Old nenlarBvxs would have been intended of some one per-
son in particular.
The two negations are often combined together so as mu-
tually to restrict or confine each other. This can take place
in a two-fold manner, according to the order of position, thus
239
either ov //tj or fi'^ od. In this combination, as in all other
cases, oh denies objectively, and f^rj subjectively. Hence oi
fi-^ implies the idea of no apprehension being entertained that a
thing will take place in-fj or, on the contrary, the idea of an
;
apprehension being entertained that a thing will not take place.

Hence are derived the following rules.
1. Ov jurj, is an extensive and emphatical negation, and in-
dicates the imagining of a thing which should not and must not
take place; as, oto /uri dvafievrig eori cplXoig, that thou wilt not
(I expect,) be ill-inclined towards thy friends, that is, he not ill-
inclined towards thy friends : alV oiinoi^ i^ ijuov ys /uri /uddrig
rdde, yet never (must thou expect) that thou wouldst learn this
from me, that is, yet never shouldst thou learn this from me.
2. Mil OL', in dependant propositions, when the verb of the
principal proposition is either accompanied by a negation or
contains a negative idea in itself, destroy each other, and are
often to be translated by that ; as, nqbg tL Ûttmv ixmajslg /u^
ovx iniaT-^^T] ij i^ dêztj with reference to what dost thou dis-
believe that virtue is knowledge ?
;
—
ohx dgvovâi firi ov ysviaOai.
—
I do not deny that it has taken place. nslao/uat yag ov roaovrop
ovdei', wars /uij ov xalibg Sûvsli', there will nothing happen to me so
bad, but that I shall die nobly.
3. In independent propositions, on the contrary, (f/7 ov is
used in combination with the subjunctive to express negative
assertions with less positiveness and strength, and is to be
translated by indeed not, perhaps not, and explained by the
addition of an omitted verb, as oga, and the like thus, (xlX&
:
fii] oix r^ didaTCTOv ij dêTtj, but virtue may perhaps not be to be
taught. — ^filv 8b /ni] ovdev alio axemiov 1^, 4) onsQ vvv drj iliyofisv^
but perhaps nothing else may be to be examined, than what we
just now mentioned. In the same manner is jnî oi used also
in combination with the participle to strengthen the sense of
/UTj, and to render it more distinct and prominent as, dvcri'dyTjiog
;
yuQ &LV eYr/v, ToidvdB /uri ov xaroixxsigcov sdgttv,for I should be un-

feeling, were it possible for me not to pity, &c.
Of the Tenses and Moods.

TENSES.
1. GENERAL REMARKS.
1. In order to define accurately, and understand correctly,
the peculiar signification of each tense, it is necessary that,
besides the idea of time, regard should also be had to the stage
240
or period of the action which is expressed in the verb. For,
as the time admits of being resolved into three divisions, be-
ing ei\h.ex past, present, ov future ; so the action also, consi-
dered as such, appears in a threefold relation, and must be con-
ceived either as completed and finished, or as developing and
forming, or as at the moment of beginning and coming on.
2. Now, both the point of time and the stage or period of
the action are indicated in the verbal forms which we denomi-
nate tenses, and hence the peculiar idea of each individual
tense cannot be properly understood, unless at the same time
a correct conception be entertained of the relation which in-
tervenes between the time and the action.
3. But the action in each of its three relations can fall into
each of the three divisions of time ; and hence arise three
times three, or nine tenses, which we shall here develope ac-
cording to their idea, illustrated with examples from the Greek,
and designated, as far as these will suffice, by the usual gram-
matical appellations.
1. The action falls into the present time,
(A.) as completed or finished. yiyqacpa, I have writ-

ten. —
Perfect tense.
(B.) as developing or forming. yq&cpb}, I write, am
writing. —
Present tense.
(C.) as at the moment beginning,
of coming or on.
— fiiXXb) I am beginning
YQîfBiv, am to write,
justgoing am on
to write, point of wHting.
the
— Compound formed with
future, present the
of the auxiliary verb.
2. The action falls into past time,
(A.) as completed. iy By gdcpstv, I had written. —Plu-

perfect tense.
(B.) as developing. sygacpov, I wrote, was writing.
— Imperfect tense.
(C.) as at the moment of beginning. sfieXXov ygd-
q>Btv^ I was on the point of writing.
3. The action falls into the future time,
(A.) as completed. yByqacpoig saofiav^ I shall have

written. —Future perfect tense.
(B.) as developing. — /^f^y^w, I shall write, or be
writing. — Simple future tense,
(C.) as at the moment of beginning. yQ&i/JWv âo-
fiocc, I shall be on the point of writing.
241
4. All the tenses here specified have a positive existence in
a language, although they are not completely enumerated in
the Grammar, which generally passes over such as do not pos-
sess an independent form, but are produced by composition
with auxiliary verbs. In Greek, there is also the Aorist, the
signification of which we shall develope in the remarks on the
individual tenses.
2. Use of the Individual Tenses,

1 The Present expresses an action which we are just now
performing, as in other languages ;as yq&(fM, / write, or am
writing (am just now in the act of writing). The present
tense is also used for assigning properties which are perma-
nently connected with an object, or for the expression of a ge-
neral sentiment, as Tr&vxa xu ayuda didbtaip 6 Qeog. God gives
all things that are good. — nollwi^ xaxwp dvOQionoig ixl'tiog iaiiv 6
ndXe/nog. War is the cause of many evils to men. Hence in this
latter usage it deserves the name of the present aorist ; for it is
an acknowledged principle of universal grammar, that wher-
ever time is signified without any farther circumscription than
that of simple present, past, or future, the tense is an aorist.
2. The Perfect denotes an action as completed inpast time,
but continued in its consequences, or attendant circumstances,
to the present ; as ysyd/ui]xa, I am married, (i. e. I have been
and still continue married ;) whereas iy&firâu, the aorist, signi-
fies / was, or have been, married, without indicating whether
the relation still subsists. Hence the perfect is generally used
to denote a lasting and permanent state, or an action finished
in itself, and it therefore often occurs in Greek where in English
we use the present as ajuq)c6a6i]xag, thou protectest, (i. e. thou
:
hast protected and still dost continue to protect). The conti-

nued force of the perfect accompanies it through all the moods ;
as, siJToi', TTif Svqav ne^lEloQai, they gave directions for the door
to remain shut, to diyyvQiov (kyeanaudu), let the anchor be weighed
and remain so. xBdvndi, lie dead. reOyairji', may I be dead, &c.
Several perfects are always used to denote only the finished
action whose effect is permanent ; and therefore in English are
translated by the present of some other verb, which expresses
the consequence of the action contained in the Greek verb
thus, from yaXaco, I name, we have yiey.h]fAai, my name is ; I am
called : from nidofjui, I acquire for myself, xtxrij/jai,, I possess,
(i. e. I have acquired, and the acquisition continues mine)
fivdofiat, I recall to my own recollection, fnifivrj/ât, J remember^

I am mindful.
242
3. The aorist, on the contrary, only denotes generally an
action or occurrence of the past, without determining the period
of its termination, and without leaving the mind any room to
dwell upon it thus, iyrloOr/ 17 noXig can bo said of any town ;
:
on the contrary, exTiarav 1^ nokig only of a town which has just

been or which now exists in its finished state.
built, Hence
the nameof this tense, {uogiarog x(i^''og,)ihe time being undefin-
ed, and no reference being to any fixed period.
As the aorist merely denotes an action of the past, unde
fined as to the period of its termination, and which does noi
leave the mind any room to dwell upon it, hence arises the
usage of making the aorist often refer to a quick or momcnta-
neous action, examples of which occur on almost every page of
the Greek writers as rovg neXjaaxag ideâvTO ol ^('t^Saqoi, the
;
barbarians received (a momentaneous action) the targetcers, yal

elg (fvyrjv txQEipuv,and put them quickly to flight.
As the aorist does not definitively mark the point of time
when an action was performed, but only denotes generally that
something has taken place at some period or other of the past,
the Greeks use it also to indicate that something has occurred
repeatedly at diflerent periods, or that something is wont to
take place. Such an aorist is translated in English by the
present, or by the auxiliary verbs, to be wont, to use, <fec. as
2£ixt7iq&jTjg idldaê lovg (xadrjrag ujuiadl. Socrates was wont to
teach his disciples without any charge. T<x aarqa iv ttj wxtI ot
The Gods cause the stars to appear above our
'dÊol (kvicf.Tjvuv.
heads in the night-season, (i. e. always do this).

4. The Future tense expresses an action which is to be per-
formed at a future period. Yet in Greek an accurate distinc-
tion must be observed between the simple future and ihdiiform-
ed with ,uiXXu) and the infinitive, as the former only assigns ge-
nerally something which is to take place at one period or other
of the future, while the latter always designates an action which
is to be begun at this moment ; thus yquipu, I shall write, (the
time when the writing is to begin being undefined) on the ;
contrary, iueXXm ygt^cpfip, scripturus sum, I a?n on the point of

writing, (am just now going to write).
5. The Imperfect expresses an action in past time, con-
tinued during another past action or its accompanying circum-
stances. Hence it is generally used to express a continuous
action, and in narrative interchanges with the aorist which de-
notes something momentaneous.
The imperfect not only expresses continuance of action,
but also, in consequence of this, what is customary. It difflers
from the aorist, however, in this latter signification, in that the
243
aorist denotes what is always customary ; the imperfect what
was customary during a specified period of time.
In many verbs, from the poverty of external forms, the es-
tablished distinction between the aorist and imperfect has dis-
appeared. Thus, forms of the imperfect, as -fi^, cgp'7* ^'jf^yf,
tQsxo^ &c. are also used in the signification of aorists, which
are partly not extant, partly less usual in these verbs. In the
same manner also, aorists, as car?/, iikdB, sdv, Slc. frequently
stand in the signification of the imperfect.
6. The Pluperfect denotes an action, which was already
completed when another began, or while another continued. It
is therefore to the Past, what the Perfect is to the Present
and as the Perfect is frequently rendered into English by the
Present, so the Pluperfect is often rendered by the English
Imperfect as, idedoUsiv^ I was afraid, (i, e. I had been and still
;
continued afraid).
7. The Paulo Post Futurum, or Third Future Passive as it
is sometimes styled, is properly, both in form and signification,
compounded of the Perfect and Future and, as the Perfect often
;
signifies a continued action, this meaning remains in the Third

Future, as ^yyeyQuipsTcci, he shall continue^ or stand, enrolled.
Consequently, this is the natural future of those perfects which
have acquired a separate meaning of the nature of the present
as, XBlemrai, he has been left, he remains ; lEXsliperai, he shall
have been left, shall remain ; but Isicpdrâeâi, he will be left, or
deserted. So nBKitjîav, I possess ; aexxriuofxai,, I shall possess ;
but xT7J(To,aat, / icill acquire.
In some Verbs the Third Future has a peculiar import ei- :
ther, 1st. It shall, I will, as rkdaipsron, he shall be buried ; or,

2d. a hastening of the action, as cpQ(x>;s xul nenQd^srui, speak
and it shall be accomplished immediately. In this usage, the
Third Future is used to express the rapidity of an action, by
taking, not the beginning of it, but its completion, and the situa-
tion resulting from it. It is on this latter acceptation that its
name of Paulo Post Futurum [what will take place a little while
after the present, i. e. futurum paulo post prcBsens tempus) rests.
The Attics employ the Third Future Passive of several
Verbs, as a simple Future Passive as in Siut, to bind; nocvM,
;
to cause to cease ; xottt&j, to cut, &c.

8. Although the Greek language is richer than any other in
independent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is also fre-
quently made use of by means of the auxiliary verbs shat,
xvQelp, vnikqxeiv and i'êt*' in connection with a particle, partly
to supply deficient or to avoid inharmonious forms, partly to
strengthen the signification. Thus, the subjunctive and opta-
244
live of the perfect, both in the passiveand active, are formed
with elfat and the perfect participle, the independent forms
being only very rarely used. But such circumlocutions fre-
quently occur, particularly with the poets, even in the place
of forms which are altogether usual, for the sake generally of
strengthening the signification; as, e/wj' iaii', more emphati-
cal than e>£t alone, &c. Of the circumlocutions formed with
?;ifet»', those chiefly are to be remarked which express the idea
of the continuous action as, rotavid cpaai, rdv dyaOov Kqioviu

;
XTjQvâvza e/etv (for x?|ûât) such a command they say the good
Creon has issued, (and it still continues). This kind of cir-
cumlocution, particularly with elvai,, is very common in many
writers, as, for example, Herodotus, who often employs it in-
stead of the simple verbal form.
Of the Moods.
1. In simple propositions, the use of the Indicative is the
same in all languages, as every thing which really exists, and
every general sentiment pronounced unconditionally, must be
designated by this mood.
2. The Subjunctive denotes the conditional and dependent,
i. e. any thing which, in order to become real, requires the in-
tervention of something else. From this general principle

regulating its use are deduced the following shades of mean-
ing, expressed by the same mood.
(A.) It is used in encouraging and exhorting in the first
person plural, and in warni?ig and prohibiting in the
second person because the performance of the action
;
still depends upon the will of the person to whom the
address is made as,"/w//ev, let us go.

;
—
ur^dsvl uv[xcpoQa.v
dveidlarjg, reproach no one with misfortune.
(B.) It is used to express something undecided with respect
to its issue, and consequently dependent, 1. in ques-
tions implying doubt as, iyô rl nam what am I to do ?
— eVaoj/usf ?] aiy(bêv
; ;
are we to speak, or remain silent ?

— ;
2. In negative propositions chiefly with ov /uri, when

something is not likely to be positively denied, but is
only stated as unlikely to occur. In this case we com-
monly translate the subjunctive by the future ; as, oi
fiî sl'noj,
—
I will not say. tay rovg q^Ckovg Ttqax^g el noaov^
oi aoi diivcovrac 6ivixîv ol noXiîoi, if you surpass your
jMTJ
friends in conferring favours on them, your enemies will

not be able to withstand you.
245
3. The Optative denotes a thing purely imaginative, a mere
human conception, abstracted from all reality and condition.
Hence its use in simple propositions is very common and di-
versified, although it admits of being reduced to the following
cases.
(A.) Every occurrence which in and of itself is conceived
as possible (whether the imagination employs it as an
expectation, a hope, an apprehension, or as a merely
assumed case), is expressed by the optative, usually in
combination with the particle &v. In English we trans-
late such an optative by the addition of the auxiliaries
mai/, can, might, could, would, should, &;c. as i'acag dv
tip€g imrifnûeioiv roXg elQTjfiei'Oig. Some perhaps might
find fault with the things that have been said. — ovx ^v
<kv(x(r/o(utjv, I should not endure.
(B.) In the same light must the optative be considered, when

it is used to express requests, commands, and even po-
sitive assertions, where with us it is, for the most part,

translated by the imperative or the future. For in this
usage there is couched merely a milder and more re-
fined form of expression, chiefly adopted by the Attics,
wherein we advance that which might be pronounced
unconditionally and positively, merely as our own opi-
nion and idea, and consequently do not anticipate the
judgment of others. This peculiar usage is based up-
on the political equality of the Greeks, and more par-
ticularly that of the Athenians. Thus oix &i> dinocpsi}-
yoig irû roaor, you will not escape the disease, (literally,
possibly you might not escape) —
"ksyoig ^p & del X^yeiv,
speak what you ought to speak, (literally, perhaps you

might speak).
(C.) The optative is also used for the expression of a wishy
(for a wish is the idea that something can be, united
with the desire that it may be), sometimes accompanied
by the particles el, el'de, ei yaQ, &g, and sometimes with-
out them: as, nocliî^ aov -dêol didolev rix^]^, may the
—
gods give you prosperity. 6 nal, yivoio nargog sitv-
xiuxeqog, O my son, may you be more fortunate than
ymr father.
^VtH^
JLibrary.
''**=^' («;ift)rc5»
28
246
Use of the Indicative, Subjunctive,and Optative

in Dependent Propositions. ,
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
Use of the Particle av.
I; The particle dif,is synonymous with the Epic xs or xey,
and imparts to the verbal expression, which it accompanies,
the accessory idea of conditionality, i. e. it denotes that the
thing of which we discourse is conceived as dependent upon
certain circumstances. The use of this particle is therefore
extremely various, as it is applied in all cases where a thing
or an idea is not to be expressed absolutely and of itself, but
as dependent on contingencies, consequently as uncertain,
doubtful, difficult, probable, or generally as possible. Hence
&p is frequently associated with other particles, to limit or mo-
dify their sense. On the use of olv in independent proposi-
tions, the following must be observed :
(A.) In connection with the optative, with which in the

common language it is most frequently employed, civ
denotes that the mere idea expressed by the optative is
also conceived in a relation to reality, i. e. as realizing
itselfunder certain circumstances; thus,oi3x ^vaa/oi/ui^v^
I cannot possibly endure (the enduring appears to me
impossible in and of itself, without any regard being
paid to existing circumstances, or the operation of con-
tingencies) ; on the contrary, oix ixv d.vuaxol{xi]v, I
should not endure, ^the circumstances would not be of
that kind that I should endure).
(B.) In connection with the subjunctive, uv is used in sim-
ple propositions only by Homer and the poets, to de-
note that an event will be realised merely through ex-
isting circumstances thus, f^g {ineQonllriai rd/ ai^ noxs
;
d-vitov oUaori. [Ham. II. 6i, 205.) through his pride it

will happen that he ivill soon lose his life, {pliaaei would
express the loss of life as a positive assertion without
regard to existing circumstances but i)Uaari av im-
;
plies that the loss of life is conceived in a purely ob-

jective sense, and as the consequence of pride.) — In
like manner, (//. «, 182.) iî^ f^tp ij'w avi' vt]!, t ^/urj
xal ifiolg iidQoiaiv ni/jipM, iyw de x' diyo). Here the fu-
ture niuipM designates the positive subjective assertion,
but dyco xs a case brought about by circumstances. The
247
English translation of such a subjunctive by the future,
by no means actually corresponds to the true sense,
but a nearer approximation to it is furnished by the
construction it will happen that.
(C.) In the connection of av with the indicative, a distinc-
tion must be made between the different cases \. ^v:
is only very seldom joined to the indicative of the pre-

sent and future, to soften the positive assertion and to
invest it with an air of uncertainty as, oijx old av, /
dont exactly knoio, I dont rightly know.
;
—
oXfxai, dv, I
should suppose —
xivdweiei dv eh>ai, It would seem to be.
— In this manner Homer frequently uses civ in connec-
tion with the future, as {11. x, 42.) rdxot xev h x-oveg yal
yvTteg edovrai,. Soon perhaps will the dogs and vultures
devour him. —(//. (5', 76.) xai xe Tt^ w5' Iqhi, and thus
perhaps some one will say. — Also ^v sometimes appears

with the indicative of other tenses in the same signifi-
cation as, [Xen. Cyrop- 7. 1. 38.) evQa di] cyfoj ^v rig
;
oaov ^^lov E\'rj to (fdeXadai dtgôvra -tub twv ^Q/ouBvcav.

Then one might see, Slc. 2. With the indicative of
preterites, particularly of the imperfect and the aorists,
dp denotes that an action has not taken place merely
once and at the same definite period, but as often as
circumstances occurred to occasion it hence in Eng-
;
lish translation we either express it by adverbs, as

generally, usually, or by verbs to be wont, to use, or,
according to an idiom, not unlike the Greek, by would
as, QUbjg eWoi eg akXrjv olxlav^ d.n elavv sx av. As often as
he came to any other dwelling, he used to be driven
away. —
sli ovx sjôv dv, then again I should have no-
thing, used to have nothing.
(D.) Sometimes av is joined even to the imperative, to sof-
ten the positiveness of the expression contained there-
in as, edgaa' dv, si toCt i'ad' dv, I should have done it,
;
that you may well suppose.

(E.) When dv is joined to the infinitive or participle, the
event expressed in the verbal form is represented by
it as conditional and merely probable ; as, ^v6/lii1;ov gadl-
(log dv a(fiat t dllu ngoaxojQTâeiv, they thought that the

rest would readily surrender to them. — s-uqIgxco t^vtijv
dv (i6vrjv yBvofihrjv rwv fisXlovrcav xtpdvviav u.noxgon'riv^ /
Jind that this would be the only way of averting the dan-
gers which threaten.
248
Interchanged use of the Indicative, Subjunctive,

and Optative.
IN
SUPPLEMENTAL PROPOSITIONS.
1. The particles made use of for assigning the time and
cause, are the following : both the time and cause ; inei,
(a) for
insidri^ &g, ore. — '-(^b) for the time alone -fiflxa, onoie, e'wg.
; (c) —
for the cause alone ; oil, didn.
2. The following are general rules for the construction ot
these propositions
(A.) The Indicative always stands in direct discourse after
temporal and causal particles, when the time and cause
are Sissigned unconditionally and a,s facts; as ov doxsl aoi
rdds TiQOPoiag 'eQyco ioixevui, to, iinsl uaê^TJ^ iaiiv -^ oipig,
fXeqxjiQOig ai)Tiiv -^vQcbaai does not this appear to you to
;
resemble a work of Providence, since the sight is weak, (a

fact), the guarding it with eye-lids like the doors of a house ?
(B.) The Subjunctive is used in a supplemental proposition,
when this proposition appears as conditional, and the
temporal and causal particles then receive civ as, Kvoog ;
{meaxsTO, (ivd^l kxtkaiw dcaaeiv nivxs ('t^yvqlov fivag, inav

elg BaSvXwva rixuac, Cyrus promised that he will give
each soldier five mince of silver, whenever they arrive at
Babylon.
(C.) The Optative stands in a supplemental proposition, when
mere ideas and conceptions are assigned, consequently
ibr the most part after temporal particles, to express
not an individual circumstance, but cases of frequent
recurrence as, tnvia Xeyotv 6 Ubixq&itjg o«5 juopov jovg
;
avvovTftg idoxEi noielf, onoxB inb rwv &v6Q(i)nojv oâJj^TO,

inixsodai Tuv ^voaioyv xal ^dlxcaf Bqywv, dHd xal ondrs itf
_ iQi]fi(aahv,S7TEiTteQ'fiyi\aaivTO,fir]dEvav7tore,wvnQ(iiTOisv^
SsoTug dittXudsTv. By dint of such remarks as these, So-
crates appeared to make those, who associated with him, ab-
stain from unholy and unjust actions, not only when they
might be seen, (i. e. as often as they were seen), by men
but also when they might be, (i. e. as often as they were)
in private, since they would entertain the conviction, (i. e.
would always remain under the impression) that nothing

of the things which they might do, (i. e. from time to
time do) would ever for a moment, (force of the aorist)
escape the observation of the gods.
249
Of the use of the Indicative^ Subjunctive^ and Opta-

tive in Transitive Propositions,
When a transitive verb has for its object a clause or part of

a sentence, this clause is denominated a transitive proposition.
Thus, %lsyov KvQog tjidfT^xei. They reported that Cyrus was
oTt
dead. Herethe clause otl JCvQog hidvi^xsv is the object (or ac-
cusative) of the verb Ueyov. This clause, therefore, is called a
transitive proposition, because it is reached by the action of
the principal verb.
Anear relation of a similar nature obtains when we take
into consideration the aim or intention of an action. For here
the action of the verb is evidently conceived as directed in its
effect upon the intention. Thus, AeyM, Iva sldfig. I speak,
that you may know. Here the intention of the action is ex-
pressed by iâ sldfig^ and the action itself, as expressed by the
verb liyco, is evidently directed in its effect upon the intention
of that action as expressed by the following clause.
Hence arise two kinds of transitive propositions, 1. Tran-
sitive Propositions for assigning the Object and 2. Transi-
:
tive Propositions for assigning the Intention.
I. Transitive Propositions for assigning an Object,
General Rule. These transitive propositions invariably take

the indicative when any thing is expressed unconditionally or
adduced as a fact on the contrary, they have the optative
;
when we merely assign the opinions and ideas of others thus, :
n&vTBg ofxoXoyovaiv cog al /hocxul xqIpovtui fialXov ralg ipvxoclg, ^

raig ifhv acofidiiov QWfiaig. Here nQlPovrai, the indicative, marks
an actual and acknowledged fact, —
Tiaaaq)eQvi]g didSallsv zbv
KvQov ngog ibv (jcd8lq)dv^ &g ^tci,6ovIsvov at)Tq), {that he was plotting
against him). Here the optative inidovUvoi is used because
it was the opinion of Tissaphernes (sincere or not is immate-
rial) thatCyrus was plotting against his brother.

ort and &g are usually indeed followed
In oblique discourse,
by the optative but even here the indicative enters when ac-
;
tual events and positive assertions are assigned. Thus, If I

say, IXeyEg^ ojv Zevg rriv 8iyaioavvi]v sne/nifje, I indicate that I
myself also believe that Jupiter did so but if I say Ueysg or*
:
Ze-dg TTiv dixatoaivrjv ni/uipstB, I merely state the supposition of

him who said so, whether true or false.
Moreover, the indicative often stands in oblique discourse
22*
250
on account of the person being introduced as speaking himself,
or being conceived as speaking himself in the midst of the
narrative as, QriQafihrjg av^6ovleva)v xolg''A6rjva[oig sXeêv, &g
;
XQ^ neldsadai AanBdaiôvloig nal rd zEl^rj nstQiaigsTp. Here

xgr],ihe indicative, introduces Theramenes as speaking himself.
II, Transitive Propositions for assigning the In-

tention,
General Rule. The particles made use of for assigning the

intention are tVa, onmg, ocpqa^ Jk, mg, and ^rj. These inten-
tional particles are joined with the subjunctive when the verb
of the principal proposition (the leading verb in the sentence)
is ^present gx future ; on the contrary, with the optative, when
it is a past tense.
Illustration. The following remarks will serve to establish

the truth of this rule- The intention is an idea, existing in the
mind of the agent, of a result to be effected by the action.
The accomplishment of the intention is made strictly condi-
tional by the action, that is, the intention can only be accom-
plished by the action. Hence the intention really exists only
so long as the action either is performed or is to be perform-
ed, and must therefore in this case, after a present and future,
be expressed in the subjunctive. But if the action has been
performed, the intention no longer exists, but the idea only re-
mains that it was performed with a certain intention, and there-
fore in this case, after a past tense, the optative must be used.
Examples under this rule. AiyM
2iâ sidrig^ / speak, that you
may —
know. lltâ Iva I spoke that you might know.
Bideli]g, —
avoixd^
TtSQifievib, ettjg to dea/uMT'^Qiov^ I will wait until the prison
be opened. — nsQtefiivo/uev etog dLvoix^^^V ^^ dsaôiTT^qiov^ we waited
until the prison should he opened.
Use of the Indicative^ Subjunctive and Optative^ in

Relative Propositions,
1. The words made use of for designating relation are the
relative pronouns og, oang, olog, oaog, &c. and relative particles,
as o5, o/rou, ^svdcc, evOev^ odev, onoi^ ^nMg, wg, ?^•«, &c.
General Rule. The Indicative enters the relative proposi-
tion in all cases wherein any thing is expressed uncondition-
ally and as a fact, even in narrative also, where the optative
might be expected the Optative is used to designate a mere
;
251
idea, chiefly therefore in assigning not a single and definite,
but a frequently repeated, action the Subjunctive stands after
;
relatives in mentioning present and future things, to express

an assumed case or existing intention and, in this last case,
;
the particle in Attic prose always, and generally with Epic

<5!*',
writers and the Attic poets, accompanies the relative.

