Geometry in Real Life Quarter 1 Lessons 7-13-23

Geometry in Real Life
By Carolyn Van Gorkom
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Pie Are Square .................................................................................................................... 2
Week 1: Circles ........................................................................................................................... 2
Week 2: Spheres ....................................................................................................................... 23
Unit 2: Base Camp ........................................................................................................................ 43
Week 3: Quadrilaterals ............................................................................................................. 43
Week 4: Area = base · height.................................................................................................... 67
Week 5: Mixed Review ............................................................................................................ 97
Unit 3: À la Carte(sian) ............................................................................................................... 113
Week 6: Transformations ........................................................................................................ 113
Week 7: Similarity and Equality Properties............................................................................ 143
Unit 4: Making Snow Angles ..................................................................................................... 161
Week 8: Types of Angles ........................................................................................................ 161
Week 9: The Parallel Postulate ............................................................................................... 190
Please Note: Students may choose one of three ways to keep track of notes, definitions, and
formulas for this course.
1. Students who are well-organized and prefer to create their own style and format may take
notes independently in a notebook, keeping definitions and formulas in separate places for
easy reference.
2. Students who need a slightly more structured format may take notes using the blank notes
download provided. These notes are set up so that students may fill in definitions, formulas,
and other notes in a pre-determined format with all the terms and specified formulas already
indicated for them. These must be printed due to limitations with writing math formulas in
Adobe that prevent the file from being made a fillable PDF.
3. Students who have difficulty taking notes or who may be having difficulty with the material
may use the completed notes provided to keep track of definitions and formulas. This file
may also be used to check the definitions and formulas that are recorded in the other two
formats.
Unit 1: Pie Are Square
Week 1: Circles
Day 1: Introduction
Consider the following situations.
I. Imagine you are a carpenter. You want to make a bench with three sides that
faces an outdoor fireplace. The sides of the bench will all be equal lengths, and
they will be joined at 45-degree angles. The open side of the trapezoid that’s
formed—the part that faces the fireplace—has to be 90 inches wide. How long
should each side of the bench be? (Assume for this exercise that you measure from
the middle of each board.)
True story: This problem was featured on a home renovation show on

national TV.
II. Imagine you are a gardener. You have been hired to take care of a circular
planter that is 6 feet across. Your final step is to order bark to lay on top of the soil
so the flowers won’t dry out too quickly. One bag of bark will cover 4 square feet
of soil. How many bags of bark should you order?
True story: I’m describing the planter between the dormitories where
I went to college. I think it had been a water fountain before they
turned it into a planter for pansies.
III. Imagine you are a construction worker laying a foundation. You have to make
sure each corner of your building is completely square, or the walls will be
crooked. Just using a T-square tool at the corner won’t be enough because the
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tiniest variation at the corner will create inches or feet of variation at the other end
of the wall. How can you check your line with just three tape measures?
True story: A homebuilder gave me this situation. He has used this

easy solution not only for foundations, but also for fences and other
projects.
IV. Imagine you were stranded on a deserted island with only the contents of your
pocket: some string, an analog watch that stopped working because it got wet, and
a pocket multi-tool. Using the boards of the ship that wash up on shore, design and
build a shelter.
All right, this one is not a true story. It does, however, feature the
most important tools of geometry, which is why I included it.
• A compass is the modern equivalent of string.
• A protractor can be recreated with an analog watch face.
• A ruler is the ultimate straight edge, but a board will work.
As you can see, Geometry is useful in a wide variety of trades, not just as a
prerequisite to get into college. I’ve even used it as a homemaker. (Being a math
teacher didn’t hurt, I’ll admit. But, can you think of any other way to calculate how
much laminate to order when replacing one’s carpet?)
If you’re still not convinced this class is important, consider this. Psalm 19 says,
“The heavens declare the glory of God . . . There is no speech nor language where
their voice is not heard.” Math itself is a language. The universe itself moves in
mathematical formations. The study of math demonstrates the glory of God, if for
no other reason, because it is orderly like its Creator. As 1 Corinthians 14:33 says,
“God is not the author of confusion.”
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That gives us multiple reasons to give our attention to the study of Geometry—not
just half-hearted study, but serious attention. Colossians 3:23 commands us,
“Whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, as to the Lord . . .”
Assignment Quick Tip:

Sometimes
1. Make sure you have assembled your tools. assignments will take
• Compass with a pencil on one end two pages. Always
• Protractor check the next page,
• Ruler even when you think
• String you’re done. For
example, today’s
2. Make sure you have assembled your school supplies. written work doesn’t
• Pencil begin until number 4.
• Paper
• Notebook
• Scientific Calculator
(Note: If you use the calculator app on a smart phone, turning the phone
horizontally often turns the simple calculator into a scientific one. If you use
a calculator app on your computer, click the hamburger icon and select
the scientific option.)
3. Make sure you have organized your textbook and lesson plans.
• Will you be printing everything? Make sure you punch holes and put it in a
notebook.
• Will you be viewing the PDFs on the computer instead of printing? Make
sure they are saved to a folder on your computer.
Because sketching your work is such an important part of Geometry, you will need
to have a notebook to keep your written papers organized.
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4. Learning how to sketch a diagram is an important skill. Look back at situations
I, II, and III listed above. Draw a picture of each situation.
5. Place your work in your notebook. Answers can be found in the separate answer
key at SchoolhouseTeachers.com.
Students and teachers may have ambivalent thoughts about answer keys. Some
may view it as a cheat sheet, while others may use it as a lifeline. No matter where
you fall on that spectrum, allow me to give you a fresh perspective.
• Checking the answer key reinforces what you learned. Read through it
thoroughly to see if I solved the problem in a different way. There can be
more than one way to reach a correct answer.
• Using an answer key to check your work allows you to identify areas you
may not have fully understood. When you don’t understand something, re-
read the lesson to clear it up.
• Sometimes, I may add additional tips to the answer key that didn’t really fit
with the lesson text. If you don’t read it, you’ll miss out.
Since reviewing the answers is an important part of learning, be sure to check the
answer key every day.
Finally, save all of your graded tests in a special section of your notebook. They
will come in handy when you are reviewing for the final!
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Day 2: Pie Are Square
Pies are square, at least sometimes. I like to make cobbler or fruit crisp in a square
glass pan. Last Thanksgiving, I made a pumpkin pie in my square pan.
By now, though, you must have figured out that my title, “Pie are square,” has
more to do with the formula written on this pie. That formula relates to something
more round than square. Now that you know, allow me to correct the spelling:
Pi R Squared
This week’s lessons will be devoted to untangling what that means. You’ve known
what a circle is since Preschool, but mathematicians have an exact description.
Definitions:
A circle contains all points equally distant from another point, the center, in
a two-dimensional plane.
A point is a location in space.
A plane is a completely flat surface, like a piece of paper or a table top.
A radius is the distance from the center of a circle to its edge.
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Assignment
1. Take out your compass and a piece of paper and

follow along.
• Pick a point, any point, in the center of the paper.

Mark it with a dot.
• Hold the sharp end of the compass on that point.
• Place the pencil end of the compass on the paper.
• Turn the compass, dragging the pencil around in a
circle,
• Or, hold the compass still and turn the paper underneath it.
Do you see how that could be done with a piece of string instead? Try tying one
end of the string to a paper clip and the other end to a pencil. Practice drawing a
few circles each way.
2. Using your ruler, measure the radius of each circle and write the measurement
on each drawing. Be sure to include inches (in) or centimeters (cm) in your
answer.
3. Some Geometry books teach all the definitions at once, in a single chapter.
Boring! Instead, I’m going to have you keep a running tab of our definitions and
important points as we go along. Every day or so, you’ll be adding to your list.
Today, download the PDF titled “Geometry Notes” and fill in the definitions of
a circle, point, plane, and radius on the “Definitions” page.
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4. We’ve introduced an important formula in this lesson:
The Area of a Circle equals Pi R Squared.
That’s way too long to write down. We’re going to use some “Mathese.” (I told
you that math is a language, so let’s just agree to call it by a new name:
Mathese.)
For Area, we always use the abbreviation A. For radii (the plural of radius), we
always use the abbreviation r.
Abbreviate that formula this way, but say the bold-text words above as you
write.
Formula:
𝑨𝑨 (𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪) = 𝝅𝝅 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
Congratulations! You just translated your first sentence of Mathese! Copy it onto
the “Geometry Notes” PDF on the corresponding line of the “Shape Formulas”
page (page 9).
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Day 3: An Ancient Ratio
Thousands of years ago, when the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks
were studying geometry, they noticed something that amazed them. No matter how
far across a jar, cobblestone, or wheel measured, they would need more than three
times that length to tie a string around it.
You have a rock that measures 3 inches across? You’ll need a little over 9 inches
of string to go all the way around it.
Your ceramic jar is 5 inches across? You’ll need more than 15 inches of string to
circle it.
Let’s explore that for ourselves. Take a few minutes and go

around your house. Find three different circular objects to
measure. It could be a can of green beans, or a roll of duct tape,
or a magnet off the fridge.
While you’re at it, find yourself a ruler and a piece of string.
Are you ready? Go. I’ll be here when you get back.
Did you get your circular objects? Good. Here’s what to do.
1. Fill in a name for each of your objects in the first column of the chart below.
2. Put your string (or your tape measure) around the first circle, being sure to mark
where it starts and ends. No overlapping! Keep your place and stretch the string out
along the ruler. Record your measurement in the “Around” column below. Repeat
this step for each circle. (Be sure to mark whether you measured in inches – in – or
centimeters – cm.)
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3. Now, measure the distance ACROSS each circle, right through the middle, and
put your answers in the chart below, in the “Across” column.
Troubleshooting Tip: What if your object isn’t the same size circle all the way up
and down, like a tapered glass? Just make sure you measure the “around” part and
the “across” part at the same place.
Fill in the first three columns of this chart by following the directions above:
Circular Object AROUND ACROSS RATIO

Example: 9.5 in 3 in 9.5 ÷ 3 =
tennis ball 3.167
1.
2.
3.
4. Take the number in the “around” column and divide it by the number in the
“across” column. Write it in the fourth column. Round decimals to three digits.
5. Last, compare the numbers in the fourth column. You got a little more than 3
each time, right? Depending on how exact your measurement was, the ratio should
be close to 3.14 on each line of your chart.
What we found was the ratio between these two measurements. A “ratio” is
Mathese for a relationship between two numbers.
Definition:
A ratio is a relationship between two numbers when they’re divided.
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That ratio we found is useful whenever we measure circles. What should we call
it? “The relationship between the distance across a circle and the distance around
it,” perhaps?
That works great as a definition, but it would be long and clunky to say every time.
That’s why mathematicians in the early 1700s decided to give it a short name, one
that couldn’t be mistaken for anything else. Out of respect for the ancient Greek
geometry pioneers, they used the Greek letter pi (π).
So, that’s why we were talking about pie. Now I’m hungry.
You’ll need to memorize this. It’s not exactly a formula, but it’s close:
Formula:
𝝅𝝅 = 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒 (𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂)
When we measured ACROSS our circles, we measured right through the middle.
That’s called a diameter.
Definition:
A diameter is the distance across the widest part of a circle, through the
center.
Imagine with me that we’re outside on a dark night. A lamp is sitting on the lawn,
radiating light all the way around in a perfect circle. Now apply that word, radiate,
to a drawing. The light radiates from the center to the edge of a circle, like a radius.
As we learned yesterday, any line drawn from the center to the edge of a circle is
called a radius. That would make a radius equal to half a diameter. Or to say it
another way, a diameter equals two radii.
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Formulas
𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒅𝒅 and 𝒅𝒅 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
If you have more than one radius, they’re called radii. It’s pronounced ray-dee-I,
and it’s a lot easier than saying, “radius-es.”
A few more things you must remember:
1. Every radius of a circle is equal to all the other radii in the same circle.
2. The lower case letter ‘r’ stands for radius in a formula.
3. It takes two radii to make a diameter.
Assignment
You’ve already done most of your work today by filling in the chart. Focus on
adding these to your Geometry Notes page:
1. Add the definitions of a diameter and a ratio to your definitions page.
2. Add the approximate measure of pi to your formulas page, as well as the

relationship between the diameter and a radius (located under the circles above).
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Day 4: The 1st Dimension
Yesterday, we measured around our circles. That distance has a name. It’s called
the circumference, and we abbreviate it with a capital C. And now we have
everything we need to officially define pi.
Definition:
Circumference is the distance around the edge of a circle.
Pi is the ratio between the circumference of a circle and its diameter.
Let’s redo our chart with these new names, shall we?
Originally, our chart looked like this:
Circular Object AROUND ACROSS RATIO

1.
Now that we know the definitions, we can change it to this:
Circular Object Circumference Diameter Pi (π)

1.
But let’s change it one more time. We know that the diameter is two radii, right? In
other words, the diameter is two times a radius, or 2r.
(Math geeks don’t put times signs between numbers and letters, by the way. If we
use a multiply sign at all, we’ll use parentheses, 2(r), or a dot, 2·r. We don’t want
to confuse the times sign with the variable x from Algebra!)
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We’ll also use abbreviations this time. Put an = after the C, and a multiply sign
after the 2r, and we have ourselves a formula! Let’s see if it works.
Step 1: Copy the first column from yesterday’s chart onto the chart on the next
page.
Step 2: Copy the second column, the distance around the object.
Step 3: Divide the number in yesterday’s third column by 2, to convert from a

diameter to a radius. Then write it in the third column below, inside the
parentheses.
Step 4: Use a calculator to multiply the third column (2r) by π (3.14). Compare
your answer to the number in column 2. If it’s close, make a check
mark in the blank. (The number won’t be exact.)
Circular Object C = 2(radius) ● Pi (π)

Example: 9.5 in = 2 (1.5in) ● 3.14 
tennis ball
1. = 2( ) ● 3.14
2. = 2( ) ● 3.14
3. = 2( ) ● 3.14
There’s only one more thing you need to know before you memorize this formula.
You see, mathematicians get so used to swapping around the order of
multiplication problems, they don’t see any difference between 2rπ and 2πr.
(That’s the commutative property of multiplication for you.)
However, anyone who’s made it all the way to high school geometry can tell you
it’s confusing to swap the order in a formula. So, we’re going to memorize the
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order that high school geometry students have memorized for decades: 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟.
But you and I both know that’s twice the radius times pi, right?
Formula:
𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐 𝝅𝝅 𝒓𝒓
We’re going to shift gears to do some dimensional analysis, now. That’s a fancy
name for converting between units, like what you probably learned in Pre-Algebra.
Its foundation is the concept of dimension.
Definition:
Dimension is a measurement in one direction.
The first three dimensions we learn in school are length, width, and height. So far
in this lesson, we’ve only considered length, which is another way of saying
distance: distance across a circle, or distance around a circle. Even though we’re
measuring a curved distance around a shape, we can take the string or measuring
tape we’re using and stretch it out straight against a ruler, so it’s still a length in
one dimension.
In fact, if all we do is measure the width of something, that’s still a distance in one
dimension. (A width is any measurement at right angles to the length.)
If all we measure is the height of something, that’s still a distance in one

dimension. (A height is any measurement at right angles to both the length and the
width.)
It’s not until we start putting those together that we go beyond one dimension.
With our circles, we measured several one-dimensional distances. The distance

across the circle was its diameter, in one dimension. The distance from the center
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to the edge was its radius, in one dimension. The distance around our circle –
called circumference – is also a measurement in one dimension.
That means 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 is an equation in one dimension.
By the way, every distance should also have a word attached, telling what units it
was measured in. Typically, you’ll use measurements like inches, centimeters, feet,
or miles (in, cm, ft, mi). Otherwise, how would we know how long a distance is?
After all, 2 inches is a lot shorter distance than 2 miles! That’s why we filled in
inches or centimeters on yesterday’s chart.
Definitions:
In this lesson, we’ve covered several words you need to know. The definitions
below summarize what we learned.
Circumference is the distance around the edge of a circle.
Dimension is a measurement in one direction.
Length is a one-dimensional measurement of distance.
Width is a one-dimensional measurement of distance, at right angles to the

length.
Height is a one-dimensional measurement of distance, at right angles to both

the length and the width.
We also learned one new formula:
𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐 𝝅𝝅 𝒓𝒓
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Assignment
1. Add these to your Geometry Notes on the definitions page and the formulas
page: circumference, dimension, length, width, height, and the formula for
circumference.
2. Practice finding the Circumference of these circles. Use π = 3.14 for your
calculations, and be sure to include the units in your answer.
a. r = 1 mi C = __________________
b. r = 4 km C = __________________
c. r = 6 ft C = __________________
d. r = 7 in C = __________________
e. r = 10 cm C = __________________
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Day 5: The 2nd Dimension
The second dimension combines length with width. Do you remember what the
formula “Length times Width” gives us? Right, the Area of a rectangle.
Definition:
Area is the flat space a shape occupies. It is measured in two dimensions:
length and width.
To review: Width is a one-dimensional measurement of distance, at right angles to

the length. That means we should define what right angles are.
Definition:
A right angle measures exactly 90 degrees. It can be thought of as a “square
corner,” and it is marked with a little square in the corner.
Since width is defined as a one-dimensional distance at right angles to the length,

that means the two are interchangeable. Compare the areas of these two rectangles,
for instance. (Notice the little squares in the corners. Those mark right angles.)
w=2 A=7·2 w=7

A=2·7
l=7
l=2
Is there any difference between A=7·2 and A=2·7? No, they both equal 14. That
means, as long as they are at right angles, the width is interchangeable with the
length. (At least that’s true for finding Area, though not for fitting boxes into a
cupboard. Remember, we’re speaking Mathese. We’re not using the definitions
from an English dictionary.)
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For the area of our circles, it’s a little different because there are no square corners.
Since area is always measured in two dimensions, though, the area of a circle is
two-dimensional as well.
More generally, anything that has both length and width, like a sheet of paper, is
two-dimensional. Cartoon figures are two-dimensional because they’re flat. Paper
dolls are two-dimensional, for the same reason. The game boards of Chess,
Checkers, or Battleship are two-dimensional as well. (No depth charges allowed.)
A word about units is in order. Did you notice I left the units off the rectangles
above? I was saving this part of the conversation.
Definition:
Units are the names of the measurements we use to describe size. They can
be English (pound, gallon, foot) or metric (gram, liter, meter).
Example:
Suppose I used feet to measure the length of my bedroom and yards to measure its
width. It measures 10 feet by 4 yards. I can’t combine those to get the area because
they are not the same units. I have to convert both measurements into yards or both
into feet.
10𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 1 4𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 3𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

· = 3 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 · = 12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
1 3𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 3 1 1𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
I will use the second conversion because I prefer to work with whole numbers. To
find the area of my room, I would take 10 feet times twelve feet.
10 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 · 12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 120 ? ?
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That gives me 120 of what unit? Not just feet—because my room isn’t long and
skinny. (Imagine 120 rulers laid end to end!)
Focus on the feet times feet part. Remember from Algebra class how anything
times itself gets an exponent to the second power, or squared? Well, that applies to
my units, too. The area of my bedroom is 120 feet squared. We write it as 120 ft2.
10 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 · 12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 120 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 · 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
I want you to notice two things with this example.
First, area is always 2-D, or 2-dimensional. That’s why it’s measured in square
units, where the exponent is 2.
Second,
Always mark the units when you use measurements.
Suppose a problem asks, “What is the diameter of a circle with a circumference of

3.14 cm?” If your answer is only a number, 1, you’ll only receive half credit. The
full answer would include the unit: 1 cm. (That means I only got half-credit for my
rectangles above.)
Let’s get back to our circles. All we have are radii and pi. We have a 1st dimension
formula for the distance around the circle, the circumference. Here’s how to
convert it to our 2nd dimension formula for area.
Step 1: Write down your 1st dimension formula, 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟.
Step 2: Begin writing it again, changing the C to an A for Area.
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Step 3: Skip the 2 and write the πr.
Step 4: Move the 2 from the middle to the end, and turn it into an exponent.
Step 1 ↓
←Step 4
Step 2 ↑ Step 3 ↑
Now that we see the similarities between the two formulas for circles, we can keep
them straight by knowing what dimension we’re measuring.
How, you ask? It would help to remember this little trick from Algebra: any
number or letter has an exponent of 1 unless it’s otherwise stated.
𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 is the same as 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟1 , measured in 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 1 . This is the 1st dimension.

