GEARBOX DESIGN, OPERATION, AND ANALYSIS

Ronald L. Eshleman, Ph.D., P.E.

Vibration Institute
6262 S. Kingery Hwy.
Willowbrook, IL 60527
Email: reshleman@vi-institute.org
Telephone: (630) 654-2053

Abstract:
The art and science of vibration analysis is highly dependent on the knowledge of the machine
and machine system being analyzed. In order to determine the origins of and meaning of
vibration signals the analyst must intimately know the design and working mechanisms of the
machine to be analyzed. In addition, it is helpful for the analyst to know wear and failure
mechanisms and their effect upon signals received by sensors. In view of the fact that analysts
have been measuring and analyzing gearboxes using the FFT for over 35 years there is a large
body of practical information available to be used with basic signal analysis related to gears and
gearboxes. This paper will be devoted to the knowledge of the fundamental working
mechanisms, the wear and failure mechanisms, and basic vibration analysis of gears and
gearboxes.

Key Words: Gears, gearboxes, horsepower, torque, pressure angle, pitch, gearmesh, common
factors, frequencies, wear, failure, pitch line runout, apex runout.

Introduction:
Gearboxes are used to change direction and/or speed and torque in the process of power
transmission. Gearboxes provide a positive constant velocity ratio between the driving source
and the driven machine. Speed changes are used in machine systems because the driver that
supplies the power may not operate efficiently at the speed required by the driven process
equipment. For instance, small power generating and mechanical drive steam turbines may
operate best from 5,000 to 8,000 RPM whereas a four pole generator operates at 1,800 RPM or a
paper machine drive line may operate at 1,000 RPM. These situations require a reduction in
speed without undue loss of power. In the petrochemical industry speed increasers are used. For
example a synchronous motor may operate at 3600 rpm but it is driving an air compressor at
10.000 rpm. Since horsepower is proportional to speed and torque, lowering the speed will
increase the torque to maintain the same transmitted power (Equation). Most gearboxes are
limited in ratio increase or reduction to 8 to 1 and in pitch line velocity e.g. helical gears to
40,000 feet per minute [1]. Fortunately, most gearboxes operate in the range of upper 90 percent
efficiency.
 T xN
HP = 2  = horsepower
33,000
T = torque = lb.-ft.
N = speed = RPM

Basic Gearing:
The fundamentals of gearing are found in many machine design books [2] and the gear design
book by Drago [1].

The pitch circles of a gear set (Figure 1) determine the size of the gears and the speed ratio. One
could think of two rotating cylinders- one driving the other by friction. However gear teeth are
added to obtain positive transmitted motion. The basic gear tooth profile (Figure 1) has an
involute shape. The involute is generated by drawing an arc with a radius from a point tangent
to the gear's base circle to the base of the tooth
(Figure 2). This shape produces a line of
action between the pinion and the gear (Figure
2) that is a straight line which permits the gear
set to operate at constant speed. However,
gear teeth do enter and exit the meshing area
as the two shafts rotate causing brief
interruptions.

The line of action determines the pressure

angle (usually 14½, 20, or 25 deg.) between
the gears. This angle determines the amount
Figure 1. Nomenclature of Gear Teeth of force transmitted from the pinion (usually
[2] the driver) to the gear. Thus a portion of the
transmitted torque called the separating force
(s) goes directly to the shaft and bearings
(Figure 2). The transmitted force (t) drives the gear but may cause torsional vibrations if the
transmission varies with time. Thus gearing may be a source of torsional vibrations. The lower
pressure angles yield smoother power transmission. Since a finite number of gear teeth are in
mesh at one instant, called the Contact Ratio, there are minor interruptions in the power
generation — generating gear meshing vibrations (number of gear teeth times shaft RPM). The
contact ratio [2] is one of the major factors which influence the level of vibration obtained at
gear meshing frequency. Typical contact ratios vary between two and three. Obviously, the
higher the contact ratio the smoother the power transmission.
 Figure 2. Pressure Angle and Gear Forces [3]

Figure 3. Gear Teeth Sizes for Different Diametral Pitches.

(Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.) [2]

The diametral pitch (usually called pitch) is defined as the number of teeth divided by the pitch
diameter, Figure 1. The pitch determines the coarseness of the mesh, Figure 3. The related
circular pitch mber of teeth
in the gear. This defines the spacing of the gear teeth, Figure 1.