Hence we deduce the following observations. 1. The Indi-
cative stands in the relative proposition, when the verb of the
principal proposition is a preterite, present, or future, and an
event expressed as definite and unconditional. 2. The Op-
is
tative stands in the relative proposition after a preterite, pre-
sent, or future, to express mere thoughts and ideas 3. The :
Subjunctive can only stand after the present, or future, and that
under the above-mentioned conditions
Imperative,
1 The
Imperative denotes that the action expressed in the
verb required to take place or not to take place
is consequent- ;
ly that, in the conception of the person requiring, it appears

as necessary.
2. Hence in Greek, as in other languages, the imperative
is used in accosting, requesting, commanding, exhorting, <fcc.
Finally, it stands in the present when the action is conceived
as continuous or permanent and in the aorist, when as tran-

;
sient or momentaneous. Hence the imperative of the present

occurs most frequently when an action already begun is to be
continued the imperative of the aorist, when one not yet
;
begun is to be undertaken as 0(i§Qsi, di cplXe / keep up your

;
spirits my friend ! —"'Aycovaov toLwv, d) Kgolae, hear then, O

CrcRsus.
3. be expressed negatively, as a pro-
If the requisition is to
negative /Ui^ must always be used.
hibition, or dissuasion, the
In this case also the imperative stands in the present, when
the action is conceived as permanent, consequently always
when, being begun, it is to be discontinued. On the contrary,
instead of the imperative of the aorist, which should enter
when the action is conceived as momentaneous, therefore
principally, when an action not yet begun is to be omitted, the
Attics, at least, commonly use the subjunctive of the aorist
thus, fnq fwt (xvTlleys refers to the contradiction having already
begun :
" Dont be contradicting me:''' whereas ^t\ juot uvidi^rig
is used when the contradiction is to be prevented. So firi kXetits
and {j-^ aUijji^g, the former a general dissuasion from theft, the
latter in reference to a particular and individual case.
252
4. The Greeks form also an imperative of the perfect. Such
an imperative denotes either a permanent state ; or it refers
merely to the recollection of some past occurrence, and is
used in assuming that a past action has been performed at a
different time or in a different manner from what is really the
fact ; indicates generally a perfectly finished action.
or it
5. The
imperative following olad' ort, olad' o, oJoff dbc, is to
be explained elliptically in the same way as the English con-
structions of this kind, wherein the imperative, which follows
in the Greek, precedes as, olad' o dquaov do, you know what ?
— oXaff (bff nolrjaov ; make
;
it,
;
you know how ?
The Infinitive Mood has already been consider-

ed under the Syntax, to which the Student is
therefore referred.
PROSODY.
Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity

of syllables in the construction of verses. In the ancient
Grammarians, ngoawdla applies also to accent.
The vowels e, o, are naturally short r] and w naturally long
;
but a, t, V, are called doubtful, being long in some syllables,

and short in others. The quantity of syllables is determined
by various methods :
1. POSITION.
A short vowel, or a doubtful vowel, before two consonants
or a double letter, is almost always long as deivri d^ «âyj^^,
;
aitdcQ ifis Zsvg uaroL qigiva, nollAg d' T(p6liwvg. Hom.

This rule holds good in epic poetry, except in some proper
names, and in words which could not be used in any other
situation in the verse. The following exceptions to the rule
must be attended to in scanning the Dramatic writers.
1. A short vowel before a soft mute, (n, x, t,) or an aspi-
rate mute, (go, /, 6,) followed by a liquid, (^, v, q,) and also ^t/,
before the middle mutes ((?, /, d,) followed by the liquid q, is

much rather left short than lengthened by the Attic poets.
2. A short vowel before a middle mute, follov/ed by ^, ,«, v^
is almost always long. In Euripides such syllables are always
253
long ; but in ^schylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they
are sometimes short.
A short vowel before two consonants, neither of which is a
liquid, or before two liquids, is always long as, ;
Hg TToAXd dî xal iCi)vds y^fvniw nargl. Eurip.

A short vowel sometimes made long before a single liquid,
is
which should be pronounced as if written double as UuSs ;
pronounced HXaSe tliaqia pronounced iXliboia.

;
A short vowel ending a foot, before q in the beginning of

the word following, is sometimes lengthened in the dramatic
poets ; as,
lom sanv ^\drj rolgyov slg ifiS qinov,
av S" ovx uvi^Bi, J
xgr^v a dm ^TjTolg &ga.
Eurip. Supp. 461.
This license of course employed only when the short
is
syllable is the last of a foot when it is the first of a foot it is
:
left short (since even in the odd places of the verse an iambus
is preferable to a spondee) but that the lengthening depends
;
on the power of the inceptive q, and not merely on the force

of the ictus metricus, is evident from the fact that a short syl-
lable cannot be so lengthened, in the iambic trimeter, before
any other single consonant.
A short syllable is often made long, when the next word
begins with a digammated vowel as 5? ot, for Fot, Horn. :
/ueXarog ol'^'oio, for Folvoio, Hom. ovds ovg, for Foiig, Horn.
; In
many instances, however, there is no need of having recourse
to the insertion of the digamma, but the lengthening of a
short syllable may be explained by the doctrine of the csesural
pause, that is, the pressure of the voice on the syllable in
question, or, as it is sometimes called, the ictus metricus. (vid.
Observations on the Caesura.)
2. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER.

One vowel before another does not suffer elision, as in La-
the end of a word, unless an apostrophe is substituted.
tin, at
(For farther remarks on elision, see in general. Appendix B.)
One vowel before another or a diphthong is short, unless
lengthened by poetic licence as noXvd'iitos nolsfioio, Hom.
;
Tulaiovidao dodxrog, Hom.

A long vowel or a diphthong is mostly short when the next
wôrd begins with a vowel as ^gfi iv sluQivri ore, Hom. -^STiga
;
^vl ol'xa, iv. Hom.

Obs. A long vowel or a diphthong may be considered as con-
sisting of two short vowels. If the latter is supposed to
254
suffer elision, the former will of course remain short ; as
olxo ev.
3. CONTRACTION.
A contracted syllable is always long, as ocpisg, ocpjg ; Isgdg,
rg6g.
Two successive A'owels, forming two syllables, even in dif»
ferent words, frequently coalesce in poetry thus dedg becomes ;
a monosyllable, XQ^^^^ a dissyllable, and in ^ h'idBT\ ^ ovh

ivdrjasv^ Hom. ^ ovu are pronounced as one syllable {youh.)
4. COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION.

Words compounded and derived follow the quantity of their
prirnitives, as dijTfiog from from eg^vyop.
rj/ni], cpvyii
A, privative, is short, as dTi/nog but long in adavajog.

;
u4qi, sgiy ^Qi, dvg, â, are short, as t,d6sog.
Penultima of Nouns and Adjectives increasing in the

Genitive.
GENERAL RULE.
The doubtful vowels in the penult, of Nouns and Adjec*
tives increasing in the Genitive, are for the most part short.
A is short, as aih/udjog. Except in
The Doric Genitive, as 'ATgeidoio, fnovaacap for /uovadTojv.
Kiqag, x^.QdTog ;
{vid. page 42.) xg&g, xgardg ; ipdcg, tpagog ;
•&(i)ga^, dîhgoLxog ; Uga^, Ugaxog ; xdgda^, xogdaxog ; viu^, via-

xog ;
gix^, gayog ; avgqxx^, aTugcpdxog ;
fpaiat, fpaldxog ; and, in
general, all Nouns ending
in «$ pure, are long.
Genitives in avog, as xnav^ -nxavog^ except rdXavog and fii-
loivog.
The Dative Plural of Nouns which have the penult, of the
Genitive Singular long as yiydcn, naai, xvy/aa*.
; But a is
short when the Dative is formed by syncope as ivdgdai, nu- ;
rgdcrtj /urjrgdai'. {vid. page 43.)

/ is short, as 'igig, egTdog, Except in
Words of two terminations, as dEXq)lp, dsXcplg^ deXcplPog.
Monosyllables as -O^lg, -îvog but Îg, ^x6g, rig, xXvbg, are ;
short.
Nouns in ig, idog ; iip, mog ; <^, lyog ;
t^, ixog ; as hgvig, ogvT-
dog ; jirxt^, jhrTyog ;
fj&ajt^, fi&atryog ; <polvi^, cpoivTxog (yet
always QgijXxsg in Homer.)

But in tj//, i6og t|, ixog, ; t, is generally short, x^gn^, x^^^-
6o; ; d^gl^, igrxog ; cttiI, cttiô?.
255
Y is short, as nvg nxjQog. Except in
Words of two terminations, as (pdgxw and cpdgxvg, with xij-

û|, xvgdxog.
Fgvxpj ygvnog ;
yvipj yvndg, are common.
Penultima of the Tenses of Verbs.
The quantity of all Tenses generally remains the same as
in the Tense from which they are formed as from xqwo are ;
formed bxqtvov^ xqTvoâi,, ixgjvofiijv ; from xgivia are formed

xixgTxa, xbxqX(i<xi, tXQidrjv.
The Perfect follows the quantity of the First Future, as
(pvcx)^ cpdaio, necpdxot.
Verbs in mo), —except those in vmco, and nlnib) and girtroj,
—shorten the penultima of the Perfect.

In the Attic reduplication the penultima is short, as 6g<iiTcaj
(agv^tt, dg(ag\}Xoi-
The Perfect Middle follows the quantity of the Second
Aorist, as ^t\Jnov, jeivTra ; except îSgida, eggjyoc, xexgdyotj xi-
xgTya, fiifidxa, nengdiyoc, nscpgjxa^ jsTgiyoc, &c.
The doubtful vowels before at are long, as Teivqpola*, deix-
vdat. pages 34 and 141.)
[vid.
In the First Aorist Participle, ctaa is long.
In the Second Conjugation a is short, except in the Third
Person Plural of the Indicative Mood, the Subjunctive Mood,
and the Participles of the Active Voice ; 2axdL,uev, iarddij iardl-
vai, iardicro, &c.
In the Ionic dialect « is short in the penult, of the praeter
Tenses, as yeyajx, yeydibg in the Third Person Plural of the
;
Passive Voice, as tdxat, dad^r^mo in the Second Person of ;
the First Aorist Middle, as I'Qsv^do. But the Ionic a, in Verbs

in aw, is long when it is preceded by a long syllable, as ê-
In polysyllabic words of the Fourth Conjugation v is short,

except in the Singular Number of the Present Tense Active
Voice, and in the Third Person Plural, as t,evy^fu, ^sijj'J'Oo-*,
&c. In dissyllables it is always long, as <3o^t, sduxe, Joyat,
&c.
In the First Future a, t, and v, followed by crw, are short
as -d-avfxdtQM, -dâvjudiaM ; vofii'Cb)^ vo/nTaco ; xAil^w, xXuaca,
But aaot) is long from Verbs in aw preceded by a vowel, or
in âw, as -dêdco, Sêoiab) dgtku), dgdaio.
; /aw and vaw are long
from Verbs in w pure, as t<w, iraw laxTuca, laxôM. ;
Liquid verbs have the penult of the future short, of the 1st.
aorist active long ; as x^r^w, xgXvo3y sxgjva (and hence ixgiva-
256
The Second Aorist has the penult always short, as hgoLxoy,
eXinopj êcpvyov, exa/aov^ &c.
CUSTOM OR AUTHORITY.
In the Superlative « is always short, as alv6xdirog.
The Verbs in avoj is short aiJIdtJ^w, however, is
penult, of ;
sometimes lengthened, and (fOdvca always in Homer, but in

the Attic writers it is short. "Ixdpoj is always long.
The penult, of the Present and Imperfect of Verbs in aw is
short by nature, but it may })e made long by poetic licence, or
by the insertion of the digamma.
Nouns in aojv have the penult, long, whether their incre-
ment be long or short, as Uoaeidaojv, Maxauv.
Neuters in avov have the penult, short, as oqyavov, dgindvov.
Proper names, and names of stones in (xTrjg, have the penult,
long, as EvcpQdrTjg, '^4xoLiT]g, except FaXoiTT^g, JaX/udTr/gj Evqv-
6aTi]g, and a few others.
The penult, of patronymic Nouns in cx8i]g is short, as Ilrj-
Irfididrjg.
Most proper names of females in ccig have the penult, long,

as Ndiig, Aaig but masculines in
; oclg are short, as KaXdig,
&j]6dig.
The penult, of Adverbs in axtg and axi is short, as noUdxig^
Tooaa.iti',
In numerals the a is long, as j()ia.x6aiog ; and also in Verbals

in aaig, affi/uog, aio?, utt^q, arTjg, ariitog, derived from Verbs in
ao) ;as xQdatg, Idcrt/jog, dearog, idTqQ, deairig, &c. but in Nouns
derived from Verbs of other Conjugations the « is short, as
dvi'diog.
'Avriq has a in the Nominative common, but in the oblique
Cases and its compounds it is long.
Verbs in im have the penult, sometimes long, and sometimes
short. Also Verbs in Lpm, as t/i-w, cpdb'io. These are long in
Homer, but short in the tragedians.
Nouns in /« have the penult, always short in the Attic wri-
ters, except naUct xorlu, and ^xrla, where it is commonly long.
Obs. In Homer many words in It] occur with the penult,
long. This appears to be a crasis from the old form in isi].
Nouns in irTjg and ntg have the penult, long, as noXrrrjg, ve-
q)QTJig except HQXrrjg^ TtxXirjg.
;
Patronymics, and most other Nouns in »??, have the penult, <
long, as NrjqTvrf^ dc^Tvi] except tllocmpr], and feminine Adjec-

;
tives formed from masculines in ivog, as juvqqTvi], nBdqXvrj.

Derivatives in tat?, tro?, are short, as «^rcrtg, anqXiog, &c.
so in iitog and ifiog, as nqaaxXiibg, vdaiXfiog. But those in i(ia vary
257
according to the quantity of the penult, of the words whence
they are derived, as xgrfia from xexQTfiai XQ^F^ from XQ^^- ;
Comparatives in imv have the penult, long in Attic, short

elsewhere.
The penult, of Verbs in u^w, v^w, u;^tw, is mostly long as, ;
Idovb)^ xziQco, §Q^x^ but in the Tenses derived from the Future
'>
it is short as, xtJêw, fiaQrvQeco.

;
Polysyllables in tuv?]^ as IrjOoavvrj some Nouns in vxrjg, as ;
^Qadurrjg diminutives in vXog, as fîxxuXog

; and numerous ;
Adjectives in wog and vQog, have the penult, short.

The penult, is short also in Verbals in vaig, as Ivaig qpuat?, ;
;fu(7tb', &c. but it is long in those in vfia, v/ndg, vrriQ, vicag as, ;
Xdâ, x^fôg, ^QiiiQ, f/Tjvdjwg, &c. and in the greatest part of

those in vxdg vti^?, vilg, as itojjcdTdg^QdTog, nqBaSzT^g, ngeadojlg.
QUANTITY OF THE LAST SYLLABLE.

A Vowel at the end of a word,
jt, I, T final are short. Except
A long.
Nouns m and polysyllables in ata, as ks-
8a^ da, ^«, ea, la,
gala ; with Mdqa, and neqa. But 816., t'a, ^/a, n6rviix,
£i)l(jcya,
(iaailBia, [a queen) and also dcyxvga, lixai'da, yeapvqa, Kiqttvqay

bkvQ(x, aaoXonhdqa, acpvqa, juv&yqa compounds of fierqw, as :
yewfjiiqa qa preceded by a diphthong, as neiqu, except, alqa,

;
lavqa, jilevqa, aavqa ; are short.

Duals of the First Declension, as (joiaa.
Adjectives in « pure and â from masculines in 0?, as dixala,
'flfisriqa.
Nouns in sia from evw, as dovXeia from dovlevoj.

Oxytons of the First Declension, as ;â^tt.
Accusatives in a from Nouns in evg, generally in the Attic
dialect.
Vocatives from proper names in «?, as Alvsla, n&llct.
The Doric «, as & naya for 1^ "^vyh^ ôqâ for §oqiov. But
the iEolic « is short, as pv/ucpS, cptXij, Hom. Hence the Latin
Nom. in « is short.
/ long.
The names of letters, as It with xql. ;
The Paragoge in Pronouns and Adverbs, as ovToalj vvvl :
except the Dative Plural, as aoTai.

The Attic t for a, e, or 0, as lavil for TaiJia, 6dl for ods^ rovxl
for jovTO.
Adverbs formed from nouns, and ending in »,have the * either
23
258
long or shorty but more commonly short ; such as ufxoxOl^ djuu^
XfjTl, daiaxilj Slc. But those which
refer to nations have the
t always short ; as ^nvdiajT, 'ytgyoXiatTj &c.
r long.
The Imperfect and Second Aorist of Verbs in vfii, as ?û.
The names of letters, as juv ; and fictitious words, as o, yô.
AN, IN, TN final are short. Except

Av long : Words circumllexed, as nav,
Oxytons masculine, as Ttidv.
These Adverbs, a^«r, svuv, Xiav^ nigav.
The Accusative of the First Declension, whose Nominative
is long, as Alveiav^ cpiXlav.
Iv long Words of two terminations, as êX(f\v and êAqoij.
:
'//^ly, and i)i^t.v, when circumflexcd. But Sophocles makes

\^\v^ ifiiv ; and the Epic Dialect has also u/ufiip^ if^fiiy riy, ;
Dor. for aoi ; and also xofiv. Ilqlv is sometimes long in Ho-
mer.
Nouns in as ^rjyulv,
tv, ivog,
Tv long Words
of two terminations, as cpoQytw and qioquvg.
:
Accusatives from vg long, as ixpQvv ; with vvv. But when

vvv is an Enclitic, as toI wv^ it is short.
The Imperfect and Second Aorist of Verbs in u//*, as idstx-
vvv, l^cpvv.
AP, TP final are short. Except

Aq long : rdiq and uvrdiQ are sometimes long in Homer.
Tq long : TlvQ.
A2, 12, TV final are short. Except

Ag long : Nominatives of Participles, as Tvi//a?.
All Cases of the First Declension, as ra/uiag, cpdlug, ftoiaocg

But the Doric Ace. is short, as vvfx(pag.
Plural Accusatives in a? from the long « in the Accusative
Singular of Nouns in evg.
Nouns in «?, avrog, as Ai'ag ; with rdlag.
Ig long words of two terminations, as deXcplg and dslqilv.
:
Nouns in ig increasing long, as xvrnjilg^ oQvig; xlg, x»6g

Ôgvig, however, has the last syllabic often short in Tragedy
though always long in Comedy. Porson. ad Hec. 204.
yg long Words of two terminations, as cpognw and cpoQXvg.
:
Monosyllables, as /nvg with itib/nvg. ;
Oxytons making the Genitive in og pure, as Tirix^s though ;
they are sometimes short, as nltjdvg insQxf^fi^^f^î Apoll. Rhod

I. 239 IxOvg is common.
:
In Verbs in vfii, as idslxvvg, <fec.

259
OF FEET.
A foot is composed of two or more syllables, strictly regu-
lated by time.
There are three kinds of feet some are dissyllables, some
:
trisyllables, and others consist of four syllables.
The feet of two syllables are four.
1 A
Pyrrichius consists of two short syllables ; as -^^f o?.
2. A
Spondaeus consists of two long syllables as ip^x"^- ;
3. An Iambus consists of a short and long syllable ; as yf-
4. A Trochaeus consists of a long and a short syllable ; as
Feet of three syllables are eight.
1. A Dactylus consists of a long and two short syllables

as 'fikog,
2. An Anapaestus consists of two short and a long syllable ;
as ix^y&ly\.
3. A Tribrachys consists of three short syllables ; as sd^to.
4. A Molossus consists of three long syllables as 'flQadyig. ;
5. An Amphibrachys consists of a short, a long, and a short

syllable ; as 'ofiriQog.
6. An Amphimacer
or Cretic consists of a long, a short, and
a long syllable as 'fiy^^Qp. ;
7. A Bacchius consists of a short and two long syllables ;

as vorliuCiv.
8. An Antibacchius consists of two long and a short sylla-

ble ; as 'ricpaiarog.
Feet of four syllables are sixteen.

1. A
Choriambus consists of a long, two short, and a long
syllable or it is formed of a Trochee (sometimes called Cho-
;
ree) and an Iambus as '-^êrf^cp. ;
2. An Antispast consists of a short, two long, and a short

syllable or of an Iambus and Trochee
; as ;ifo^cS^j»'Ta.
;
3. An Ionic a majore consists of two long and two short

syllables or of a Spondaeus and Pyrrichius
; as xsa/z^roâ. ;
4. An Ionic a minore consists of two short and two long

syllables or of a Pyrrichius and a Spondaeus
;
as JlQ(lf^8f^g. ;
1. A first Paeon consists of a long and three short syllables ;
or of a Trochee and Pyrrich as SifiaXx^ty^g.