Compare that to 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 , measured in 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 . This is the 2nd dimension.
If we look at the exponents now, we can clearly see that circumference is in one
dimension because its exponent is one, and area is in two dimensions because its
exponent is two.
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Assignment
1. Write these definitions on your Geometry Notes definitions page:

Area, Right Angle, and Units.
2. Make sure the formulas 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 and 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 are written on the formulas

page.
3. Given a circle with the listed radius, find the Area and the Circumference of
each. Use π = 3.14 for your calculations. Round to one decimal place. Be sure to
include the units in your answer.
a. r = 2 ft C = __________________ A = __________________
b. r = 3 in C = __________________ A = __________________
c. r = 5 cm C = __________________ A = __________________
d. r = 8 cm C = __________________ A = __________________
e. r = 9 cm C = __________________ A = __________________
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Week 2: Spheres
Day 1: The 3rd Dimension
Let’s review briefly. The circumference formula, 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟, is a formula in one

dimension, using single units (like ft). The area formula, 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 , is a formula in
two dimensions, using square units (like 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 ).
That makes sense because Circumference is a one-dimensional measurement of

distance, and area covers two dimensions of length and width. It also helps us
memorize them because all we have to remember is where the 2 goes. (Remember,
area is square, so the 2 has to be an exponent.)
AHA! That’s why this unit is titled “Pie Are Square:” because 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 .
What about other dimensions? Does the pattern hold? Let’s investigate that next.
How would you fill in this table? Make a prediction for the third line.
Dimension Basic formula contains: Units Formula

1 - distance Length in, cm, ft … 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟1
2 - area Length, Width in2, cm2, ft2… 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
3 - _______ Length, Width, ________ ________________ ___ = ______
You might see where I’m going with this. Hint: Suppose you watch a movie that
has special graphics. It looks like the dinosaur is about to eat you in your seat.
What kind of glasses do you need to see the full effect?
Right! 3-D glasses. That’s because real life is three-dimensional. It has length,
width, and height. Any formula for Volume will have those dimensions. The units
will use 3 dimensions, too (inches, centimeters, feet, etc.).
23
Did your prediction look like this? Good job! All we have to do now is learn how
to find the volume of a 3-D circle, called a sphere.
Dimension Basic formula contains: Units Formula

1 - distance Length in, cm, ft, etc. C=2πr1
2 - area Length, Width in2, cm2, ft2, etc. A=πr2
3 - Volume Length, Width, Height in3, cm3, ft3, etc. V = ________
Definitions:
Volume measures the amount of space taken up by an object in three
dimensions.
A sphere contains all points equally distant from another point, the center,
in three dimensions.
Did you catch the difference between a circle and a sphere? It all depends on how
many dimensions you’re using.
Did your Volume formula prediction include 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 3 as well? You are so close! It
definitely needs pi because it’s based on the circle formula. It definitely needs the
𝑟𝑟 3 , because Volume is 3-D (three-dimensional). There’s only one more thing you
4 4 4
need, and that’s the ratio : 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 3 . Why is it ? We’ll cover that in a later
3 3 3
unit. For now, just finish the formula on your chart above.
Formula:
𝟒𝟒
V= πr3
𝟑𝟑
24
Let’s try out that new formula with this chart. You may use your assignments from
last week to fill in the second and third columns.
Dimensions 1 2 3
Formulas 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 4
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 3
3
r=2
r=3
r=4
r=5
r = 10
To fill in the fourth column, it helps to work the problem backward. Be sure to use
your calculator.
Example: r = 10
Step 1: start with 𝑟𝑟 3 :

On a scientific calculator, type 10, then the 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 button, and then the
exponent, 3.
Step 2: multiply by π:
Since we’re using a calculator, push the multiply button and then the
button marked π.
4
Step 3: to multiply by , first multiply by 4, and then divide by 3.
3
25
Step 4: The volume of a sphere with radius 10 is 4,188.8, rounded to one
decimal place. Fill it in on the chart above and complete the others.
We haven’t filled in units yet. Pick either inches or centimeters and write in units
on each column.
Be careful about the dimensions. The column marked one dimension would have
no exponent printed after the unit because we almost never write out an exponent
of one. The column for two dimensions should use units of 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 or 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2 . The
column for three dimensions should use units of 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3 or 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚3 .
Assignment
1. Add these to your Geometry Notes on the definitions page and the formulas
page: volume and sphere, and the formula for the volume of a sphere.
2. We’re ready to tackle problem II from Day 1 of Week 1. Do you remember it?
Imagine you are a gardener. You have been hired to take care of a circular
planter that is 6 feet across. Your final step is to order bark to lay on top of the
soil, so the flowers won’t dry out too quickly. One bag of bark will cover 4
square feet of soil. How many bags of bark should you order?
a. Label the radius: r = ________________
b. Find the Area: A = _________________
c. How many bags are needed? _________
26
Day 2: Pi as a variable
Circle formulas can leave us with a lot of nasty-looking decimal places. After all, π
is an irrational number with an infinite number of decimal places. Fortunately, we
can use another little “trick” with circle formulas to make them easier to work
with.
Instead of multiplying by pi, leave it next to the number like a variable. This does
two things for us:
1. It lets us work with smaller numbers.

2. It lets us figure the exact value of the formula when we’re done, instead of
rounding off decimal places at every step.
Here’s what yesterday’s table might look like:
Dimensions 1 2 3
Formulas 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 4
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 3
3
r = 1 in 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴 = 1𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 4
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3
3
r = 3 in 𝐶𝐶 = 6𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴 = 9𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉 = 36𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3
27
Wow. Those numbers got big in a hurry. That’s called exponential growth, and it’s
all because of the exponent in our formula.
Definition:
Exponential growth means numbers increase quickly when exponents are
involved.
In fact, when we doubled the radius from 3 in to 6 in, we also doubled the
circumference because it’s also in one dimension. In this case, we just multiplied
by 2, and 21 = 2.
Doubling the radius quadrupled the area, though, because the area is in two
dimensions, and we multiplied by 22 = 4.
Finally, doubling the radius made the volume eight times greater because volume
is in three dimensions, and we multiplied by 23 = 8.
Example: We doubled the radius from 6 in to 12 in. Let’s compare just those two
lines of the chart:
𝑟𝑟 = 6 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 = 12𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴 = 36𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉 = 288𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3
Radius: 6 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ 2 = 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 2 = 21 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Circumference: 12π 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ 2 = 24π 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 2 = 21 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Area: 36π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 ∙ 4 = 144π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 . 4 = 22 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Volume: 288π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3 ∙ 8 = 2304π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3 . 8 = 23 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
28
Assignment
1. Write these definitions on your Geometry Notes definitions page: volume,

sphere, and exponential growth.
4
2. Make sure the formula 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 3 is written on the formulas page.
3
3. Given a circle or sphere with the following radius, find the circumference, area,
and volume of each. Instead of multiplying by pi, leave them as a factor of π.
Round to one decimal place.
a. r = 6 cm C = ____________ A = _____________ V = _____________
b. r = 7 cm C = ____________ A = _____________ V = _____________
c. r = 8 cm C = ____________ A = _____________ V = _____________
d. r = 9 cm C = ____________ A = _____________ V = _____________
e. r = 12 cm C = ____________ A = _____________ V = _____________
Continued on next page…
29
4. Compare these two lines of our chart. When you triple the radius, what happens
to the other measurements? Use the example in this lesson as a pattern.
Radius: 3 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ 3 = 9 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 3 = 31 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Circumference: 6π 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ ___ = 18π 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ____ = 31 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ___ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Area: 9π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 ∙ ___ = 81π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 ____ = 32 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ___ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Volume: 36π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3 ∙ ____ = 972π 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛3 ____ = 33 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ___ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
30
Day 3: Converting Units
Whew! We covered a lot of territory in just a few pages. You might have
wondered why we started our geometry class with circles, but look at everything
we’ve learned:
• Seventeen words in Mathese (from your definitions page).
• Five circle formulas, including the value of π.
• We always use units (in, cm, ft, etc.) with measurements.
• Units for distance (straight, around, or across) are in one dimension.
• Units are always squared for area (in2, etc.) in two dimensions.
• The units are cubed for volume (in3, etc.) in three dimensions.
You may not realize it yet, but that understanding about dimensions is going to go
a long way as we progress through Geometry.
All of math has a practical aspect, though, and Geometry is no exception. Frankly,
we couldn’t even cook breakfast without measurements of some kind. (Will that be
one egg or two?)
A lot of math books try to give students a sense of how math is used by including
page after page of word problems. How much sense does it make, though, for
Kaela to buy 562 rolls of paper towels at the store? (Even in the year 2020!)
That’s why we opened this unit with a list of real problems from real people. We
solved one already, and we’ll get to the others later in this course.
For now, I want to extend that garden problem to make it more real.
Suppose our gardener just moved from Bangor, Maine, to work at a college in the
United Kingdom. Coming from America, he is familiar with English units (pound,
foot, gallon). Moving to England shouldn’t pose a problem, right?
31
Except for one sticky wicket. The United Kingdom has done a much better job of
converting to metric than the United States, with a lot of the motivation coming
from their prior membership in the European Union.
Example
The gardener measured the circular planter box: this one’s radius is 6 feet. He
calculated the square feet of area he needs to cover with bark (113.1 ft2). His
employer wants him to cover the area at least 10 cm deep in bark. He has to
purchase this by the truckload, and each load of bark holds one cubic meter.
Our gardener knows that 1 in = 2.54 cm. He also knows that 100 cm = 1 m. He
knows he can’t mix units (feet and meters) without running into problems. What
should he do?
Let’s help him work this out. Remember canceling fractions? Well, this time,
we’re going to cancel words. Simply write the equal measurements as a fraction,
lining up the words where they will cancel. Then do the math on a calculator.
Step 1: Convert 6 feet to meters, rounding off to 2 decimal places.
6𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 12𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2.54𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1𝑚𝑚

∙ ∙ ∙ = 1.83 𝑚𝑚
1 1𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 100𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Here’s how it looks with the words canceled. (Remember, ft ÷ ft = 1.)
6𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 12𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2.54𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1𝑚𝑚

∙ ∙ ∙ = 1.83 𝑚𝑚
1 1𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 100𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Step 2: Calculate the area. Square the radius before multiplying by 3.14.
𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝜋𝜋(1.83)2 = 10.52 𝑚𝑚2
32
Step 2b: We could also calculate the area in m2 from the area in ft2.
113.1 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 12𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 12𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2.54𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2.54𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1𝑚𝑚 1𝑚𝑚

∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ = 10.51 𝑚𝑚2
1 1𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 100𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 100𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Oh, my goodness! Why is that calculation so long and ugly? It’s because the
area is in two dimensions. You see, if you have a measurement in ft2, you have
to multiply it by the conversion factor (12 inches in a foot) twice to cancel both
feet from the fraction. (Remember, ft2 = ft · ft.) It’s the same with all the other
conversion factors.
Our final answer was off by a centimeter, also. (The hundredths place of meters
represents a cm.) That’s because we used estimates for pi, and we rounded off
in different stages of the calculations. As you’ll learn from science, your answer
will be accurate to one less digit than what you rounded to. We rounded to two
decimal places, so our answer is accurate to one decimal place.
Step 3: Calculate how many square meters a single cubic-meter load of bark
will cover to a depth of 10 cm. First look at the cubic meter, m3.
1 𝑚𝑚3 = 1𝑚𝑚2 ∙ 1𝑚𝑚
Do you recognize the m2? That’s Area! The “times 1m” part must be depth. I
think we’re on to something, here. A cubic meter will cover a square meter 1𝑚𝑚
deep. Now we can figure how many 10-cm-deep square meters it can cover.
1𝑚𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 10
That means the truckload of bark will cover 1 m2 to a depth of 10 cm ten times
over. To put it another way, one load will cover 10 m2 to the required depth.
33
Step 4: Calculate how many bags are required to cover 10.5 m2.
Oh, dear. It looks like our gardener will have to buy two truckloads because one
truckload will leave him a little short.
(If the above example wasn’t something you remember from your earlier math
classes, Unit 5 of SchoolhouseTeachers.com’s Pre-Algebra course has a very good
review of the concept. This geometry lesson simply builds onto the “Factor-Label
Method” by adding more dimensions.)
That brings us to another important question: Why do math books include word
problems, anyway?
Memorizing formulas is one thing. With the invention of the Internet, perhaps it’s
not even the main thing. You can always look that stuff up.
What’s important is knowing how to use those formulas in real-life situations. So

today and tomorrow, we’re going to apply what we know. Be sure to read the
solutions in the answer key because that may give you a different point of view on
the problems.
Example
A water tower holds a tank shaped like a sphere. The current tank has a
radius of 10 feet. The town wants to double its volume. What should the
radius of the new tank be?
I’m confused. Wasn’t that from yesterday’s lesson?
Yes. We’re reviewing for the Unit 1 test in a couple days. We’ve learned
everything required to solve difficult problems like this. We just need to look at it
from the right point of view.
34
Step 1: Find the volume of the old water tank.
4 4 4000
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝜋(10 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡)3 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 = 4188.8 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3
3 3 3
Step 2: What should the new volume be? (Double the volume.)
2(4188.8 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 ) = 8377.6 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3
Step 3: Substitute that into the formula for Volume.
4
8377.6 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3
3
Step 4: Solve for r using Algebra.
8377.6 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 ∙ 3
= 𝑟𝑟 3
𝜋𝜋 ∙ 4
3 6283.2 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 3
�� = �𝑟𝑟 3
𝜋𝜋
3
�2000 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 = 𝑟𝑟
12.6 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ≈ 𝑟𝑟
Notice that the cube root of ft3 gives us a one-dimensional ft for the radius.
Step 5: The solution of a word problem should always use words, but you may
abbreviate.
Radius of the new water tank = 12.6 ft.
35
Assignment
1. Town planners have set aside land to build a water tower. They laid out a circle
with an area of 154 ft2. How many cubic feet of water will the tower
hold? (Assuming the tank is a sphere.)
2. With that same water tower, what is its capacity in gallons

instead of ft3? (Use 1 ft3 = 7.5 gallons.)
3. Suppose the town planners find the best company to order a tank from is based
in Europe. They have to change their calculations into metric. What size tank
should they buy?
4. Take a few minutes to review the definitions and formulas on your Geometry
Notes pages. There will be a unit quiz soon.
36
Day 4: Review
We should add one more definition to this unit, and you can blame the ancient
Babylonian mathematicians for this one. They divided things up into divisions of
twelves and sixties. That’s why our analog clock face shows twelve hour markings,
and every hour has sixty minutes. When it comes to circles, it’s measured in
degrees, not minutes, and it has 360 of them. (That’s six divisions of sixty, by the
way.) Have you ever done a 360 turn? Now you know why it’s called that.
Definition:
There are 360 degrees in a circle. We write that 360°.
Assignment
1. Add the definition to your Geometry Notes definitions page.
2. The town welcome committee wants to plant geraniums around the base of the
tower from yesterday’s assignment. What would be the circumference of that
circular planter? (Leave your answer as a factor of π.)
3. If they plant one geranium every 3.14 feet, how many geraniums will they need?
4. The town’s sister city has an old water tank whose volume is the same (see your
answer from Week 2, Day 3, #1). They want to plant geraniums around a new
tank with double that capacity. How many geraniums will they need?
37
Our gardener just moved to a new college in Fresno, California. This location has
even more circular planters. The space between the buildings is laid out like this,
with the sidewalks (in white) curved around the planter boxes (in green). Every
radius he measured in this quad was four feet long.
5. What is the complete area of the five planter boxes altogether? (Hint: Each of
the little planters is ¼ of a circle.)
6. The college trustees want our gardener to replace the brick border around each
of the planters. One brick is 8 inches long. How many bricks should he order to
complete the project? (Note: The straight lines on this drawing represent
buildings and sidewalks, so he will only need bricks for the curved portions.)
38
Day 5: Unit 1 Quiz
We began this unit by quoting Psalm 19.
“The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament showeth His
handiwork. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth
knowledge. There is no speech nor language, where their voice is not heard.”
I want to end the same way, by making a quick reflection on the number 𝜋𝜋.
One of the great mysteries of mathematics is the search for an end to the number
pi, or at least a pattern that repeats. In 1949, scientists calculated pi to over a
thousand digits just with a desk calculator. Since only a couple hundred digits
would be needed to calculate the size of the known universe with an error factor of
about an atom, that’s plenty for modern science. Yet there are still supercomputers
devoted to cranking out the next thousand digits of pi, and the next, and the next.
Personally, I’m satisfied that pi represents a perfect illustration of the infinite

nature of God Himself. I think He created infinite numbers to remind us of that. As
Solomon prayed in 1 Kings 8:27:
“But will God indeed dwell on the earth? Behold, the heaven and Heaven of
heavens cannot contain Thee; how much less this house that I have built?”
There are several of these mind-blowing infinite numbers in nature. The natural
logarithm, 𝑒𝑒, is one, and the square root of 2 is another. Whenever your math
journey brings one of these across your path, stop a minute and give thanks to our
God, Who is infinitely more infinite than those numbers, and yet He loved us so
much that He sent His only begotten Son to save us (John 3:16).
Congratulations on finishing Unit 1. Your assignment is to complete the quiz.
39
Unit 1 Quiz
Directions: Find the listed measurements of each circle. Leave your answer as a
factor of π, and include the correct units in the answer.
1. Radius = 5 cm.
Diameter = _______________
C = ________________
A = ________________
2. Radius = 4 in.
Diameter = _______________
C = ________________
A = ________________
3. Radius = 3 ft.
V = ________________
40
4. Match all of the measurements to the correct dimension. You may use each
dimension several times.
_____ i. circle a. One dimension

_____ ii. plane b. Two dimensions
_____ iii. radius c. Three dimensions
_____ iv. sphere
_____ v. area
_____ vi. diameter
_____ vii. circumference
_____ viii. volume
_____ ix. length
_____ x. width
5. Match the following definitions.
_____ i. circle a. all points equally distant from the

center in a plane
_____ ii. radius b. all points equally distant from the
center in three dimensions
_____ iii. diameter c. a relationship formed by dividing
_____ iv. sphere d. measurement in one direction
_____ v. ratio e. distance across a circle
_____ vi. dimension f. distance around a circle
_____ vii. circumference g. distance from center to circle’s edge
6. A circle contains ________ degrees; a right angle contains _______degrees.
41
7. Convert 10 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 from English to metric, using these ratios. Round to one decimal
place. 1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 2.54 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1 𝑚𝑚
8. A circle’s radius doubles in size. How much bigger will the area of the circle be?
9. If a sphere’s radius doubles in size, how much bigger will the volume be?
10. Solve the gardener problem with new numbers.
A gardener must cover a circular planter that is 10 feet across with bark. If one
bag of bark covers 4 square feet, how many bags must she order?
42
Unit 2: Base Camp
Week 3: Quadrilaterals
Introduction
Consider the following: A homeowner wants to install a new fence. The new wood
should be painted in order to make it last longer. If the yard measures 50 ft by 75
feet, and the house borders 60 feet of the long side, how many board-feet of
fencing will be required to build the new fence (including gates)? If a gallon of
paint covers 350 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 , how many gallons will be needed for two coats of paint on a
six-foot-tall fence?
Day 1: Meet the Family
As you may have guessed by now, you started learning Geometry when you were
in Preschool. Our goal in this course is to extend that information in new and
useful ways. With that in mind, allow me to introduce you to the Family of
Quadrilaterals, or the Quads for short.
They’re a funny little family, with all straight lines and sharp elbows. Some
interesting things happen, however, when you draw in parallel lines. So, let’s begin
with some definitions.
Have you ever heard that the shortest distance between two points is a straight
line? That’s a concept directly from ancient Geometry. It’s generally accepted as
true, and we can take it for granted as long as we’re not doing advanced physics.
(It probably doesn’t hold true for a wormhole in space.)
Definition:
A line is the straight path between two points, extending beyond them
indefinitely. It has no thickness, and its length is infinite.
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You’re probably most familiar with the number line from arithmetic, but in
⃖��⃗:
Geometry we name the line for alphabetical points instead of numbers. This is 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
⃖��⃗ as “line AB.” If the line stops at those points, it’s called a line segment.
Read 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Definition:
A line segment is the part of a line between two endpoints.
Example: ��:
Segment 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Did you notice the arrows disappeared over the letters? We generally draw the
⃖��⃗ and segment 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
symbols to match the shapes: line 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ��. We also need to extend our
definition of a plane from Unit 1. To be technically correct, we need to add another
sentence.
Definition:
A plane is a completely flat surface, like a piece of paper or a table
top. It extends infinitely in all directions.
So you see, a plane is a two-dimensional version of a line. If we wanted a segment

of a plane, then, we would draw line segments and connect them. That’s where all
those shapes from Preschool come in. Technically, they’re all plane figures made
of line segments. For this unit, we’re going to concentrate on a special group of
them called quadrilaterals. The word lateral refers to sides, and the prefix quad
means there are four of them.
Definition:
A quadrilateral is a plane figure with four straight sides.
44
I promised you a funny little family with all straight lines and sharp elbows. This is
where those elbows come in: at the corners where the lines cross.
Definition:
A vertex is the point where two line segments meet. (More than one are
vertices.)
It really doesn’t take much to be a member of the Quad

family. As you can see, all you need are four sides.
Quad This one doesn’t look like those shapes we learned in