Gear Manufacturing:
Gear manufacturing [1] involves the selection and construction of the gear blank and hobbing,
shaping, milling, or torch cutting the gear teeth. Non-precision gearing is cast. Gear tooth
finishing operations include shaving, lapping, and grinding. Figure 4 shows a spur gear being
generated with a pinion cutter. Because of their sudden entry into the mesh spur gears can be
noisy unless lapped to a fine surface finish. Figure 5 shows the hobbing operation on a worm
gear. Gear tooth and gear contact checking are described by Beckman [4]. It is recommended
that 60 to 70 % contact be maintained in the gearmesh. Non-parallel shafts leads to low tooth
area contact. Twisted mounting of a fabricated gearbox may result in meshing problems. It is
recommended that gear tooth to tooth contact area be greater than 70% to avoid excessive wear.
The tooth contact area is checked by ―bluing‖ the surface of the teeth of one gear followed by
meshing with the adjoining gear. Figure 6 shows methods of fabricating the gear blank.

Figure 4 Generating a Spur Gear with a Pinion Cutter.

(Courtesy of Boston Gear Works Inc.) [2]
Figure 5 Hobbing a Worm Gear [ 2] Figure 6 Methods of Fabricating Gears [2]

Gearbox Design and Construction:

Gearbox design depends on what is required in the application- a change in direction, speed
increase or decrease, and/or torque changes. Basically the gear set is an increaser or reducer. The
increaser is common in the petrochemical industry where electric motors drive high speed
compressors. The reducer is more common in the pulp and paper industry where the electric
motor or turbine may be driving a line shaft.

In the process of transmitting torque the gear set will generate an ‗upmesh‖ or ―downmesh‖ force
because the transmitted force is applied at the pitch line which is above the centerline of the
shaft. When mounted on journal bearings the upmesh force can unload the bearing and cause oil
whirl.

Gearboxes are limited by physical constraint on how much one can increase or decrease speed by
the size of the pitch circle and the tooth profile. Where the reduction may be too great (>8:1) for
a given situation the owner will have the choice of a two-pole driving motor and a double
reduction gearbox versus a four-pole motor and a single reduction gearbox Figure 7. Speed,
noise, and quality of transmission are going to limit the type of gear tooth. Helical gears provide
easy meshing entry. Limits on backlash and machining quality are required for precision gearing.

Basically two types of gearbox construction are available-fabricated and cast. Figure 7 shows a
cast single reduction gearbox while Figure 8 shows a fabricated gearbox. Fabricated gearboxes
are more susceptible to distortion, drumhead effects, and resonance. Due to the number of
sources of excitation (shaft operating speeds and gear meshing frequencies) resonance is easily
achievable. Some impact and noise induced natural frequencies may appear to be gearmesh
frequency. Therefore it is not prudent to try to discern gearmesh frequencies from vibration data.
The cast iron gearbox will have greater damping to control these responses.

Smaller gearboxes use rolling element bearings to provide radial and axial shaft support.
Depending on the need for thrust constraint tapered roller bearings, Figure 7, will be used.
Higher horsepower transmitting gearboxes will have shafts supported by journal (sleeve)
bearings Depending on load configuration these bearings may be of special design to avoid oil
whirl.

Figure 7. A Cast Single Reduction Herringbone Gearbox (Courtesy of Lufkin Industries).

Figure 8. A 10 MW Single Reduction, Fabricated Gearbox.

Types of Gears:
Basically gearboxes use some version of spur, helical, bevel, or worm gears to transmit power
and motion. The most basic gear is the spur gear, Figure 4, which transfers rotary motion from
one parallel shaft to another with a constant velocity ratio dependent on the pitch circle diameters
of the pinion and the gear. Because of the tooth to tooth transfer of power the sudden
engagement of these gears causes noise and vibration in high load/speed applications.

The single helical gear (Figure 9) is used for high speed applications because of the ease of the
engagement and number of teeth in contact at any time. Figure 10 shows the helix angle of the
teeth which permits smooth entry of teeth into the mesh with multiple teeth in mesh; however,
this causes a thrust that must be counteracted by bearings or load. In addition, there is a loss of
transmitted torque. The helix angle can be configured to oppose a normal external thrust load. In
this case direction of rotation is important so that the generated thrust opposes the load. In the
event no load is available to oppose the thrust, bearings must be used which increases the need
for a larger oil supply. In addition the hot lubricant may have an effect on alignment.