;
2. A second Paeon consists of a short, a long, and two short

syllables or of an Iambus and Pyrrich
; as ^7i(itv\j(i^.
;
3. A third Paeon consists of two short, a long, and a short

syllable or of a Pyrrich and a Trochee
; as y.lU§BX^g. ;
260
4. A fourth Paeon consists of three short and a long sylla-
ble ; or of a Pyrrich and an Iambus ; as -S-SoySPTlg.
1. The first Epitrite consists of a short and three long syl-

lables ; or of an Iambus and a Spondee ; as dQTa^^l^r^g.
2. The second Epitrite consists of a long, a short, and two
long syllables or of a Trochee and a Spondee as eo^sv^gy-
; ;
tQv,
3. The two long, a short, and a
third Epitrite consists of
long syllable Spondee and an Iambus as acDrfj^rag.
; or of a ;
4. The fourth Epitrite consists of three long and a short

syllable or of a Spondee and a Trochee
; as cpQvfûaua. ;
To these are added,

1. A Proceleusmaticus, which consists of four short sylla-
bles or of two Pyrrichs
; as (jcrAoaoqDo?. ;
2. A Dispondaeus, which consists of four long syllables, or

of two Spondees as '^âx^?t^7^g. ;
3. A Dichoraeus, which consists of two Trochees; as fl^-

XXdafxog.
4. A Diiambus, which consists of two Iambi ; as avaxg^Qv,
OF METRES.
A metre, or Syzygy, properly consists of two feet.
The principal metres are nine they take their name from
;
the appropriate or prevalent feet; viz. 1. Iambic. 2. Tro-

chaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic. 6. Antis-
pastic. 7. Ionic a majore. 8. Ionic a minore. 9. Paeonic.
Besides these, there are Asynartetes, or Inconnectibles, al-
most innumerable.
1. Monometer is formed of one metre, or two feet.
2. Dimeter is composed of two metres, or four feet.
3. Trimeter, called also Senarius, consists of three metres,
or six feet.
4. Tetrameter consists of four metres, or eight feet.
Some kinds of verse are measured by single feet ; as Pen-
tameter, which consists of five feet ; and Hexameter, consist-
ing of six feet.
The following kinds of verse are measured by double feet
viz. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic.
Verses from their ending are denominated A catalectic,Ca-
talectic, Brachycatalectic, and Hypercatalectic
A verse is called Acatalectic, which contains the exact num-
ber of feet, without deficiency or redundancy.
Catalectic verse is, where a syllable is wanting at the end.
Brachycatalectic verse is, where two syllables are wanting
261
Hypercatalectic verse is, where there is a redundancy of
one or two syllables at the end.
The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Iambic,
Trochaic, Anapaestic, and greater Ionic.
DACTYLIC MEASURE.
1. Hexameters.
Hexameter, or Heroic verse, consists of six feet, the fifth
of which is generally a Dactyl, and the sixth always a Spon-
dee ; each of the others may be either a Dactyl or a Spondee
at the Poet's pleasure ; as
*^Slg e/JTiouff' ^ViQVVB iAB\vog xal |
difiov ejxaaTOi;, Hom.
Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description,
the Spondee take place of the Dactyl in the fifth foot from ;
which circumstance, such lines are called Spondaic ; as

^Sl '^/tjA,6v, Xfi'Xfijaf [16 Atî (fiXs I
(xvdri\aaadai, Hom.
2. Pentameters.
This verse consists of five feet. The first and second may
be either a Dactyl or Spondee at pleasure the third must ;
always be a Spondee the fourth and fifth Anapaests as

; ;
O^re no\8isiv (iêlz^^ ovVis naXaia[uoavvr]g, Tyrtseus.

This is the more correct mode of scanning Pentameters.
Many, however, prefer the following method viz. the first two ;
feet as before then a semifoot or long syllable

; ; and lastly,
two Dactyls, followed by another semifoot ; as
Oîs 7ro|(5wv (iêJTTig 11 oiJre na)Xaiafj.oav\vrig.
IAMBIC MEASURE.
Of Iambicsthere are three kinds Dimeters, consisting of :
two measures, or four feet Trimeters, of three measures, or

;
six feet and Tetrameters, of four measures, or eight feet.

;
The Iambic verse at first admitted the Iambus only as may :
be seen in the following verse of Archilochus, its inventor;

narflQ I
A)iiia(i6 1|
a, Trctjov ^x ||
(pQdiaQ |
Xoyfiv.
|j
But as this was not only

ungrateful to the ear, on account
of the frequent recurrence of the same foot, but also difficult
with respect to composition, the Spondee was admitted into
the odd places, i. e. the^r^^, third, dindjifth, and brought with
them its resolutions, the Dactyl and Anapaest, but under these
limitations the Anapaest is used only in the first foot, (except
;
it be an Anapaest of proper names, in which case every foot

except the last receives an Anapaest,) and the Dactyl only in
23*
262
the first and The Tribrach, however, which is only an
third.
Iambus resolved, found in every place except the last, which
is
is always a pure Iambic. Hence the following rules may be
deduced :
1. The odd feet admit of a greater latitude than the even,

for the latter admit only the Iambus and its resolution the
Tribrach.
2. The Tribrach is admissible into the five first feet ; the
Spondee into the first, third, and fifth.
3. The Dactyl is admissible into the first and third places ;

but observe that it is more common in the third than in the first
place of the verse.
4. The Anapaest is admissible into the first place only, ex-
cept it be an Anapaest of proper names. For the introduction
of certain proper names, an Anapaest may be admitted into
any place except the last but observe that the whole Ana- :
paest must be contained in the same word, and, generally, so

that its two short syllables may be inclosed between two long
in the same word. The Anapaest admissible into the jirst
place need not, however, be included in the same word, when
the line begins either with an article, or with a preposition
followed immediately by its case. (Monk, ad Soph. Elect. 4.
Mus. Crit. vol. l.p. 63.)
Hence the following is the Iambic Trimeter scale.
1st. Metre. 2d. Metre. 3d. Metre.
1 2 3 4 5 6
'^-y — ^- ^_^ w_ •w' — «^_/ —

^
——
<„_• y.,^
y_^ ^^ —
P.N. w^_ v—/ <._• ^w— >-. w_ WW —
The most frequent Caesural pause in this species of verse,
is in the middle of the third foot as ;
xiQxot' TTsXsiap ]]
oi juîygav XsXBiufxipoi.
This the Penthemimeral Caesura, because it falls

is called
after the fifth half-foot. The Hepthemimeral Caesura, which
is in the middle of the fourth foot, is also of frequent occur-
rence ; as
^xw VExgtbv xsvdfiwva ]j
y.al axdiov niXag,
There are, however, so many verses with no Caesura at
263
all, that it seems useless to enlarge here on this subject.

Sometimes a line occurs which has neither of these but the ;
Cmsura takes place at the end of the third foot in case of an

eUsion or, with y\ 8% d\ fi, a\ z\ annexed to the end of the
:
third foot. This is called by Porson the quasi-ccBsura ; as,

"Id' 6 ^Qoxibv aQi(n\ ||
CivoQdtjjaov nohv.
ICairol viv ov xelvog y ]|
6 dvajrivdg nois.
The of these lines is an instance of the first species,

first
and the second of the latter.

Occasionally the quasi-cmsura occurs without an elision at
the end of the third foot. This was supposed by some, though
erroneously, to express great agitation of mind in the speaker,
and to represent that agitation though a line in the CEdipus :
Tyrannus of Sophocles seems calculated to support the truth

of that supposition ;
^Jl Zev, jI fiou dquaai ||

§e§ovlsvaai, ttsqI. CE. R. 738.
The worth noticing is called the pause by
last particular
Porson, and it is under the following circumstances. If a
"
line end with a word or words forming a cretic (" "), and a
word of more than one syllable precede the cretic, the fifth
foot of that line must be an iambus as :
.Zwiij^t âti], lafingog waneg bfi/jaii, OS. R. 81.

Here wansg Ûî-ioixi, would have vitiated the metre.
3. TROCHAIC MEASURE.
The
Catalectic Tetrameter is the only species of Trochaic
used by the tragedians in regular continued systems ; such as,
daaaov j
-fj
fj^ s\\xQ^^ TiQ(}\6aTi'Qf\\iy.ofi\7iv df\^clatS\og.
This metre composed the whole of the dialogue,

at first
but it gradually gave place to the Iambic Trimeter and ac- :
cordingly we find it but seldom used in the remaining Greek

tragedians.
A
Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic verse consists of seven
feet and a Catalectic syllable, which feet are properly all Tro-
chees. In every place, however, the Trochee may be resolv-
ed into a Tribrach.
This verse admits also a Spondee in the even places, that
is, the second, fourth, and sixth, which Spondee may be re-
solved into an iVnapaest.

In every place, except the fourth and seventh, a Dactyl of
proper names is admitted, which should be contained in the
same word, or so distributed that the two short syllables of
tlie proper name be joined to the final long syllable of the pre-
264
ceding word. Hence the following is the scale of the Trochaic
Tetrameter Catalectic.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
— — —
1
-^ -^ -- --
^w^ -
N.P. L^\ .... — _^

The Caesural pause in this species of verse uniformly takes
place after the fourth foot, or at the end of the second metre.
The Trochaic Tetrameter is easily reducible to the Iambic
measure, if a Cretic, or its equivalent, is removed from the be-
ginning of it.
4. ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
This species of Measure admits Anapaests, Dactyls, and
Spondees, and is commonly Dimeters of four, and sometimes
Manometers of two, feet. Of the former the strictest is the
Dimeter Catalectic, called a Paroemiac, because proverbs,
naQol/iiiai, were sometimes written in that metre, which closes
the system.
Anapaestics may contain an indefinite series of Metres. Any
number of these constitutes a system, which may be considered
as extended without any distinction of verses, or, in other
words, may be scanned as one verse. It has, generally, for
the sake of convenience, been divided into regular Dimeters,
which of course can admit no license in the final syllable, and
which must always be followed by a Paroemiac But as in
this mode of division it must often happen that a single Metre
remains before the final Paroemiac, that Metre is placed in a
separate verse, and is termed a base, although it would be per-
haps more properly called a supplement.
The only restraint in Anapaestics is, that an Anapaest must
not follow a Dactyl, to prevent the concurrence of too many
short syllables that each Metre must end with a word
;
and ;
that the third foot of the Paroemiac must be an Anapaest.

The most important rule of all in this metre, is that esta-
blished by Bentley, in his dissertation on the Epistles of Pha-
laris, viz. that the last syllable of each Anapaestic verse is not
common, as in Hexameters, &;c. but that all the verses are
considered as connected together in one continued succession .
till the versits Paroemiacus finishes the whole, the last syllable
of which may be long or short.

The following are the scales of some of the Anapaestic
Measures
265
Anapasstic Dimeter Acataleclic.
Isi. Metre. 2d, Metre.
1 2 3 4
v^ w— >_• v_^ «^_^ .^^ —

\^ V_' — *>^ ^_^
A ParoemiaC; or Dimeter Catalectic

1st. Metre. 2d. Metre.
1 2 3 4
••—y *'-' — WV^ — —

__ w
Anapaestic Base, or Monometer Acataleclic.
One Metre.
1 2
1
v_/ s.^ »^-^ v-/
C^SURA.
{From Buttmann's Grammar. — Everett's translation.
1. Caesura is properly the division of a Metrical, or Rhyth-

mical connection, by the ending of a word. There is accord-
ingly, 1st. a CcBsura of the Foot, 2d. a C<ssura of the Rhythm,
3d. a Cmsura of the Verse, which must be carefully distin-
guished, as the word Caesura, without qualification, is general-
ly applied to all three.
2. The Caesura of the Foot, in which a word terminates in
the middle of a Foot, is the least important, and without any
great influence on the Verse, as the division into Feet is in a
great degree arbitrary.
3. The Caesura of the Rhythm, is that in which the Arsis'^
falls on the last syllable of a word, whereby the Arsis is se-
parated from the Thesis. Such a final syllable receives, by
1. That part of the Foot which receives the Ictus, the stress of the
Rhythm, (the beat of the Time), is called Arsis, or Elevation; the rest
of the Foot is called Thesis or Depression. The natural Arsis is the
long syllable of the Foot so that the Spondee and Tribrach leave
; it
alike uncertain where the Arsis falls.
266
the Ictus^ a peculiar emphasis so that the Poets often place
;
a short syllable in this situation, which becomes long thereby,

and sustains alone the Arsis. This lengthening by Csesura,
as it is called, is particularly familiar in Epic poetry as, ;
Ti/lEjua;(^ noTop ae enog cpvyev a()y.og 686vi(av

I
j
AvjOLQ eneiT uvTolai (âXog i/pnevxeg icpielg.I
As this usage is principally observed in the Epic Poets, and

as in Hexameters the Arsis is always on the beginning of the
Foot, the Caesura of the Rhythm and the Caesura of the Foot
coincide. This has led to the erroneous doctrine, that the
Caesura of the Foot lengthened the syllable.
4, The Caesura of the Verse exists, when the termination
of a word falls on a place in the Verse, where one Rhythm
agreeable to the ear closes and another begins. The estima-
tion of this belongs to the minuter acquaintance with versifi-
cation. In a more limited sense, by the Caesura of the Verse
is understood such a Caesura in certain places in the Verse,
one of which is necessary to every good Verse of the kind.
This is what is meant when it is said of a Verse that it has no
Caesura. Whereupon may be remarked,
1st. That some kinds of Verses have their Caesura on a
fixed place. Of this kind among the foregoing Verses are, 1 st.
the Pentameter, which requires a word to end in the middle
of the centre Spondee. This Caesura can never be omitted.
2d. The Iambic AnapcBstic, and Trochaic Tetrameter Catalec-
tic, which all have their natural Caesura at the end of the fourth
Foot. This Caesura may be neglected.

2d. Other kinds of Verse have more than one place for the
Caesura, the choice of which is left to the poet. One, how-
ever, generally predominates over the rest. In Hexameters
this is commonly in the middle of the third Foot, and either
directly after its Arsis, as
MriPiv ^sids 6eu, |
TlrjXrjL&deo} ^^/iXXriog
Odx aqa fjiovvov btjv |

^qLSmv yivog <iW Inl ycxtav^
or in the middle of the Thesis of a Dactyl,

^'Afdoa fioi ^df'VBnB, Movact, I noXixqonov og fx&ka noXX&.
,
The firstspecies is called the masculine or male Caesura,

and the second the female or Trochaic Caesura. It rarely
happens that both are absent from the Foot. Should they be
wanting, however, they are usually supplied by the male Cae-
sura, in the second and fourth Feet, and if both be combined,
the Verse is the more harmonious as ;
dAA>d viov avvoQipdfiEvai I xIvvpto cpdXayyeg.

I
267
APPENDIX—
DIGAMMA.
I-
1. That ancient language, out of which arose the Greek, the Latin,
and the various branches of Teutonic, had, both in the beginning of
words, and between vowels in their internal structure, many conso-
nants, which, in process of time, were partly altogether lost, and partly
weakened into aspirate or vowel sounds. A
portion of the Greek
diphthongs proceeded from this attenuation or rejection,
2. The souiids called Labial (tt, /?, ^,/, v,) and Guttural (v, y, ^^ ch,
q, gu,) were of most frequent occurrence.

3. The attenuation of the gutturals displays itself in Cluoi oi, Cluam
av, Clualis aXiVos, riXi/cos, &c. "^(And here, too, the transition from guttu-
ral to labial is visible. Thus the oldest shape had probably both, as in
ClVoi; when the sound was softened, the guttural dropped out, and
Voi, that is. For (ôl.) remained; while, in the next stage, the guttu-
ral reveals again its mitigated form in the aspirate of o'i.)
4. But in labial sounds, at the beginning or in the middle of words,
before vowels and even consonants, the ancient tongue was still more
rich. The strongest of labial sounds is heard in the Latin F, which,
in its figure and its place in the alphabet, answers to the Greek digam-
—
ma a letter, that seems to have agreed with F in its early pronuncia-
tion also, before that was exchanged for the softer sound of W.
5. This robust sound was attenuated.
a. In Latin chiefly before e and i thus Festa, festis, Felia, finum,
;
became Vesta, vestis, Velia, vinum,

b. In Greek it passed frequently into (por 0; thus (ppdrpa for Fpdrpa,
the form in the Elean inscription, ((>pvyavov (Lat. frutex), &c.
PpfiTwp, 0pa6dixavTos, and similar words in jEolic; /3pe[i(x) (Lat.
fremo), &c.
6. It disappeared altogether, at least in the majority of dialects, from
those words in which the JEolians substituted /?, as /5iii-wp, 'FaSafiavTog,
paSifOi (^Mol. I3pa6iv6i), p65ov {Mo\. 0poSoi,) and from some others, as pii>,
;
(hat. frango), pri^n (Ff»7^f in Alcseus, according to the authority

pfiyvvjxi
of Trypho), the verb tju, m, ri, "said," (otherwise only attenuated under
the form of (i»>, <l)m, d)»7, or, in the Macedonian dialect, /3fjv, Pfjs, 0fi).
7. As GlVoi, ClVaiis, show a guttural in connexion with a labial,
so, by a comparison of the forms cpViv and 6\ai>, cpfip and drip, 0Xj/?co and
dXifSu), (pXia and eXid {Etym. Mag. under p\ip<i^w and (p\td), we discover
the labial sound before a dental in the ancient constitvition of certain
words. Thus the above were certainly rO'^nv, rOfiv {the Etym. M. ad-
mits (pdfip and dfip, p. 45L 1. 13.), fOXIPm, FdXid as also Stoi, eSSein-cv were
;
originally pSsng {the digamma remains in vereor), tTSsitrev. Through

the abjection of one or the other letter came BXav or Tlnv, (p\av dfip or ;
Fnp {Lat. fera), ^j??, which (pnp, according to Varro, de Ling. Lat. B. v.
p. 45. was further softened by the lonians into 0f\p. So ipQiaai dropped
its in the form viaaq, preserved by Hesychius in the gloss yiaag, fdeipas.
In the same manner we may explain the iEolic forms ffeXcpTves, PsXcpoi,
psXcap {Etym. M. under PMp), equivalent to SeMivesyAeXôi, SeXeap, by re-
ference to the primitive PSsX^Tves, 0(h\(i>oi, pUXtap so that 06 was a mid-
;
dle sound between (pB and jrr, as still perceived in psdXXca 06eXXu, and
derivatives from these.
268
N. B. The German Zwo, i. e. Sao3o, has a similar combination, with
s intervening. In Greek the $ first dropped out and ^fo passed into Ji5o,
then the f also vanished and 60 produced Sou, So'kx}. Thus the Latin is,
compared with ns, the iEol. gen. Fto, and the German dies-er, shows
that the ancient form was mg, which, through the abjection of r or f,
or tf, became, in different tongues, n?, is, dieser. In the English this
the digamma has passed into the aspirate.
8. In the middle of words the digamma commonly passed into v. In
the beginning of a word also the name of Velia displays an v thus de-
rived. At first, when founded by Phoceeans from Ionia, the city's name
^^yas FeXu, but next, as Herodotus writes it, 'Ye\r,, and, posterior to his
*time, this was changed to BcAfa, and even to "EXea, as it was in Strabo's
day. Compare with these varieties the series of its Latin appellations,
Felia, Velia, Helia, Elea ; and take the whole as a convincing proof ol
the mutability and final extinction of a labial, once distinguished for a
plenitude of life and vigor.
9. Lastly, let the student compare views with oixoj, vinum with olvog,
,'?dAXw witti I'aXXw, }idKxoi with "luK^pc, —
these will make it evident that
the digamma and other labials may occasionally be transformed into
or I. The apparent change of the digamma, in Greek, into simple
gavima, arose from a mere mistake of the grammarians, who wrote the
one for the other. Thus, in the Lexicon of Hesychius we find yiap,
yicxy", and many more, for the genuine reap, fio-xvv, &c. (in Lat. ver,
vis, &c.)
II.
1- Theoriginal force of the labial sound in the ancient digamma,

and its attenuation in ^, ft, or change into 0, t, or the aspirate, having
been explained, we must now, for the better grounding of that which
follows, collect from inscriptions, coins, and the hints supplied by old
writers, some specimens of those words, that retained the letter under
different shapes and in some dialects, while they dropped it in the more
common branches of the Greek tongue.
2. Under the first head we find, in the Elean inscription FAAEIfiN i. e,
Fr/Xei'wr (com. 'HXe'iMv) FEIIOE (com. sirog; and thus, in Hesychius, r«-
;
irov i. e. Finov, com.FAPrON Dor. for Fipyoi' (com. epyov com-

cIttov) ; ;
pare the German wcrk and English work); FETAS Dor. for Ferris
(com. srrig); FETEA (com. ETca; Compare the Lat. veins, vetustus): in
the Petilian tablet FOIKI AN
(com. oUiav compare the Lat. vicus)
in a marble of Orchomenus FIKATI (com. dVofft— compare the Lace-
dcemonian peiKarL) ; FEAATIH (as the name of Elatea) FETIA ;
(com. irea).
3. Under the second head, or that of coins, may be mentioned FA,
an abbreviation for FaXetwv, in harmony with the inscription already
noticed, on those of Elis Faîwv, i. e. Faîcov, i. e. 'Aîwv, on those of
;
Axus in Crete.
4. Thirdly, the hints stipplied by ancient lexicographers and others
are numerous thus BaXiKi^rrig, says Hesychius, was the Cretan word
;
for (Tvv£<pnftos, i. e. Fa\iKtdJrris (com. nXiKiurris); Fafa^ and Fav^p (com.

ava^ and dv^p) are given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as ôlic forms,
and Fdpa^ is also quoted from Alcman by Apollonius FeOcv (com. 'idev)
;
and FoF (com. ol) are obtained from Sappho and Alcaeus; Felpava (com.
dpf\vri) is given as ôlic by Priscian Vivro and Viwov, i. e. Fivro and
;
Fivvov, are explained the one in Suidas and Hesychius by eXaftev, dvtXa-
;
I3ev, and the other in Hesychius by Xafte, that is, they are the old digara-
mated shapes of ?Xero, ZXro, and by the same substitution through which
i^vde stood for riXQe, IvTo, and of eXov, by a similar substitution evovoiti'vov.
269
To this list many might be added, and its limits might be greatly ex-
tended by a comparison of the Greek with the Latin and Teutonic
tongues.
III.
1. From that which has been advanced it appears, that the labial sound,
universally, but especially in its most remarkable form, the digamma,
was retained in those words which dropped it in the Attic and common
dialects, not by the ôlians alone, but also by lonians, Cretans, and Do-
ric tribes. It has been traced likewise in the languages of other nations
besides the Greek. The just conclusion is, that this sound was a pecu-
liarity of the old Grecian, and the tongues related to it, and that its alpha-
betic character was called ô^tc only because the ôlians continued to
employ it, as the Latins employed their F, in writing^ while, with the
other Greeks, it served merely for a mark of number.
2. Next to general analogy, the foregoing conclusion is supported by
the testimony of ancient authors. Thus, Dionysius Halicar. (ArchaBol.
Rom. p. it).) treats of the digamma as a letter belonging to the ancient
Greeks, who prefixed it, he says, to most words beginning with a vowel
and Trypho (Mus. Grit. No. 1. p. 34.) affirms that the lonians and Do-
rians made use of it as well as the ôlic tribes.
3. The question as to its use by Homer must, therefore, first be stat-
ed without reference to the condition of his poems; thus.
Is it likely that the Homeric poetry^ composed in an early period of
Greek history, should have possessed a sound belonging to that ancient
epochs and to the original constitution of the Greek tongue 7
4. We may be inclined to answer this question in the affirmative, al-
though the sound, in the course of centuries, disappeared from the Ho-
meric poems, and was the more certainly neglected in committing them
to writing, inasmuch as in Attica, where this process took place, the al-
phabetic character of the digamma was out of use.
5. The silence of the ancient grammarians as to Homer's use of the
digamma does not make against this opinion. They found their copies
of the poet destitute of that character, and thought the less of restoring
it to its original rights, from perceiving it to be, in actual use, confined
to the iEolic dialect.