Preschool, either. It wouldn’t even work to make a kite.
To be a kite, the cross pieces have to meet in the middle at one

end. That gives us a special case where the top two sides are
equal, and the bottom two sides are equal. We’ll mark down
this definition and set it aside until later.
Definitions:
A kite has two pairs of equal adjacent sides.
Adjacent means side-by-side instead of opposite.
As I said earlier, we’re going to focus on what happens to quadrilaterals when

some of the sides are parallel. We’ll start with just one set of parallel sides. That
shape is called a trapezoid.
Definitions:
Parallel lines always go the same direction and never cross each other, like
a pair of lowercase letter l’s: ∥.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides.
45
Trapezoid Trapezoid
Since parallel lines never cross each other, it’s obvious that the ones across from
each other are parallel. We call those opposite sides. In both of these drawings, the
top and bottom are parallel.
I want you to envision a trapezoid that’s very tall and

skinny. Suppose the top side keeps going up like it’s an
elevator. What happens to its size? The top keeps
getting smaller, until it eventually disappears and we get
a triangle.
So, in a way, a triangle is simply a trapezoid whose top

parallel side equals zero. That’s not how we’re going to
define it, but it is how the triangle fits into the
quadrilateral family, as a sort of distant cousin. (Technically, we don’t count sides
that equal zero, so a triangle is just a three-sided figure and not a quadrilateral.
You’ll see why I’m including it here as we go along.)
Definition:
A triangle is a plane figure with three sides.
That’s enough definitions for one day. We’ll break here to let you write them all
down.
46
Assignment
1. Write these definitions on your Geometry Notes definitions page.
• Line
• Line segment
• Plane
• Quadrilateral
• Vertex
• Kite
• Adjacent
• Parallel
• Trapezoid
• Triangle
2. I’m going to let you be the teacher for a minute. Why would this lesson include
triangles as part of the quadrilateral unit? Use the concepts from today’s lesson
to explain your answer.
47
Day 2: Construction Crew
Let’s take a break from definitions and try our hand at constructions. Those are
drawings made with just a compass, a protractor, and a straightedge. Get out your
Geometry tools, and I’ll walk you through the construction of a triangle.
Example: Given that 5 cm, 12 cm, and 13 cm are the lengths of the sides of a
triangle, construct the triangle.
Instructions:
Step 1: Using your ruler, draw a length equal to the longest side, 13 cm.
←1. Draw line
Step 2: Use the ruler and the compass next. Measure from the point to the
pencil of the compass to make it the distance of the middle side, 12 cm.
If your compass has a locking mechanism, use it to keep that distance
from changing. If not, be careful not to change the measurement.
←3. Draw arc
←2. Measure
Step 3. Put the point of the compass on one end of the line you drew. Use the
pencil to draw an arc from the line upward to where you think the sides
of the triangle will meet.
48
Step 4: Use the ruler and compass to open the compass to the distance of the
last side, 5 cm, measured from point to pencil.
←4. Measure
Step 5: Put the point of the compass on the other end of the first line you drew.
Use the pencil end to draw an arc across the first arc you drew. Where
those two arcs cross will be the vertex of the triangle.
5. Then draw arc→
←5. Place point here
Step 6. Use the ruler as a straight edge to draw the sides of the triangle from the
original line to the crossing arcs. Measure each to check your work.
↖ ↗
6. Draw sides
49
Assignment
1. Following the instructions above, make triangles with sides of the listed lengths.
If there is one that does not make a triangle, explain why.
a. 3 in, 4in, 5in

b. 9 cm, 12.5 cm, 17.5 cm
c. 2 in, 7in, 8 in
d. 10 cm, 20 cm, 30 cm
2. Using the triangles from #1 above, or any other you may wish to create, draw a
parallel line to cut off the top of the triangle. Parallel lines will always be the
same distance apart, so do this by measuring a distance from the bottom side.
What shape do you have left?
↑ ↑
1.5in 1.5in
↓ ↓
3. The word truncate means to cut off or shorten. In that sense, when we truncate
the top of a triangle parallel to the base, we get a trapezoid. Is there any way to
draw a trapezoid that doesn’t form a truncated triangle? Why?
4. Test your theory by drawing a trapezoid and then extending the slanted sides
until they cross (in any direction).
50
Day 3: Family of Parallels
You might not have recognized it, but we discovered two important things in
yesterday’s assignment.
First, to truncate something means to cut it short. In Geometry, it’s usually used
when you’re talking about three-dimensional shapes, but we’ll stick with a short
description.
Definition:
Truncate means to shorten something by cutting part off.
We also learned a very important principle of triangle making.
Geometry Fact:
In any triangle, the sum of two sides must always be greater than the
third side.
We’ll get back to triangles later. For now, let’s finish meeting the rest of the
quadrilateral family. Next up is a quadrilateral where both pairs of opposite sides
are parallel. They didn’t get too creative when they named this one. It’s a
parallelogram. Something unique happens when you do that, however. All of a
sudden, both pairs of opposite sides become equal.
Definition:
A parallelogram has two pairs of equal, parallel sides.
Parallelogram
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The rest of our shapes are special kinds of parallelograms, and we’ll play with their
unique characteristics in the rest of this unit.
First is the rhombus, which is a parallelogram with all equal sides.
Rhombus
Definition:
A rhombus has two pairs of parallel sides that are all equal.
Next is the rectangle. It has opposite sides that are parallel and equal, like the
parallelogram, but it has all four right angles. (Hence the name, rectangle.) And,
finally, a square is a rectangle with all equal sides.
Definitions:
A rectangle has two pairs of equal, parallel sides that meet at right angles.
A square has two pairs of parallel sides that are all equal and meet at right
angles.
Rectangle Square
If you think about it, the square is the perfect quadrilateral.

• Both pairs of sides are parallel.
• All of its sides are equal.
• All of its corners are right angles, which means they’re also equal.
That means the square also holds the distinction of being the “Regular Polygon” of
the quadrilateral family.
52
Definition:
A polygon is a closed plane shape made of connected line segments.
A regular polygon is a shape with all equal sides and all equal angles.
A polygon: Regular polygons:
53
Assignment
1. Today’s definitions are a little simplistic. However, it’s important to keep all the
parallels “straight.” (Pun intended.) Add these definitions to your Geometry
Notes definitions page: Truncate, Parallelogram, Rhombus, Rectangle, Square,
Polygon, Regular Polygon. You’ll also write your first entry on the “Geometry
Facts” page:
“In any triangle, the sum of two sides must always be greater than the third side.”
2. Fill in a chart like this, putting a check mark on all of the characteristics the
shapes must have to be called by that shape name.
4- 1 set of 2 sets of Adjacent Opposite All sides 90°

sided ∥ sides ∥ sides Sides = sides = are = angles
Quadri
-lateral
Kite
Trape-
zoid
Tri-
angle
Parallel
-ogram
Rhom-
bus
Rect-
angle
Square
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3. While you’re thinking about it, how would you sort or organize these shapes?
Which ones would you put together, and why? You may draw and label a
picture to illustrate your answer, but be sure to include your reasons.
4. By the way, you’re not supposed to forget what you learned last unit. Find the
circumference, area, and volume of a circle or sphere with a radius of 𝑟𝑟 =
15 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
5. If a spherical water tower has a volume of 288 𝜋𝜋 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 , what is the radius of the
tank? (Hint: Write out the formula and use algebra to work backward.)
55
Day 4: The Quadrilateral Family Tree
Charts and definitions have their place, but visual learners like me need a picture.
Today, we’re going to create a flow chart that describes how the quadrilateral
family is related.
We’ll start with a random quadrilateral to represent anything with four sides, and
we’ll label it “Quad” for short.
Quad
From here, the family branches out in three ways. Off to the left are the kites.
We’ll investigate this branch of the family later.
Kite
Trapezoid
?
Down the middle are the trapezoids and the triangles. A triangle isn’t a quad, of
course. It’s here because a trapezoid can be made from a truncated triangle. The
rest of the family will go on the right.
Triangle
(Distant cousin)
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The final branch of the quadrilateral family contains all the parallelograms. One
line of the family will hold the right angles, and at the bottom, we’ll have the
“cousins” with all equal sides.
Quad
Kite
Parallelogram
Trapezoid
Rectangle
Triangle
(Distant cousin)
Square Rhombus
Let’s list all of these one more time, but this time we’ll put in their special
characteristics. It’s a tight squeeze, so we’ll have to abbreviate.
57
• ∥ This symbol means parallel.
• A square in the corner means right angles.
• Adj’s = means adjacent sides are equal.
• Opp’s = means opposite sides are equal.
• Rt. angles = right angles
Quad
Kite Parallelogram
Adj’s = Two sets of ∥ s
Trapezoid
One set of ∥ s
Rectangle
Two sets of ∥ s
Opp’s =
Rt. angles
Triangle
No ∥ s
Square Rhombus
Two sets of ∥ s Two sets of ∥ s
All sides = All sides =
Rt. angles
58
There’s a memory technique that says you have to see something three times to
remember it. By now, I hope you’ll remember the family of quadrilaterals. The rest
of our unit will build on what we’ve learned today.
We won’t forget what we learned in Unit 1, either. We’ll finish today’s lesson with
our first dimension: Perimeter.
Definition:
Perimeter is the distance around the edges of a shape.
Do you remember the definition of Circumference from Unit 1? “Circumference is

the distance around the edge of a circle.” The only difference between
circumference and perimeter is the curvature of the circle compared to the straight
edges of the shapes. (That, and pi is only involved when there are circles.)
You might even remember some fancy equations for perimeter from prior math
classes: formulas with lots of L’s and W’s in them. But there’s no need to
memorize something complicated. To find the perimeter, just add all the sides.
Here, I’ll turn that into a “formula” for you. We always use P for perimeter.
Formula:
𝑷𝑷 = 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
It really is that simple.
59
Assignment
1. Add the definition of perimeter to your Geometry Notes definitions page and
add the formula for perimeter to your Shapes Formulas in one dimension.
2. Label the sides of the following shapes. Don’t forget to include units. Find the
Perimeter.
a. Square: one side is 4 cm. P = __________________
b. Rectangle: one side is 5 in and one is 2 in. P = __________________
c. Parallelogram: one side is 2 ft and one is 1.5 ft. P = _______________
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d. Trapezoid: Starting at the bottom and working around clockwise:
Sides measure 8 cm, 6 cm, 5 cm, and 6 cm. P = _______________
e. Triangle: Sides are all 6 in. P = _______________
f. Kite: one side is 4 cm, and one is 6 cm. P = _______________
g. Irregular shape, with sides marked in cm. P = _______________
61
Day 5: Opening New Areas
Old habits are hard to break. When I taught at a Christian school, my students had
already spent years learning area a certain way. The school used the same
curriculum every year, and it was always presented in the same fashion: Learn a
formula, practice it for a whole page of problems, and then learn the next formula
and practice it. By the time students got to the chapter test, they would get poor
marks because they hadn’t learned to mix and match the formulas to the shapes.
I’d be willing to guess that half of you are in the same situation. If I were to ask
you the area of a rectangle, for example, you’d call out “length times width”
without hesitation. But if I asked for the area of a triangle or trapezoid, it might be
hard to remember it.
That’s why we’re going to set aside those old, memorized formulas for a while and
shift our way of thinking. It’s not that they’re wrong; they’re just not as useful as
they could be. And do you remember how we said length and width were
interchangeable, from a Geometry point of view? We’re going to fix that right
away.
Take your humble rectangle. Consider the bottom side that it’s sitting on. Another
word for bottom is base, so that’s what we’ll call it: the base. The same for the
bottom side of any rectangle. If the rectangle is printed catty-corner on the page,
simply rotate it in your mind until it’s resting on one side or the other and call that
the base.
base
base
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Definition:
The base is the bottom side of a shape, at right angles to the height.
Did you catch that part of the definition? “At right angles to the height” is very
important. The height is always measured straight up from the base, at right angles,
whether it’s a side or not. Fortunately, rectangle sides are already at right angles, so
the adjacent side is the height.
Definition:
The height of a plane figure is measured at right angles to the base, whether
it is a side or not.
Here’s what it looks like for our rectangles:
height
height
base
base
As you can see, we’ve replaced length and width with base and height. We don’t
want to spell that out all the time, so we’ll abbreviate with b for base and h for
height. Area gets a capital A. Our new formula for area will be base times height.
Basic Principle of Area:

𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
Read that as “Area equals base times height” as you write it down on your
Geometry Facts page. This one is so important that you should memorize it. Soon
we will see how all the other area formulas are related to it.
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More specifically, we have identified the exact formula for the area of a rectangle.
Formula:
𝐴𝐴(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
Did you notice that we’ve been putting little parentheses beside the A? That’s
because we’ll be writing specific formulas for each of the shapes, and they all start
with A for Area. But don’t worry, we’re going to hang onto our base times height
principle.
Take the square, for instance. It’s a special kind of quadrilateral.

• It’s a special kite because it has two pairs of equal adjacent sides.
• It’s a special trapezoid because it has one pair of parallel sides.
• It’s a special parallelogram because it has two pairs of parallel sides.
• It’s a special rhombus because all its sides are equal.
• It’s a special rectangle because it has right-angle vertices.
Let’s focus on that last one, though, because we already know how to find the area
of a rectangle. Say it with me: base times height. Since the square is also a
rectangle, we can use that formula for the square, too. (It doesn’t work for the other
shapes because they don’t have right angles. We’ll add another step for those.)
You might remember you learned a different formula for squares: 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑠𝑠 2 . If you
think about it, since the base and the height are equal, the two formulas arrive at
the same place. It’s just a different way of thinking about it. And for me, the less I
have to memorize, the better. Am I right?
height 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑏𝑏 = ℎ = 𝑠𝑠, side

𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑠𝑠 2
base side
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Formula:
𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
So far, we haven’t put measurements to our rectangles or squares. Let’s try that
and see what happens.
5 cm 4 in
7 cm 4 in
The area of the rectangle would be: 7 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 35 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 35 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2 .
The area of the square would be: 4 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ 4 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 16 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 16 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 .
Hmm. Square inches and square centimeters, just like when we found the area of
circles. That’s because area is always a measurement in two dimensions. (Look at
our definition from Week 1: Day 5.)
It makes sense because we’re multiplying the units at the same time we multiply
the numbers, so the answer has to be units squared. And now you know why we
call anything to the second power “squared” (where the exponent is 2, like 𝑥𝑥 2 ). It’s
because we measure areas in squares, and area is a measurement in two
dimensions.
65
Assignment
1. Add these definitions to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Base and
Height. Add the basic principle of area to the Geometry Facts page, and add the
formulas for rectangle and square to the shape formulas page, under the two
dimensions heading.
2. Find the areas and perimeters of the following. Include the units of each.
a. Square:
Each side is 5 inches. Label each side with its number.
Mark the square corners with a □.
P = ______________
A = ______________
b. Rectangle:
Base is 8 feet. Height is 4 feet.
Label each side. Mark the square □ corners.
P = ______________
A = ______________
c. Combined image:
All corners are right angles.
Mark the square □ corners.
All sides are measured in cm.
Label the units and the missing sides.
P = ______________
A = ______________
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Week 4: Area = base · height
Day 1: Parallelograms
By now, we have enough information to solve our introductory problem for this
unit. Here it is again:
A homeowner wants to install a new fence. The new wood should be painted
in order to make it last longer. If the yard measures 50 ft by 75 feet, and the
house borders 60 feet of the long side, how many linear feet of fencing will
be required to build the new fence (including gates)? If a gallon of paint
covers 350 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 , how many gallons will be needed for two coats of paint on a
six-foot-tall fence?
Definitions:
Linear means measured in a straight line, in one dimension.
Collinear means all the parts are on the same straight line.
Our fence boards can be arranged so that they are linear, but when installed, they
will not be collinear.
A word about real life is in order here. Even if the homeowner can’t build the fence
herself (like me!), she would still need to know what the raw materials cost so she
can evaluate the bids of contractors she might hire. So, let’s solve this together.
Step 1: Draw a sketch. Use your ruler and do some easy conversions. For
instance, one cm could equal ten feet, so our rectangle would measure
5 cm by 7.5 cm. (Hint: Notebook paper has parallel lines.)
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Short side = 50 ft = 5 cm
Long side = 75 ft = 7.5 cm
House = 60 ft = 6 cm
Step 2: To find the linear feet required for this fence, we need to find the
perimeter. (The person who builds the fence will either need to buy
individual boards that add up to that width, or buy lengths of pre-made
fencing. Either way, the homeowner needs to know the perimeter.)
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
The side bordered by the house will only have two little bits of fence.
We find that number by subtracting the whole side minus the house:
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 75𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 60𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 15 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
It doesn’t matter that some is on one side of the house and some on the
other. Together, we’ll need 15 linear feet of fence for that side. Then we
add in the other three sides like this:
𝑃𝑃 = 15𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 50𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 75𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 50𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 190𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Answer: They will need 190 linear feet of fencing.
Step 3: Now that we know the perimeter, imaging lining up all of those pieces
of fence side by side. The height of the fence is 6 ft, so to calculate how
much paint is needed, we have to find the area in 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 .
15 ft + 50 ft +75 ft + 50 ft = 190 ft total
6 ft
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𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ = 6𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∙ 190𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1140 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
Step 4: Our last step is to calculate how much paint we need. We have to paint
two coats, so double the Area:
1140 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 ∙ 2 = 2280 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
Each gallon of paint will cover 350 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 , so do the conversion:

2280𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 1𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
∙ = 6.5 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
1 350𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
Rounded to one decimal place, the homeowner will need 6.5 gallons of
paint. Since paint is sold by the gallon, and she wants to have extra to
cover mistakes, she should buy 7 gallons of paint.
Wow. That was a lot of steps to solve one problem. Real life is like that, so you
need to get used to solving multi-step problems.
Our solution made an important assumption, though. Did you catch it? The
problem didn’t actually tell us that the homeowner’s yard was a rectangle. Real
yards, even in the suburbs, can take odd shapes. That could be important if we’re
trying to find the area of the yard itself, so let’s change the situation a bit.
Problem: A homeowner wants to replace the grass in his backyard. He has dug out
the old, weedy mess and has a bare patch of dirt to cover. The sides measure
75 ft and 50 ft. How many square feet of sod should he order, if the back
yard is shaped like a parallelogram?
Remember that area is base times height, but the height has to be at right angles
with the base. That’s a problem with parallelograms. Let’s see if we can discover a
solution.
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Activity:
Step 1: Take out your geometry tools and draw a parallelogram. It can be any
size and shape, as long as the two pairs of opposite sides are parallel
and equal. Use your ruler and measure in several places to make sure
it’s all parallel.
Step 2: Using your protractor, line up the edge with one vertex of the
parallelogram and center the line on 90 degrees, like this. Draw a line
straight down from the vertex to the opposite side.
Center protractor Center parallelogram line

on vertex here↘ ↙ at 90 degrees here
Draw line here→→
Step 3: With scissors, cut off the triangle you drew and move it to the opposite
side of the parallelogram.
Step 4:. Tuck the triangle bit up snug against that side. What shape have you
made?
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Because we measured the first corner to be 90 degrees, we can mark it with a
square in the corner. Because the lines are parallel, all of the other corners of the
new shape (not counting the inside line) are also right angles. This is a rectangle.
As we know, 𝐴𝐴(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ. This area is the same, but that height, the red
line, is definitely not the measurement of the slanted side. If we know that inside
height, however, we can find the area of a parallelogram. It’s still base times
height.
Formula:
𝐴𝐴(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
In order to find the area of grass our homeowner needs to buy, we’ll need to know
what that interior height is because a height is always at right angles to the base.
We’ll label that with a little square where the height meets the base.
height= ??
Side = 50 ft
base = 75 ft
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Suppose we send the homeowner back outside to measure the right-angle distance
between the long sides of his yard. He returns to say it’s 40 feet. Now we can solve
our problem.
h = 40 ft
b = 75 ft
𝐴𝐴(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ = 75𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∙ 40𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 3000𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
That’s a lot of sod to buy!
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Assignment
1. Add the definitions to your Geometry Notes definitions page, and add the Area
of a Parallelogram to your formulas page.
2. Find the Area and Perimeter of these Parallelograms. Label each side. Mark
where the height goes and label it with a square □.
a.
Base is 8 ft. Height is 4 ft.
Slanted sides are 5 ft.
P = ______________
A = ______________
b.
Base is 5 ft. Height is 10 ft.
Slanted sides are 12 ft.
P = ______________
A = ______________
3. Another homeowner has a rhombus-shaped yard that measures 60 feet on all

sides and 40 feet deep (that’s the height). If sod costs fifty cents per square foot,
how much will the homeowner spend to replace his grass?
4. How many linear feet of fencing will that same homeowner need to replace the
fence around three sides of the yard?
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Day 2: How To Trap a Zoid
Here’s an even more complicated backyard. The house is on a cul-de-sac, so all of

the properties are shaped like wedges. Here’s an aerial sketch.
We’ll focus on the family that lives in the middle house. What shape was that
again, with one set of parallel sides? Yes, it’s a trapezoid. What our family needs is
a way to find the area of a trapezoid, so our lesson today will set out to “trap” a
formula for “zoids.” Since we’re talking about Area, it’s probably related to base
times height, right?
The first thing we need to decide is where to measure the height. If we do it from
the slanted sides, we’ll get a different number every time we measure.
different ←same
heights→ heights
The one thing we know about parallel lines, though, is that they are always the
same distance apart. If we measure from one parallel line to the other, it will
always give us the same height. Now, the height is at right angles to the base. We
could also say that the height is perpendicular to the base.
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Definition:
Perpendicular refers to lines that cross at exactly 90 degrees, at right
angles.
The distance between parallel lines is always the perpendicular distance because
it’s the shortest. That means either the top or the bottom should be the base since
they are perpendicular to the height. But which one? Let’s give these bases
numbers, base 1 and base 2, so we can keep them straight. (Sort of like Thing 1
and Thing 2, except we use subscripts – little numbers below the line.) We’ll mark
the square corners, too.
top = 𝑏𝑏1
ℎ = height
bottom = 𝑏𝑏2
Now, if we use the top base, that would give us the area of a rectangle that’s way
too small. If we use the bottom base, that would give us a rectangle that’s too big.
What we really want is something in the middle, something that’s just right. (Why
do I feel like Goldilocks?)
top = 𝑏𝑏1
middle = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. 𝑏𝑏
bottom = 𝑏𝑏2
Do you remember what that middle number is called? It’s the average. You used
to add long strings of numbers in math class and then divide by the number of
numbers. We’re going to simplify that because we only have two numbers to deal
with. And that’s all we needed for our formula!
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Definition:
To find the average base (avg. b), add the bases and divide by two.
The way to trap a “zoid” (find the area of a trapezoid) is to take the average base
times the height. (We’ll abbreviate average as avg.)
Formula:
𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
Does it work? Let’s try. The family went outside and measured the sides of their
property, just where we told them to. The height is 60 feet, the top (along the
street) is 55 feet, and the bottom (the back fence) is 85 feet. How big is their yard?
𝑏𝑏1 = 55 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
ℎ = 60 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑏𝑏2 = 85 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Step 1: Find the average base. (The blue line above.)

55𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 85𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 2 = = 70 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
2
Step 2: Multiply the average base times the height.

𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ = 70 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∙ 60 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 4,200 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
Now, I have to confess, mathematicians would prefer to do problems in one step

instead of two. We’re lazy enough to wish for an easier problem. Somebody smart
figured out that if we use those b1 and b2 letters instead of numbers, the average
base would look like this:
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(𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2 )
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 =
2
Then they figured out that the area formula for average base times height is simply:
(𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2 )
𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = ∙ℎ
2
You might have learned it another way, but mathematically it’s the same:
1
𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = (𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2 ) ∙ ℎ
2
All that those formulas are doing, though, is finding the average of the bases before
they multiply by the height. So, all we need to remember is the principle, average
base times height. (Again, we’ll abbreviate average as avg.)
𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
You could find the same principle by cutting off the extra corners below the middle
base and filling them into the missing corners above the middle base. That forms a
rectangle with an area equal to the middle (average base) times the height.
Once again, the average base is just right. Goldilocks would be proud.
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Assignment
1. Write down these definitions on your Geometry Notes definitions page:

Perpendicular, and Average Base. Write the formula for the area of a trapezoid
(avg b·h) on your formulas page.
2. Draw any trapezoid, using the lines on your notebook paper to keep the top and
bottom parallel. Make it as “weird” as you like, as long as top and bottom are
parallel. Cut it out and fold it in half lengthwise to find the middle (average)
base halfway between the parallels. Following the directions below, cut the
corners off the bottom and tape or glue them onto the top to form a rectangle.
←←←fold along center
3. Practice finding the areas of these trapezoids. Label the measurements given.
Draw in the height and mark it with a square □.
a.
Top b1 = 6 ft Average base = ______________
Bottom b2 = 4 ft
Height h = 5 ft A = ______________
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b.
Top b1 = 3 cm Average base = ______________

Bottom b2= 7 cm
Height h = 4 cm A = ______________
c.
Top b1 = 10 in Average base = ______________

Bottom b2 = 6 in
Height h = 4 in A = ______________
d.
Top b1 = 7 in Average base = ______________

Bottom b2 = 9 in
Height h = 6 in A = ______________
e.
Top b1 = 3 cm Average base = ______________

Bottom b 2= 5 cm
Height h = 7 cm A = ______________
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Day 3: Triangles
Last week, we talked about a trapezoid that was very tall and skinny. The top side
went up and up, until it eventually disappeared and formed a triangle instead.
Now that we know how to find the area of a trapezoid,

we could also find the area of that triangle. (This is the
hard way. I’ll show you the easy way next.)
h = 12 cm
The size of the top base, 𝑏𝑏1 , is zero. The average base
is actually half the bottom base:
0𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 8𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 8
= = 4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2 2
To find the funky trapezoid (triangle), we take the 8 cm

average base (half the base) times the height:
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ = 4𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 12𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 48 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2
That’s the long way around, though it does work. As I told you, mathematicians
are always wishing for an easier problem and, sure enough, they found one.
If you cut out a parallelogram of any size and then cut it from corner to corner, you
automatically get two triangles. The harder question is: if you put two random
triangles together, will you get a parallelogram?
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You’ll try this yourself in your homework. For now, follow along as I show you
the basic steps.
Step 1: Cut out any shape triangle. Trace it on a piece of

paper.
Step 2: Start by holding the triangle in the place where you traced it. Flip it
across the right-hand edge so it ends upside down on the other side. (On
a computer, you can perform “flip vertical” and “flip horizontal” to get
to the same place as steps 2 and 3.)
Flip
Step 3: If your triangle were perfectly equal all around, you’d be done, but most
of us will have drawn a perfectly imperfect shape. So, one more step is
required. Keeping the same edges together, rotate the triangle so the top
side is showing again.
Rotate
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Step 4: Now that your triangles are aligned, measure the distance between
opposite sides (top/bottom, left/right). If the distances are the same all
the way across, they are parallel.
Let’s try that again with an oddly shaped triangle.
Step 1: Cut out a triangle. Trace it.
Step 2: Flip across one edge. Line up the sides.
Step 3: Rotate. The triangle’s top side should be facing up again.
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Step 4: Measure the distance between opposite sides..
←Left/Right 4cm apart→
←Left/Right 4cm apart→
←Top/Bottom 6cm apart→

←Top/Bottom 6cm apart→
So there you have it. No matter whether you’re cutting a parallelogram in half or
you’re creating a parallelogram out of two identical triangles, the same principle
holds: a triangle is half a parallelogram.
Geometry fact:
A triangle is half a parallelogram
That means our triangle formula just got a whole lot simpler because it’s half a
parallelogram, or half the base times the height.
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Formula:
1
𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
2
What a relief! If I can find the base and the height of a triangle, I can multiply them
and take half. Easy! But where’s the height? After all, the sides aren’t parallel—not
even close! We do know it has to be at right angles with the base, though.
Geometry Fact:
For any triangle, the height is the perpendicular distance between the
base and the opposite angle.
If you view a triangle with the base at the bottom, the tallest point would be the
vertex of opposite angle. So that’s where we’ll measure. Even if we have to turn it
upside down or extend a side to do it.
←Extend the side
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Assignment
1. Add these to your Geometry Notes formulas and facts pages:
Geometry facts:
• A triangle is half a parallelogram.
• For any triangle, the height is the perpendicular distance between the
base and the opposite angle.
Formula (two-dimensional):
1
𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
2
2. Practice turning triangles into parallelograms, following the directions in the

lesson. Make your triangle as weirdly shaped as you like, as long as it has 3
straight sides. Make a complete parallelogram. Do this at least twice.
Rotate
Flip ↗
3. Mark the bases and heights of these triangles. Find the areas.
a. b = 6 in
h = 6 in
A = ______________
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b.
b = 6 cm
h = 3 cm
A = ______________
c.
b = 4 ft
h = 3 ft
A = ______________
d.
b = 10 cm
h = 3 cm
A = ______________
e.
b = 5 cm
h = 5 cm
A = ______________
86
Day 4: Kites
We started our quadrilateral lesson talking about kites, but it’s taken until now to
have all the tools we need to find the area. Remember, a kite has equal adjacent
sides. We mark those a special way. One set of equal sides gets a single slash, and
one set gets a double slash, like this:
The dotted lines in the middle, connecting opposite vertices, are the diagonals.
Definition:
A diagonal is any line drawn across a figure, connecting opposite corners.
Something interesting happens when we cut out the kite and fold it along the
diagonals. If we fold the short end down, we get a concave kite in the shape of an
arrowhead, because the two triangles aren’t equal. (While this fits the definition of
a kite, we’ll mostly pay attention to the convex variety.)
When we fold the long axis, however, something special happens.
87
• The diagonal where we fold is the base of a triangle.
• The top equal, adjacent sides line up.
• The bottom equal, adjacent sides line up.
In short, we have two equal triangles, and we’ve discovered a line of symmetry!
Definition:
A line of symmetry is an imaginary line that divides a shape exactly in half.
For kites, the long diagonal is a line of symmetry, but the short diagonal is not. The
long diagonal gives us two equal triangles, as well. Since we know the area of a
triangle, we’re halfway to finding the area of this kite! The long diagonal is the
base, obviously. If only that short diagonal were the height! To be the height, it
would have to be at right angles to the long diagonal. Let’s consider the two halves
of the kite.
We’ll fold the top half along the middle. The angles in the middle are the same.
88
That bottom line on the left, marked with the long arrow, goes straight across. It’s
known as a straight angle.
Definition:
A straight angle lies on a straight line, and it measures 180 degrees.
Since we folded the straight angle in half, we got two angles of 90 degrees each. In
other words, we got two right angles. The same happens when we fold the other
half of the kite. This only happens because, when we fold it, the equal sides along
the other edge match up exactly.
What we’ve just demonstrated is that the two diagonals of a kite are perpendicular
to each other. Let’s add that to our definition from Week 3: Day 1.
Definition:
A kite has two pairs of equal adjacent sides. Its diagonals are
perpendicular.
That means we can use parts of the diagonal as our height! Let’s evaluate the top
and bottom of the kite as two different triangles. They have the same base, the
short diagonal. They each have a portion of the long diagonal as their height.
Anytime we separate things into two parts, we can use algebra. One part is x, and
the other part is the total minus x. We need to remember that principle to use many
times in the rest of this course.
89
Geometry Fact:
Anything can be separated into two parts: 𝑥𝑥, and 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥. Together, they
make the whole because (𝑥𝑥) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
That means we can mark our kite this way:
←h = x→
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑1 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
←←base = d1→→
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑2
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ∆ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥
←h = d2 – x→
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ∆ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑2 − 𝑥𝑥
(We can draw a triangle ∆

instead of writing it out.)
Now we can apply our formula for the area of triangles:

1
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
2
The top triangle area would be:
1
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 (𝑥𝑥)
2
The bottom triangle area would be:
1
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 (𝑑𝑑2 − 𝑥𝑥)
2
Added together, we get:
1 1
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 (𝑥𝑥) + 𝑑𝑑1 (𝑑𝑑2 − 𝑥𝑥)
2 2
Use the distributive property to simplify:
1
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2 − 𝑥𝑥)
2
The x and – x cancel out, leaving us with:
1
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2
2
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Whew! That’s a whole lot of Algebra just to get to a simple formula: To find the
area of the kite, multiply the diagonals and divide by two. Remember the “half”
part because you’re finding the areas of two triangles, where the base and height
are the diagonals.
Formula:
𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2
𝐴𝐴(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) =
2
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Assignment
1. Add these to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Diagonal, Line of

Symmetry, Straight Angle, and Kite.
2. Add these to your Geometry Notes formulas and facts pages:
Geometry Fact:
• Anything can be separated into two parts: 𝑥𝑥, and 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥. Together,
they make the whole because (𝑥𝑥) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
Formula (two-dimensional):
𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2
𝐴𝐴(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) =
2
3. Mark the diagonals of these kites. Find the areas.
a. d1 = 7 in
d2 = 10 in
A = _______________
b. d1 = 8 ft
d2 = 9 ft
A = _______________
c. d1 = 11 cm
d2 = 15 cm
A = _______________
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4. If the area of a kite is 12 ft2, what are three different possibilities for the lengths
of the diagonals? (Integers only, please.)
d1 = _________ d1 = _________ d1 = _________

or or
d2 = _________ d2 = _________ d2 = _________
5. Jane and Michael want to build a kite. They have cross pieces of balsa wood
which measure 2 ft and 3 ft. They want to buy nylon fabric to glue on the frame,
but it costs $2.50 per square foot. They pooled their allowance to get $8.
Assuming they already have string, do they have enough money to complete the
kite?
93
Day 5: The View From 31,000 Feet
Have you ridden in an airplane and looked out over a patchwork-quilt of crops? It
can stretch for miles, and you can see it all. Commercial jets travel at an altitude of
31,000 feet or more, which gives its passengers a terrific view.
Today’s lesson will be an overview of this unit. I want you to pretend you’re
looking at this from an aircraft high above. What is the big picture, the most
important thing we’ve learned?
Here’s a clue: The title of this week’s lessons was Week 4: Area = base · height.
We found a bunch of different area formulas, but each one was related to that
principle of base times height.
• 𝐴𝐴(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
• 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
• 𝐴𝐴(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
• 𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
1
• 𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
2
𝑑𝑑1 ∙𝑑𝑑2
• 𝐴𝐴(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) =
2
Wow. The first three formulas are all the same. The other three are base times
height with a twist.
• For trapezoids, the twist is that we have to find the average base.
• For triangles, the twist is that it’s half a parallelogram, so we take ½ bh.
• And for kites, the twist is that it’s two triangles, with the combined
diagonals as the base and height.
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Assignment
1. Print out the following page. Write in these bits of information:

• The name of the shape
• The formula for the area of each shape (except the top one)
• Mark sides that have to be equal
• Mark sides that have to be parallel
• Mark corners (vertices) that have to be right angles
Example:
Use single or double
Use single or double arrows to show the
hash marks to show parallel lines, and
equal sides: / or //. squares to show 90◦
angles.
Write the name and formula inside the shape.
2. For each of the following, draw a rough sketch of the shape, label the distances,
and find the areas and perimeters. Be sure to draw and mark the height.
a. Trapezoid: b1 = 5 in, b2 = 12 in, h = 6 in, and both sides measure 7 in.
b. Parallelogram: base = 4 cm, h = 3 cm, slant sides = 3.5 cm.
c. Square: one side = 5.2 ft.
d. Triangle: base = 6 cm; height = 4.67 cm. The other sides are 4 cm and 9 cm.
e. Kite: The two diagonals are 6 in and 7 in. One set of adjacent sides are 5 in.
The other pair of adjacent sides are 4.24 in.
95
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Week 5: Mixed Review
Day 1: Constructing a Right Angle
The hardest part of learning area formulas is figuring out which formula to use
each time. That’s why we started with a basic principle and added a few twists as
we went along. Whenever you see a shape with a twist, that should help you
remember which formula to use. Make sure you know those for the Unit Quiz!
This week, we’re going to practice what we’ve learned by constructing shapes. Get
out your geometry tools (compass, protractor, and straight edge) and follow along
with the instructions on a blank piece of paper.
Task: Prove that the measure of a straight angle is 180° and a right angle is 90°.
Step 1: Use your compass to draw a circle on your paper. Label the center with
a dot and cut it out. Somewhere near the center, write “𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 360°.”
97
Step 2: Fold your circle exactly in half, lining up the curve on both sides.
Step 3: You have formed half a circle, called a semi-circle. It contains half the
number of degrees. The dotted line is the diameter. It is a straight line
segment, also known as a straight angle. That straight angle also has
half the number of degrees as a full circle. Do the math:
360°
𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 180° .
2
Definition:
A semi-circle is half a circle. It contains 180° .
Step 4: You can probably predict this step. Fold the semi-circle exactly in half
again to form a quarter circle. Now our shape contains a quarter of the
degrees of a full circle and we can do the math again:
360°
𝐴𝐴 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 90°. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 .
4
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Semi-circle.
2. Tape your circle to a piece of notebook paper, write the angle measurements of a
semi-circle and quarter circle on it, and add it to your notebook.
3. On Week 1, Day 1 of this course, we introduced the idea that you could use the
face of an analog watch as a protractor, even if you were stranded on a desert
island. How would that work? Which hour markings form a straight angle
(180°) if the hour and minute hands represent the radii? Which hour markings
form a right angle with each other?
4. For each of the following, draw a rough sketch of the shape, label the distances,
and find the areas.
a. Triangle: b = 4 in, h = 7 in.
b. Rectangle: b = 7 in, h = 5 in.
c. Kite: diagonals measure 8 cm and 11 cm.
d. Trapezoid: top = 3 cm, bottom = 8 cm, and h = 6 cm.
e. Rhombus: b = 5 ft, h = 4 ft.
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Day 2: Logical Arguments
For Units 1 and 2 of this course, we have been using what’s known as inductive
reasoning. We have performed experiments like cutting apart parallelograms or
circles. And we observed the results to create formulas.
Definition:
Inductive reasoning arrives at a conclusion based on observation.
That method worked well for the ancient mathematicians of Babylon and Egypt.
But the Greeks took it a step further. They didn’t just want to understand how
things looked. They wanted to prove it beyond a shadow of a doubt, so they
developed an entire branch of Geometry devoted to proving things based on a few
simple definitions. A man named Euclid of Alexandria wrote the book on it,
literally. It was used as a textbook in school even into the 20th century. He is
known as the “Father of Geometry.”
Remember how Sherlock Holmes always “deduced” the answer to a mystery? He

used this geometry technique to prove his solution. It’s called deductive reasoning.
Definition:
Deductive reasoning forms conclusions based on a series of logically
related facts.
Yesterday, we showed the degree measurement of a straight line and a right angle
inductively. Here’s how we would do the same thing with a deductive geometric
proof, giving reasons. (Always read through each proof, line by line. Don’t let your
eyes skip ahead!)
Task: Prove that a straight line measures 180 degrees, given that a circle measures
360 degrees.
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Step 1: Draw a table to show statements and reasons. Every geometric proof
will take this format:
Step 2: Fill in what we have been given: a circle with 360 degrees. We can say
“given” or “definition circle” as our reason. I will write both, using
abbreviations.
1. A circle has 360° 1. Given; Def. circle
2. A diameter is a line 2. Def. diameter

segment that separates the
circle exactly in half.
1
3. (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) =
360°
= 180°. 3. Division property of =
2 2
4. ∴The line segment, and the 4. If two things equal a third,

line that contains it, is an then the two are also equal.
angle measuring 180° (Transitive Property)
We obviously need to add a few more definitions to our repertoire, but you get the
idea. If you want to do a geometry proof, you have to give reasons.
Geometry Fact:
To write a geometry proof, you have to give reasons.
Note 1: You’ll be seeing those three little dots at the end of proofs: ∴. They are a
math symbol that means “therefore.”
Note 2: We will learn more about the Transitive Property in Week 7.
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Assignment
1. Fill in your Geometry Notes definitions pages: Inductive reasoning, Deductive

reasoning. Add this to the Geometry Facts page:
To write a geometry proof, you have to give reasons.
2. Look back over how we demonstrated the area formulas for the shapes listed. If
you were to write an inductive proof for each, what kind of reasons would you
list? (This doesn’t have to be a formal proof. Just a list showing why the “twist”
for each area works.)
a. parallelogram (Week 4, Day 1)
b. trapezoid (Week 4, Day 2)
c. Triangle (Week 4, Day 3)
d. Kite (Week 4, Day 4)
3. Look back at your definitions page to answer this: What is the difference
between linear and collinear?
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Day 3: Bisecting a Straight Angle
Today we’re going to build on our straight angle. We already showed inductively
that half a straight angle is a right angle. Now we’re going to construct that
solution, and then we’ll write a deductive proof. Let’s start by defining our terms.
Definitions:
A construction in Geometry means to draw a shape with only a compass

and straightedge.
A geometric proof breaks down each step with deductive reasoning.
Bisect means to divide something exactly in half.
Notice that to be a pure geometry construction, you can’t use a protractor except in
checking your work. That complicates things, doesn’t it? So, let me show you one
way to find a right angle with just a compass and a straightedge (not even a marked
ruler!)
Task: Bisect a straight angle and prove that the result is two right angles.
Step 1: Draw a straight angle, which is simply a line segment. It doesn’t even
matter how long it is. I’ll use a blank ruler to demonstrate, but you can
use any straight edge you can find.
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Step 2: Mark your endpoints carefully. Don’t make the dots too big because you
want to put the end of your compass in exactly the same place each
time.
● ●
Step 3: Open your compass to a distance greater than halfway across the line
segment. Put the point of the compass on one endpoint of the line
segment and make a sweeping arc above and below it.
● ●
Step 4: Without changing the opening of your compass, put the point on the
other end of the line segment and make another sweeping arc above and
below it. The two sets of arcs should cross each other.
● ●
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Step 5: To complete the construction, use your straightedge to draw a line
connecting the points where the two arcs meet, above and below the
segment.
● ●
The completed construction, with letters added to show location:
C
A B
● ●
Now we get to check our work. Using your ruler and your protractor, measure the
following:
�� ?
• Is the distance from A to B cut in half by the line segment 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
��?
• Is the distance from C to D cut in half by the line segment 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
�� and ��
• Are all of the angles formed by the intersection of 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 equal to 90°?
Now, little variations like how you hold your pencil can throw off the construction
slightly, but the answer to all of the above should be yes. We just bisected both the
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segment �� . Now we can complete our task
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and the straight angle formed by 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
by writing our geometry proof.
1. A straight angle 1. Definition