6. Still, of a sound that exerted so decided an influence over the quan-
tity and form of words, some traces must have remained in the Home-
ric poetry, which no lapse of time could efface. And these it should
be our next step to discover.
IV.
1. In the list of digammated words we placed and explained yiwov

and yivTo^ i. e. Fiwov and Fivro, old forms of 'i\ov and 'cKero. This yivro
or Fi'jTo is found in Hom. II. N. v. 25, twice in S. vv. 476, 477, and in
—
one or two other passages in all required by the metre, which would be
destroyed by tTirowing the initial letter away.
2. Of the same nature are ySovirrjaav and ySovms, that is FSovirn<rav and
fSovit'i?, old forms of Snvtrricrav {iiovirricrav) and (ôvmg. See Hom. II, A. 45.
E. 672. H. 411. K.329. A. 152. M. 235. N. 154. H. 88. Odyss. 0.465.
O. 112. 180.
3. On the same principle maybe explained the word dipavSdvet, Od. IT.
387. Instead of the cp, it should be written with a digamma, dFavSdva,
that is, the verb is compounded notof dTro and avSiivw a very suspicious
derivation, but of an)rivative and FavSavo), the old shape othvSdvo).
24
270
V.
1.Where the digamma itself has vanished, the traces of its original
presence have remained. No where is this so evident as in the pronoun of
the third person. Its ancient forms, as was partly pointed out in the list
of digammated words, were Feo, Fidev, For, Fe. That this pron unciation
endured still at the epoch of the Homeric dialect, is demonstrated firjt
by the negative ov, which is so placed before them, as if not an aspirated
vowel, but a consonant followed it: thus, eirel ov iBev tarl êpeiuv, II, A.
114. oi' ol 'ir.eira, II. B. 392. Compare II. E. 53. P. 410. Od. A. 262. hd oi
I, II. 12. 214. Now, had the pronunciation not been ov Fcdev, ov foi, ov fc,
both the pronunciation, and afterwards the orthography, must have been
ov^ cOsv, ovx.o'h ''^'x'^1 li^^ "'^X °°'''?> O*^' ^* ^'•"^' "^'X ^cTTto'S'?'', II- r. 239.
and other similar collocations.
2. Another clear trace of a lost digamma is the absence of the para-
gogic N
before this pronoun in SaXi ol, II. E.4. o^Tkc ol avdi, II. Z. 281. o"
KE e, II, I. 155. and a number of other passages, which must have been
6aUv at, Ktv ol, kIv I. and so on, had they not been pronounced âli foi, Kt
Fot, Kt Fc,and the like.
A great many examples of apparent hiatus will be remedied by re-
storing these words to their original form. See Iliad A. 510. B.239. X.
142. 172. Od. E. 353. Z. 133, &c. The collocation 6i ol alone, without
elision, occurs in more than one hundred instances.
3. In a great number of instances, also, a short syllable is lengthened
before the cases of this pronoun, without the aid of ceesura, a most —
decisive proof that they had in their beginning a consonant which gave
the force opposition to preceding syllables.
VI.
1. By similar tests we may prove that many other Avords had the di-
gamma in Homeric versification, especially such as are known to have
had it in the ancient form of the Greek tongue.
a. TT7/.e7^ short vowels suffer no elision before them : as avrovg 61
cXoipni II. A. 4. (read FtAwpja and compare Ttvro, i. e. Fevto
above) ; 'Arpeiuris re ava^, U. A. 7. (read Fiiva^, and compare above
II. 4.)
b. IfTien in compositioji, also, neither elision nor rrasis takes place :
as iiaenrijiEv, i-aiavâve, diroenrt, aepyoc, dayfis dixriri, (JcXt/Kj EKacp-

yo?, BeoeiSni, all of which are compounded of words that, accord-
ing to various authorities, had the digamma in the old language.
When verbi, where it appears that they should have the temporal
augment, take the syllabic, as saê, eaâv, II. H. 270. Od. F. 298.
laXrt, II. N. 408 have the digamma converted into v still reviain-
;
ing ; as Evahv, II. :s. 340. P. 647.

2. In this way it may be easily demonstrated, that most of those words,
which were pronounced with the digamma in the ancient tongue, re-
tained the same peculiarity in the Homeric language. The non-elision
of vowels before them will alone be a sufficient test with reference to
many vocables. Thus, with reference to several beginnii^ with a; and
particularly, under the words ava^ and dvdaaM, see the Misc. Crit. of
Dawes, p. 141. who has collected all th-e examples in Homer, and amend-
ed those passages which seem to oppose this notion.
3. With reference to words that begin with e, it is necessary to ob-
serve :
a. That the syllabic augment, originally, did not differ from redu-
plication, (as the forms tetvkovto, \£)<adca6ai, ^^cXoLKOVTO, XeâÊTy^
TiE^paHtEiv testify), so that digammated verbs would have the di-
gamma prefixed also to their augments. For example, since
271
sXTToiiai was really FcATro/iai, and e'tVcj Fsiku, therefore ÔSvcrfja

Ei\TT£TO, Od. ^. 345. should be 'OSvarjaFeFcyîreTo: eii coTTaeoiKC
II.r. 158. should be eis co-rra FeFoiKE, and so in similar instances.

b. But since, even in Isomer's lime, the first consonant of the redu-
plication was so far shaken, that it appeared only in certain
words, and in these not universally, (for we find eXaxov, £Xa;^£,
&c. as well as 'êâxnrs, II. ^. 76. XeAd^wo-t, II. H. 800.), so it is
manifest that the digamma before £ may be equally affected,
and that there is nothing inexplicable in such collocations as
SeîirjKaf ePoiKC, Od. 9. 146. ooth Foi r' cireFoiKe, II. T. 392. and a
few more of the same kind.
4. appears to have preserved the digamma in the following
Homer
words, besides those already mentioned eap, 'iSov, olSa and other parts of :
that verb; aJos, eiSo^Xov, eiKoat, EKcov, 'iKr]Ti, eiXeoy and its Varieties and de-
rivatives eXlcraw, £Xj|, 'ivvvin E^nd its derivatives sTrog, eIttov, &c.
;
Ids and
; ;
J epyov, eopya, &C.

;
tpeoy, Eppto, Etnrepog, ettjs, etos, hSvs and fiSoixai
;
JJflof, ;
lov, iovOdi, 7(T(ii, livritu, <Vt)j, o(/cof and words

J'ff,
Connected with it o7vos and ;
its derivatives.
5. Again, some words seem to have been digammated by Homer, as
to the digamma of which, neither inscriptions nor any other relics of
antiquity afford evidence. Such are SXi?, d\fivai, aXdvai, dpai6<;, apveg, aarv,
iSvov, IQeipai, eBvos, EKaaros, £Kri\os, rivoxp, "Hp;?, ^X^^) *'"%''> ^K^xds, oi\an6i^
ovXoi,
VII.
But few words, however, are used by the poet, without exception,
1.
in the manner required by the digamma, with which they commenced
viz. such as but rarely occur. These are aX^vai, dpatog, Uvov, EOsipat,
idvos, fWepos, £Tr]s, m><^, nvoxp, hv, io6ve(p£S, iovOdg, oi)Xa//(5f.
2. In all the rest, either a greater or less number of instances oppose

the digamma. But few, however, as we have seen, in the case of 'io, of, ?,
&c. Next to these, the digamma is maintained most steadily in the
words ava^, aarv, Eljxa, and cognatc vocables and Ioike (fefoike or efoike), a ;
word which occurs in 115 places, only nine of which reject the digamma.
With regard to the exceptions, in the case of these words, therefore, it
may be received as certain, that the ignorance of later times, when the
digamma had been banished from the Homeric poems, and the altera-
tions to which the poems were subjected, were the real causes of their
introduction.
3. But in the case of other words, considered as having had the digam-
ma, so many places and such undeniable readings militate against the use
of this letter, that the ignorance above alluded to, and the alterations pro-
duced by it, will not suffice to clear up all difficulty. Thus, there appears
in twenty-five places Pow-mi nrdTvia"Fipr]j leading us to the form Ffipri and, ;
on the other hand, we find Beol XEVKu')^£vos'''Hpri in twenty-one places, sup-

ported by lYP^Jfô^poi/oj "Hpr] in two. Even in the same book this differ-
ence occurs thus, )>.£VKM\Evoi"'H.pri, II. A. 55. !rurvta"H.pri, ibid. 551. %pffo'-
:
dpovoi "Hpr], ibid. 611. In the same way mrvia "Hffn, ll. A. 2. is opposed
by Kania({>vpov''li0r,p, Od. A. 602. pEXivSsa oTvov. II. Z. 258. K. 579. Od. I.
208, &c. by ix£\ir]Sios o'ivov, II. E. 545. Od. F. 46. The like happens with
regard to the word apvEs, £<cus, '£Kao-Tos,EKWv, Epyov, fiovg,"l\ioi,Îpig,7(ros, oiKog.
4. The use of the digamma is equally variable in the tenses and
moods of verbs. Thus, to Fm^w, and the substantive Fm^*?, which re-
veal themselves in idya la'ôv, II. A. 506. P. 317. jxiya id'^ôvaa, II, E. 343.
ylvETO iax»?, II. A. 456, &C. is opposed dfxcpiaxvTav, not dptpiFia^vTav, 11. B.
316. Against eiiroFttTrn, II. I. 506. a'iatpa napFEnraJv, H, Z. 62. H. 121. vvi
Se iê TrapFEiTTovtri aXoxps, II. Z. 337. Stands //>? ce irapdnij, II. A. 555. From
272
Fdyo) comes iTê in X-nrTreiov Si: ol v^t, II. ^. 392. although Faêv, I'Faêv,
iFayv, are so frequent and established, that saâ and edyriv remained even
in the Attic dialect. Against Fava^, FdviKrae, stands nvaaae; against Fe-
Xto-aw, elXiTTotij; against Fi(pi^ 'Ic/ii/cXiirtnf. Tlius FiSov and I'Joi', tToiKioi and
EiKvXa^ FtTTos iv'iffTTb}, &c. contradict one another.
5. Since, then, on the one hand, the existence of the digamma, and,
on the other, its frequent suppression, have appeared as facts, and since
the former can as little be mistaken as the latter denied, or ascribed
solely to the ignorance of grammarians and transcribers, the question
arises, How can these apparent contradictions be reconciled 7
6. Priscian says that, in scansion, the .ôliar^s sometimes reckoned
the digamma for nothing. The example adduced by him is aîxes 6^
Feipavav, from which it appears that 6e, in apostrophe before the digam-
ma, suppresses that letter, in the same manner as that in which it sup-
presses, in the like case, a foWowlng aspirate. Accordingly, the following
places do not militate against the digamma, since in them it was sup-
pressed by 6' 0('<r£r£ S' apv' 'irepriv, II. P. 103 TrepiodEiuvTO 6' eOeipai, II. T. 382.
; ;
(but nepiaareiovTo edeipai, i. e. FeOetpat, II. X. 315.); iTEipnQr) 6' lo avrov, II. T,
384. and so, in various passages, 'Uizm 6' elaajjievos t6v 6' Uov ; n's 6' olS' el ; ;
T^riXEjin'^fp 6' EiKVia ;

vvu 6' CKaOev ; £v ^' oixad' iKsadai ; ev (V oivov ET(evEv, &C. &C.
7. The licence given to the simple U cannot be refused to o6e, mSe,
ov6i, and so ruS' eiTrefiei'at, II. H. 375. wJ' ciVijo-iv, II. H. 300. ovS' <h iraiSl
duvvEi, II. n. 522. may stand without offence.
8. Fe exerts the same force as Sc in the suppression of a following
aspirate. Since, then. Si suppresses the digamma as well as the aspirate,
the same privilege may be allowed to y£ and we mayjpreserve, with- ;
out any offence to the digamma, avrap oy Sv <pi\Qv v\dv, II. Z. 474. ei keivw y
eireeaffi, II. 3. 208. and, in other places, rui y ^<Tatn; a-v y avuKTOi, &C. i)
9. If, then, we may consider it as proved that, in the case of apos-

trophe after Se, oSs, w6e, oiSi, jiriSf, yc, oye, the digamma of the next word
disappears, it can scarcely be doubted that, in conformity with this prac-
tice, the digamma should be dropped after other apostrophised words
also. Hence we may deduce the general rule, that after apostrophe the
digamma is thrown away. And thus, according to the analogy of
6' eiaducvos, S' eUvih, &C,, We find
ofp' £l6rj, U. 0. 406. S<Pp' Etna), II. H. 68.
and, in a similar manner, iV £tJ,^f; ap/âr' dj/a/crwi' KiSv'eiSvTa] KdX'eiKvTa] ;
e'ivuji EKaarnv ; e'(rOi' ektiXos ] rcpnaO^ eXiarcrofiev j Sdiivrifi' iircEacn, &C.

10. Still a much greater number of places remains that reject the
incipient digamma in words to which it belonged, without any apos-
trophe to suppress that letter: so that the question arises. Whether the
digamvia may be supplanted as well by the necessities of versification as
by the influence of apostrophe 7
11. To account, generally, for the disappearance of the digamma,
let us observe,
a. What was previously said as to its attenuation and rejection^
whence we may understand how some words, originally digani
mated, such as Fai/jjp, FeXcvt], FiJJwp, entirely lost the digamma in
the Homeric dialect and how others, though they retained di-
;
gamma in themselves, lost it in their derivatives, as Fu(>i in "lipQi-

[log, 'I(j)iKX£i5rji ;
FiSnv in 'ISoncvcvs; FEXia-acom £l\iiro6Ei\; Feiros in hta-rro}.
b. The disappearance of other consonants from the beginning ol

words. Thus ixdXevpov and aXevpov- Kairfivri (Thcssalouian) and
cnrfivr} especially that of o- in uXs, Lat. sal, Eng. salt ; h, Lat. sese,
;
Eng. 'i^civ.hat. sedere, Eng. sit; 'i^.Lat. sex, Eng. six,

self;
ETTTd, Lat. septem, Eng. seven; vvcp, Lat. super; vTrd, Lat. sub;
vi, Lat. sus, Eng. sow ; and from the middle of words, as Mow.j,
Spartan Mwn ; KXtoDo-a, Spart. KXewu ; iraiôvoMV, Spart. Trat6Su)av ;
Movffdoiv, Lat. Musarum ; notr}Tdcjv, Lot. poetarum, &c.
273
12.Moreover, that the same word, at the same epoch, might be pro-
nounced with or without the digamma, according to the exigencies of
— —
metre, as fcIttop or sltrov, Ftpyov or Ipyov, we learn from the analogy of
words, which, in like manner, retain or reject some other initial conso-
nant. Thus,
K in Kmv, Iwv: as, XexoffSe Ktuv, II. T. 447, and in other places, but
AiavTos icjv, 11. A. 138, (fee. the latter forms Qdiv, iowa, 'iouv, &c.)
:
are found in about 200 places, the former (kiuv, Kiowa, Kiofjisv, Kioire,
&c.) in about 50.
A in A£c/?aj, ei0<j)as, Ait \dPeiv, II. Z. 266, &C. but Saufvop e'ipei, II.
:
T, 323, &C. in "Xaitpripoi, aiipnp^S as, [levoi "Xanpripd re yoiiia, II, T.

: '•
323, &C. as in \aiipnp6g, aiipripos as, fiCpog "Xaixpripa re yovva, II. X.

: :
204, &C. but iravojiai' ai\hr)pdi Si Kopos KpvepoTo yooio, Od. A. 103.
Compare II. T. 276, &c.'
M in {iia la: as tw 61 mni Tepl vr)bs eôv irSvov, II. O. 416, &C. but rrfs
[lEv ins (TTixas vpê, II. 11. 173, &c. as the necessity of metre may
demand. The form m is even occasionally found employed

merely to avoid the repetition of /i, as tv 61 irj (read t' Irj) nn^ ^niv
KUKos, II. 319; just as, without necessity, the 0, which represents
I.
digamma in the word ^f), is often dropped, since this is always v

at the beginning of a verse.
r in yaia, ala aS iarovaxi^tTO yaTa, II. B. 95, &C, but fvaiôos aia, II.
:
r. 243, &c.
13. Since, then, vtwr, Kionev, X£c/?o>, \aixpnpoi, f"7S| y«'^«) yairji, yaTav, &c.,
according to the exigencies of the metre, pnight also be pronounced as
«wi', inner, £('/?«, alipr]n6g, ifjs, ala, ah/g, ulav, &c. it need not Seem extraordinary
that digammated words should, on the same principle, sometimes throw

away the digamma: especially since, in their case, the mutability of
the letter, its suppression after apostrophe, and its entire extinction in
later times, come in aid of such a supposition. Thus we may allow,
in one series of examples, the collocations dXXa, Fava^, dX\a Fapaatra, Ta-
XaipiSao FiipaKTfiSj &C. and, in another series, yup lipaKTog, filp apa^, fig rcep ap-
;
aacre, Qvôv avaKTog, &C. ift One place (pipjiaKa FeiScog, and in another, eiye
:
fxlv eiSeirjg] in one place av6pa FtKaarovj and in another, 6v[xdp e/cdo-rw; and
so Fenog OV tVof, Fepyov OV Ipyop^ &C.
14. That which has been here admitted on the grounds of analogy
and induction, namely, that the digamma may stand or fall, according
to the exigencies of metre, is demonstrated —
(not to mention again
yevTo, i. e. F'epTo or FfXro, which is found in some places, while e'i'XeTo ap-
—
pears in others) in the word ioiy6ovnoi, i. e. epiF6ovr:ng, which becomes
epi6ovTTog when the syllable requires to be shortened thus, epiy6nviToio, II.
:
E. 672, &C. £(3ty(JoT)roj TToVif "HfJij?, II. H. 411, &C. but dKrdcov epiSovnop^ II.
Y. 50. aiOovarig epi6ovTTov, I]. Q. 323, &c. It is demonstrated also in fj "as,"
which is (pfi, i. e. Ffi, in II. B. 144., since on that line (KipfiOn 6' dyopij, wf
KvfiaTa [xaKpa 0dXa<To-/7j) the Scholiast remarks that Zenodotus wrote <pr] kv-
fiara ; —
and thus tOO at II. E. 499. o 6e <prj^ K(a6eiap dpaffy/H^v, ne(ppa6e re Tpw- |
ecraij ku evxojjiepog eirog vv6a,* ZenodotUS gives o (5f, 0^ KM6eiap dvaaycop wf- |
tppaSe K. r.\. Here Homeric usage forces us to abandon ^^ for ecprj, and
the rules of versification force us to retain the consonant in 4>fi, unless,
with Aristarchus, in spite of sense and connexion, we give up the verse
altogether, from an uncritical horror of the word (pfj or d';.
* Doubtless from manuscripts. It may be observed, by the way, that

Homeric criticism would gain much in clearness and certainty, if more
attention Zenodotus, and to his important and remarkable
were paid to
readings of the poet's text, than to the often partial and pedantic Aristar-
chus. ,^^
274
furtherance of our proofs, we may cite also those forms,

15, Lastly, in
which, as we shall presently see, had the digamma in the middle of the
word, and yet dropped it as the verse might require thus, svkcXos i. e. :
ePKriXos and eKrjXos, avTup i. e. aPTup and6. 'ArpeiJaFo and

drdp, 'A-TpeiSao i.
'ArpaJtw, dXevaadai and dXi'iaOat, &c. ; as, in Latin, both amaverunt and
amarunt {a7naerunt), paraverunt and pararunt, audiverant and audie-
rant, were in use at the same time.
VIII.
Of the results of the foregoing investigations with regard to the treat-

ment of the Homeric text.
1. We may, in the first place, admit as correct the list of digammated
words in Homer which Heyne has given in an Excursus on the Iliad,
—
book T. (vol. vii. pp. 708. 772.) leaving it to future research to as-
certain whether one or two words may not yet be added to that cata-
logue and, this done, we may,
;
a. in the treatment of the text, prefer those readings which are con-
formable to the use of the digamma, since it is more probable
that this letter might have been dropped by grammarians and
transcribers ignorant of its claims, than that the poet should, with-
out metrical necessity, abandon it.
b. If the digamma cannot recover its right by critical aid without
appealing to conjecture, then the place should be left undisturbed,
since it is doubtful whether it has been corrupted by the altera-
tions of grammarians, or rejects the digamma in obedience to
the will of the poet. It is only in this way that, without giving
up the doctrine of the digamma, the Homeric text can be pre-
served from perpetual and flagrant violations.
2. With greater confidencemay we, before digammated words, throw
away the paragogic v, write ov instead of ovx, and dismiss those parti-
cles, which have been inserted instead of the digamma, evidently from
ignorance, to fill up the verse. Thus tvQcv Up' oiviôvro for evdcv poiviôv-
To, II. H. 472. hvTTOTav iadfiopov for hzTrore Fiaoiinpov, II. O. 209. ncTa t rjQea
Koi vofidv for nera FnOea, II. Z. 511, &c. &c. Here also it is left to future
observation to determine how far, through these and similar safe altera-
tions, the passages apparently opposed to the digamma may be dimi-
nished in number, and the list of words, which in Homer's usage retain-
ed the digamma, be augmented.
IX.
1. In order not to curtail or disconnect the history of the digamma,
and at the same time for the sake of giving yet more support to the doc-
trines already propounded, we shall add what is to be said as to this
letter in the middle of words, —
a subject belonging rather to the dialect
than to the versification of Homer.
2. In the Latin tongue we perceive it joined to consonants in comburo
from con-uro ; sylva from v\rj, or the old vXpri cervus from Ktpani, JEol.
;
KEpcoi, old KspeFos {kerevus, kervus, cervus, "the horned animal"); volvo
from FeXsFw, feXfw salvus from aaFif arva from d,o<5Fw,as vivo from
;
;
/?coPw ; curvus from yvpog, which must have been yvpFoi. In Greek we
find, in Suidas, Scp0iarfip, i. e. SepFiarfip, from SstpM, and d\0axviov, i. e.
dXpaxviov, a vessel in which the ovXai (of which the true form thus ap-
pears to have been oXFai) were deposited we find also em/36as, i. e. eni
;
Sairi, according to the Scholiast on Pind. Pyth. iv. 249. and ffiPSfjv, there
quoted î5^,6fo? from pw in the Etym. Magn. Add laFos, ajxFnpoi. The
;
sound is retained in yaji^pSsj ficcri^fipiT]. To this class belongs also the

275
well-known AFYTO, properly dprS, in the Delian inscription. Now as

7aos, ovXai, yvpo^, have comc from FtVFo?, S\Fai, Y^pFos, so similar long
vowels and diphthongs appear to be of similar origin, as ovXaftds, dpoiio
ITom 6p6Fo, Tiixfij from tiFw, TiFfin- So o//tXoj, niSlXov, mia^, <pv\ov^ ^^X'-'î
3. The digamma
stands also between vowels: avarus, aaros (uFam?)
arog Achivi, 'A;â(Fot CBVUm, aiFcov avemUS, aFopvos ; Argivi, 'Apyc~i-
;
; ;
Foi ; bos bovis, 0IIFS Pof6s ] Davus, AaFoj, according to Priscian ; (iioi
compare rii-y-zts ; /3i6'.o,vivo ; clavis^ kXuU ; divus, 6X0^-, levis Xcrof (Xefojs);
Zar<7, XoCo) (Ao'Fw) Mav ors, Mars, naFw, novus, viFoi Yl\FQ.,bibo ; rivns,
; ',
poFos probus, npovg, ôl. irpaFvi. Add TaFdJs XaF(5f (ViUois. Proleg. Horn.
;
II. p. iv.) SdFiov Alcman (/cat %£r/ia irvp T£ SaFiov, Prisciun, p. 547.)
; EFA- ;
OlOm in the Elean inscription, AlFI on the Olympic helmet, and Ll-
rEYEYLI, i. e. ElEEFEYLI, in the Sigean inscription.
4. To this head belong in Hesychius Ai0cT6g, deros, {JJepyaToi). 'A/?rr —
Soia, 'ariSova, — 'AKpo0ixa6at, v-rtaKOveiv, —"K.Saffov, eaGOv,QlvpaKPVaiot^, thuS £acj,
£Vd(o, ePdco, compare what Gregor. Corinth, quotes as Doric rd la eva,

TO eaaov evaaov. AalSeXos, 6a\6s, (AdK-wi^£s), — QaPoKov, OaKov, thus OaFuKOV, Oafâ-
k6v, OaaKov, Oukov. —From the Pamphylian ad Horn. dialect, in Eustath.
Od. p. 1654. (pdPos, Pa0e\ios 6pov[iw, oT, since ov arises from the change
of the digamma, more properly opofiw. To this head appertains also —
what Priscian says p. 547. and more fully at p. 710, viz. that the Co-
hans placed the digamma between two vowels; "this is proved," he
says, " by very ancient inscriptions, written in the oldest characters,
which I haveseen on many tripods." He cites, p. 547. Ar/juoiâFaii/, which,
at p. 710. he calls Arj/ioô'Fwr, and, at p. 547, AaFoKaFwv, which, at p. 710,
becomes AaoKoFcov. A>?/io0aFwiv, AaFoKaFMv are right the other forms in ;
-Soiv must have arisen, after the neglect of the digamma, from the con-
traction of -do)v to -lov, and the insertion of 0.
From all this it seems already clear that, in the old language, the
digamma appeared very commonly in words between the open vowels.
5. It has already been stated that, before a vowel, the digamma often
passed into u, in Greek into v. Priscian quotes from Latin the 7iun6
mare mine silua of Horace, and the zonarti soluit diu ligatavi of Catul-
lus. As aves gives auceps and augur, fo,veo, fautor, and lava, lautus, so
from dico, i. e. dpiw, came avio, and with the insertion of d, avdio, audio,
from yaiw, i. e. yaFiw, came gavio (hence gavisus), and gaudeo, gaudium.
The Etym. Mag. has Molic avus, h fiws Hesychius has avws, hji'^pa; Eus- ;
tathius, p. 548, has avpriKTos for apprjKros from aFpijKTOi infractus ; and He-
racleides has, as jEoHc, SavXos, Sa\6s (Spartan SaPeUs), so that it was SaFi-
Xoj, 6aPe\6s, SavXog, Sa\6s. Observe also tauter, ta%£i', (in German jauchen,
jauchzen).
X.
Of the digamma in the middle of words in Homer.
1. The digamma appears connected with a consonant, in Homer, in
ft£n0\£To, pip(i\o}Kt, Trapn£pPXMK£. This verb was jufXcj ptQXw, as, in Hesy-
chius, we find 0E0\£iv psWstv (or, as it should be written, peXeiv.) Thus
piFXopat, p£ne(3\£ro, n'£p0\£To, and SO forth. So we may explain U^nv, tiJ-
iir\K6TSS,eSSeicrev, viTo6?i£LaavTcg, aS having been aSFoVy dSFrjKdrrjg, iSFciaEV, vnoi-
FsicavTEq, Compared with laoi, a/xpopos, appriKTog, from i'crFof, apFopoi, aFpm-
Tog, compared also with duellum, which was dvellum, dbelhtm, and
hence bellum (perhaps connected with flusAXa), as Duillius, Duellius,
were called likewise Billius, Bellius. "A^f??!/ is found also as a6r)v,
without the digamma; and thus it augments the list of words, which
retain, or drop this letter according to the demands of metre.
3. We
may conclude, from preceding remarks, that the digamma
276
appeared also between open vowels, in Homeric Greek. 'Atw, diaffM,

Sii, K^ms, 'Apfji'ovy &c. since they are never found contracted into arw,«o-o-a),
o7s, k\^s, 'Apôv, were evidently pronounced aFt'o, dFiaaw, oFtg, ;fAi?F(f,
'ApfiFiov^ as diKu)v, aepyos, &c. were dPEKMv, aF£j3ync, &c. Thus likewise 6a-
PukSSj 6aFaaa-£iv, tFacov, aFeOXov, uFei (ai£'), dFeiSco, dFeipoj, dFtarioi (not dverr-
Tios), 'Arr^nf, dFiSriXos, dXoFa, {d\oia), dFoXXrj?, aFoX^ (wÔ) "F«f5, dFoprfip, aFog
{avos), aFaXios (atiaXtoj) dFrfj (dtirr?), dFr//rj (di;r^<r5) German athmen, yipaFoj
(ycpaidj) or yjsaFdf German grau, anciently grav, (5aF;1f), JdFw (Jut'w), JrjFiof
(5Fa»/(5j, ^paFaivco {Kpaiaivcj), from KPA, KPAS, KPAFS2 German kraf-t,
XaFdf (Auaj), XuFty^, AaF£pr;7S, XtFuj/ {German Leu, anciently 'Lev, whence
Lowe), i'Faf (otlj) gen, oFaros (ovaro?), oFtOJ, ttveFcj, (TrrEito), cfiaFevvo'; ((/tattvoj),
;C/;Fa), %pdFw, xP^^^jj together with all substantives and verbs of the
same kind having a vowel before the final vowel. In case of contrac-
tion the digarama disappears, thus ÂrpeiSaFo, 'ArpeiSao, 'Arpsiho).
3. The Homeric language is full of traces of the digamma changed into
V. appears in the termination eus, as paaiXevs, 'OSvaoevi, 'Arpsvs, 'AxfX-

It
TvSsvi, words of which the roots are seen more clearly in the Latin
Xevs,
forms Ulysses, Achilles, and are perfectly revealed in the forms AXLE,
T VTE, ATPE, on old Italian works of art. But like paaiXCFi, so must
there have been 0aai\fjFos, (iacnXiFoi (/?aaiXriioj), PaaiXriFig, {ri^rs Paci\r]i6o%^
II. 3aai\r]Fioi {yivos (iaaiXniov), Od. II. 401.
Z, 193.) The digamma re-
mained in the vocative daaiXtv, not to leave the root open and ending
in the feeble e, and in the dat. plur./SaffiXeDo-t, combined with o-, as in the
nominative singular.
4. In like manner, the digamma remained in future and aorist tenses,
supported by o-, though it disappeared where it stood unsupported be-
tween vowels ; since ipnTvexxTi], II. T. 159, &/C. Qevatai, II. *»?. 623. BtvaeaQai,
II. A. 700. KXavtTOîai, II. X. 87. K\ame, Od. fi. 292. TXd5«a0at, Od. M. 25.
Xpi^^t'Vi l^- E. 138. demonstrate that their verbs, 0£w, *:Xdw, irveu, ^puw,
were once 6£Fcj, (cXufw, irveFo}, %paFw, {German graben}; apdj further,
the parts and derivatives of dXscivw, Kdw, kXcw, piw, oêw, as aXeva(TQai, Kavpa^
KKvTOi, pvrds, x'"'^"^! point to dXfFo), KctFcj, KXeFw, (property to m<^ke a noise,
so the German kleffen, applied to dogs— as the German gaffen, Eng.
gape, may be compared with x"^^^ (%«") X"'"*^)? &c.
5. In some verbs, the digamma is either retained or dropped in the
present, as Jew, or fidw, or is not at all thrown away, as /Sao-iXr5w, kptdu.
In some the a is suppressed instead of it, as %<:i;w, (not xîj^w), Od. B.
222. and so xfiSof), Od. B. 544. x^^"*'^"") Od. A. 214. x^^*^^- x^^"'> '^^•
6. In the aorist of aXuivo) from dXt'Fw, the digamma not only suppresses
c, aXeva, aXcvai, dXevacOai, &C. but it is also lost itself, as in dXeacdai, II. N,
436, and so dXiaade, dXeaiTo, in other places, which were undoubtedly

dX£Faff0u(, dXcFaiTo.Exactly in the same manner we find evKriXos and the
common emêv instead of eaStv, avtaxps, aiiaraXeoi, and the strange
ektiXos,
form avepvcrav, which may be explained dFcpvaap, viz. Fspvâv with the
intensive a prefixed. From all this, and the preceding remarks, it
seems evident that the diphthongs av, ti, arose from the attenuation of
dp and £F.
XI.
History of the digamma in Homeric criticism.
1. Bentley was the first who

clearly recognised the traces of the di-
gamma in the Homeric poems, and the necessity of attending to it in
the treatment of the Homeric text. On the margin of Stephanus's
edition of Homer in Poet, frincipp. Her. he marked the lections of se-
veral manuscripts, prefixed the digamma to the proper words, and en-
deavored to alter the adverse passages according to its demands, often
improving pn himself, as he proceeded, and amassing or examining a
277
great variety of matter. From these notes he drew up a full and elabo-
rate treatise, in which he goes through the digammated words in alpha-
betical order, and ovêrthrows all apparent objections to his doctrine.
The notes alluded to (called the codex BeiMcianus) were sent to Heyne,
but not the the dispersed observations, and somewhat
trcatise,dii\(\ tlius
crude views of the great have become known, bat the larger work
critic
remams, still unpublished, in the Library of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, where it was shown to me, in manuscript, together with the
above-mentioned codex, in the year 1815.
2. After the labours of Dawes,i and of Payne Knight2 on the subject
of the digamma, this letter found in HeyneS an eminent protector, who,
after his fashion, gave many useful hints, but wavered in his observa-
tions, and brought the question to no decision. Both on this account,
and because, following the example of his predecessors, he was too
prone to change, or to throw suspicion on every passage that seemed
to oppose the digamma, and thus to mangle the works of Homer, he
gave ample grounds for contradiction and even censure.* Soon after
the outbreaking of this literary war Hermann^ took the field, dividing
the truth from error with singular sagacity, and endeavouring with
great pains to destroy the arguments against the reception of the di-
gamma into the Homeric poems, but, at the same time, to prescribe
proper limits to its use in Homeric criticism. The neglect of the di-
gamma, in solitary instances, he admitted as a proof of the later origin
of those passages, in which such instances occurred. The doctrine
immediately acquired fresh partisans in Germany, as, for example,
Buttmann in his Greek Grammar, and Boeckh.6 Recently, a new op-
ponent to the digamma has appeared in the person of Spitzner, who,
however, without combating the other proofs of its existence, rests his
hostility to the letter on this single circumstance —
that hiatus cannot
be, by its aid, entirely removed from the poetry of Homer; ezpellas
furcd, tamen usque recurrit.
APPENDIX— B.
OF THE APOSTROPHE.
No general rule can be given respecting the use of the Apostrophe
in the Greek prose writers. The Attic writers used it more than the
Ionic, and the later Attic more frequently than the old, all of them
chiefly in the monosyllabic particles 61, yl, tI, in the adverbs ttotc, tStb,
&c. in dWa, avTiKa, &c. and always in the prepositions which end with
a or ; more rarely in other words. The following remarks may be
of service to the student
1. It depends in some measure upon the sense of a passage whether
the Apostrophe is to be used or not if the sense require that any pause,
:
however short, should be made after a word ending in a short vowel
1. In the Misc. Critica.

2. In his Analytical Essay an the Greek Alphabet, and his edition of
the Homeric poems,
3. In his ed. of the Iliad, and, particularly, the three Excursits at U.
T. 384. vol. vii. pp. 708—773.
4. See the review of his Homer in the Allg. Lit. 1803. p. 285.
5. In a review of Heyne's Homer in the Leips. Lit. 1803, July.
6. See Boeckh on the versification of Pindar, Berlin 1809; and in
his edition of Pindar, de metris Pindaricis, cap. xvii.
278
and preceding another which begins with a vowel, the first vowel is
not dropped, as airUa, e<prj, eicTTi.
2. A
short vowel is not cut off before another, when such elision would
injure the harmony of the sentence nor whtn a particle is emphatic. ;
3. The particle apa is Apostrophised before oi and ow, but not before
other words. If a particle closely adheres in sense to a preceding word,
it does not generally suffer Apostrophe,
4. The Apostrophe is very frequent in Demosthenes, whose orations
were written to be spoken, and a leading feature of whose style is ra-
pidity. Upon the whole it seems reasonable to say, respecting the prose
writers, that, within certain limits, they used or neglected the Anostro-
phe as they judged it most conducive to harmony.
*
APPENDIX— C.
OF CONTRACTIONS.
1. GENERAL RULES.
1. The long vowels »? and w absorb all the rest of the simple vowels.
2. a absorbs all the vowels following it, except o and w.
3. £ unites in the diphthong ei, or the long vowel v, with all vowels
following except o and w.
it
4. I and
absorb all vowels following, and are contracted into one
v
syllable with a vowel preceding, t is generally subscribed under a, e,
0), and unites in one syllable with e and o, as KcpaC, Kcpa opei^ Spei Sis, ; ;
oli. When I makes a diphthong with a vowel, and this is to be con-

tracted with another vowel, the two other vowels are to be contracted
according to the preceding rules, and the is either subscribed when i
from the contraction arises a long a, »;, as, as rvirreai, tvtttti Tin&oim^ Tt/KcJ- j
ut ; Ttftdei, rijia ; or, if this is not the case, it is omitted, as xp'^'^^^'-v, %f)vo-oOv.
5. coalesces with all vowels, preceding or following, in the diph-
thong ov, or, if an t be under, in oj, or the long vowel w.
2. THE MORE ACCORATE DISTINCTIONS OF THESE GENERAL RULES.
Aa becomes a, but the accusative plural of vavs is vaiJ? , not vaas : so
also rag ypavi.
As becomes a, as yeXdcTE, yeKare ; lyiXae^ iycXa.
becomes a, as yeXacii, ycX^s dsiScj, ^(Joj.
A.EI ;
Ao, Aov, Aw, become as Podova-i, /Jowo-j bpaw, hpS,

<«>, ;
A.01 becomes w, as hpdoi, hpw.

At] becomes a, as yEXdrire, yeXaTC', but arj bcCOmCS a.
Ea becomes a if a vowel or p precede, as Heipada, TlEipaia dpyvpia, ;
dyvpa but when a consonant precedes, sa becomes

; as d^Bm, dX^dr,. jf,
Yet in contracted Nouns of the second declension, ea becomes a, as

dcrrea, oard.
Eat becomes as rvnTcai, TVTTTT], and taj, eis, as dXriQca?, dXriOeis.
tj,
Ee becomes ei, as dXrjdus, aXridETs but in Nouns, if no consonant fol-

;
rj
lows £E, as dXrjeee, dXriOri.

Eo and Eov, in Attic make ov, as (piXcov, <piXovv. In Ionic and Doric £v,
as irXevves for itXeoves : %£iA£Vs for ;;^£iA£Off.
Eot becomes as ttouoi^ ttoioT.

ot,
Eo) becomes w, as Ueipaiecjs, Ueipaioig, but only when a vowel precedes

thus they do not say pacriXois for /SacriXEus. In dissyllabic Verbs, how-
ever, which become monosyllabic by contraction, ew, c;?, eo, eov, are not
contracted, but only ££ and eei.
I, preceded by another vowel, suffers only the proper contraction, as
279
Spei', opsi\ aiS6i\ alSoi. In o long and ri and w, it is subscribed, as Kipai;
Kspa.
Oa and Oo) become w, as /?odw, /3ow ^^pvo-ow, xpvcw. ;
O;? also becomes
w, yet only in Ionic and Doric. Observe, however, that Oa becomes
ov in P6a<;, 0ovs ; jxEiôvag, jxeiôvi and also that, in adjectives, the termi-
;
nation oa is contracted into a, and ori into //.

Ofi and Oo become ov, as irrepoeffaa, Trrepovaraa ; Trpo'oTrrof, -rpovizTos and in ;
composition npovrpeipsv for TTpoerpeipev ; »ca«oi)j»yoj for KaKocpyog. But observe

that ddpdos, dvTtôos, and other words compounded with ôoj, do not fall
under this rule and that in words compounded of hixov, when v is
:
omitted, oe remains unchanged, as 6juo£0i/»jj; if o follows it is contracted

into w, as biiwpoipios from hôopocpios.
Oti and Oo( become oi, as twoi, KaKdvot, for evvooij kukSvooi', and Jr/Xorj,
^/yXor, for (J/;Xo'f<f, (J;7Xo£t. In words compounded with etSrn, however, oe^
remains unchanged, as liovoEiSrjs; and in the present inJfinitive, and in
adjectives in oeis, oei becomes ov, as Sri'Xoeiv, SriXovv 7rXa^-o£J?, TrXoKoCf ;
Or] becomes ot, in the second and third persons present subjunctive
where v has the subscript i, as ^rjXdjj, (J/yXot ; otherwise w, as 6ri\6r]Tov,
SriX'^TOV.
Yi is not contracted if these vowels are in two syllables, as 06rpvT.
In those cases where v seems to coalesce with a vowel following, it may
be supposed to have taken the power of a consonant like our V.
3. PECULIAR DIALECT FORMS.
Frequently, (especially in Attic), a word that ends with a diphthong

or a vowel, is contracted into one with the following word that begins
with a vowel or diphthong. If an be among these vowels, it is sub-
i
scribed but more properly it is only subscribed when it is the last of

:
the two contracted vowels. The rules are the same as those preceding
only a few particular ones occur.
A
with a, as raSiKa for TO. aSiKu, but only when the second d is short
thus, not rdd'Xa but TO. aQXa.
A« with a, as Kdird for KaX diro kuv for Kal av. (The i rejected, and aa
;
contracted.) ^
A with £ as rJ/â for rh Efxd.
At with £, as /fayoi for koI eyw, Koiri for Kni tri.
At with £t, as K(i.Ta for koX elra (t rejected, crasis of o and t, contraction
of a and the latter t.)
At with ^, as -xh for KaX h At with o, as x^'^^ for 'f«i o""- The %
:
arises from k on account of the rough breathing of the following vowel.'

1 with 0, as kSjvov for /cat olvov ;^w for Kal oi.
;
O with a, as avhp for 5 dvf\p Ot with a, as avSpEi for ol avSpcs.

:
O with £, as hvpos for h e/io? Toijxov

; fof ro £/«fi/.
O with ot, as wi/os for 6 olVoj.
Ot with £, as novyKwjiiov, for ^toi lyKwjxiov O with i, as Qoip.dTiov for rd
;
t//drtov. Observe, however, that the o, ov, and w, of the article often
unite with the simple vowel of the following word, and become a long;
as h erepo^, COntr. 3r£poj; ro 'irepov, COntr. Qarspov rov Irepov, COUtr. Barepov^
;
TM iripw, contr. daripu. (In Doric, arepos was put for the simple erepos:)
thus also rdyaOov for rov ayadov] rdvSpds for rov dvSpos] ravSpl foi tw txv^pij
«&C.
T) ov is written separately, but pronounced as one syllable ; also w ov j
as tyo) oi.
Q, with oiy as £y^â for iyu ol6a.
Q with c, as Toviriypapnan for rw liriypannari.
280
A P P E N D I X— D.
ACCENTS.
1. First Principal Law.- In the Greek language, only one of the three
last syllables —
of a word is capable of receiving the acute accent. Expla-
nation. If the accent were to recede beyond the third syllable, the
whole word would to the hearing be necessarily divided into two or
more. Hence Kvwvvimos, 'A'Xijwvcjioi. Besides, an equilibrium must ex-
ist between the accented syllable and the unaccented ones which fol-
low. This equilibrium would be destroyed if more than two were to
follow the accented syllable, as two only are able to produce it.
2. Second Principal Law. The accent falls either on the syllable
containing the principal idea of the whole loord, or on the one which is
nearest to the syllable of the principal idea, that the number of syllables in
th£ word generally will permit. —
Explanation. The root of a word is
the principal idea. Thus in ypamia, the first syllable is the root, and
of course accented. In compound words, however, the added word
forms for the accent the principal idea, because it gives to the whole
its shade, its definiteness, its distinction. Thus, in izpoypajijia the prin-
cipal idea is now in rrpo, and ypnmâ, in reference to the accent, becomes
subordinate, because the preposition rrpd givês to ypajina its definite sig-
nification. Again, in ypannaTinv, the accent is on the antepenult, being
as near as it can come to the syllable (ypfl/'/^) containing the principal
idea, without violating the first law. It must be observed, however,
that in the Greek language, with few exceptions (but in the verb with-
out exception), the accent can never pass beyond the first compound:
thus £s, npoeq (first compound) not, however, avunpoes (second com-
;
pound), but avuTTpoEs. The first compound therefore remains as the

principal idea for the Greek accent.
3. Third Principal Law. A syllable long by nature is equivalent to
two syllables with respect to the time occupied in its pronunciation ; con-
sequently, if the final syllable of a loord be long by iiature, the oxcent can-
—
not stand on the third from the end. Explanation. This law necessa-
rily follows from the nature of the thing itself. In ApirrTrnpavrii the
'
accent ought to stand thus, ApiaT6âvns, because the syllables 'Apmro

'
enlarge and define the idea oi ipavrn: but the syllable »?? contains two
short times, and hence, this syllable being reckoned for two, the accent
in KpiaT6(pavr]i would fall upon the fourth syllable, which is a violation
'
of the first law: consequently we must write 'Apio-ro^di/jj?. But in the

Attic and old Ionic declension, wherein other dialects give o instead
of a>, as ttAcw? (otherwise iroUoi), the last syllable, though long accord-
ing to quantity, is considered as short for accentuation ; and the
reason for this lies in the half length of m in such old forms. And
again, the syllables terminating with the diphthongs oi and ««, when
not closed by a consonant (as oiv, aiv, oig, an), are, like the Attic or old
Ionic w, considered short in accentuation. The reason of this lies in the
short pronunciation of these diphthongs, even the oldest poets having
allowed themselves to elide oi and at in certain instances. The third
person of the optative active, however, in oi and a«, always obtains as
long, being the result of contraction; and the same is the case with
the adverb oXkoi (properly oXkm.')
4. The three principal laws just given are suflicient for ascertaining
the position of the accent in the oldest periods of the Greek language.
Thus the -ôlians, wh6se dialect must be considered as the oldest ot
the Greek dialects, invariably accented according to these laws. In the
281
whole ol tncir dialect not a single word is to be found accented upoa

the last syllable, except the dissyllabic prepositions, as Trapd, Trtpi, vit6.
But in prepositions this is easily accounted for, because they are con-
nected as closely as possible with the following word, to which they
refer. The same old accentuation, conforming to the sense, has been
retained almost invariably by the remaining dialects of the Greek lan-
guage, 1. in the oldest parts of speech, the verb 2. in the oldest nouns,
:
the neuters: 3. in proper names, which belong to the oldest nouns; as,
for example, evTreiefn is an adjective, but Eineidris, a proper name. But
in other words, these dialects exhibit a remarkable deviation from the
oldest or iEolic usage, all endeavouring to place the accent on the
final syllables of words, even when these contain no principal idea
as, dyaOog, (Tofdg. This peculiarity of oxytoning can only be explained
historically; for, marking the last syllable of a word with the accent,
when the principal idea is not contained in this syllable, is in every
case an abandonment of the etymological signification of the word.
This will be made more clear by a comparison with modern languages.
Those called the Roman languages, which are derived from the Latin,
have in their words mostly left the old radical syllable of the Latin
unchanged, and merely furnished this with terminations, which may
be considered as the only part belonging to them. Now, it is remark-
able that the languages spoken of, particularly the French, are accus-
tomed to throw the accent upon these terminations, their only property
in the word, because the etymological root, borrowed from the Latin,
must in its original signification and nature remain entirely unknown
to them. Thus, the French form from fraterniias fraternite, from
conscriptio conscription, with the accent placed upon the last syllable,
which is their own property in the word.
6. Now, the later dialects, Doric, Ionic, Attic, bear the same rela-
tion, in respect of the accentuation of many words, to the oldest dialect,
the JSolic, as the Roman languages to their parent, the Latin. Hence
the Attic dialect accents, for example, /?ui.^r), ^w/io?, aotpug, where the
jiEolic had /?dXX«, /?w^«of, adô?. That the accentuation upon the last
syllable in the later dialects originated in an abandonment of the ety-
molosrical meaning of a word, to be explained only by the given rela-
tion of the later dialects to the iEolic, or of the Roman languages to
the Latin, is proved above all by the remarkable fact, that the Greeks
almost invariably accent all words of barbarous (i. e. foreign) termina-
tions upon the last syllable. Thus Aa/za;^ (Herod. 2. 30.), OipordX (He-
rod. 3. 8.), N»7i-9, 'A/Spaaix, M£Xx«7?(5£V, M«x«'?^, Aa/3i6, 'AXjXdr, MwSe, Qa-
Hv^. Here one cannot but perceive an endeavour to bring the last bar-
barously terminating syllable as clearly as possible before the ear of the
hearer, that the word, whose etymology was unknown to the Greeks,
might appear to them at once as barbarous.
PARTICULAR REMARKS.i
The Acul^ is used on the last syllablCj the penultima, or the ante-
penultima.
1. Accents were first marked by Aristophanes, a Grammarian of

Byzantium, who lived about 200 years before the Christian sera. He
probably first reduced them to a practical system, because some marks
must have been necessary in teaching the language to foreigners, as
they are used in leaching English.
For the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one syllable
in every word should be distinguished by a tone, or an elevation of the
25
282
The Graved is used on the last syllable only; but when that syllable
is the last of a sentence or followed by an enclitic, the acute is used.
voice. On this syllable the Accent is marked in the Greek language.