measures 180°
2. An angle bisector 2. Definition
divides an angle in
half
3. Half a straight angle is 3. Arithmetic
180°
= 90°
2
4. A right angle = 90° 4. Definition
5. ∴ The angle bisector of 5. Conclusion
a straight angle forms (Transitive Property)
two right angles.
Did you notice the three little dots in front of Statement #5? Again, those are
shorthand for the word, “Therefore.” (We haven’t learned all of the properties yet,
so I just wrote in “conclusion” for #5.)
One final point about proofs is that the last line has to match the original quest:
“Task: Bisect a straight angle and prove that the result is two right angles.”
If it seems like a proof is a whole lot of details for very small results, you’re right.
You really have to stretch to think through every single step involved in things.
Developing that skill will serve you well in the future.
(I used that skill a lot when parenting toddlers. “If my kid wanders near the outlet
with a paper clip in his hand, he will likely stick the paper clip into the outlet. That
could hurt my kid and burn the house down. I will therefore install outlet covers
before I even bring the kid home from the hospital.” And there you have it:
geometric proof thinking in action.)
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Assignment
1. Add these definitions to your Geometry Notes pages: Construction, Geometric

proof, Bisect.
2. Draw another line segment on a blank piece of paper and see if you can bisect it
without looking at the steps from this lesson.
3. Solve the following multi-step word problems. Remember that you can’t mix
measurements, so you’ll have to pick a unit and convert the rest to the same unit.
a. A child’s sandbox measures 6 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 6 inches. If a truckload

of sand measures one cubic yard, it will cover three square yards to a depth of
one foot each. How many truckloads will it take to fill the sandbox to a depth
of one foot? (Hint: Convert all measurements to feet and round to 1 decimal
place.)
b. A group of high schoolers used a circular watering pond as a swimming hole

last summer, but it’s dry now. It measures 3 ft 6 inches deep and 12 yards in
diameter. Find the area of the circle and multiply by the depth to find its
volume in cubic feet. If 1 cubic foot equals about 7 ½ gallons, how many
gallons will it take to fill the pond?
107
Day 4: Review
You’ll need to know these definitions for the quiz tomorrow. Try matching them.
______1. line a. measures 180 degrees
______2. adjacent b. lines that cross at right angles
______3. regular polygon c. the bottom side of a shape
______4. height d. a shape with all equal sides and angles
______5. straight angle e. lines that go the same direction and never cross
______6. line segment f. the point where two line segments meet
______7. parallel g. divide something exactly in half
______8. perimeter h. drawn across a figure to opposite corners
______9. perpendicular i. measured at right angles to the base
_____10. bisect j. side-by-side instead of opposite
_____11. vertex k. shorten something by cutting part off
_____12. truncate l. the distance around the edges of a shape
_____13. base m. the part of a line between two endpoints
_____14. diagonal n. the straight path between two points, extending

beyond indefinitely
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Fill in the blanks:
15. A quadrilateral (quad) has ___________ sides, but a triangle has only _____.
16. A quad with only one pair of parallel sides is a _________________.
17. A quad with two pairs of equal adjacent sides is a _____________. Its
diagonals are ___________________.
18. A _____________________ has two pairs of equal, parallel sides. The rest of
the shapes below are special types of this shape.
19. A shape with two pairs of parallel sides that are all equal is a ______________.
20. A shape with two pairs of parallel sides at right angles is a ________________.
21. A shape with equal, parallel sides and all right angles is a _______________.
Because its adjacent sides are equal, it is also a special kind of ____________.
Match the shape to its Area formula. Some formulas may be used more than once.
_____22. circle a. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
1
_____23. kite b. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
2
_____24. parallelogram, c. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
_____25. quadrilateral 1
d. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2
_____26. rectangle 2
_____27. rhombus e. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
_____28. square f. No formula
_____29. trapezoid
_____30. triangle
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Day 5: Unit 2 Quiz
Multiple choice – select all correct answers, even if there is more than one.
_____1. Which of the following is required for a shape to be a kite?
a. parallel sides
b. right angles
c. equal adjacent sides
d. equal opposite sides
e. perpendicular diagonals
f. all of the above
_____2. Which of the following is true of a square?
a. parallel sides
b. right angles
c. equal adjacent sides
d. equal opposite sides
e. perpendicular diagonals
f. all of the above
_____3. A point is positioned exactly in the middle of a line segment.

Choose all of the following statements that are true:
a. The endpoints and middle point are collinear.

b. The middle point is the vertex of a straight angle.
c. The middle point forms a right angle with the line segment.
d. The middle point is an endpoint.
e. The line segment is bisected by the middle point.
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4. Write in the angle measurements. Hours given are on an analog 12-hour clock.
_____a. circle _____f. vertex of a square
_____b. semi-circle _____g. perpendicular lines
_____c. quarter circle _____h. degrees between noon and 3pm
_____d. straight angle _____i. degrees between noon and 6pm
_____e. right angle _____j. degrees between noon and midnight
5. Fill in the missing information for each shape:

Short sides
a. Name ______________
6 cm →
=5 cm
Area ______________ 10 cm →
Perimeter______________ Long sides
=6.7 cm
5 in
b. Name ______________
Area ______________ 6 in
Perimeter______________
9 in
c. Name ______________
Area ______________ 6 ft
Perimeter______________ 5 ft
d. Name ______________
Area ______________ 3 cm
Perimeter______________
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e. Name ______________
Area ______________ 5 in 9 in
4 in
Perimeter______________
10 in
6. Draw a picture to help you answer this question:
A homeowner wants to renovate his back yard. If the yard measures 30 yd long
by 20 yd wide, and it is bordered on one side by an edge of the house, 50 ft long,
how much fencing and sod should he order?
112
Unit 3: À la Carte(sian)
Introduction: Do you like video games? Would you like to create them? If so,
you’ll need to learn how to perform Transformations. To begin, let me introduce
you to René. He didn’t invent video games, but game creators couldn’t animate
their videos without him.
Week 6: Transformations
Day 1: The Cartesian Plane
If you’ve ever wondered why Algebra and Geometry seem to be forever linked,
you can thank René Descartes. He invented Analytic Geometry, which studies
geometric shapes on a coordinate field or grid. The grid system is even named for
him: the Cartesian plane.
Definition:
The Cartesian plane is a grid system using numbered coordinates on a

horizontal axis named x and a vertical axis named y.
You should have studied this in Algebra, so I’m going to give you just the
essentials. (If you need more review, the textbook for SchoolhouseTeachers.com’s
Algebra course has a good summary: Beginning and Intermediate Algebra, pages
89-93.)
The key to understanding the Cartesian plane is to keep the x- and y-axes
straight. (Axes – pronounced ax-ees – is the plural of axis.)
The x-axis is the number line you’ve been using your entire math career.
x-axis
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y-axis What’s new is drawing the y-axis straight up and down from
the zero, so that the zeros match. The trick is to make the
increments also match so it forms square grid marks.
Put the x-axis and the y-axis together at zero, and you have a
plane in two dimensions. It represents a completely flat area
that extends indefinitely in two dimensions.
To recap, the first dimension is the x value.

The second dimension is the y value.
Looking forward, the third dimension will be a z value, but
let’s not go that far yet.
y-axis
+ =
x-axis
As you can see, the x-axis plus the y-axis equals a Cartesian coordinate plane.
What is that fly doing there, though? Well, as the (mostly made-up) story goes,
Descartes was watching a fly crawl on the ceiling. He got to wondering if he could
describe the position of the fly by how far it was from each wall. As long as the
room was square, it worked, and the Cartesian plane was invented.
114
It’s a cool story, whether or not it actually happened, simply because it works. If
you start at zero (the corner of the room) and count over 3 on the x-axis, you’ll be
right below the fly. Count up 2 on the y-axis, and you’ve got him. He’s sitting on
(3, 2), which is shorthand for the coordinates.
(Refresher course: we always write the distance across the x-axis first, then a
comma, and then the distance up the y-axis. Put the result inside parentheses and
you have the coordinates (x, y).)
In order to use the grid for math, though, we have to extend the x- and y-axes in the
negative directions, to create four “rooms,” called quadrants.
Definition:
A quadrant is a quarter of the Cartesian plane with zero in one corner and
the x-axis and y-axis forming the inside walls.
It would probably help to think of the points of a compass. The y-axis points North
and South; the x-axis points East and West. The quadrants are numbered with
Roman numerals from one to four, starting at the North-East corner where all the
numbers are positive.
II I
III IV
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Now, one cool thing about the Cartesian plane is that, whenever you mark two
points on it, they can be connected with straight lines that form a right angle
(because all of the grid marks are squares). We’re going to use that to full
advantage later. For now, we’ll practice drawing geometric shapes using the
coordinates.
Task 1:
Locate the points A and B on the Cartesian plane, and label them. A is the
point (–3, 1) and B is the point (2, –3).
Solution:
Locate the x and y coordinates of each point, draw a dot, and label them.
Task 2:
Draw the line segment ��
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 between points A and B. Then draw lines
vertically down from A and horizontally across from B. Find the point where
those lines meet and label it C. What shape have you made?
116
Solution:
The shape is a triangle. Technically, it’s a right triangle because the angle at point
C is a right angle.
Definition:
A right triangle has one right angle.
117
Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Cartesian plane, Quadrant, Right
triangle.
2. Look up René Descartes in an encyclopedia (online or at the library) and answer

the following:
a. When was he born?
b. What country was he born in?
c. Where did he live and work?
3. While Descartes invented Analytic Geometry, Euclid of Alexandria is the one

who defined Geometry for centuries. While you’re looking things up, find the
answers to the following:
a. When did Euclid live?
b. What country is Alexandria in?
c. What is the name of the book Euclid wrote?
d. Using the approximate date of his life and the fact that his book was used
in math classes until around the year 1900, for how many years was his book
the main Geometry textbook?
4. Using graph paper, or notebook paper as shown, graph the points A (2, 4),
B (–4, 0), C (0, –6), and D (6, –2). Connect the dots. What shape is this?
118
Day 2: Reflections
One of the cool topics of Analytic Geometry is Transformations. And while

technically the topic covers algebraic equations related to these, that’s a subject for
a more advanced math class. This class will focus on understanding the geometric
part of Transformations. That’s when you take a figure and move it to a new
position by performing any of three prescribed moves: reflection, rotation, or
translation. Today we’re talking about a reflection, otherwise known as a flip.
Definition:
Reflection moves a shape to a new position by flipping it over.
We performed a flip last unit when we turned a triangle over to form a

parallelogram. Now we’re going to use a line of symmetry to reflect shapes.
Pretend that the line of symmetry is a mirror. The shape has to look the same on
both sides.
Your best teacher on this topic is the bathroom mirror. Which of the following
shows a reflection?
Q Q
a.
b.
G
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You’re right. That was too easy. The G was flipped and not the Q. Let’s reflect
some shapes across the mirror next.
c.
d.
Okay, that’s still too easy. They both flipped across the line of symmetry (the
mirror). Let’s try this on the coordinate plane.
Task: Reflect the triangle across the y-axis.
120
Step 1: Recognize that the y-axis is the line of symmetry. Every point on the
triangle will be reflected across it. If we reflect the vertices, we can
draw the whole triangle.
Step 2. Measure the distance between point A and the y-axis, and then mark an
equal distance on the other side. Mark the new point A1.
Step 3: Do the same for points B and C.
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Step 4: Draw line segments to connect the vertices.
The grid lines on the coordinate plane actually make reflecting easy when we use a
horizontal or vertical axis to reflect across. Evaluating reflections in free space
takes a bit more imagination.
For instance, many shapes have lines of symmetry. One side of the shape is a
reflection of the other. In fact, shapes can have any number of lines of symmetry.
We can find them by folding the shape in half. (To be clear, folding is not the same
as reflecting, like we did above.)
Take this Greek cross for instance. How many lines of symmetry can you identify?
122
If we cut the shape out, we could fold the cross vertically, horizontally, or on both
diagonals. Each one would fold the shape in half onto itself.
Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Reflection.
2. The Northwest corner of a rectangle lies at the point A (–9, 5) on the coordinate
plane. If the horizontal sides are each 5 units long, and the vertical sides are each
8 units long, find vertices B, C, and D and label their coordinates. Then reflect
the shape across the y-axis and label points A1, B1, C1, and D1 of its reflection.
Be sure to include their coordinates (x, y) as well.
123
3. Identify the following shapes by the marked equal lines and square corners.
(Lines that look parallel are //.) Draw the lines of symmetry for each. Some
shapes will have more lines of symmetry than others.
124
Day 3: Translations
Mathematicians have a special name for Transformations. They’re called

Euclidean plane isometries. Let’s break that down. Euclidean is shorthand for
“traditional geometry,” the kind studied by Euclid. As you’ll recall, it has been
taught for over two thousand years. Plane means it’s in two dimensions. Isometries
is a fancy word for symmetry.
Today’s transformation doesn’t use a line of symmetry, though. Instead, we’re

going to slide shapes to a new position. That move is called a Translation.
Definition:
Translation moves a shape to a new position by sliding it.
In doing that, we’ll build on a concept we learned yesterday:

If you move the vertices of a shape, the line segments will follow.
Task 1: Translate the image below by sliding it six spaces to the right.
Step 1: Recognize that if we slide the vertices, we can draw the whole triangle.
Draw a point A1 six spaces to the right of point A.
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Step 2: Do the same for points B1, C1, D1, E1, F1, and G1.
Step 3: Connect the new vertices.
The same thing can be done mathematically by using the coordinates of the points:
Old Point New Point What Changed?

A (–2, 2) A1 (4, 2) x value +6
B ( 0, 0) B1 (6, 0) x value +6
C (0, –3) C1 (6, –3) x value +6
126
The rest of the chart would be the same: x value increased by 6 (the distance of the
slide right) and y value unchanged. All we had to do was add 6 to the x coordinate.
But what if we slid the shape up 5 instead? We’ll put a little 2 beside each point so
we can tell the difference.
Task 2: Translate the image by sliding it 5 spaces up.
Let’s look at the other points to see if we can tell the difference in the coordinates:

D (–1, –2) D2 (–1, 3) y value +5
E ( –3, –2) E2 (–3, 3) y value +5
F (–4, –3) F2 (–4, 2) y value +5
G (–4, 0) G2 (–4, 5) y value +5
Again, all we really needed to do was add 5 to the y-coordinate, and we’d have the
new vertex of the shape.
This last step should be obvious. If we slide left and down, we’ll change both the x
and the y values, but in the negative direction. Changing both x and y values will
result in a diagonal slide.
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Task 3: Translate the image by sliding it left 5 spaces and down 6 spaces.

A (–2, 2) A3 (–7, –4) x value –5, y value –6
B ( 0, 0) B3 (–5, –6) x value –5, y value –6
C (0, –3) C3 (–5, –9) x value –5, y value –6
We just slid, or translated, an image to a new position. We labeled the new points
with a little 3 to keep them straight. If we were in sixth grade, we would say,
“Cool. That’s the same shape.” But we’re learning to think like mathematicians, so
that’s not entirely accurate. It’s the same size and the same shape, but it’s not in the
same location. Since location is an important part of Geometry, we can’t say it’s
exactly the same.
So how do we describe them? If they’re not exactly the same because they’re not
in the same location, we can’t say they’re equal. Their areas are equal, their
perimeters are equal, but the shapes themselves are not the same shape.
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That’s why mathematicians came up with a new technical word: congruent. Shapes
are congruent if all of their measurements are the same, but they’re not in the same
location. The numbers are equal, but the shapes themselves are congruent. In other
words, they can be transformed to match exactly by flips, slides, or turns
(tomorrow’s lesson).
Definition:
Congruent shapes have exactly the same measurements.
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Translation and Congruent

shapes.
2. Finish this table for Task 3 above:

A (–2, 2) A3 (–7, –4) x value –5, y value –6
B ( 0, 0) B3 (–5, –6) x value –5, y value –6
C (0, –3) C3 (–5, –9) x value –5, y value –6
D D3
E E3
F F3
G G
3. For each pair of shapes, find the area and tell whether the shapes are congruent.
Why or why not?
a. 8 cm 6 cm
3 cm 4 cm
A = ______________ A = ______________
Are they congruent? Explain:__________________________________
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b. r=2 in r=3 in
A = ______________ A = ______________
c.
Equal sides of 6 cm each Equal sides of 6 cm each

height = 10.4 cm height = 10.4 cm
A = ______________ A = ______________
d.
Diagonals measure 6 in and 8 in. Diagonals measure 6 in and 8 in.

A = ______________ A = ______________
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Day 4: Rotations
There are three main types of rigid transformations, where the shapes remain
congruent before and after. We already covered reflections (flips) and translations
(slides). Today we’ll learn about rotations (turns).
We’ll keep applying the principle that if you move the vertices of a shape, the rest
of the line segments will move as well. First we’ll rotate a square around one of its
vertices. To make it easier, we’ll put that vertex at (0, 0) – a point called the origin.
Definitions:
Rotation moves a shape to a new position by turning it around a central
point.
Rigid transformations move shapes while keeping them congruent.
The origin on the Cartesian plane is the point (0, 0).
Task 1: Rotate a square by quarter-turns around the origin if each side is 5 units
long.
Step 1: Draw the square. Mentally “pin” the corner to the page at (0, 0). We’ll
do that with a red dot. Then turn the square 90 degrees.
At this point, you’ll notice that we can turn in either of two directions:
clockwise or counter-clockwise. We’ll go counter-clockwise.
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Step 2: Keep turning until you arrive back at the original position. Since a circle
has 360°, that returns us to our starting point. Below are four
“snapshots” of each turn. Start at the lower left quarter and follow it
around.
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We don’t have to rotate around the origin (0, 0), either. We can pick any point.
Task 2: Rotate a flag three times clockwise around the bottom of the flagpole,
returning it to the starting position. The points at the top and bottom of the flagpole
are (1, 1) and (5,5).
Solution: Draw a simple flag on the graph. Since a circle has 360°, we’ll rotate
it in 120° increments.
Your flag can look any way you want it, but the flag pole will rotate to the
positions shown. The flag will just follow along, with the shape remaining
congruent.
If you’re trying to create images on a computer, like a video game, all you have to
do is copy the image and use the “rotate” function to move it around. You don’t
even need to know the exact coordinates, but you do need to know how many
degrees to move.
We don’t even have to confine our rotations to a point on the shape. We can pick
any point to be the center of our new circle, and rotate the shape around it.
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Task 3: Rotate the flag from Task 2 four times around the point (–1, –1).
Step 1: Mark the point (–1, –1) in red. This is the center of our circle. The
radius of the circle is the distance from that point to the point (5, 5). For
simplicity, we’ll call that six diagonals.
Step 2: We’re turning four times, so each turn will be 90°. Mark a point six
diagonals long from the center at each 90° turn.
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Step 3: Rotate the flag.
Rotation isn’t just useful in transforming shapes to a new location. It’s also helpful
in describing symmetry. Some shapes don’t have line symmetry. You can’t fold
them exactly onto themselves. But they do have rotational symmetry. They’re the
same shape if you turn them to a new position around a circle.
Examples:
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When talking about shapes, a triangle with equal sides would have rotational
symmetry. You can turn it to form the same shape. However, a flag would not.
(You can rotate a flag, but if you simply turn it, it won’t “fold over” itself.)
Example 1:
We can rotate these triangles on top of one another.
Example 2:
But these flags won’t fit together when we rotate them.
+ + + =
Definition:
Rotational symmetry means a shape looks the same when you rotate it by a
partial turn.
Remember this: The turns always form an angle of 360° divided by the number of
turns required to make a whole circle. The most common are 360° ÷ 2 = 180°, 360°
÷ 3 = 120°, 360° ÷ 4 = 90°, 360° ÷ 5 = 72° or 360° ÷ 6 = 60°.
137
Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Rotation, Rigid transformation,

Origin, and Rotational symmetry.
2. Draw a right triangle on a coordinate plane with vertices at (0, 0), (-6, 0), and
(-6, 3). Rotate it four times counter-clockwise around the origin and draw each
rotation using different colors. In what quadrant does it rest when it has been
rotated counter-clockwise 270°?
3. Name six shapes that have rotational symmetry. You may include geometrical
shapes as well as shapes from nature or household objects.
4. A shape is rotated around a circle to get back to its starting position. How many
degrees did each turn take if it rotated 4 times? 6 times? n times?
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Day 5: Snowflake Symmetry
Analytic geometry is used extensively in engineering and physics. The geometric

shapes we’ve learned all have special equations that you can plot on the coordinate
plane. If you plan to take higher math courses, you’ll have that to look forward to.
Our summary here is just a prelude. We will, however, refer back to the Cartesian
plane later in this course, whenever it seems useful.
Today, we’re going to review what we’ve learned about symmetry and rigid
transformations with a Koch snowflake. It’s one of the earliest examples of a
fractal, where geometric shapes are split apart and replicated to infinite
proportions. A Swedish mathematician named Helge von Koch published this
concept in 1904.
Step 1: Draw a triangle with equal sides. Yesterday we learned that shape has
rotational symmetry.
Step 2: Divide each side in thirds. Take the middle third and turn it into a new
triangle.
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Step 3: Divide each new side in thirds and bump out a new triangle in the
middle third.
Step 4: Repeat step 3 as many times as you can.
That got complicated quickly. In each snowflake, though, you can see several types
of symmetry. There are six lines of symmetry through the points. There is also
rotational symmetry, with six turns to make 360°, equaling 60° for each turn.
There’s a reverse version of Koch’s snowflake, too, where you make cuts instead
of bumping out triangles.
This one has three lines of symmetry. In addition, it takes three turns of rotational
symmetry to make a whole circle, so each turn is 360° ÷ 3 = 120°.
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You never imagined when you made paper snowflakes that you were practicing
Geometry, did you?
In addition to symmetry, we learned three rigid transformations this week.