This elevation does not lengthen the time of that syllable so that Ac-
;
cent and Quantity are considered by the best critics as perfectly distinct,
but by no means inconsistent with each other. That it is possible to
observe both Accent and Cluantity is proved by the practice of the mo-
dern Greeks, who may be supposed to have retained, in some degree
the pronunciation of their ancestors. Thus in rvi^TOjihriv they lengthen
the first and last syllable, and elevate the tone of the penultima.
In our language the distinction between Accent and Quantity is ob-
vious. The Accent falls on the antepen ultima equally in the words
liberty and library, yet in the former the tone is elevated, in the latter
the syllable is also lengthened. The same difference will appear in
baron and bacon, in level and lever, \n Redding, the name of a place, in
which llicse observations are written, and the participle redding.
The Welsh language affords many examples of the difference be-
tween Accent and Glnantity, as dwlch, thanks.
It has been thought by many that the French have no Accent: but
in the natural articulation of words this is impossible. Their syllabic
emphasis is indeed in general not strongly expressed but a person
;
conversant in their language will discover a distinctive elevation, par-

ticularly in public .speaking. This is in many cases arbitrary thus
:
llie word critel, in expressing sorrow and aflection, will on the French
stage be pronounced cruel : in expressing indignation and horror, cruel.
But the general rule is, that in words ending in e mute the Accent is
on the penult; ViS forviiddble, rivdge: in other words on the last sylla-
ble, as hauteur, verlu.
On one of the three last syllables of a word the Accent naturally
falls. Hence no ancient language, except the Etruscan, carried it far-
ther back tlian the antcpcnultiriia. The modern Greeks sometimes
remove it to the fourth syllable; and the Italians still farther. In Eng-
lish it is likewise carried to the pra^-antepenultima, but in that case a
.second Accent appears to be laid on the ajternate syllable, as detcrmi-
ndlion, unprojitablc. In poetry the metre will confirm this remark.
' That variation existed in the different States of Greece, which is
now observed in the different parts of Britain. The ôlians adopted

a baryton pronunciation throwing the Accent back, saying cyw for fyw,
6)£0f for ik6i. In this they were consistently followed by the Latin dia-
lect. But some words in the latter language changed their Accent:
thus in the Voc. Valeri, the Accent was anciently on the antepenulti-
ma, and was afterwards advanced to the penultima. In English a con-
trary effect has been produced : thus acceptable is now dcceptable ; cor-
ruptible, corruptible; advertisements, advertisements; &c. In Welsh
the Accent is never thrown farther back than the penultiir.a, and is
rarely placed on the last syllable. In Scotland the Accent is oxyton,
in imitation of that of France, probably on account of the close con-
nexion which formerly subsisted between the tAvo countries.
1. The Grave is said to be the privation of the Acute, and to be un-
derstood on all syllables on which that is not placed. The Acute with
the rising inflection has been, by a musical term, called the Arsis, the
Grave with the falling inflection, the Thesis.
But where it is expressed on the last syllable, the Grave has the
force of the Acute marking an oxyton. Indeed no substantial reason
is given for the use of both Accents. Perhaps it may be said that the
Grave is used to show that the voice, after the elevation, must fall to
283
'
The Circumflex'^ is last or the penultima.
used on the
The Acute and the Grave are put on long and short syllables the ;
Circumflex on syllables long by nature,2 and never on the penultima,

unless the last syllable is short.3
No word has more than one Accent, unless an Enclitic follows.
Enclitics't throw their Accent on the preceding word, as avdpw-rros ttrri,
ffoiyia iarifi
Ten words are without Accents, called Atonies : h, r), ol, al, d, ds, if,
i^, (or £K,) OV {oVKor OVxi) ^f'^
RULES OF ACCENTS.
Monosyllables, if not contracted, are acuted, as 5?, kov?, x^'P-"^
Monosyllables of the Third Declension accent the last syllable of the
meet the common, or what Aristotle calls the middle, tone of the next
word but that the Acute is preserved at the end of the sentence, where
;
the change is necessary; that the interrogative nj always requires an

elevation of voice; and that an Enclitic, becoming a part of the word,
generally reduces the Accent to the rales of the Acute.
—
In French the Grave Accent, when it is not used for distinction, as
d, to, from a, has, and oil, where, from ou, or, —
makes the syllable long
and broad, and has the force of the Circumflex the sound is the same
:
in pres and pret, in exces and/orei.

1. The Circumflex is said to raise and depress the tone on the same syl-
lable, which must be long, and therefore consist of two short thus o-w/â ;
is equivalent to aodna. But this double oflice of the same letter it is not
easy todiscriminate in speaking.
2. A syllable long by nature, is that which contains a long vowel or
a diphthong, as crSfia, '(n:ov6a1og. Some few syllables with a doubtful
vowel are circumflexed, as jiaWop npSyiia, npayos, Sios, KVfia, &c. but they
are contractions.
3. In Diphthongs, the Accents and Breathings are put on the last
vowel, as avrovg except in improper diphthongs, atSris for ^Sm.
;
4. An Enclitic inclines on the preceding word, with which it is join-

ed and blended.
5. So in Latin, que, ne, ve. But the Accent, which in vrrum is plac-
ed on the first syllable, is brought forward to the second in virumque.
We may carry the analogy of Enclitics to English. When we say,
Give me that book, we pronounce me as a part of the word give. For
the boy is tall, we say the boy's tall ; thus is becomes a perfect Enclitic.
This is frequent in French, donnez lemoi,jeme leve, est-ce lui ; and
particularly in parle-je, where the last syllable of parte must be accent-
ed before the Enclitic. In Italian and Spanish the Enclitic is joined,
as dammi, deme, give me.
6. These may be called Proclitics, as they incline the Accent on the
following word. Thus in English the Article the is pronounced quickly,
as if it made part of the following word. In poetry it coalesces with
it, as Above th' Aonian mount. When these Atonies are at the end of
the sentence, or following the word to which they are naturally pre-
fixed, they recover their accent, as ix°^'^^^ (rnepji' dvc/Sav ^Xoydg ov. Pind.
KaKCLv £|, Theocr. Oeds ws, Horn. When they precede an Enclitic, they
are accented, as e'i he.
7. The following appear to be excepted al, vvv, ovv, vs, Spvg, [xvs, ypavs,
j/afif, ovs, TTttf Tra??, m<p
, but many of them are probably contractions ; thus
;
pvv, from vevv^ ovv from eov, Tzds from irdag, navi OY navrs. Indeed the cir-
cumflex always leads to the suspicion of some contraction.
284
Genitives and Datives, but the penultima of other Cases, as S. ;^;«i/),

%"pof, x^'P' %«<?«• D. x^^Ph xctporj/. P. x£rp£f, x^'p^^", x^P^^h x«''f«s-^
Dissyllables, if the first is long and the last short, circumilex the for?
mer, as noma ;2 in other cases, they acute the former, as juovajj?, \6yos,
Ao'yot).
Polysyllables, if the last syllable is short, acute the antepenullima, as

avdpuyros', if long, the penultima, as avdpcoTiov.^
Exceptions with the last syllable short
1. Participles Perfect Passive, as reTvuiitvos.

2. Verbals in eos and tov, as ypainios, ypanTeov.
3. The increasing Cases of Oxytons, as Xajirras, Xa;<7rd(5oj ; rvTst?, tv
7T£VT0S.
4. Many derivatives, as 7raiSiov,4:vavTiog.
5. Compounds of ySdAAw, ttoXew, x^^, if not with a Preposition, as U^
86\os.
6. Compounds of
tIktm, Kretvto, Tpifuy, with a Noun, if they have an
4-ctive signification, as irpwroTOKo^, she who produces her first child ; ^kôk'
Tovos, he who kills with a sword; prtrpoKTovai, a matricide ; 'Xaorpdipos, he
who feeds the people. If they have a Passive signification, they follow
the general rule, as TrpayrSroKos, the firstborn ;i ûpoKTovos, he who is killed
with a sword; urirpiKTovoi, he who is killed by his mother ; \a6Tpoôs, he
who is fed by the people.^
1. Except Participles, and rig interrogative, wiih idSo^v, Sfiaiwv, dtocov,

Kparoiv, Xdcjv, Kaiûv, ttolvtoiv, navriov, iraai ; Tpwoi', (pwTLiV, utoiv, wrwj/.
&c. arc considered as two words, the latter of
2. Et7r£j9, Toivvv, oioTE,
which is an Enclitic
they cannot, therefore, be circumflexed.
;
Nouns ^, increasing
in long, acute the penult, as Go^n^, Kf,pv^, foivi^;
if they increase short, they circumflex it, as avXa^, hfifiXi^, mSa^.
3. From these rules are to be excepted Oxytons, such as generally
words in evg, rn, w and <os, whose Gen, ends in oj pure, as Paai'Xcvi, (iXfj-
6}]s, &c. Adjectives in ikos, Oog, Xoj, pns, orof, as ayaOds, KaXoj, &c. Par-
ticiples Perf. 2d Aor. and 2d Fut. Active, and Aorists Passive ; Pre-
positions and others, which will be learnt by use.
;
In Latin Polysyllables, the Accent depends on the penultima. If that

is long, the Accent is placed upon it, as amicus: if short, upon the an-
tepenultima, as animus. In Dissyllables the Accent is on the first syl-
lable. Hence may be deduced another proof of the difference between
Accent and Gluantity. In Latin the Accent falls on the first syllable
of animus and of tibi, but that syllable is not lengthened in pronuncia-
tion. The Accent falls on the first syllable in cdrmina ; but if an En-
clitic follows, as carmindque, the Accent, which is inadmissible on the
prse-antepenultima, must be laid on a syllable which cannot be pro-
nounced long.
In reading Greek the general practice of this country follows the
Latin rules of Accent. In words of two, and of three, short syllables,
the difference of the French and English pronunciation is striking.
The former makes Iambs and Anapaests, the latter Trochees and Dac-
tyls the French say fugis, fugimus : the English fugis, fiigimus.
: In
many instances both are equally faulty: thus we shorten the long is in
fdvls, the Plural of favus : they lengthen the short is in oris, the Geni-
tive of OS.
4. So irpoiToyovos and npoirSyovoi, Povvofios and 0ovvofiog, vavudxos and i/av-
5. The difference of Accentuation serves also to mark the difference

of signification, and has on some occasions given precision to the Ian-
285
7* Compounds of Perfects Middle with nouns and Adjectives, as
itrrpoXiyos, oUovdixos, naficpayos.
8. Many other Compounds retain the Accent, which they had in
their simple state, as avT6<hi, ovpav69ev, KareXxov, avvr)\Qov. So Preposi-
tions, preserving their final vowel in composition, as dTrtfJoj, imax^s^-
guage, and even determined the ambiguous meaning of a law. Of this

distinction a few instances may be given
aywi/, leading; ayl^v, a contest
aXrides, truly; dX>?0£f, true.
aWa, other things dWa, but.
oLTzXooi^ unnavigable; anXSos, simple.
apa, then Spa^ an interrogation.
0ios, life; (Stof, a bow.
6i6oii£v, we give; SiSdjxev, to give.
idKos, opinion ; SoKog, a beam.
eiari, he goes
;
slcrl, they are.
evi, he is in Ivl, in.
ex^P^) enmity; ^X^f«j hostile things'.

^wov, an animal ôjov, living.
dea, a sight Sea, a goddess.
0£w»', running; Oedv, of gods.
roc, a violet; idv, going.
KaXois, a cable '
naXois, well.
\doij a stone \adi, a people.
Xevkyi, a poplar; Xbvkit, white.
[toun, alone liovh, a mansion,
livpiot, ten thousand fivptot, innumerable.
v£os, new veds, a field.
poôs, a law vofids, a pasture.
oywcjff, yet 6/iwf, together.
Kcido), I advise TreiOib, persuasion.
TTuvrjpos, laborious; rrovripds, wicked.
ToSxos, a course •
''f o%of, a wheel.
co/ôf, shoulder w/iof, cruel.
The list might easily be extended, particularly in marking the dif-

ference between a proper and a common name, as SdvOos, a river âvOdg, ;
yellow "Apyof, a man, or a city apydi, white, &c.

; ;
In English the same difierence may be observed thus conduct, pro- ;
duce, Nouns conduct, produce, Verbs, Job, the name of a man job, a
;
;
common word, &c.

1, These exceptions have given occasion to some to inveigh against
the use of Accents, as vague and arbitrary and to more to neglect them ;
entirely. An attempt to reduce these apparent inconsistencies to a sys-

tem may tend to rescue this branch of Greek Grammar from that ob-
jection.
The most general cause of these exceptions is abbreviation. Thus
the original form on which the Accent is placed regularly,
rv-irHnemi,
was shortened into rvTrrintv and rvirHvai, which retain the Accent on
the same syllable. From rervfejievai was formed rcrvc^tvai, from Tvirifis--
vai Tvveivai, from TrsrvfaiiEvos rervufiivog.
Verbals in eov were formed from 6iov thus ypaTrreov was originally
;
ypdrrreiv 6iov, nccessary to write, whence probably was derived the Latin
scribendum. ISavriXoi may naturally be formed from vaureKcXoi for vai-
TniKf]\og. UaiSiop is abbreviated from Trai6dpiov, or from naiSiSiov, which
25*
286
Exceptions with the last Syllable long.
The Attic mode

of keeping the Accent on the antepenultima in Mc-
veXews for M.Eve'Xaos, Xiêws for Xiêos] Or the Ionic genitive, as UriXri'CaSeo}]
or the Compounds of yeXw?, as (jyiXoyeXwg, can scarcely be called excep-
tions, as the two last syllables were in pronunciation contracted into
one.
At and oc final are
considered as short in Accentuation, as ôvaaiy
avdpwTToiA Except Optatives, as ^tA>;o-a(,2 Tervcpot Infinitives of the Per ;
feet in all Voices, of the Second Aorist Middle, and of the Present of
Verbs in (n, as rervcptvat, T£TV(pdai] TErvnevai ; rvirSada ; laTavai.^
The Genitive Plural of the First Decl. circumflexes the last Syllable,
as except Adjectives of the 1st Declension, whose Masculine
fxovacjv ;*
is of the 2d, as ayios, ayiwv^ «y*«> ayioiv with errjaicov, xôvvuv, and %p»jff-
:
TOiV.
Oxytons of the first and 2d Decl. circumflex the Genitives and Da-
tives, as S. nuT], Tiiifjs, Tiji^, riixTjv, Tififj. D. rtytia, Tijxaii/. P. Tijjial, rifidv^ TijiaTs^
Vocatives Singular in ev and oi are circumflexed, as ffaaiXev, aiSoT.

Pronouns are Oxytons, except ovtos, iKeivos, Se^va, and those in TEpog^
as fiiiETepoi.G
The Imperatives eXei, elirl, eipe, iSi, and Xa/?£, are accented on the last,
to be distinguished from the
2d. A. Ind.
The Prepositions placed after their Case throw back their Accent,
as, deov dn-o. Except dvh and Sia to distinguish them from ava, the Vo-
cative of ava^; and from Ala, the Accusative of Aevs or A'n.
is formed from naTs, as aiyiSiov is from ai^. Thus veaviaKOS and naiSlarKOi
are probably formed from veavia and naiSl, with tro-vw.
It is natural that the cases of a Noun or Participle and the persons
of a Tense, should retain the Accent through every inflection thus ;
from Xa/.(Tas, Xrt//Td(5os, &C. from rvirels, TVTTEvTOi, &C. and from tvum, rvnov-
ficv, rvTzovjxai, &c. So (piXeov, the neuter of <piXiwv so also TtapQivo^, from ;
the original word nap9f]v.

The Compounds likewise cannot be said to form an exception, as
the primitive words are not affected by the junction. On this principle
many apparent anomalies may be explained thus oXiyoj is from Xiyoi, ;
of which Xiya is still extant and n'nT6\oi from olyo-KoXog.

;
This is a faint outline of the system but an acute observer of the :
etymology and origin of the language will easily solve the difficulties
of Accentuation on similar principles.
1. The Diphthongs ai and oi are considered as short, for they were
generally pronounced at the end of words like i. Thus ai and oi are
in Russian pronounced i. This pronunciation seems, in some instance,
to have affected the quantity, as iVwâr 0iXr?r, Horn, n^rig te kuT yfipaog,
Hes. vjjlTv [ilv QeoX SoIev, &c. But the best critics have suspected the ge-
nuineness of the readings, and proposed emendations. In the last pas-
sage BeoI may be read as a monosyllable.
2. Hence (piXfiaat, 1. Aor. Opt. (piXnaai. 1, Aor. Inf. îXriaai, Imper.
Middle.
3. OiVot cannot be thought an exception, as it is put for ohco, of Avhich
it is the ancient form,
4. from the original form fiovtracov.
Because it is a contraction
5. Mfirrjp and Ovydrrip, when
not syncopated, accent the penult, in
every case, except the Vocative a case, which from its nature fre-
:
quently throws back the Accent, as avsp, naTsp, aCiTEp.

6. Before ye they throw back their accent, as eywys, enoiye.
287
Oxytons undeclined lose their Accents when the final vowel suffers
elision, as dXX' aye, nap' tftov. Those that are declined throw an Acute
on the penult, as tto'XX' ittI, Mv ciradov.
Contractions are circumflexed, if the former syllable to be contract-
ed is acuted, as v6oi vovs (piXeoiiev, (piXoviiev otherwise they retain the
; :
acute, as <pi\ce ^t'Xei ; effrows, Iffrwj.l
ENCLITICS.
Pronouns fiov, jxeVj jjiot, ê; cov, ireo, CSV, a-oi, toi, c£\ ov, oI, I, jxtv, a^s^
a<piv ; o-^wf , c<pi(ri, aêas ] tisj ti, indefinite, in all cases and dialects, as
TOV, T£V, T(0.
Verbs, a'/it and 0»7/ii in the Pres. Indie, except the 2d pers. sing.
Adverbs, nr,, nov, TTw, TTwj, mOev, nore, except when used interrogatively.
Conjunctions, ye, «, Ke, Kev, GriVy vv, pvv, nep, pa, rot, and Se, after Accu-
satives of motion, as oUovSe.
Enclitics throw their Accent on the last syllable of the preceding
word, if that word is acuted on the antepenult, or circumflexed on the
penult, as rjKovad Ttroj, ijAflf ixoL.
Enclitics lose their Accent after words circumflexed on the last syl-
lable, as ttyaTTrtiff //£ ; and after Oxytons, which then resume the Acute
Accent, as dvf\p r«j.
They preserve their Accent in the beginning of a clause, and when
they are emphatical, or followed by another Enclitic.
Enclitic Monosyllables lose their Accent after a word acuted on the
penullima, as 'Xoyos fiov but Dissyllables retain it, as Xdyoj ian ; else
;
the accent would be on the prse-antepenultima.^.

The Pronouns preserve their accent after Prepositions, and after
eveia, or 5), as Sia ai.
'Eo-ri accents its first syllable, if it begins a sentence, is emphatical,
or follows dXX', £t, /cat, oiiK, wf, or tovt\ as OVK CffTi.
APPENDIX—
DIALECTS.
I.
"The Greek language, like every modern one, was not, ancient m
times, spoken and written in the same manner in all parts of Greece
but almost every place had its peculiarities of dialect,3 both with respect
to the use of single letters, and of single words, forms of words, inflec-
tions and expressions. Of these dialects there are four principal ones,
the jEoUc, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Attic. Originally, however,
there was but one common language,* and this was the Doric not in- ;
1. Except metals, as dpyvpeos dpyvpovs ;

with dSe'XcjuSeos, dSe'XfiSovs, \ivEOS
\ivovs, irop(pvpeoi rrop<pvpovs, (poiviKeos, (j)oiviKovs.

2. If several Enclitics follow each other, the last only is unaccented,
as £1 Tig Tivd (pTjai {jloi.
3. Matthias's Greek Grammar, vol. 1. § 1. et seqq. (Blomfield's trans-

lation.)
4. "Ut Omnium Graecarum urbium
nationum origo referenda est et
ad Thessaliam, Macedoniam, Epirum, et loca vicina, quoniam qui ea
locaprimis temporibusincolebant, et an tea TpaiKol veinEXao-yoi diceban-
tur, primum "FiWriveg leguntur nominati fuisse ab Hellene, Deucalionis
filio, qui, ut Deucalion, in Phthiotide, Thessaliae regione, regnasse tra-
288
deed the Doric of later times, but a language spoken by the Dorians,
from which were derived the jEolic and Ionic varieties, after the
colonization of the coasts of Asia Minor. It was not till the Greeks
colonized Asia Minor, that their language began to assume both con-
sistency and polish. The lonians were the first who softened its asperi-
ties, and, by attention to euphony, laid aside, by degrees, the broad-?
ness and harshness which were retained by their iEolian neighbours
on the one hand, and by the Dorians on the other. The rich soil
of Ionia, and the harmonious temperature of its climate, combined
with the more proximate causes of its vicinity to Lydia, and its com-
mercial prosperity, will account for this change of language. It was
from the colonies that the mother country first adopted any improve-
ments ia her own dklects."
11.
"It seems probable, that all the Greek

colonists in Asia Minor spoke
at first acommon language. One of the most remarkable features in
the change, which originated with the lonians, was the gradual disuse
of the digamma. This letter the Dorians laid aside at a later period
the iEolians, on the contrary, always retained it; whence its appella-
tion of ôlic. The first change which the inhabitants of Attica made,
was to modify their old Doric to the more elegant dialect of their richer
and more polished colonists ; so that, if we recur to the period of about
1000 years B. C, we may conclude, that the language of Attica was
nearly the same as that in which the Iliad was composed. Subsequent-
ly, however, as the people of Attica embarked in a more extended com-
merce, the form of their dialect was materially altered, and many
changes were introduced from foreign idioms."
III.
" The ÔLIC DIALECT prevailed on the northern side of the

Isthmus of Corinth, (except in Megaris, Attica, and Doris) as well
as in the ôlic colonies in Asia Minor, and some northern islands of
the -^gean Sea and was chiefly cultivated by the lyric poets in Les-
;
bos, as Alcaeus and Sappho and in Boeotia, by Corinna. It retained

:
the most numerous traces of the ancient Greek hence also the Latin
:
coincides more with this than with the other Greek dialects. It is pecu-
liarly distinguished by retaining the old digamma, called, from this cir-
cumstance, the Molic digamma. Alcaeus is considered as the model
of this dialect."
IV.
" The DORIC DIALECT, as being the language of men who were
most of them origmally mountaineers, was hard, rough, and broad, parti-
cularly from the frequent use of a for and w; as for instance, a XaOa,
/?
rav Kopap, for \ridri^ twv KSpdv and from the use of two consonants where
fi :
ditur; et quoniam 'EXXa? fuit urbs atque regio in Thessalia, cum non-
dumulla alia in terrarum orbe nota esset 'EXXu? ita linguam antiquis-
:
simam et primitivam Grascorum, quae proprie dicebatur 'EWriviKii, fuisse

Thessalorum sive Macedonum propriam, sed ab initio, si quidem cum
lingua Graecorum, qualem in libris hodie exstantibus reperimus, impri-
mis cum Attica comparaveris, valde horridam et incuUam, et barbaram
potius quam Graecam, reliquarum taraen Graeciae dialectorum omnium
fontem et originem statuendam esse,non verisimile modo, sed paene
tertum est." Stnrzins de Dialecto Macedonica et Alexand. § 3.
289
the other Greeks employed the double consonant; as, for instance, o-l
for ^, as fteXiffSETdt, &c. The Doric tribe was the largest, and the parent
of the greatest number of colonies. Hence the Doric dialect was spo-
ken throughout the Peloponnesus, in the Dorica Tetrapolis, in the Doric
colonies of Magna Grsecia and Sicily, and in Doris in Asia Minor,
It is divided by the Grammarians into the old and new Doric dialects.
In the old, the Comic writer Epicharmus, and Sophron, author of the
Mimes, were the principal writers. In the new, which approached near-
er the softness of the Ionic, Theocritus is the chief writer. Besides
these, the first Pythagorean philosophers wrote Doric, fragments of
\*hose works are still remaining ; for instance, Timajus, Archytas, (who
is considered as the standard of this dialect) and Archimedes. Pindar,
Stesichorus, Simonides of Ceos, (who probably, however, used the Do-
ric only when he was writing. for Doric employers,) and Bacchylides,
used, in general, the Doric dialect, but softened it by an approximation
to the others, and to the common one. Many instances of the dialect
of the Lacedtemonians and Megarensians occur in Aristophanes. Be-
sides these, the Doric dialect is found in decrees and treaties in the his-
torians and orators, and in inscriptions. This dialect was spoken in
its greatest purity by the Mcssenians," ,-;
"The IONIC DIALECT was the softest of all, on account of the

frequent meeting of vowels and the deficiency of aspirates. It was spo-
ken chiefly in the colonies of Asia Minor, and in the islands of the Archi-
pelago. It was divided into old and new. In the former, Homer and
Hesiod wrote, and it was originally very little, if at all, different from
the ancient Attic. The new arose when the lonians began to mix in
commerce and send out colonies. The writers in this were Anacreon,
Herodotus, and Hippocrates.^ The principal residence of the Ionic
tribe, in the earliest times, was Attica. From this region they sent
forth their colonies to the shores of Asia Minor. As these colonies be-
gan earlier than the mother country the march of cultivation and re-
finement, the terms, Ionia, lonians, and Ionic, were used, by way of
eminence, to denote their new settlements, themselves, and their dialect,
and finally were exclusively appropriated to them. The original lo-
nians at home were now called Attics, Athenians ; and their country,
laying aside its primitive name of Ionia, took that of Attica."^
VI.
" The ATTIC DIALECT underwent three changes. The old At-
tic was
scarcely different from the Old Ionic, as Attica was the origi-
nal country of the lonians and hence we find in Homer many forms
;
of words, which were otherwise peculiar to the Attics. In this dialect
1. " The student is to attribute to Anacreon only the fragments which

were collected by F. Ursinus, and a few additional ones; and not
those poems which commonly go under his name, a few only excepted.
As Anacreon lived more than 100 years before Herodotus, his dialect
was probably different. With respect to Herodotus, it is to be observed,
that he adopted the Ionic for his history, being himself a Dorian; con-
sequently he is not always consistent in his usages, and perhaps is more
Ionic than a real Ionian would have been. His dialect is certainly dif-
ferent from that of Hippocrates." Blomfield, Remarks on Matthia's Ch\
Gr. p. xxxiii.
2. In the age of Homer the Attics were still called 'laovfj.
290
Solon wrote his laws. Through the proximity of the original MoViC
and Doric in Boeoiia and Megaris, the frequent intercourse with the
Dorians in Peloponnesus, and with other Greeks and foreign nations,
it was gradually intermixed with words which were not Ionian, and de-
parted farther from the Ionic in many respects, and particularly in using
the long a where the lonians employed the after a vowel, or the let-
/?,
ter p in avoiding the collision of several vowels in two diiferent words,

;
by contracting them into a diphthong, or long vowel in preferring the ;
consonants with an aspirate, whilst the lonians used the tenues; &c.
Thus arose the middle Attic, in which Gorgias of Leontium was the
first who wrote. The writers in this dialect are, besides the one just
mentioned, Thucydides, the tragedians, Aristophanes, and others. The
new Attic is dated from Demosthenes and yEschines, although Plato,
Xenophon, Aristophanes, Lysias, and Isocrates, have many of its pecu-
liarities. It differed chiefly from the foregoing, in preferring the softer
forms for instance, the 2d Aor. o-vXXeyttj, dTraXAaytij, instead of the an-
;
cient Attic and Ionic, avWexê^s, dnaWaxOeis the double pp instead of the
;
old (90-, which the old Attic had in common with the Ionic, Doric, and
uEolic ; the double tt instead of the hissing a^. They said also, rArf-
/iwv, yvafEvsj for wrf/iwj/, Kva<pevs and avv instead of the old (iv."
VII.i
" Athens having attained an important political elevation, and exer-
cising a species of general government over Greece, became, at the
same time, the centre of literary improvement. Greeks from all the
tribes went to Athens for their education, and the Attic works became
models in every department of literature. The consequence was, that
when Greece, soon after, under the Macedonian monarchy, assumed a po-
litical unity, the Attic dialect, having taken rank of the others, became
the language of the court and of literature, in which the prose writers
of all the tribes, and of whatever region, henceforth almost exclusively
wrote. The central point of this later Greek literature was established
under the Ptolemies at Alexandria in Egypt."
VIII.
" "With the universality of the Attic dialect, began its degeneracy.
"Writers introduced peculiarities of their provincial dialects or in place ;
of anomalies peculiar to the Athenians, or of phrases that seemed arti-

ficial, made use of the more regular or natural forms or instead of a ;
simple phrase, which had become more or less obsolete, introduced a

more popular derivative form, as vfixc<rdai for ve^v, to swim, and dporpinv
for apovv, to plough. Against this, however, the Grammarians often
pedantically and unreasonably struggled and, in their treatises, placed
;
by the side of these offensive or inelegant modernisms the true forms

from the old Attic writers. Hence it became usual to understand by
Attic, only that which was found in the ancient classics, and to give to
the common language of literature, formed in the manner indicated,
the name of Koivrj, '
the vulgar,' or eWriviKfi, '
the Greek,' i. e. '
the vulgar
Greek.' This Koivij SiiXeKros, after all, however, remained essentially
Attic, and of course every common Greek grammar assumes the Attic
dialect as its basis."
1. Buttmann's Greek Grammar, p. 3. (Everett's translation.)

291
IX.
" To the universality, however, of the Attic dialect, an exception was
made in poetry. In this department the Attics remained the models
only in one branch, the dramatic. For the other sorts of poetry. Homer
and the other elder Ionic bards, who continued to be read in the schools,
remained the standard. The Doric dialect^ however, even in later days,
v/as not excluded from poetry on the contrary, it sustained itself in
;
some of the subordinate branches of the art, particularly in the pastoral

and humorous. When, however, the language that prevails in the
lyrical portions of the drama, that is, in the chorusses and passionate
speeches, is called Doric, it is to be remembered that the Doricism con-
sists in little else than the predominance of the long a, particularly in
the place of v, which was a feature of the ancient language in general,
and retained itself for its dignity in sublime poetry, while in common
life it remained in use only among the Dorians."
X.i
" The Macedonian dialect must be especially regarded among those
which are, in various degrees, incorporated with the later Greek. The
Macedonians were allied to the Greeks, and numbered themselves with
the Dorians. They introduced, as conquerors, the Greek cultivation
and refinement among the conquered barbarians. Here also the Greek
was spoken and written, not, however, without some peculiarities of
form which the Grammarians denominated Macedonian. As Egypt,
and its capital city Alexandria, became the principal seat of the later
Greek culture, these forms were comprehended under the name of the
Aleo:andrian dialect. The natives also of these conquered countries be-
gan to speak the Greek {tWrjvi^sw), and such an Asiatic Greek was deno-
minated cXXriviffHig. Hence the style of the writers of this class, with which
were incorporated many forms not Greek, and many oriential turns of
expression, was denominated Hellenistic. It need scarcely be observed,
that this dialect is contained in the Jewish and Christian monuments
of those times, especially in the Septuagint and in the New Testament,
whence it passed, more or less, into the works of the Fathers. New
barbarisms of every kind were introduced during the middle ages, when
Constanrinople, the ancient Byzantium, became the seat of the Greek
empire and centre of literary cultivation. Out of this arose the dialect
of the Byzantine writers, and finally, the yet living language of the
modern Greeks."
XI.2
" Asregards more particularly the Greek of the Scriptures, it must be
observed, that the language of popular intercourse, in which the various
dialects of the diflferent Grecian tribes, heretofore separate, were more
or less mingled together, and in which the Macedonian dialect was pe-
culiarly prominent, constitutes the basis of the diction employed by the
Seventy, the writers of the Apocrypha, and those of the New Testament.
The Egyptian Jews learned the Greek, first of all, by intercourse with
those who spoke this language, and not from books; for they had, in
the time of our Saviour, a decided aversion to Greek culture and litera-
ture. "When they appeared as authors, they did not adopt the style of
1. Patten's translation of Buttmann's account of the Greek dialects,

(appended to Thiersch's Greek Tables.) Note 12.
2. Winer's Grammar of the New Testament, by Stuart and Robinson.
292
writing employed by the learned, but made use of the popular dialect,
which they had been accustomed to speak. The character of this dia-
lect, however, can be only imperfectly known as the Septuagint, the
;
New Testament, and some of the fathers of the Church, exhibit the only
monuments of it, and these are not altogether pure. Since, however,
much which belonged to it was peculiar to the later Greek writings so ;
writers in the Koivh oiolXektos, particularly Polj^bius, Plutarch, Artemido-

rus, Appian, &c. and more especially the Byzantine historians, may be
used as secondary sources. That this later dialect had peculiarities of
its own, in several provinces, is quite probable ;as the ancient Gram-
marians, who have written upon the Alexandrian dialect, have asserted.
Accordingly, some find Cilicisms in the writings of St. Paul though;
this hypothesis is rejected by recent critics as untenable and devoid of

any firm support. The popular Greek dialect was also intermixed by
the Jews with many idiomatic forms of expression from their native
tongue. Hence arose a Judaizing Greek dialect, which was in some
degree unintelligible to the native Greeks, and became an object of
their contempt."
XII.
As respects the Latin language, which many have regarded in its ori-
gin as only another dialect of the Greek, it may be remarked that three
different tongues combine to form it, viz. the Celtic, the jEolic Greek,
and the Pelasgic. The basis of the Latin tongue appears to be the Cel-
tic.! The ôlic Greek is supposed to have been introduced by some
of the wandering remnants of the tEoHc iribes2 who had fought before
Troy, and were driven by storms on the coast of Italy when returning:
to their homes while the Pelasgic came in with that ancient race
;
when they laid the foundation of the Etrurian commonwealth.^^ What-

ever the Greek and Latin possess in common with the Sanskrit (Sonskri-
to) language, appears to have been obtained through the medium of the
Pelasgi and it is remarkable that, as this ancient people made a pcr-
;
manejit settlement in Italy, so the Latin presents far more traces than
the Greek of afiinity with the Sanskrit.'*
XIII.5
" Theopinion that the Greek and Latin owed their origin to the
Sanskrit, and consequently that the last is of greater antiquity than the
other two, was never, we believe, questioned till Mr. Stewart broached
a directly opposite doctrine in his last volume of the philosophy of the
Human Mind. In this he has been supported, with much ingenuity and
learning, by Professor Dunbar, in his Enquiry into the Structure of
the Greek and Latin languages.6 In the Appendix to this work, he
nas endeavoured to establish the derivation of the Sanskrit from the
L Oxford Classical Journal, vol. 8. p. 119. seqq.

2. Mannert's Geography der Griechen und Roemer, vol. 9. p. 562.
3. Lempriere's Classical Diet, articles Hetruria. Italia, Pelasgi ; An-
thon's edit. 1827.
4. Schlegel, ueber die Sprache und Weisheitder Indier,p. 6. et seqq.
Bopp's Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teu-
tonic languages, (Biblical Repertory, vol, 2. p. 165 et seqq.)
5. Foreign Review, Number 4. p. 502.
6. An inqvAry into the Structure and Affinity of the Greek and Latin
Languages, &c. by George Dunbar, F. R. S. E. and Professor of Greek
in the University of Edinburgh.
293
Greek. Mr. Stewart supposes 'that the conquests of Alexander in India,

and the subsequent establishment of a Greek Colony in Bactria, dif-
fused among the native inhabitants a knowledge of the Greek language,
of which the Brahmins availed themselves to invent their sacred dia-
lect.' It does not clearly appear, whether the opinion of Mr. Stewart
and Professor Dunbar is, that this dialect was formed simply by adapt-
ing Greek terminations to the vernacular tongue, or by forming it en-
tirely from the Greek. But, take whichever supposition we please, the
opinion is equally groundless. The object of the Brahmins was to in-
vent a sacred dialect that is, a dialect not understood by the mass of the
;
people. But if they merely combined Greek with the vernacular tongue,
so as to make the terminations of the verb, as is the case, the sacred Ian-
gauge would, with very little trouble, be learnt by the people. If, on the
other hand, the Brahmins formed the whole of their sacred dialect from
the Greek, with perhaps some few alterations either in the vocabulary or
in the grammatical structure, it must have been understood by the Greek
inhabitants of Bactria and, if Mr. Stewart is correct in his opinion, that
;
the conquests of Alexander, and the Greek colonists had diffused among
the native inhabitants a knowledge of the Greek language, the sacred
dialect must have been equally accessible to them. Mr. Stewart admits,
*
that it must be ascertained from internal evidence which of the two
languages was the primitive and which the derivative and whether
;
the mechanism of the Sanskrit affords any satisfactory evidence of its

being manufactured by such a deliberate and systematic process as has
been conjectured.'
Merely calling the attention of the reader to the absurdity of suppos-
ing, that any language ever was or could be formed by such a delibe-
rate and systematic process, we shall now examine the internal evidence
adduced by Professor Dunbar, in support of the derivation of the Sans-
krit from the Greek. The Professor maintains, that the Greek verbs
of motion and existence form the terminations of every verb in Sanskrit.
The verbs of motion and existence are undoubtedly very similar in
those two languages, but which are the original, and which the deriva-
tive, is not proved. His strongest evidence, however, is this the Sans-
:
krit augment, significative of past time, is borrowed from a Greek word,

which, however, was not employed as an augment in the earlier periods
of the Greek language therefore the Greek could not have been deriv-
;
ed from the Sanskrit, but the latter must have been derived from the
Greek, at a time when the augment was used. 'The augment,' he
says, was 'just coming into use in Homer's time, as he seldom uses it,
unless when compelled by the nature of the verse.' He gives several
examples of the separate use of the essential verb, (from which the aug-
ment was afterwards formed,) even when the language was carried to
its highest state of perfection. This is a plausible mode of reasoning, but,
in our opinion, not satisfactory, nor decisive of the question. The es-
sential verbs are the same both in Sanskrit and Greek : at the remote
Eeriod when the latter was derived from the former, it is highly proba-
le that the primitive mode of using them separately was universal in
the Sanskrit. As the Greek became polished and refined, the grammati-
cal structure was changed the essential verbs were shortened and con-
;
verted into augments. The Brahmins, equally attentive to the im-

provement of the grammatical structure of their language, would soon
perceive that the change of these verbs into augments would tend to
that improvement. In fact, we know, that in all languages there is a
tendency to incorporate words, and to effect this incorporation by the same
processes as were adopted by the Greeks. In our own language, the
word loved is, in fact, formed by the annexation of the essential verb,
26
294
did, to the radical term. In this manner the past tense is formed in the
Anglo-Saxon and our oldest English writers. The employment of the
essential verb did, separately, unmutilated, and placed before the radi-
cal term, does not, we believe, occur in Wickliflfe : if was afterwards
introduced, but is now nearly laid aside again, except where particular
emphasis is meant to be given. From these considerations we cannot
lay much stress on Professor Dunbar's argument, grounded on the em-
ployment of the augment in the Sanskrit, and its unfrequent use in the
Greek of Homer's time.
But there are other proofs against the doctrine broached by Mr. Stew-
art, and adopted by Professor Dunbar, that the Sanskrit is a compara-
tively modern language, manufactured by the Brahmins out of the
Greek, after the time of Alexander, for their peculiar use. Mr. Cole-
brook, in his Essay ou the Sanskrit and Prakrit Languages, maintains
that there is no good reason for doubting that the Sanskrit was once uni-
versally spoken in India and, he adds, when it was the language of
:
Indian courts, it was cultivated by all persons who devoted themselves

to the liberal arts
; in short, by the first three tribes, and by many class-
es included in the fourth. He farther states, that nine-tenths of the
Hindoo, which, with a mixture of Persic, forms the modern Hindos-
tanee, may be traced back to the parent Sanskrit that there are few
;
words in the Bengalee which are not evidently of the same origin and ;
that all the principal languages of India contain much pure as well
as corrupt Sanskrit. With respect to the Sanskrit itself, It evidently
'
derives its origin, and some steps of its progress may even now be trac-
ed, from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various
climates, and became Sanskrit in India, Pahlavi in Persia, and Greek
on the shores of the Mediterranean.'
To these overwhelming objections to the opinion of Mr. Stewart and
Professor Dunbar, we shall merely add, that, in the time of Alexander,
the five rivers of the Panjeab, which fall into the Indus, bore Sanskrit
names, the same as they do at present. Taking into consideration the
relation between the vowels a and u in Oriental orthography, and the
connection of the consonants B and V
with the aspirate, the Hijdasper
of Nearchus, Alexander's admiral, is the Bedusta or Vctaslaof the Sans-
krit. The name given it by Ptolemy, Bidaspes, serves, as Dr. Vincent
justly remarks, on this occasion, as well as on all others, as the point
'
of connection between the Macedonian orthography and the Sanskrit.'

For the steps by which the names given to the other four rivers, by Near-
chus, may be traced through the names given them by Ptolemy, to these
Sanskrit appellations, we must refer the readers to the first volume of
Dr. Vincent's learned and ingenious work on the Commerce and Navi-
gation of the Ancients, pp. 94, 98, 101, 104, 108. See also 146-8, 163,
and vol. ii. pp. 388, 395, 411, 433, 494, 500, 669.
295
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE DIALECTS.

The AtticI
loves contractions, as 0£>c3 for ^tXew, rjSeiv for dSeiv.

Its favourite letter is w, which it uses for o.
It changes long into short, and short into long syllables, as "Ksas for XsJ?.
In Nouns, it changes o, oi, and ov of the Second Declension into w
as N. V. >£wj, G. \£M, D. Xfw, A. Xewv, &c.
It changes £tj into r??, as Itttt)?? for ImTeTs.
It makes the Vocative like the Nominative, as o ndrep, o (/)fXoj, Soph.
In some Nouns it makes the Accusative in w, instead of wv, wa, or wj/a
as, Xayo), MtVo), IIoo-aJtD, for Xaywi/, Mti/wa, IlocrgiJwj'a.^
It changes the Gen. eos into cwj, as PacnXiws for 0aari\ios.3
1. A marked difference exists between the Old and the iVctf? Attic.
The former used short and simple forms the latter softened, and, in:
some cases, lengthened, the word. The former used the short words
Seiv, d>.e:v, QtpeaOai^ vuv, kveiv for these the latter substituted itanciuv,
:
dXfidsiv, QepiiaivtaQai^ vfiOsiv, Kvf\Qeiv. The Old neglected J, which the New
added or subscribed ; the former wrote /fdw, xXdw, \(>i<TTos^ Trpw/ioj : the
latter, »cotw, K\aioi^ \u>'C(noq^ npdjifxos.
Other changes marked the distinction. The New Attic in some cases
avoided the sound of o- hence it substituted apprjv, ddppos, pvpfiivri, OdXarra,
;
Trpirrw, (^vXarrw, for the aparjv^ Odpcros, fjivpaivTi, Bakaaaa, irpdo-aw, ^vXdo-ffW 01
the Old Attic.
In the Future of verbs the Old used the contraction form d\w^ KaXd,
dXw, dvaPiPdiJiai the New Attic resumed o-, and made them dX/o-o), KaXicu),
;
o\Eara), dvaffiBdaofiai. After the adoption of this Future, which became the
general form in the common dialect of Greece, the Attics still pre-
served the other form, which is now distinguished by the name of the
Second Future.
It may be questioned whether the k and %, the ir and <^, were not added
to the Perfect, which was originally formed in the Old Attic and Ionic
by the change of w into a, as we find traces in iaraa, nipaa, and in the
Aorists E(7£va, e;^£rt, TjXsva. It is indeed probable, that in the simplest
forms of the language those tenses were similar the principle of va- ;
riety and of precision introduced these changes and additions, which

adorned the luxuriant language of ancient Greece. That of modern
Greece has returned to the original simplicity it has only one Past ;
tense ;as ypd^w, iypaipa ; ttXekm, cxXeâ ; yvcopl^cj, iyvc^piaa ; xpdWo), expaXa.
Even the accentuation underwent some change. The Old Attic
said, bfioios, rpoTzaXov the New, Sixotog, rpo-rraiov.
;
2. So in Latin, Aut Atho, Aut Rhodopen, Virg.

3. This Genitive exemplifies the difference of the dialects. The
Common dialect is PaaiXios, the Attic PaaiXiws, the Ionic /?ao-iX»jof, the
Doric and jEoUc âaiXsvs.
It is probable that the Nom. vg was originally f?, which was declined
into cFoj, £Fi, £Fa, &C.
The Digamma will explain the principle of many formations. Thus,
Yir}\rii&6ao, in the iEolic form, was H/jX/jFtdJaFo hence a in the penulti- :
ma is lengthened hence too,£ is changed into the Ionic n- The Geni-

;
tive of Nouns in og was probably ofo, which was shortened into of the :
Poets changed the Digamma into i, and made the termination oio. But
the Digamma was, by the greater part of Greece changed into v/in the
formation of Cases. Thus the Gen. of uv and of o was aipo and Ifo^ ab-
296
In three Verbs, it changes the Augment s into v, in ii8ov\6nr]v^ vSvvi[tr}Vf
It changes ei into >?, as ^Seiv for eUeiv.