Remember, in a rigid transformation, the shape is still congruent after we move it.
In each case, the shape moves to a new location by:
• Reflection, otherwise known as a flip,

• Translation, otherwise known as a slide, or
• Rotation, otherwise known as a turn.
Wow, we sure learned that fast – F. S. T., for Flip, Slide, Turn.
When you combine those flips, slides, and turns, you can create all kinds of
graphic animations for cartoons or video games.
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Assignment
Today’s assignment will be more entertaining than usual. Choose one of the
following.
Option 1: Make a snowflake. Note the lines of symmetry as well as the rotation.
Answer: How many lines of symmetry did you use? What is the rotation angle
of each turn?
Materials required: Paper and scissors.
Note: If you fold your snowflake too many times, you’ll need to ‘clean up’ the
cuts to be sure they’re the same along every fold. The thickness of the paper
skews the cutting lines. If you choose, you can do this on the computer with an
image manipulation program (GIMP, Photoshop, or whatever you have
available).
Option 2: Make a flip book. Note the transformations you use: Flip, Slide, Turn.
Description: A flip book is a series of animated scenes bound together so they

look like they’re moving when flipped through quickly.
Materials required: Pencil and a small notepad, or pieces of paper cut to the
same size and stapled together.
Step 1: Draw a simple image like this ball.

Step 2: Make a quick plan of your story line: for instance,
the ball arcs through the air spinning.
Step 3: Make copies of your image on each page, turning or
moving each one slightly.
Step 4: Flip through the pages quickly and see if the object appears to move.
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Week 7: Similarity and Equality Properties
Day 1: Similarity
One thing from real life that rigid transformations can’t mimic is the concept of
perspective, where parallel lines like the road above seem to converge at the
horizon. To make any kind of graphic art—whether sketches, animated cartoons,
or video games—you have to use transformations that are more fluid.
That’s where image manipulation programs come in handy. Most of them will
have a perspective tool, which will allow you to pinch the lines together at a
horizon. Most will also have a scale tool to change the size of an image without
changing its shape.
Scaling is a transformation that geometry calls dilation, and it’s important for
understanding the geometric concept of similarity.
Definitions:
Dilation transforms a shape by scaling it up or down to a different but
similar size.
Similar figures have the same shape, angles, and ratio, but not the same size.
If we perform a dilation on an equal-sided triangle, we would get a similar (same

shape) triangle in a different size. The same terms are used in three dimensions as
well. These Matryoshka dolls are a good example of similar figures in 3-D.
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Similar→
As you can see, there’s a slight difference between congruent shapes and similar
shapes. Similar shapes are all in the same proportion. To be congruent, they would
all have to have the same size.
Congruent→
In Week 1, we learned that a ratio is the relationship between two numbers when
they’re divided. The ratio between the distance around a circle and across was pi.
Now we’re talking about the ratio between shapes. If two triangles are congruent,
the ratio between corresponding parts will be 1.
Definition:
Corresponding parts are sides or angles in the same position on congruent
or similar shapes.
Example 1:
These two triangles are congruent. Calculate the ratios between
corresponding sides.
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9 in 9 in
6 in 6 in
8 in 8 in
8 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: =1
8 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
9 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: =1
9 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
6 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: =1
6 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
All of these measurements are in a 1-to-1 ratio, which means their ratio equals 1
and they are congruent, even though they are flipped over (reflected).
By the way, that brings us to an important property of equality. The 1-to-1 ratio
1
can be written 1:1 or , but what it boils down to is the special property of 1:
1
Anything multiplied by 1 equals itself. Anything divided by 1 equals itself. It’s the
only number that allows another value to keep its identity when multiplied. If the
value stays the same, we call it the identity property of multiplication. (Division
comes along for the ride because it’s the same as multiplying by a fraction.)
We’ll be using that in writing proofs later. While we’re at it, can you think of a
number that lets values keep their identities when you add or subtract it? In other
words, anything plus this number equals itself. If you guessed zero, you’re right.
Let’s start a list of properties for proofs so we can refer back to it later.
List of Properties:
The identity property of multiplication: anything times 1 equals itself.
The identity property of addition: anything plus 0 equals itself.
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Those are very helpful when shapes are staying the same. But if they are similar,
again, we’ll have to calculate their ratios.
Example 2:
Prove that these two triangles are similar by calculating the ratios between
corresponding sides.
6 cm
5 cm 4 cm
10 cm
12.5 cm
15 cm
10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = 2.5
4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
12.5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = 2.5
5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
15 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = 2.5
6 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
It doesn’t matter what direction we do these, as long as we go in the same order

each time. If we start with the biggest triangle on top of the fraction, we get the
figures above. If we start with the smallest triangle on top, we get the following:
4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = .4
10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = .4
12.5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
6 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = .4
15 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
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For triangles, if we get the same ratio for corresponding sides, the triangles are
similar. That’s because a triangle is a rigid structure, where the angles can’t change
when the sides are put together. Other shapes aren’t so lucky. They have to have
equal angles as well as proportional sides. (Proportional is another word for being
in the same ratio.)
Example 3:
Show that a parallelogram and a rectangle can have proportional sides
without having the same angles.
6 ft
3 ft
8 ft 4 ft
8𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =2
4𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
6𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =2
3𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
The sides are proportional, but the shapes are obviously not similar. They do not
have equal angles.
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Dilation, Similar, and

Corresponding parts. Begin a List of Properties page and add: Identity properties
of multiplication and addition.
2. We mentioned the identity property of multiplication includes division because

division is the same as multiplying by a fraction. Can you explain why the
identity property of addition also includes subtraction?
3. Mark corresponding parts of each pair of triangles with different colors.

Calculate the ratios to determine if each pair is similar, congruent, or neither.
(All sides are measured in inches.)
a. sides 6-8-10 and 3-4-5
b. sides 5-9-14 and 8-15-20
c. sides 2-3-4 and 4-2-3
d. sides 7-7-12 and 14-14-24
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Day 2: Mapping
The best mental picture of similarity that I can give you is the concept of a map. If
you make life-size instructions, you’d need really big sheets of paper. It just isn’t
practical! By mapping life-size directions onto a small sheet of paper, you preserve
all of the angles and shapes while making it a manageable size.
In geometry, there’s actually a technical definition of mapping, and it’s what we’ve
been doing all along.
Definition:
Mapping happens where each point of one shape is matched by a point on
another.
Since there are an infinite number of points on each line segment, it actually
doesn’t matter if one is smaller than the other (a dilation transformation). No
matter which point we describe, we can map a corresponding point on a similar or
congruent shape, like this:
No matter which point on the shape you choose, you can find a corresponding
point on its reflection.
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The same holds true for similar shapes as well. No matter what point on the first
shape you select, you can find a corresponding point on the second shape. For
instance, select a point 1 cm up from the bottom left corner. If the entire segment is
3 cm, that point is 1/3 of the way up from the corner. You can select another point
1/3 of the way up from the corner of the other shape, and it corresponds. In other
words, it maps.
The fact that we can always find a point in between any two points, no matter how
close together, emphasizes two important concepts. First is the concept of infinity,
which we discussed at the end of Unit 1. Second is the fact that a point has no size
or dimension. It’s just a location in space, and the dot we use to show a point isn’t
actually the size of the point itself.
That means an infinite number of points can fit on the head of a pin, so to speak.
That’s what allows us to make a small map into a good representation of a large
country. It’s all about the ratio between points, not the size of the points
themselves. (Did you notice that I converted 1 cm out of 3 cm into the ratio 1/3 in
the example above?)
Task 1: Map these dimensions of a house and yard onto a piece of paper.
The house measures 40 ft x 70 ft in a perfect rectangle. The yard is a
parallelogram with base 90 ft and height 60 ft. The house sits in the middle
of one long side of the yard. The far corner of the yard is about
perpendicular to the corner of the house.
Solution: We have to map feet to grid marks on the paper. I used a scale of 10 feet
for every 5 grid marks to make the following site map.
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Definition:
Scale is the ratio used to increase or decrease (dilate) any shape.
Yard
These shapes are obviously not congruent to the actual house and yard. They are
similar, however, because they have the same shapes, angles, and proportions.
(We’ve drawn this before in Week 4, but now we’re expanding our drawing with
the Transformation skills we’ve learned.)
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Mapping, Scale.
2. Make a site map of your house and yard, or make a map from your house to a
favorite store, restaurant, or library. Use measurements of your yard or count the
city blocks to make the maps as similar as possible to the actual shapes.
3. If you were animating a helicopter for a video game, what transformations

would the shape need to undergo? For example, the blades would have to rotate.
Tell what other flips, slides, turns or scaling (dilations) would have to be
animated if the helicopter travels into the distance and back.
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Day 3: The Properties of Equality
We can’t leave this topic of Transformations without talking about the properties
of equality because the definitions are so similar.
For example, reflection uses a mirror to flip a shape, but consider just the mirror.
Have you ever watched a kitten get its first glimpse of itself in a mirror? It hisses
and backs away because it doesn’t realize that it is hissing at itself.
In a way, that reflection represents the reflexive property of equality. It’s a reflex to
know that you equal yourself, right? Sometimes, though, we have to make a point
of it, especially in geometric proofs.
List of Properties:
The reflexive property of equality: anything is equal to itself.
We also learned about lines of symmetry, where a shape can flip over and still be
equal. That’s related to the symmetric property of equality because any equal or
congruent statement can be reversed and still be true. For example, if 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏,
then 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎. If 𝑥𝑥 = 10, then 10 = 𝑥𝑥.
List of Properties:
The symmetric property of equality: if two things are equal or congruent,
you can write the statement in reverse and it’s still true.
Next is the transitive property of equality. While the words are different, you can
see its prefix in the words’ transformation and translation. It’s a Latin form that
means across, and it indicates movement of some sort (like transportation). In this
case, the transitive property means that equality can be transferred. For example, if
x = 10, and 10 = y, then x = y because they’re both 10.
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List of Properties:
The transitive property of equality: If two things equal the same thing,
they are equal.
Have you seen those pendulum toys? Dropping a ball at one end causes the ball on
the other end to move. The transitive property works sort of like that. If A = B, and
B = C, and C = D, and D = E, then A = E.
It’s slightly different from the substitution property. The transitive property
transfers equality. In substitution, we replace a value in an equation with
something that’s equal. For example: if we want to find the value of x + 7
whenever x = 3, then we’ll take 3+7=10.
List of Properties:
The substitution property of equality: things that are equal can substitute
for each other.
To review, we also learned the identity properties in this unit. The identity of
multiplication is one, and the identity of addition is zero.
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Zero also has a unique property when we multiply it, and that gets its own special
name.
List of Properties:
The zero property of multiplication: anything multiplied by zero equals
zero.
Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes on the List of Properties page: The Reflexive,
Symmetric, Transitive, and Substitution properties of equality, and the Zero
property of multiplication.
2. Match the name of the property to its example.
_____ Reflexive a. if A = B, and B = C, then A = C
_____ Symmetric b. 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 0 = 0
_____ Transitive c. if A = B, then B = A
_____ Substitution d. 𝑥𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥𝑥
_____ Identity of Multiplication e. A = A
_____ Identity of Addition f. 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 1 = 𝑥𝑥
_____ Zero Property of Multiplication g. if x = 3, find x + 7
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Day 4: Review
We’ve covered a lot of definitions in this unit, most of which involve words that
are special to Geometry. We’ll also have to use some of those properties repeatedly
in the proof section, and nobody wants to write all those long names time after
time. So, let’s decide on some abbreviations.
Property Short form

Identity property of multiplication Identity ×
Identity property of addition Identity +
Zero property of multiplication Zero ×
Reflexive property of equality Reflex. =
Symmetric property of equality Symmetric =
Transitive property of equality Transit. =
Substitution property of equality Subst. =
By now you should be getting the hang of it. Use +, −,×,÷, = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≅ (congruent)
to stand for the whole spelled-out words. Don’t bother with “property of” unless
it’s absolutely necessary. And then keep either the whole first word or a reasonable
abbreviation for it.
Sometimes we will also need those pesky properties from Algebra, so let’s review
them now, too.
List of Properties:
Commutative property: you can rearrange terms that are combined with
the same operation (+ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ×).
Associative property: you can move parentheses around terms that are
combined with the same operation (+ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ×).
Distributive property: a rule to combine + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × around parentheses.
These don’t work for subtraction or division unless you first turn them into
addition (add a negative) or multiplication (multiply by a fraction) problems.
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Examples:
Commutative: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 = 5 ∙ 2 ∙ 3
Associative: 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2 (7 ∙ 10) = (2 ∙ 7) ∙ 10

←Factoring is reverse
distribution.
Distributive: 2(𝑥𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 2 ∙ 1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
The opposite of Distributing is Factoring, which is why I included that in the

example above. When the time comes, we’ll abbreviate these, too: Commute,
Assoc., and Distrib.
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes on the List of Properties page: Commutative,

Associative, and Distributive properties.
2. Review Transformations:
a. Use a piece of graph paper or make a 10 by 10 grid. Graph points A (–7, 8),
B (–7, 2), and C (–1, 2). Connect the vertices. What shape is this?
b. Reflect the shape across the x-axis as the line of symmetry. Mark the new
coordinates A1, B1 and C1. What are the coordinates of the right angle?
c. Using point C1 to pivot around, rotate the shape 90° counter-clockwise.

Mark the new coordinates A2, B2 and C2. What are the coordinates of the
right angle now?
d. Scale the triangle down by half. Without changing its orientation, place the
new, similar triangle with the right angle at the point (4, –5). Mark the new
coordinates A3, B3 and C3. In what quadrant is the new triangle?
e. Slide the small triangle up seven and left two. Mark the new coordinates A4,
B4 and C4. How did the translation (slide) change each coordinate?
f. Using the slanted side of the triangle as a line of symmetry, flip the shape’s
reflection to the other side. Mark the final coordinates A5, B5 and C5. What
shape do the two triangles together make?
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Day 5: Unit 3 Quiz
Match the name of the property to its example.
_____ 1. Reflexive a. 5 ∙ 7 = 7 ∙ 5
_____ 2. Symmetric b. if A = B, and B = C, then A = C
_____ 3. Transitive c. 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 0 = 0
_____ 4. Substitution d. 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 3) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 6
_____ 5. Identity of × e. if A = B, then B = A
_____ 6. Identity of + f. 𝑥𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥𝑥
_____ 7. Zero Property of × g. 2 + (7 + 9) = (2 + 7) + 9
_____ 8. Commutative Prop. h. A = A
_____ 9. Associative Prop. i. 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 1 = 𝑥𝑥
_____10. Distributive Prop. j. if x = 3, find x + 7
Match the name of the Transformation to its description.
_____11. Reflection a. turn
_____12. Translation b. scale
_____13. Rotation c. flip
_____14. Dilation d. slide
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Many years ago, cartoonists made animated films about a famous coyote. (It still
airs on reruns.) In one scene, the coyote threw away a boomerang. It circled into
the distance before it returned to surprise him.
Focus on the flight of the boomerang. Match what kind of transformation happened
in each of these instances.
_____15. The boomerang turns in a circle. a. Translation
_____16. The boomerang moves. b. Reflection
_____17. The boomerang gets smaller with distance. c. Rotation
_____18. The boomerang flips to come back. d. Dilation
19. In real life, video cameras are used to record motion, where it can be studied
frame by frame. If your camera rolls at 100 frames per second and a boomerang
actually rotates one complete turn in a second, how many degrees of rotation are
captured on each frame? How many degrees of rotation will be captured at 24
frames per second (fps), the usual speed of cinema film?
20. Given triangles with the sides listed below, prove that they are either similar,
congruent, or neither.
Triangle 1: sides measure 12 cm, 15 cm, and 24 cm.
Triangle 2: sides measure 16 cm, 20 cm, and 32 cm
160
Unit 4: Making Snow Angles
Introduction: If you don’t have a pun-master in your life, you’re missing out. My
family knows that if they’re cold, they should go stand in the corner because it’s
90° there. When they go outside in the snow, they make snow angles because
spelling is optional when you’re playing. They’re so acute! My obtuse jokes really
get to them, though. I’m like a perpendicular corner—never argue with me because
I’m always right!
If the math puns above left you as cold as an acute angle (it was freezing because it
was 32°), then you really need to learn some math vocabulary. We’re going to
supplement your education right away, so you can tell when someone is paying
you a compliment, or just complementing your angle.
Week 8: Types of Angles
Day 1: Acute or not?
The first thing we have to learn about angles is how they’re made. Technically, we
have to start with a line.
Next, we stop the line at one point to make a ray.
Finally, we add another ray starting at the same point, and we have an angle. As
you’ll recall, the point where they meet is called the vertex.
Definitions:
A ray is half a line, extending infinitely in only one direction.
An angle is formed by two rays that start at the same point, the vertex.
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Now suppose we have two identical angles. How are we going to tell them apart?
If they were twin golden retrievers, we would name them, right?
Bear Bella
We do name angles, but not the same way. Instead, we can assign a single letter,
like we did on the coordinate plane. Point A below is actually angle A in this
shape.
2
1
We can also give angles numbers if the vertices don’t have letters assigned. If they
do have letters, we can use three points to designate the angle. Just put the vertex
in the middle. Angle BAC (angle 1 above) is not the same as angle CBA (2) or
angle ACB (3).
By the way, did you notice that the rays from our definition have been cut off by
points B and C to become line segments? The rays are still there, but we don’t have
to mark them in.
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We also can’t keep calling these Angle A, B, or C. We need a shortcut, so we’ll
just draw an angle in front of the name: ∡A. You don’t even need the little
measurement arc on the symbol: ∠B works just fine. If you’re typing on a
keyboard and can’t find the angle symbol, you can even use the less than sign: <C.
Just like shapes, we can’t say different angles are exactly equal because they aren’t
in the same location. That’s where we would use the congruent symbol: ≅. We
can, however, say their measurements are equal. For instance, if we see 𝑚𝑚 ∠A =
45°, we would read that “the measure of angle A is 45 degrees.”
Here’s how it would look in Mathese.

∠B ≅∠A. m∠A = 45°. Using the transitive property, m∠B = 45° as well.
As you can see, ≅ and “the measure of =” can be used almost interchangeably.
There’s only one difference: ≅ is used for the shapes, and = is used for the
measurements.
We have special names for the types of angles, as well. You’ve already learned
that a right angle is always 90°. Anything smaller is acute, and anything bigger is
obtuse. Where the fun really begins is with supplementary and complementary
angles. Supplements add up to 180°. Complements add up to 90°.
Definitions:
An acute angle measures less than 90°.
An obtuse angle measures more than 90°.
Supplementary means the angles add up to 180°.
Complementary means the angles add up to 90°.
163
Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Ray, Angle, Acute, Obtuse,
Supplementary, and Complementary.
2. Name all of the angles you can identify. If some have more than one name, list
both with the congruent sign between them (≅).
A B
1 X C
2
D
3. Which three of the angles in #2 fit together to form a straight angle? (They are
supplementary.)
4. Name three sets of two angles in #2 above that are supplementary.
5. Which two of the following fit together to form a right angle? (They are
complementary.)
a.) 44° b.) 26° c.) 36° d.) 64°
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Day 2: Supplementary angles
The concepts of supplementary and complementary angles are very important in

Geometry. For one thing, they are a major tool in our toolbox to solve geometric
proofs. That’s why we’re going to take a day to practice recognizing them.
We’ve already seen how this works inductively. This illustration is from Week 4,
when we cut off the edge of a parallelogram and moved it to the other edge to form
a rectangle.
Let’s put letters on those angles so we can keep track of them. Mathematicians put
letters on the vertices of polygons just like we put them on the vertices of angles.
We can use them to name the polygon, too. Just keep the letters in order. It helps to
imagine walking around the perimeter and calling out the letters as you go.
D C
A B
We usually go in alphabetical order, but we don’t have to. Parallelogram ABCD is
one name for this, though we could use shorthand: ABCD works, too. It’s the
same as BCDA, CDAB, or DABC. It’s also the same as any of the
points named in reverse. Just make sure you list the points in order, either
clockwise or counter-clockwise.
That said, let’s label the points on our first drawing.
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D C
A B A
Angle A is repeated because we cut off a copy to move it to the other side. When
we tuck it up next to ∠B, we can see that together, they form a straight line. By
definition, then, they form a supplementary angle. That means 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴 = 180.*
*We’re using the letter names

of the angles as variables in
an equation.
B A
That’s actually a key fact about parallelograms, which we will prove later. For
now, we’ll just accept this. (Consecutive means “one after the other in order.”)
Geometry Fact:
Consecutive angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.
Example 1:
One angle of a parallelogram measures 48°. What do the other three angles
measure?
Step 1:
The given angle is less than 90°, so it is the acute angle. We can mark it
on either ∠C or ∠A because the other two angles are obtuse.
D C
48°
A B
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Step 2:
Angle A and ∠B are supplementary. Since ∠A is 48°, write the
equation: 48° + 𝑚𝑚∠𝐵𝐵 = 180°.
Step 3:
Solving the equation, we find that 𝑚𝑚∠𝐵𝐵 = 180°– 48° = 132°.
Step 4:
Repeating Steps 2 and 3 for ∠A and ∠D, we find that m∠D also equals
132°. Repeating the steps with either ∠B plus ∠C = 180° or ∠D plus
∠C = 180°, we find that m∠C equals 48°.
If you’ll recall, back in Week 4, we wrote down a Geometry Fact. I mentioned that
we would need to use it many times in this course. This is one of those times.
Geometry Fact from Week 4:

Anything can be separated into two parts: 𝑥𝑥, and 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥. Together, they
make the whole because (𝑥𝑥) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙.
Do you notice how the x and the –x cancel out? We can see that principle at work
in the above example: When one angle is 48°, the other angle is 180° – 48°, or
132°. Together they equal the total, 180°.
If we only know that one angle is x, the supplementary angle would be 180° – x.
Geometry Fact:
Supplementary angles can be written as 𝒙𝒙 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏° − 𝒙𝒙 because
𝒙𝒙 + (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏° − 𝒙𝒙) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏°
That leads us to a very handy proof.
167
Example 2:
Given that consecutive angles of any parallelogram ABCD are
supplementary, prove that opposite angles are equal.
1. ∠A is supplementary to ∠B and 1. Given (consecutive angles are

∠D. ∠C is supplementary to ∠B supplementary)
and ∠D.
2. If m∠A = x, then m∠B = 180–x 2. Definition of supplementary.

If m∠A = x, then m∠D = 180–x
3. m∠B = 180–x = m∠D 3. Transitive property of equality.
4. If m∠B = 180–x, then m∠C = x 4. Definition of supplementary.

If m∠D = 180–x, then m∠A = x
5. m∠C = x = m∠A 5. Transitive property of equality.
6. ∴ ∠𝐵𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐷 and ∠𝐴𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐶 6. Definition of congruence.
It looks like supplementary angles and the transitive property came in handy, there.
One extra thing you should notice is the difference between congruent, ≅, and
equal, =. Whenever we use an equal sign with shapes, we must also write an m:
𝑚𝑚∠A = 𝑥𝑥. That Mathese sentence says, “The measure of angle A equals x.”
Whenever we say the shape of the angle is congruent to another angle, however,
we drop the m and simply write: ∠𝐴𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐶.
Remember this from Week 6: Congruent shapes have exactly the same
measurements. That means if ∠𝐴𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐶, then 𝑚𝑚∠A = 𝑚𝑚∠C. Shapes are
congruent. Measurements are equal. We might mistakenly use the wrong sign in
informal writing, but when it comes to proofs, we have to be exact.
168
Example 3:
A carpenter has two boards with ends cut at an angle. He wants to make
them fit together in a straight line, but one angle is small and one is large. To
minimize waste, he cuts them so that the angle of one board is 1.5 times as
big as the angle of the other board. How large should each angle be, to fit
together at 180°?
x 1.5x
Solution:
Label one angle x. Label the other angle 1.5 x. Solve the equation
𝑥𝑥 + 1.5𝑥𝑥 = 180°
2.5𝑥𝑥 = 180°
𝑥𝑥 = 72°
1.5𝑥𝑥 = 108°
The two angles he should cut are 72° and 108°.
169
Assignment
1. Write on your Geometry Notes/ Geometry Facts page:
Adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.

Supplementary angles can be written as 𝑥𝑥 and 180° − 𝑥𝑥 because
𝑥𝑥 + (180° − 𝑥𝑥) = 180°
2. A carpenter has two boards with ends cut at an angle. He wants to make them fit
together in a straight line, but one angle is small and one is large. To minimize
waste, he cuts them so that the angle of one board is 2 times as big as the angle
of the other board. How large should each angle be, to fit together at 180°?
3. Label the vertices, starting from the letter given, and find the other angles of
each parallelogram:
a. m∠W=38° c. m∠A=27°
b. m∠P=104° d. m∠J=120°
4. If two angles are supplementary, and one angle measures z degrees, what is the
measurement of the other angle?
170
Day 3: Complementary Angles
Today’s practice will focus on complementary angles, which add up to 90°. We’ll
start by restating this principle:
Geometry Fact:
Complementary angles can be written as 𝒙𝒙 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗° − 𝒙𝒙 because
𝒙𝒙 + (𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗° − 𝒙𝒙) = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗°
By now, this should be looking a little obvious to you. That’s a good thing,
because it means you’re absorbing the principle: Any total can be separated into
two parts, x and the total minus x.
To view complimentary angles, we would draw the following:
Obviously, that’s the wrong kind of complimentary. We need the kind with an e in
the middle: complementary. A compliment is nice (notice the I’s in the middle). A
complement completes (with E’s in the middle). In Geometry, a complement
completes a right angle.
Since we already know a shape with all right angles, let’s use it to investigate.
Draw a rectangle, label the corners, and then draw a diagonal across it.
D C
A B
171
To solve our next proof, we’ll need another definition. So far, we’ve talked about
adjacent sides of a shape. Those share a common vertex. Now we have to talk
about adjacent angles. Those share a common vertex and a common side, like this:
1 3
2
Because ∠1 and ∠2 share a common vertex and a common side, their exterior sides
form another angle, ∠3.
Definition:
Adjacent angles share a common vertex and a common side.
Example 1:
Given �� are
ABCD, prove that the angles formed at ∠A by diagonal 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
complementary.
1. ∠DAB is a right angle. 1. Given (ABCD is a rectangle)
2. m∠DAB=90° 2. Definition of right angle
3. ∠𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ≅ ∠DAC + ∠CAB 3. Definition of adjacent angles
4. 𝑚𝑚∠𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑚𝑚∠DAC + 𝑚𝑚∠CAB 4. Definition of congruent
5. 𝑚𝑚∠DAC + 𝑚𝑚∠CAB = 90° 5. Transitive property of equality
6. ∴ ∠DAC and ∠CAB are 6. Definition of complementary

complementary
By the way, did you notice that this proof is a combination of a lot of definitions?
That’s why we’ve been writing them down as we go along!
172
We could do the same proof for any corner and any diagonal of a rectangle or
square. The diagonals split the vertices into complementary angles simply because
the vertices are already right angles. (I know, we could have just said that and not
done a formal proof. But I want you to get used to the logical reasoning behind the
proofs because, eventually, you’ll need to write these yourself.)
Let’s practice some more.
Example 2:
Diagonal ��
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 divides angle C of ABCD into two adjacent angles. If one
angle is three times the other, how big is each angle?
Solution:
D x C
3x
A B
Draw and label the rectangle. Label the adjacent angles at C as x and 3x.
Write an equation and solve.
𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 = 90°
4𝑥𝑥 = 90°
𝑥𝑥 = 22.5°
3𝑥𝑥 = 67.5°
The two angles are 22.5° and 67.5°.
Some word problems with angles are a little more involved. You’ll have to
recognize when to split them into x and total – x.
Example 2:
Find two complementary angles where one is 30° more than the other.
Step 1: Make a drawing and label the parts. Most of the time, you’ll want the
smaller angle to be x.
173
x
90–x
Step 2: Solve an equation: the larger one is 30 more than the smaller.
90 − 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 30
60 = 2𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 = 30
The other angle: 𝑥𝑥 + 30 = 60
The two angles are 30° and 60°. Check: 30+60=90.
Note: making the drawing will help prevent confusing the 90° and 180° angles.
Example 3:
An artist is making a picture frame. The miter joints have to make the pieces
meet at exactly 90°. At what angle should she cut the ends of the wood?
+ =
Step 1: Make a drawing and label the parts. The angles have to be equal.
x
x
174
Step 2: Solve the equation.
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 = 90
2𝑥𝑥 = 90
𝑥𝑥 = 45
Both angles should be cut at a 45° angle.
Notice the relationships between 45° and 90°, as well as between 30°, 60°, and
90°. Those values will be very important as we progress through Geometry.
Example 4:
Twice the measure of an angle’s supplement is 30° more than five times its
complement. Find the angle.
Step 1: Make a drawing and label the parts.
x= the angle
180–x = the supplement
90–x = the complement
x= the angle
Step 2: Write an equation. Use the supplement and the complement, not the
original angle: Twice (supplement) is five times (complement) plus 30.
2(180 − 𝑥𝑥) = 5(90 − 𝑥𝑥) + 30
360 − 2𝑥𝑥 = 450 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 30
5𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 = 450 + 30 − 360
3𝑥𝑥 = 120
𝑥𝑥 = 40
The original angle measures 40°.
Note: We’re using some Algebra tools here to translate and then solve the word
problem. If you need a review, the textbook for SchoolhouseTeachers.com’s
Algebra course, Beginning and Intermediate Algebra, has a good summary that
starts on page 64.
175
Assignment

Complementary angles can be written as 𝑥𝑥 and 90° − 𝑥𝑥 because
𝑥𝑥 + (90° − 𝑥𝑥) = 90°
2. What is the difference between a compliment and a complement? Give

examples.
3. Diagonal ��
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 divides ∠ D of ABCD into two adjacent angles. If one angle is
two times the other, how big is each angle?
4. Find an angle where its complement plus its supplement equals 150°.
5. Find an angle where twice its supplement minus three times its complement is
130°.
6. Twice the measure of an angle’s complement plus 4 equals 90°. What is the
angle?
176
Day 4. Angles of a Triangle, Part 1
Today we’re going to discover how many degrees there are in a triangle. If you’ll
recall, there are 360 degrees in a circle, so if you guessed that it would be some
multiple of 60, you’re on the right track.
Example 1:
Step 1:
Begin by drawing three triangles on a piece of paper. Be as imprecise as
possible, as long as all three edges are straight. Cut them out when you’re
finished.
Step 2:
Get out three new pieces of paper and put each triangle on one piece. This
step is to help you keep like pieces together.
Step 3:
Tear off each corner of the first triangle by hand. Fit the vertices together
along one line of the notebook paper and tape them down. Once all the
pieces are taped, do the same with the other triangles. What do you notice?
177
Tape these
down.
Triangle 1: Throw
this piece
away.
Triangle 2: Triangle 3:
As you can see, no matter what shape the triangle is, all of its angles will add up to
a straight line, or 180°.
We can prove that concept another way, with a rectangle.
D C
A B
Example 2:
Given ABCD and diagonal 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 �� , prove that the sum of the angles in
∆𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 and ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 are both equal to 180°.
For this proof, we will use the Geometry Fact we learned in Week 4: A triangle is
half a parallelogram. We used reflection (flip) and rotation to demonstrate it.
178
Step 1: Always state what is given first.
1. ABCD and diagonal ��

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 1. Given.
2. ABCD is a parallelogram 2. Definition of a rectangle.

with four right angles.
3. Four right angles add up to 360°. 3. Definition of right angle.
�� cuts the rectangle

4. Diagonal 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 4. A triangle is half a parallelogram.
in half.
5. ∴ ∆𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 and ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 each have 5. Conclusion

half of 360°, which equals 180°.
I’ll be the first to admit that this proof wouldn’t stand up in Geometry court. There
are several gaps in it. (For instance, it only applies to right triangles.) It does,
however, demonstrate how to use what you already know to start proving
something you don’t know yet, which is why I included it. We’ll do a better proof
of this when we have a longer list of properties to pull from.
For now, let’s concentrate on the fact that the angles of a triangle add up to 180°.
This is one of the more important facts to memorize in Geometry. We haven’t
completely proven it, though, so we’ll just put it on the Geometry Facts page for
now:
Geometry Fact:
The angles of a triangle add up to 180°.
What else do we know that add up to 180°? Oh, right, supplementary angles.
Technically, then, we could say that the angles of a triangle are supplementary, but
only if we take all three of them together.
179
Here’s a strange fact about right triangles: the other two angles are complementary.
We don’t even need a formal proof to show that. If you take 180° and subtract the
90° angle, you’re left with 90° for the other two angles (which are both acute, by
the way). That gives us two more facts to write down.
Geometry Fact:
The three angles of a triangle are supplementary.
In a right triangle, the two acute angles are complementary.
That gives us more types of word problems to play with.
Example 3:
If two angles of a triangle are equal, and the third angle is 18 degrees more,
how big is each angle?
Step 1: Always draw a diagram and label it.
x+18
x x
Step 2: “Walk” around the triangle and write down all of the angles. Put plus
signs between them and make them equal to 180. Solve the equation.
(𝑥𝑥) + (𝑥𝑥) + (𝑥𝑥 + 18) = 180
3𝑥𝑥 + 18 = 180
3𝑥𝑥 = 162
𝑥𝑥 = 54
54 + 18 = 72
The two equal angles are 54°, and the other angle is 72°.
Check: 54+54+72=180.
180
Assignment

The angles of a triangle add up to 180°.
The three angles of a triangle are supplementary.
In a right triangle, the two acute angles are complementary.
2. Solve the following for all three angles of a triangle if:
a. Two angles of a right triangle are equal.
b. One acute angle of a right triangle is twice the other.
c. Two angles of a triangle are equal, and the third is three times the first.
d. The first and third angles of a triangle are equal, and the second is 24 degrees
more.
e. The supplement of the first angle in a triangle is 124. The second angle is 16
degrees more than the first.
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Day 5: Transversals
The focus of this unit is defining types of angles, so we can talk about them with
one word instead of taking whole sentences to describe them. For instance, which
is easier: “A pair of angles that add up to 180 degrees,” or “Supplementary
angles”? Here’s an even shorter name for them: a linear pair.
Think about it. A line is 180°. Supplementary angles add up to 180°. Any pair of
angles that together make up a whole 180°, with the same vertex, must lie on a
line. Voilà, it’s a linear pair.
Definition:
A linear pair is a pair of angles that share a side and a vertex and lie on the
same line with no gaps. They add up to 180°.
We could even turn that into a proof.
Example 1: Prove that a linear pair, x and y, must be supplementary.
1. ∠𝑥𝑥 and ∠y are a linear pair. 1. Given.
2. ∠𝑥𝑥 and ∠y share a side and a 2. Definition of linear pair.

vertex and lie on the same line with
no gaps.
3. Any line is a straight angle that 3. Definition of straight angle.

measures 180°.
4. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 180° 4. Definition of a straight line.
5. ∴∠x and ∠y are supplementary. 5. Definition of supplementary.
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One purpose of a proof is to state the obvious in a formal way. This particular
proof did that nicely because it only used definitions!
That leads us to our next definition and proof. Vertical angles are formed when two
lines cross each other.
Definition:
Vertical angles are formed when two lines cross each other. The angles
directly across from each other are equal.
You could prove that (inductively) in about two seconds with a pair of pencils.
Hold them in the shape of an X and see if you can make vertical angles that
don’t match. Unless one of your pencils is bent, it’s impossible. However,
Geometry takes nothing for granted.
Example 2: Given a pair of lines that cross, prove that the measurement of
vertical angles x and y are equal.
Step 1: Draw the shape and mark the angles, including supplements.
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Step 2: Notice that x and y are supplements to the same angle. Write the proof.
1. ∠𝑥𝑥 and ∠y are vertical angles. 1. Given.
2. ∠𝑥𝑥 is a linear pair with its 2. Definition of linear pair.

supplement, 180-x.
3. ∠𝑦𝑦 is also a linear pair with the 3. Definition of linear pair.

angle measuring 180-x
4. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 + (180 − 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥) = 180 4. A linear pair is supplementary.
5. ∴ 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚 ∠x 5. Solve the equation.
So far, our angle definitions have mostly dealt with pairs of angles. Two lines cross
at an intersection, sort of like two streets crossing at a traffic signal. But what
happens when three lines cross? In that case, we have to deal with a transversal. If
the word looks familiar, it should. We’ve defined words like translate, transitive,
and transportation. What they have in common is the meaning of moving across,
and that’s what a transversal does. It moves across other lines.
Definition:
A transversal crosses other lines in the same plane.
The red lines above are the transversals. The lines they cross (in blue) can be
parallel (like the second pair), but they don’t have to be. They just all have to be in
the same flat plane (no 3-D spacewalking allowed).
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I will confess, however, that most of the time we talk about transversals, we’ll be
investigating parallel lines. So, that’s how we’ll draw them from now on.
As you can see, there are a lot of angles here. To describe them, we need a way to
talk about which position they’re in. To start with, all of the ones inside the
parallels are interior angles, and all the ones outside are exterior. Think of the
parallel lines as if they were a house, with an interior and exterior.
Interior angles: Exterior angles:
Next, consider the two points where the transversals cross. If these were two street
corners, you could get lost because they look very similar. In fact, the angles that
lie at the same direction on the compass are so similar that they’re called
corresponding angles.
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Here’s another view of corresponding angles, without the compass. Notice the
colors match.
You can also see pairs of vertical angles this way: yellow and pink are vertical, and
so are green and blue.
The last way we can describe angles is whether they are alternate or consecutive.
Alternate angles are across the transversal from each other. Consecutive angles are
on the same side.
Notice, we don’t call vertical angles “alternate” because they have a common
vertex. We only use Alternate or Consecutive with angles that have different
vertices.
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Summary of today’s angles:
Angles that share the same vertex are linear pairs or vertical angles.
Angles formed by a transversal and the (parallel) lines it crosses are related, but
they do not share a common vertex. We describe their position with the following:
Definitions:
Interior angles are inside the parallel lines.
Exterior angles are outside the parallel lines.
Corresponding angles are in the same position around the vertices (like
points on a compass).
Alternate angles are across the transversal.