It adds a syllable to the Temporal Augment, as hpaw, kcipaov for
lopaov ; eiKiOy coiKa for oIku.
It adds 0a to the Second Person in a, as vcrda for ?j, oUaada, by Syncope,
o7aOa, for o?Jaj.
It changes Xc and fie of the Perf. into £t, as sWrjcpa for X^X/jâ, elfiapjiai
for fiifxapfiai, elXeyftai for XiXeyjini.
It drops the Reduplication in Verbs beginning with two consonants,
as for (ieBXaarrjKa.
£/?Xd(rrrjica
repeats the twa first letters of the Present before the Augment of
It
"Verbs beginning with a, £, o as oXi'w, wXcku, 6\a)\eKa. ;
It forms the 1st Fut. and Perfect of Verbs in w, as from ew thus diXco, ;
deXnao), reOcXriKa, aS if from OeXiu.'i

It drops 0- in the 1st Future, as vojxioj circumflexed for vo/ûVw, Kopisi for
KOf>£0-£(.
It changes e in the penultima of the Perf. Act. into o, as etTTpo(i>a from
aTpi<p<x}, eiXo'â for XiXt^â.
It forms the Pluperfect in »??, v or a v. i?,
It changes erwo-aj/ andarwo-ai/ in the 3d Person Plural Imperative into

ovTMv and avTCxiv^ as nj7rr(5i'rwj/ for TV-Terwaav ] TVipavruv for rt)t/-aTcoffay ; and
adoaav into cQcui/ aS rvTrriaOoiv, TVKTiaOoicrav.
It makes the Optative of Contracts in nv, as (piXoinv for (pi'Xo'iixt.^
It changes p before /ât in the Perfect Passive of the 4ih Conjugation
into 0-, as Tii(paajxai for TTi<paiJ[iai.^
The Ionic
loves a concourse of vowels, as Tmreai for t^ttt)?, (reXiji/atJ? for aeX^vi].
Its favourite letter is n, which it uses for a and £.
It pats soft for aspirate, and aspirate for soft, Mutes as, ivdavra for ;
kvravda, klQwv for •)(^Lr(i}V.
It prefixes and inserts e, as Iwv for wf, Troirirewv for 7roir;ra;r.
It inserts «, as pcia for p/a; and adds instead of subcribing it, as ©p^r-
«? for 6p5/f£j, pniSioi for pdSios.
In iVo-z^Tis of the First Declension, it changes the Genitive ov into
£0), as TTOtriria} for troirirov.
It changes the Dative Plural into rn and jjo-t, as Jeiv^f Ke<pa\TJffi, Hes.
for ^£ii/ar?, K£<pa\aTi.
In the Second it adds i to the Dative Plural, as roio-t epyoiai, Her. for
TO?? I'jsyoij, neglecting before a vowel in prose.*
»<
In the third it changes e into »?, as ffaaiXfjog for PaonUoi.

It changes the Accusative of Contracts in cj and wj into aw, as at'Joii*'
for atWa.
In Verbs it removes the Augment, as /?;? for £/?>?.
It prefixes an unusual Reduplication, as KCKajjov for haixov, XeXaOscObi
for \adta9w.
breviated into gIv and ef, afterwards changed into aev and £v, or o-o« and
ov, but by the lonians into ceTo and fTo.
1. These Verbs have no other form, /?oi)Xo//ai, tppco, OiXw, KaOevSo), pi\-
\co, ptXti, oHopai.
2. The Third Person Plural is always regular, (piloTev, Verbs in a»
make 6r]v.
3. In the construction of sentences, it uses a license, probably occasion-
ed by the love of liberty which characterised the Athenians.
4. The addition of i is frequent in poetry.
297
It terminates the Imperfect and Aorists in okov, as Tvipr«r*foir, HxpeurKop,

for ervnTov, ervipa.
It adds <Ti to the Third Person Subjunctive, as tvvtiî for tvvt^.
It changes eiv, «?, ei of the Pluperfect into ca, eas, ee, «fcc. as erfrvêa, aj,
&c.
It forms the Third Person plural of the Passive in Srat and arc, as
TVTTTeaTai for TvirTOvrai hidearo for iTiOevTo, iaro for Jivto.
,
It resumes in the Perfect the consonant of the Active, as Tervârai for

Tcrvfjiêpoi eiffi.
It changes <r into the consonant of the Second Aorist, as 7rs<ppa6aTai for
if£<ppa<Tîkvoi ehi.
The Doric
loves a broad pronunciation ; its favourite letter is a, which it uses for
f, ;;, 0, and
w, ov.
It into trJ, as oo-dw for ôi^
changes (,
In iVow7ts of the First Declension, it changes ov, of the Grenitive into

a, as dUa for ctWou.
In the Second Declension it changes ov of the Genitive into w, as dtd
for dtov ; and oti? of the Accusative Plural into 05 and wf , as flea j for Qtovg,
avdpdjirus for dvQpcjTrous.
In the Third Declension it changes eos of the Genitive into evs, as
%£iAevj for ;;^£iX£Of.
In Verbs, it forms the 2d and 3d Persons Singular of the Present in

£S and £, as rvirres, TVTTTC, for TvnreiSy ruirret.
It changes ojiev of the 1st, and oijfft of the 3d Person Plural into oês and
ovTt, as Xcyofjies, Xeyovri, for XeyoiiEV, \eyovai.
It forms the Infinitive in /ifiv and fievai, as TVTtTsiuv and rvnTensvai for T<iff-
T£ty.?'
It forms the Feminine of Participles in oktu, fvo-a, and waa, as nJrroto-a,
rvTTTCvara, and rvTrrwera, for Tvirrovcra.
It forms the first Aorist Participle in aij, aiaa, aij/, as rvip-ats, aiaa, aivy
for TVip-as, aaa, av.
In the Passive it forms the 1st Person Dual in eaQov^ and Plural in
cada, as TVirTOji-ta-Qov, ecrOa, for TVi{T6[x-EdoVj £0a,3
changes ou of the 2d Person into ev, as tvittsv for rvTrrou.
It
In the Middle, it circumflexes the First Future, as rvipovjxai for rvx^jofiai.
It forms the 1st Person Sing, of the Future in £r/iai, and the 3d Plu-
ral in evvraij as rvipeviiai, Tvxpsvvrai.
The ôlic
changes the Aspirate into the Soft breathing, as >5/i£pa for fiiJîpaA
1. Z is composed of Ss ; the Doric only reverses the order of those

letters.
2. has been thought that Tv^renevai was the original form, which
It
was shortened by Apocope into tv-ktchev the next abbreviation was rvn- ;
Tttv, which was contracted into rvnTtiv. The Doric shortened it still
more into rvitrEv.
3. Some forms are promiscuously used by more than one dialect.
Thus those in ectBov and saQa are Attic as well as Doric.
4. On the same principle, the
Latin dialect had originally no aspirate
hence /awa from (pfiixri, fuga from <pvyri, cano from xatvw,/fflZZo from <T(pa\-
Xw, vespa from o-(/.rj|. It used cedus for hoedus, ircus for hircus. After-
wards the aspiration was imitated from the Greek and, in consequence ;
of the propensity to extremes natural to mankind, the Latins carried

26*
298
It draws back the Accent, as lyw for eyw, for^>7/ii, cvvoiSa, for
<i>rjixi, (tvj'-
nSa, ayados for dyaOos and circumflexes acuted monosyllables, as

; Zm
for Tisvs.
Itputs 0a for Oev, as foto-fla for BmaQev.
Itresolves Diphthongs, as Trdi's for irar?.
In Nouns of the First Declension it changes ov into ao, as diSao for
^
It changes wv of the Genitive Plural into dav, and aj of the Accusa-
tive into ais, as //ovadov, noiaaii, for //ovo-w*', ixovffas.
In the 2d Declension it drops the t subscript in the Dative, as K6aiia>
for Kdajxa),
In the 3d Declension it changes the Accusative of Contracts in w
and wj into uv, as aiSiov for aWda ; and the Genitive ovs into w?.
It forms the 3d Person Plural of the Imperfect and Aorists of the In-
dicative and Optative in aav, as eruTrroarav for ETTVnTOv.l
It changes the Infinitive in av and ow into ais and o(s, as yeXais for
yeAaf, j(^pvaoTs for ;y;P^<''''^''«
It changes £i»/ of the Infinitive into jjj/, as tvitttiv for Tij^'i-cti/.
In the passive it changes neda into lisds and /;(£0£>', as T-uTrrJufQe and rv7>
TdjjLedev for TVitrdyiEQa.
The Poets
have several peculiarities of inflection.
They use all the dialects; but not indiscriminately, as will be seen
in the perusal of the best models in each species of poetry. In general
they adopt the most ancient forms, as remote from the common dialect.2
They lengthen short syllables, by doubling the consonants, as IcaeTat
for taETut, eSSeiae for eSeicrE] by changing a short vowel into a diphthong,
as eiv for iv, jiovvos for novoi, ei\fiXovdn£v for K\r)\v6a[x£v or by V final, as ia-
',
Tiv <pikov.
They add syllables, as <p6m for ^wy, hpinv for 6pa>/, <rao}<T£fievai for aciffeiv.
They drop short vowels in pronunciation, to diminish the number

of syllables, as Sudco for iaixdo), iyevTO for iyivETO.
They drop syllables, as a\<pi for aX<piTov, np: for Kpif/vov, Xtira for Xinapov,
Siva for 6vva(Tai^ adcj for ctrdoxre^ &c.
In Nouns they form the Gen, and Dat. m<pi] as K£<paXrj(pi from Ke(i)aXfi,
CTpaT6(pi from (TTpaTOi, ^Xô"^' from ^%of, vaC^t for vavai. So avrSfi for at5-
rorf.
In the 2d Declension they change the Genitive ov into oio, as iroXifioio
KUKoTo for noXenov kukov, Hom.3 and oiv in the Dual into oiXv, as Xdyotiv for
AiSyotj'.
In the 3d Declension, they form the Dative Plural by adding i or ci to

the Nominative Plural, as naTs, iraTSa, iraiSeai or naiSecrtn.
In Neuters they change a into cat or ecai, as Pyjixara, PnjidTecrcn.
They form several Verbs of a peculiar termination, in 9o>, cyo), o-flw,
otao), ovo), and ww, aS PsPp(i>9oiy "ôj, &c.
CTKO), aitoi^
'^X^^ ^^) '"^J ^""^> 'J'^j
So opo-w from 5(0w, &c.
They have Particles peculiar to themselves, as 5/<at, 6fjda, sKrjn, Jijjiosj
Hta<pa, vipdCj oy(_a, ke, pa, &C.
the use of aspirates to a ridiculous excess, some pronouncing prachones

for prcecones, cheniuriones for centuriones, chommoda for commoda.
1. This is chiefly used, in the Alexandrian dialect, by the Septuagint.
2. Thus they frequently omit the Augment, which was not used in
the earliest Ionic and Attic forms.
3. The Tragic poets adopt this change in the choruses only.
299
DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. f.

'Eyu.
Ionic. Doric. iEolic. Poetic.

S.N. lyibv, eycjvr)^ eyco- £ya), tyoiVy 'yw
ya^ eyuvy a B. tw, icoi/yo
G.
£/!£« B. £/xot5j cjiiBtv
ifiioBsv
D. i/x:. E//OI, B. ^|XV
D. N. A. diie, anixe
ajmt
P.N. flfiess anes, aniiEi anfies
G. fljXCWV annuv, anneov
D. diily, anfii, ufifiiv Jijiiv
d^ncaiv
A. flUeas anas, di^l, h- ajxûLs, d[ineai
us
Si),
Ionic. Doric. -ôlic. Poetic.

S.N. TV, Tvvri^ Tvya TOVVn
G. atv ciQev ff£io6sp
T£Vf TSvSj reovs
creoQev
D. Tol, tIv tuv Tivri
A. Tiv, Tct
PI. and Dual like At3, substituting v for a and rj.
Ionic. Doric. iEolic. Poetic.

S. G. eio, 010, Eoro, £e£V, y£0£V sUdsv
£0, ?O0£«/
G.
A. nip, viv^ £% Cfl
D. N. A. (r6£e c<p(oe, o-^w
P.N. ff(pus c<pls afsiES

G. (r<j>£(ov 0(p£i(t>V
D. aaî flu
A. a<p£ag (r<p£, ipi a<p£S, aafs Sfeias
1. Mil/and vlv are of all Genders and Numbers.

In Celtic, wyw, our, your, their, is of all Genders and Numbers.
/;
300
r
DIALECTS OF THE VERB E.>i.
Indicative. —Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.

A.
I. - ten eaai
D. lynii IVTI eiixes
JEt. ij[jit CVTlj SVVTt

P. — hi, tffal tjjicv, eiiiev ire cacrai
Imperfect.
Sing. Dual. Plur.

A.
I.
ri, ri<T9a
ea, va, ees, his —

irfv, unv, ms, £«?,
sou, r}ov, ETiada
ZCTKOV
D. ?5
^.
P. ^tv) ——
»7ff9a,
eijv, JJfi ETOV, E<jrr,v^ ifiEV EcraVf EaaaVf
Pluperfect.
I.
Sing.
J
Dual.
— — ' ——
Plur.
iaro^ tXara
Fhtture.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
D. tirovnat, £0-3 ia-Eirai iaovvrai.

EaEVfxai, eo-CTj ecraEiTai
P. Ecraonacj Icrai^ lacETat
Imperative. — Present.
Dual.
Sing.
—Plur.
— EOTOJy
EOVTCaV
Optative. — Present.
Dual
I. locjit,
Sing.^
ioiSf tot ] tlflEV — —
Plur.
tXtV.
Subjunctive . Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.

L fw, •*», Ijjfj ^hî h, s'tj ew/iej/, EiOjiSVj — ictart
tXwjiev^ — eijfft
strict
301
f Ii«'iNiTivE. Present.
I, £/*£"> stjJiSV
D. tfiEvai^ eXjicvat^ ^z-tev, »;/^«f, etfies
.^. Cfifievai
P. enjicv
Future.
P. effCEaQai,
Participles. —Present.
I. io)v eovara edv
D. cvaUj toTcraj eaaaa -
c7aa^ iaaa ev
Ii\bture.
P. iaaoînEvos. i
This Verb will appear less irregular, if it is observed that it forms

1.
its Tenses in every dialect from e w, ep, ££//t or si/î, and tcrofih From Im
are formed I'ci?; hi contracted into e7s £?; and from its Future eo-w is
;
formed its Middle ecroiiai. From e/il and eo-cî are formed tre, lareTi, or tort,
<&c. From £(>i we have eict, &c. Thus the Tenses of the Verb sum, are
formed from sum, fuo, forem, e w and tiju.
THE END.
Jr rnis J t
I
t#
i WILLIAM
DEAN, E.
PRINTER AND PUBLIS-HER,
No. 2 Anu-st., New York,
OFFEiRSlfO THE TRADE IN QUANTITIES THE FOLLOWINOf''
-•'(itAWAl MP SCHOill BOOKS.
.^SCOTT'S .COMMENTARIES ON THE BIBLE, 3 volsfRoyal

Octavo.
LEMPRIERE'S CLASSICAL DICTIONARY; containing the
principal Names and Terms relating to the Geography, Topogra-
.^pphy, g
istorv, Li.ter.ajûre, and*jyi^tholegy ,j©fi the Ancients. Revised,
corrected, and arranged in a new form, by Lorenzo L. da Ponte and
John D. Ogilby. 8vo.
ADAMS' ROMAN ANTiaUITIES ; anew Edition, from a late
English Copy, illustrated with upwards of 100 Engravings on steel
and wood, with notes and improvements, by L. L. da Ponte,
Editor of the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth American Editions
of Lempriere's Classical Dictionary.
LATIN READER; Parts I & II. by Frederick Jacobs and Fredfe-
rick William Doring with Notes and Illustrations, partly translated
;
from the German and partly drawn from other sources, Byô'hh
D. Ogilby. l2mo. W
MAIR'S INTRODUCTION TO LATIN SYNTAX; from the
Edinburgh Stereotype Edition; revised and Corrected by A. R'.'
Carson, Rector of the High School of Edinburgh, TowhicVis
added, Copious Exercises upon the Declinable Parts of Speech,
and an Exemplification of the several Moods and Tenses. By
David Patterson, A. M. l2mo.
ADAMS' LATIN GRAMMAR; with numerous expansions stflQ.
Additions, designed to make the work more elementary and com-
plete, and to facilitate the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of
the Latin Language. By Jamas D. Johnson, A.M. 12mo.
SALLUST with English Notes. By Henry R. Cleveland,
;
'^
A. M.
12mo. .:
PLAYFAIR'S EUCLID; a New Edition, revise.d and corrected;

for the use of Schools and Colleges in the United States, B'y James
Ryan. *, ••'
.
LEE'S PHYSIOLOGY. l2mo,

COFFIN'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, with auestions/or Prac-
tice, Experiments and Cluestions for Recitation.
••
BONNYCASTLE'S ALGEBRA; with Notes and Ob^rvations,

designed for the use of Schools. To which is added, an Appendix
on the Application of Algebra to Geometry. By James Ryan.
Also, a large collection of Problems for exercise, original and
selected. By John F. Jenkins, A. M. 12mo.
KEY TO BONNYCASTLE'S ALGEBRA; containing correct So-
^
lutions of all the (Questions. By James Ryan. 18mo.
JACOB'S GREEK READER; Corrected and Improved, with nu-
merous Notes, Additions, and Alterations, not in any former edition,
also a copious Lexicon. By Patrick S. Cas.serly, T. C. D. 8vo.
CASSERLY'S TRANSLATION TO JACOB'S GREEK READ-
ER; for the use of Schools, Colleges, and private lessons, with
copious notes, and a complete Parsing Index. l2mo.
LEUSDEN,'S. GREEK AND LATIN TESTAMENT. 12mo.
^ G^t^CA IVJINORA; with extensive English Notes and a Lexicon.
VALPY.'S GREEK GRAMMAR;
greatly enlarged and improved,
• by Charles Anthon, LL. D.
12mo.
.BECK'S CHEMISTRY; a new and improved edition.-, ^r^
!^HE SCHOOL FRIENlA By.Miss Robbijis. iSmo.''*:-'^ .,
• BEVIZAC'S'FREIÔ^ GRAMMAR;
revised and corrê^g^ I'y^
Mr. Stephen Pasquier, M. A. ^With the Voltarian Orthography, -.
accordiitg tbiJhe Dictionary of the French Academy. 'iSmo. ^
CHRESTOMA^HEVpE LA LITTERATURE FJIANCAISE,
&c. By C. Lad-reyt. l2mo. *
-.
''•
.
*
REC*EIL CHOISIê Traits Hi storiaue s et de Cbntes-.jiTO^WiwIr

wTTfc tfl^ signification of WbrSsln English at the bc^ttom' o&each
page| for the use of Young Persons of both Sexes, by"*N;. Wanos- jr'
trocht. Corrected and enlarged, with the Voltarian Orthography,
according to the Dictionary of the French Academy, by Paul
Moules. 12mo.
HISTORY 0^t^HA-R«eS'«?&Iif*i*f»Bneiwh.>.by.-Vo4âJj:e^
LE BRETHON'S FRENCH GRAMMAR; especially designed
for persons whq wish to study the elements of that language. First
American from the seventh London edition, corrected, enlarged
and improved ; by P. Bekeart. 1 vol. 12mo.
SIMPLE AND EASY GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF THE
FRENCH GRAMMAR. By AVra. P. Wilson. 12mo.
FRENCH COMPANION, consisting of familiar conversations on
pvery topic that can be useful together with models of letters,
:
- fcot^s and cards. The whole exhibiting the true pronunciation of

^
^
%e French Language, the silent letters being printed in Italic
throughout the work. By Mr. De Rouillon. Second American,
^^from the tenth Lo/don edition. By Prof Mouls. 1 vol. l8mo.
/BLACKSTON^ COMMENTARIES on the Laws of England;
with Noti^s by Christian, Chiuy, Lee, Hovendon, and Ryland.
.Also, a life of the Author, and References to American Cases. By
a member of the NewYork bar. 2 vols. 8vo.
5r(jBLIN PRACTICE OF MIDWIFERY, with Notes and Addi-
tions. By Dr. Oilman. 12mo.
BLAIR'S LECTURES ON RHETORIC abridged, with questions
;
for the u.se of Schools. 18mo.

ENGLISH HIS/TpflY adapted to the use of Schools, and young
;
person!.^ migrated by a map and engravings, by Miss Robbins.

Third (edition. 1 v,ol. l2mo.
ENGLIâ EXERCISES adapted to Murray's English Grammar,
;
cop.îstuis of Exercises in Parsing, instances of False Orthography,

vi'blati^ of the Rules of Syntax, Defects**in Punctaalion and ;
violations of the Rulers respecting Perspicuous and Accur?ite Writ-

ing. ©'tJfeigned for the benefit of private learners, as well as for the
use orSchôls. '
By Lindley Murray. . ISfno.

RYAISCS^^lfSTRONOMY on an improved plan, in three Books;
systematically arranged and scientifically illustrated with several
cuts and engravings, and adapted to the instruction of youth, in
Schools and Academies. iSmo.
MYTHOLOGICAL FABLES translated by Dryden, Pope, Con-
;
greve, Addison, and others; prepared expressly for the use of

Youth. 12mo.
YOUTH'S PLUTARCH, or Select Lives of Greeks and Romans.
By Miss Robbins. ISmo.
RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT
TOi 202 Main Library
LOAN PERIOD 1 2 3
HOME USE
4 5 6
ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS

1-month loans may berrenewed by calling 642-3405
6-month loons may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation
Desk
Renewals and recharges may be mode 4 days prior to due dote
DUE AS STAMPED BELOW

AUG 6 1978
jca en. Jd^
MAR 8 197!
JREO. m. MRR 1 ^ Td/
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

FORM NO. DD6, 40m, 3/78 BERKELEY, CA 94720 ^^
iM.'
U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES
^B 4G4q3
/ I
T/^\<^>e\
T -^
€r

Valpy - Anthon 1847 Elements Greek Grammar

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Valpy - Anthon 1847 Elements Greek Grammar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i^2l^^_

DR. FRANCIS LIEBER,

EDIT] )N. Library.

W. E. DEAN, PRINTER & PUBLIS H ER, 2 ANN ST.

WILLIAM SAMPSON, Esq.,

TEE ENLIGHTENED ADVOCATE AND ACCOMPLISHED SCnOLAR,

IS RESPECTFULLY AND SINCERELY DEDICATED,

The plan pursued by the Editor in enlarging the Greek

In one or two instances some useless matter has been re-

but to this supposition there are two insurmountable objections:

it contains an ill-grounded and gratuitous assumption that the

The arrangement of the previous edition has been retained

Col CoUege, JvZy, 1830.

There are twenty-four Letters in the Greek

Corresponding Meaninff of the 1

Figure. Names. Power. Hebrew Letters. Hebrew Letters. [

A a ^Al(fa Alpha a Aleph Ox.

tween V and W. It was afterwards

digamma, since otherwise oi was put for v.

Cadmus from Phoenicia to Greece, and hence were called

Obs. 1, that the number exceeded 16 nor is it at all certain that

Cadmus j^rA'^ brought letters into Greece. Dunbar supposes,

ponnesian war, under the Archonship of Euclides (01. 94. 2.

446.) and for w, the short o. They also anciently expressed «*

Letters are divided into Vowels and Conso-

meant in every case, something doubtful and wa-

separate sign or letter.

When two vowels are pronounced with one

Obs. 1 . The sounds

Diphthongs are formed, when a hack-vowel (a,

Obs. 2. The iota after the long vowel is usually placed as

Movacii, MuscB ; and sometimes, though more rarely, at or ajy

as Mala, Maia, or Maja. This irregularity, however, is par-

the different dialects, sometimes e, sometimes * had the lead-

Of the seventeen Consonants, nine are mutes,

its aspirate. These are called Cognate Letters.

eiv(pdt]v, not iivndrjv.

Four are Liquids, X, n, v, q, to which some add

Obs. 1 Liquids are so called because they readily unite

with other consonants, and glide into their sounds. They

at, from "jt^ayj ; Xt^o), for Xtyaw, from Xtym

Ohs. 1. The ^olians never used the double consonants,

ed as standing for ad and not for dg. The^ound of t,, which

Yet 'yfdrii'a'Qs is used instead of 'AOr^yaaSe.

The simple letters are divided, according to

Linguals, d, t, ^, l^ v, (), or, t.

F before has the sound of NG; thus

Obs. 1 . In diphthongs which begin a word, the breathing

Obs. 2. Anciently Hwas the mark for the aspirate in Greek,

every word that begins with a vowel can be distinguished in

the Ionic dialect, like all other aspirates, it rarely occurs.

Change and Omission of Letters for the sake of

Gen. Ohs. The great principle which pervades the Greek

Rule 1. Three consonants, or one with a dou-

Rule 2. As in some instances the concur-

Note. In fieutjftSQla, the letter 6 appears to supply the

Rule 3. In the concurrence of two or more

Ohs. 1. In the case, however, of two like mutes already

bySoog from eTnd and rnuiga, eifOri/jsQog, The preposition ix

alone remains unaltered before all consonants, as ixdllGo),

second begins with an aspirated vowel in both of these cases

the mute which precedes the second word becomes an aspirate,

Rule4. Two successive syllables very sel-

an aspirate, the first aspirate is changed, with a