Consecutive angles are on the same side of the transversal.
These descriptions are often used together, so today’s assignment will practice that.
You can keep them straight if you remember what each word means. For example,
alternate interior angles must be both alternate (across the transversal) and interior
(inside the parallel lines).
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Linear pair, Vertical angles,
Transversal, Interior angles, Exterior angles, Corresponding angles, Alternate
angles, Consecutive angles.
2. Print these two pages or copy the following diagrams onto your paper. Using
different colored pencils or markers, mark every angle you can find that fit the
following descriptions.
a. Vertical angles
b. Corresponding angles
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c. Alternate interior angles
d. Alternate exterior angles
e. Consecutive interior angles
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Week 9: The Parallel Postulate
Day 1: Self-Evident Truths
An axiom, or postulate, is something that can’t be proven by itself, but has to be

assumed true in order to argue the truth of something else. The Declaration of
Independence established an axiom at the very founding of the United States, and
everything else followed from it:
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
I hope you learned at least that from history class. It’s worth memorizing. What I
want to point out here is the self-evident truth. All of the rest of the arguments in
the Declaration are based on that one claim.
Geometry has a set of self-evident truths as well. We call them axioms or

postulates. Mathematicians can create entirely new branches of Geometry simply
by changing those postulates. The branch we’re studying is the traditional
Geometry that Euclid wrote down. One of his postulates relates to our transversal
discussion: the Parallel Postulate.
It’s called that, but Euclid actually didn’t use the word “Parallel.” Instead, he stated
it in the negative. He might have said it this way in modern English: “Given a
transversal, if consecutive interior angles are not supplementary, then the lines will
form a triangle.”
If you follow that to its logical conclusion, however, you get what modern
Geometry calls the Parallel Postulate.
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Definitions:
A postulate is a self-evident truth (axiom) used to form a line of reasoning.
List of Properties:
The Parallel Postulate: if parallel lines are crossed by a transversal,

consecutive interior angles will be supplementary.
Consecutive interior angles were the ones from number 2e of yesterday’s

assignment, shown below in purple and green.
You can use vertical angles, linear pairs, and the Parallel Postulate to prove that
alternate interior angles are equal, alternate exterior angles are equal, and
corresponding angles are equal. In other words, all of these angles that look equal,
are equal: all of the pink and yellow angles are equal, and all of the green and blue
angles are equal. If you take one of each, it will be supplementary.
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Let’s pick just one of those and write the proof.
Example: Given parallel lines m and n and a transversal p, prove that alternate
interior angles x and y have equal measurements.
Step 1: Draw and label what’s given. You could pick either one of the alternate
interior pairs. I chose the small ones. p
m 1 2
x 3
n 4 y
5 6
Step 2: Label other angles with letters or numbers for clarity. You’ll probably
only use one of these.
1. Line m // line n; crossed by 1. Given.

transversal p.
2. ∠y is supplementary to ∠3. 2. Parallel Postulate: consecutive

interior angles are supplementary.
3. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 180° − 𝑚𝑚∠3 3. Definition of supplementary.
4. ∠x is supplementary to ∠3. 4. Definition of linear pair.
5. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 180° − m∠3 5. Definition of linear pair.
6. ∴ 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 6. Transitive property of equality.
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In Mathese, a corollary is something that can be easily proved from a related
property. Since the equality of alternate interior angles is so easily derived from the
Parallel Postulate, we call it a corollary of the Parallel Postulate.
Definition:
A corollary is a property that’s easily proved from a related property.
So we can work with these all week, add all three of these corollaries to the list of
properties. We’ll prove the rest later.
List of Properties:
If lines are //, alternate interior angles are congruent.
If lines are //, alternate exterior angles are congruent.
If lines are //, corresponding angles are congruent.
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes definitions page: Postulate, and Corollary. Add to
your List of Properties: Parallel Postulate and its three corollaries: Alternate
interior angles, Alternate exterior angles, and Corresponding angles.
2. Draw parallel lines crossed by a transversal. If one of the eight angles formed is
72°, label all eight angles with their measurements.
3. Given that line m // line n, match the angle pairs with the proper description.
You may use the descriptions more than once.
_____ ∠1 and ∠3 a. linear pair

_____ ∠2 and ∠3 b. consecutive interior
_____ ∠2 and ∠4 c. alternate interior
_____ ∠5 and ∠6 d. alternate exterior
_____ ∠5 and ∠8 e. vertical angles
_____ ∠7 and ∠8 f. corresponding
_____ ∠1 and ∠5
_____ ∠1 and ∠8
_____ ∠3 and ∠5
_____ ∠4 and ∠6
_____ ∠2 and ∠7
_____ ∠1 and ∠8
_____ ∠3 and ∠6
_____ ∠4 and ∠7
_____ ∠5 and ∠4
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Day 2: Proving the Corollaries
Yesterday’s assignment was tricky, even for a seasoned mathematician. The angle
names are similar, so they start looking alike. I hope you took your time and
checked your work with the answer key. Exterior (outside the //s) and Interior
(inside the //s) are opposites. Alternate (across) and Consecutive (same side) are
opposites. If you can keep those straight, it will help a lot going forward.
Something else that will help going forward is reading each line of the proofs in
the lessons. Doing so will train your mind to spot what to look for because soon I’ll
be asking you to fill in some of these reasons.
With that in mind, yesterday we proved the corollary about alternate interior
angles. Today we’ll prove the exterior angles.
Example: Given parallel lines m and n and a transversal p, prove that alternate
exterior angles x and y have equal measurements.
Step 1: Draw and label what’s given. You could pick either one of the alternate
exterior pairs. I chose the big ones.
p
m x 1
2 3
n 4 5
6 y
Did you notice how we’re naming lines? If there are no points printed on the line,
we can give them single-letter names. Since points are always capital letters, we
use lower case letters for the lines.
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Step 2: Label other angles with letters or numbers for clarity. You’ll probably
only use a couple of these.
Step 3: Pay attention to all of the pairs of angles that are equal or
supplementary. They are extremely handy!

transversal p.
2. ∠x is vertical to ∠3. m∠x=m∠3 2. Definition of vertical.
3. ∠3 is supplementary to ∠5 3. Definition of supplementary.

𝑚𝑚∠3 = 180° − 𝑚𝑚∠5
4. ∠y is supplementary to ∠5. 4. Definition of linear pair.

𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 180° − m∠5
5. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = m∠3 5. Transitive property of equality.
6. ∴ 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 6. Transitive property of equality.
Some things to pay special attention to when doing proofs:

• We always use the measure of shapes when we say they’re equal. For
example, 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚∠3.
• We use the congruent signs when we say the shapes themselves are
congruent. For example, we did not use ∠𝑦𝑦 ≅ ∠3 because the proof
specifically asked for the measurements.
• When two things equal the same thing, we use the Transitive property. For
example, 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚∠3; 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚∠3; ∴ 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦. We will be using
this property a lot.
• Always begin with the “GIVEN” and end with the “GOAL,” what you need
to prove.
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There is a lot of writing with proofs. It would be easier if we learned some standard
abbreviations, so we can write them more quickly.
This list is from Week 7:
Property Short form

Identity property of multiplication Identity ×
Identity property of addition Identity +
Zero property of multiplication Zero ×
Reflexive property of equality Reflex. =
Symmetric property of equality Symmetric =
Transitive property of equality Transit. =
Substitution property of equality Subst. =
Let’s add to that list, shall we?
Property Short form

Parallel Postulate: Consecutive interior // Post.
angles are supplementary
Alternate interior angles are congruent Alt. Int. ∠s ≅
Alternate exterior angles are congruent Alt. Ext. ∠s ≅
Corresponding angles are congruent Corresp. ∠s ≅
We have to keep enough of the word each time so we don’t confuse it with another
word. For instance, if we used C. for Corresponding angles, we could confuse it
with Consecutive interior angles, which aren’t equal but supplementary. The same
for Transitive: if we used Tr., we could confuse it with Translation or
Transformation.
Do yourself a favor, though. Whenever you write an abbreviation, say the whole
phrase in your head. If you write, “Alt. Int. ∠s =,” in your head you should say,
“Alternate interior angles are equal.” This helps reinforce the concept, so you
learn it a little better every time.
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Assignment
1. Review the List of Properties we have learned so far.
2. Match the abbreviation with the property.
_____ Alt. int. ∠s ≅ a. Transitive Property of Equality

_____ Alt. ext. ∠s ≅ b. Parallel Postulate (consec. int. ∠s suppl.)
_____ Corresp. ∠s ≅ c. Definition of Supplementary
_____ // Post. d. Alternate exterior angles are congruent
_____ Transit. = e. Definition of Complementary
_____ Subst. = f. Reflexive Property of Equality
_____ Reflex. = g. Corresponding angles are congruent
_____ Def. Suppl. h. Substitution Property of Equality
_____ Def. Compl. i. Alternate interior angles are congruent
3. Make a drawing for this proof: Given parallel lines m and n and a transversal p,
prove that corresponding angles x and y have equal measurements. Mark one
angle, z, which is a linear pair with angle x and also a consecutive interior angle
with angle y. (That means y must be an interior angle as well.)
4. Using the properties listed, supply the missing parts of the proof.

transversal p.
2. ∠x and ∠z are a linear pair. 2. Def. _____________________.

𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 180° − 𝑚𝑚∠𝑧𝑧
3. ∠z is supplementary to ∠y. 3. // Post. (_________ int ∠s suppl)

𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 = 180° − 𝑚𝑚∠𝑧𝑧
4. ∴ 𝑚𝑚∠_______ = 𝑚𝑚∠________ 4. Transit. =
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Day 3: Parallelograms and transversals
The best example we have of parallel lines and transversals is a parallelogram. If

you think of the top and bottom as the parallels (blue), then the slant sides are
transversals (red).
a b
c d
If we turn the paper sideways, the slant sides (red) are the parallels, and the top and
bottom (blue) are the transversals. Either way, we can pick out pairs of angles that
are either equal or supplementary.
In fact, earlier we showed inductively (by moving the corner of the parallelogram
from one side to the other) that consecutive angles were supplementary. Now we
know for sure because they are consecutive interior angles. The Parallel Postulate
says that consecutive interior angles are, indeed, supplementary. Now we can
prove that opposite angles are congruent.
Example: Given a parallelogram with angles a, b, c, and d, prove that angle b is

congruent to angle c.
Step 1: Notice the proof asks us to show the angles to be congruent. That means
we’ll have one extra step: if the measures of the angles are equal, then the shapes
are congruent, by definition.
Step 2: Make a plan. No matter which way we turn it, ∠b and ∠c are on different
transversals. We’ll have to start with a different pair. We can show that ∠b and ∠d
are supplementary because they’re consecutive interior angles. Then we can show
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that ∠d and ∠c are supplementary. If we use the definition of supplementary to
show that both ∠b and ∠c are 180° minus ∠d, then we have them equal to the same
thing.
Step 3: Identify the reasons we used in the plan: the parallel postulate, the
definition of supplementary, and the transitive property.
Step 4: Write the proof. Start with the given and end with the goal – what you
were supposed to prove.
1. A parallelogram has consecutive 1. Given.

angles a, b, c, and d.
2. ∠b and ∠d are supplementary 2. // Post.
3. 𝑚𝑚∠b = 180° − m∠d 3. Def. Suppl.
4. ∠c and ∠d are supplementary 4. // Post.
5. 𝑚𝑚∠c = 180° − m∠d 5. Def. Suppl.
6. . 𝑚𝑚∠b = m∠c 6. Transit. =
7. ∴ ∠b ≅ ∠c 7. Def. ≅
Did you notice how we translated the plan in step 1-3 into the proof in step 4? Be
sure to read the abbreviations as the whole phrase in your head as you follow
along.
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Assignment
1. Review the List of Properties we’ve added so far. See if you can write them as
abbreviations.
2. Given two pair of intersecting parallel lines as shown, list all of the angles that
are equal.
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16
3. Given the parallel lines above, list pairs of angles that are supplementary but not
also linear pairs.
4. Feliz is from Puerto Rico. She’s never seen a snowflake, but she made a paper
one in school. She called her abuela in Florida to describe it. See if you can draw
the snowflake from her description:
“I started with a square in the middle of my paper. Then I extended all of
the sides so it made crossing parallel lines. I colored the consecutive
exterior angles blue. Then I folded the square so all of the blue corners
were together. I made snowflake cuts in the middle and along the edges.
And that’s how I made a snow angle in school.”
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Day 4: Angles of a Triangle, Part 2
We now have almost everything we need to do a formal proof of our triangle

concept. This will review what we’ve learned this unit, so follow along carefully.
There is one axiom that we’ll have to assume to be true in order to complete this
proof: Given a line and a point not on the line, we can draw through the point at
most one unique line that is parallel to the other line. That’s another one of the
axioms of Euclidean Geometry. It’s named for another mathematician, John
Playfair, but it’s really an extension of the Parallel Postulate, so we’ll just write it
down as a corollary. We’ll still call it the Parallel Postulate.
List of Properties:
Parallel Postulate corollary: There is at most one line passing through a
point that is parallel to another line in the same plane.
Example: Prove that the sum of the angles in a triangle must be 180°.
Step 1: Draw the triangle. Draw another line across the top of the triangle,
parallel to the base, and extend the sides of the triangle upward.
Step 2: Name the angles formed by the parallel line.
a b c
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Step 3: Notice all of the alternate interior angles. One way you can tell them
quickly is that they form a forward or backward letter Z. These angles
will be equal, so we’ll rename them with the same letters: a and c.
a b c
a c
Step 4: We have vertical angles as well. You can tell because they form a letter
X. We will label the vertical angle b.
a b c
a c
Step 5: We could also use corresponding angles to fill in the final two missing
angles, a and c. Now, no matter which line we follow, we can see that
a, b, and c together form a straight angle.
b
c a
a b c
a c
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Now that we have a plan, it’s time to write the proof. We’ll need better markings
on our triangle, though, so let’s rephrase.
Proof: Given ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, prove that the sum of its angles equals 180°.
B
x b y
a c
A C
1. Given ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, draw a line through 1. Given; Parallel Postulate

�� .
B parallel to𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
2. 𝑚𝑚∠x + 𝑚𝑚∠b + 𝑚𝑚∠y = 180° 2. Definition of a straight angle.
3. 𝑚𝑚∠x = m∠a and m∠y = m∠c 3. Alt. int. ∠s =.
4. 𝑚𝑚∠a + 𝑚𝑚∠b + 𝑚𝑚∠c = 180° 4. Substitution property of equality.
5. The sum of the angles of ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is 5. Definition of a triangle.

𝑚𝑚∠a + 𝑚𝑚∠b + 𝑚𝑚∠c
6. ∴ The sum of the angles of a 6. Transitive property of equality.

triangle is 180°.
The difference between the substitution property and the transitive property is
subtle. The transitive property says if two things equal the same thing, then they’re
equal. That’s how we combined statements 4 and 5 to make statement 6. I marked
the statements in color above so you can see it more clearly. Blue = red, green =
blue, therefore green = red.
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Meanwhile, the substitution property says we can substitute equal things for each
other into a formula or statement. We used the equalities in statement 3 to
substitute into the equation in statement 2 to make statement 4. That’s why the
reason for statement 4 was the Substitution Property of Equality.
2. 𝑚𝑚∠x + 𝑚𝑚∠b + 𝑚𝑚∠y = 180°
3. 𝑚𝑚∠x = m∠a and m∠y = m∠c
4. 𝑚𝑚∠a + 𝑚𝑚∠b + 𝑚𝑚∠c = 180°
Now that we have proven it completely, we can move this to our List of Properties.
List of Properties:
The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.
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Assignment
1. Add to your Geometry Notes list of properties: Parallel postulate corollary, and
Sum of the angles of a triangle.
2. Tomorrow marks the end of the first quarter, so the quiz will cover Units 1-4.
Take your time with today’s review so you don’t miss anything. There are three
pages.
3. Match the shape to its Area formula. Some formulas may be used more than
once.
_____ circle a. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ

1
_____ kite b. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
2
_____ parallelogram, 1
c. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2
_____ quadrilateral 2
_____ rectangle d. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
_____ rhombus e. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏 ∙ ℎ
_____ square f. No formula
_____ trapezoid
_____ triangle
4. Match the name of the Transformation to its description.
_____ Reflection a. slide
_____ Translation b. scale
_____ Rotation c. flip
_____ Dilation d. turn
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5. Calculate the ratios of the sides to determine if each pair is similar, congruent, or
neither. (All sides are measured in centimeters. Drawings are not to scale.)
a. sides 5-12-13 and 15-36-39
b. sides 6-8-12 and 8-10-14
c. sides 5-6-7 and 7-5-6
d. sides 6-9-21 and 8-12-28
6. Find the missing angles.
a. One acute angle of a right triangle is l7°. Find the other acute angle.
b. Two angles of a triangle both measure 50°. Find the third angle.
c. Two angles lie on a straight line with a common vertex. What are they called?
d. In Part C above, if one ∠ measures x°, what is the measurement of the other?
e. A diagonal crosses a rectangle from corner to corner, forming two acute

angles at the vertex. If one angle measures y°, what is the other acute angle?
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7. Why are these angles equal? (You may choose more than one answer.)
__________
a. They are not equal.
b. Alternate interior angles
c. They are supplementary.
d. Alternate exterior angles
e. Corresponding angles
f. Vertical angles
g. Consecutive interior angles
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
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Day 5: Unit 4 Quiz
1. Find the areas and/or perimeters of the following. Be sure to include units in the
correct dimension.
a. Find the area and “perimeter” of a circle with a radius of 1 cm.
b. Find the area and perimeter of a square with one side equal to 3 in.
c. Find the area of a kite with diagonals of 2 cm and 5 cm.
d. Find the area of a trapezoid with bases of 4 in and 6 in, and a height of 5 in.
e. Find the area of a triangle with a base of 6 ft and a height of 7 ft.
2. If two triangles are similar, what should the missing side measure? (Hint: set up
the ratios.)
a. Triangle 1 sides: 6 in, 8 in, 10 in. Triangle 2 sides: 9 in, 12 in, ______ in.
b. Triangle 1 sides: 2 ft, 3 ft, 4 ft. Triangle 2 sides: 10 ft, ______ft, 20 ft.
3. Find the missing angles:
a. A linear pair has one angle of 104°. What is its supplement?
b. A right angle is separated into two parts. One part is 23°. What is its
complement?
c. A triangle has two equal angles. The third angle is 24°. What are the first
two angles?
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4. Answer the questions based on the following graph. Each kite shape is
transformed somehow, beginning with the black shape in quadrant IV and
proceeding clockwise around the graph.
For c. to f., use descriptions like “flip/slide/turn/scale” or

“rotate/reflect/translate/dilate” along with the distance moved.
a. List the coordinates of vertices A1, A2, A3, A4, A5.
b. Find the area of the black kite (with vertex A1).
c. How did the shape transform from A1 to A2? (From black to blue.)
d. How did the shape transform from A2 to A3? (From blue to red.)
e. How did the shape transform from A3 to A4? (From red to green.)
f. How did the shape transform from A4 to A5? (From green to pink.)
210
5. Given the following parallel lines and transversal, match the pairs to their
descriptions. You may color the angles if it helps you.
_____ ∠1 and ∠8 a. linear pair
_____ ∠2 and ∠6 b. consecutive interior
_____ ∠4 and ∠5 c. alternate interior
_____ ∠5 and ∠7 d. alternate exterior
_____ ∠4 and ∠6 e. vertical angles
_____ ∠5 and ∠8 f. corresponding
211
6. Fill in the blanks of this proof.
Given ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, prove that the sum of its angles equals 180°.
x B y
b
A a c C
1. Given ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, draw a line through 1. Given; Parallel Postulate

�� .
B parallel to𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
2. Extend lines ��

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and ��
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 . 2. Definition of a Line
3. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚∠𝑐𝑐 and 𝑚𝑚∠𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 3. __________________ angles ≅
4. 𝑚𝑚∠𝐵𝐵 = 𝑚𝑚∠𝑏𝑏 4. Vertical angles _______
5. 𝑚𝑚∠𝑦𝑦 + 𝑚𝑚∠𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚∠𝑥𝑥 = _______° 5. Definition of _______________
6. ∴ 𝑚𝑚∠𝑎𝑎 + 𝑚𝑚∠𝑏𝑏 + 𝑚𝑚∠𝑐𝑐 = ______° 6. __________________________

property of equality
Word Bank: You may use any of these to fill in the blanks of the proof.
= Straight angles Alternate exterior

≅ Line Consecutive interior
90° Alternate interior Transitive
180° Corresponding Substitution
Congratulations on completing the first quarter of your Geometry course!
End of First Quarter
212

Geometry in Real Life Quarter 1 Lessons 7-13-23

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Geometry in Real Life Quarter 1 Lessons 7-13-23

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Geometry in Real Life

By Carolyn Van Gorkom

Consider the following situations.

True story: This problem was featured on a home renovation show on

True story: A homebuilder gave me this situation. He has used this

Assignment Quick Tip:

A point is a location in space.

A plane is a completely flat surface, like a piece of paper or a table top.

A radius is the distance from the center of a circle to its edge.

1. Take out your compass and a piece of paper and

• Pick a point, any point, in the center of the paper.

The Area of a Circle equals Pi R Squared.

Let’s explore that for ourselves. Take a few minutes and go

While you’re at it, find yourself a ruler and a piece of string.

Circular Object AROUND ACROSS RATIO

𝝅𝝅 = 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒 (𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂)

A few more things you must remember:

1. Add the definitions of a diameter and a ratio to your definitions page.

2. Add the approximate measure of pi to your formulas page, as well as the

Pi is the ratio between the circumference of a circle and its diameter.

Originally, our chart looked like this:

Circular Object AROUND ACROSS RATIO

Now that we know the definitions, we can change it to this:

Circular Object Circumference Diameter Pi (π)

Step 3: Divide the number in yesterday’s third column by 2, to convert from a

Circular Object C = 2(radius) ● Pi (π)

If all we measure is the height of something, that’s still a distance in one

With our circles, we measured several one-dimensional distances. The distance

That means 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 is an equation in one dimension.

Circumference is the distance around the edge of a circle.

Dimension is a measurement in one direction.

Length is a one-dimensional measurement of distance.

Width is a one-dimensional measurement of distance, at right angles to the

Height is a one-dimensional measurement of distance, at right angles to both

We also learned one new formula:

To review: Width is a one-dimensional measurement of distance, at right angles to

Since width is defined as a one-dimensional distance at right angles to the length,

w=2 A=7·2 w=7

10𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 1 4𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 3𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

10 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 · 12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 120 ? ?

10 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 · 12 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 120 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 · 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2

I want you to notice two things with this example.

Always mark the units when you use measurements.

Suppose a problem asks, “What is the diameter of a circle with a circumference of

Step 1: Write down your 1st dimension formula, 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟.

Step 2: Begin writing it again, changing the C to an A for Area.

𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 is the same as 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟1 , measured in 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 1 . This is the 1st dimension.

1. Write these definitions on your Geometry Notes definitions page:

2. Make sure the formulas 𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 and 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 are written on the formulas

Day 1: The 3rd Dimension

Let’s review briefly. The circumference formula, 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟, is a formula in one

That makes sense because Circumference is a one-dimensional measurement of

Dimension Basic formula contains: Units Formula

Dimension Basic formula contains: Units Formula

Step 1: start with 𝑟𝑟 3 :

a. Label the radius: r = ________________

b. Find the Area: A = _________________

c. How many bags are needed? _________

1. It lets us work with smaller numbers.

a. r = 6 cm C = ______ A = _ V = _______

b. r = 7 cm C = ______ A = _ V = _______

c. r = 8 cm C = ______ A = _ V = _______

d. r = 9 cm C = ______ A = _ V = _______

e. r = 12 cm C = ______ A = _ V = _______

6. A circle contains __ degrees; a right angle contains _degrees.