A right-hand helix angle (Figure 11) is matched with a left-hand helix angle (between 0 to 30
degrees). Figure 12 shows a pair of right hand helical gears. Most high speed gears are helical
gears because of contact ratio and ease of tooth to tooth meshing.

Figure 10 Helical Gear [6]

Figure 9 Helical Gear with pitted Teeth [5]

Figure 11 Helix Angles [2] Figure 12 Pair of Right-Hand Helical Gears
(courtesy of Brad Foote Gear
Works Inc. [2]

Worm gears (Figure 13) are used for non-intersecting shafts (usually 90 deg.) and are single (line
contact) or double-enveloping (area contact). The speed ratio between the worm and worm gear
is usually much greater than those encountered in helical gear sets. The velocity ratio depends
on the number of teeth on the worm gear and the number of threads on the worm, Figure 14.
Thus for a single-thread (single enveloping) worm and a worm gear having 24 teeth, the velocity
ratio is 24:1 whereas if the worm has a triple thread, then the velocity ratio would be 8:1.

Figure 13 Single Enveloping Figure 14 Double Enveloping Worm Worm

and Worm Gear Gear [3]

(Courtesy of Horsburgh Scott Company,

Cleveland, Ohio) [2]
The bevel gear set (Figures 15) is used to transmit power between 90 degree intersecting shafts
but other angles between the shafts are possible. The gears can be viewed as a pair of cones.
Straight-tooth bevel gears are cut by using a 20 degree pressure angle, unequal addenda and
dedenda, and full depth teeth. This increases the contact ratio, avoids under cut, and increases the
strength of the pinion. Bevel gear sets, Figure 15) require accurate setup for end float and shaft
perpendicularity.

Figure 15. Terminology for Bevel Gears [2]

Many applications use spiral bevel gear sets (Figure 16) because more teeth are in contact at one
time. The Spiral-Bevel Gearset shown in Figure 16 provides a spiral meshing surface which
allows more teeth in contact during meshing thus a smoother operation. Figure 17 shows a
hypoid gearset which is used for non-intersecting, crossed-axis shafts

Figure 16 Spiral Bevel Gearset [3] Figure 17 Hypoid Gear and Pinion
(Courtesy of Gleason Works) [6]

The herringbone and spiral bevel gears are an important adaptation of helical and bevel gears.
Herringbone Gears, Figure 18, consist of a double helical gear set with high tooth contact. The
double helical gear set is a combination between a right and left hand gears to balance thrust,
However, this gearset will not tolerate large axial forces from the driven member such as a
compressor impeller. Even with a small thrust bearing to position the shaft the gear set can be
more active to vibrations than the single helical gear.

Figure 18 Herringbone Bull Gear with Broken Teeth [7]

Common factors [8] in gear sets are responsible for wear patterns because of the cyclic nature
of the gear tooth meshing. Gear sets that have common factors are subject to assembly phase
oriented wear problems. In other words the gear wear pattern will be determined by how the
pinion is rotationally referenced to the gear. Hunting tooth gear sets are often specified so that
every tooth on the pinion meshes with every tooth on the gear before the meshing cycle is
repeated. The number of teeth on the gear or pinion should be a prime number (not divisible by
any number except one). Then common factors will not be a problem.

For instance if a pinion has 34 teeth and its associated gear has 68 teeth, the gear set has common
factors of two and seventeen and will wear a pattern on the gear set

2 x 17 = 34
2 x 2 x 17 = 68

yielding one-half orders in the spectrum. The Example deals with gearbox analysis in which the
gear set of Figure 19 is evaluated.
 EXAMPLE

Find the pitch, circular pitch, and common factors for the gear set shown in Figure
19.

22
Diametral Pitch = =4 Pinion:
5.5
Pitch diameter = 5.5"
 x 5.5
Circular Pitch = 22 Teeth
22
1,200 RPM
= .785
Common Factors Gear: 40 Teeth
Pinion 2 x 11 = 22 Figure 19 Pitch diameter = 10
Gear 2 x 2 x 5 x 2 = 40

Hunting Tooth Frequency

Tooth repeat cycle
40T x 11 revolutions = 22T x 20 revolutions
1
Pinion period = = .050 seconds
1,200 / 60
Pinion repeat cycle = .05 sec. x 20 revolutions/cycle
= 1 sec./cycle
— Hunting Tooth Frequency = 1 Hz = 60 CPM

Frequencies:
Major frequencies present in gearboxes include shaft vibration, bearing defect frequencies, and
gear meshing frequencies. Gearboxes that use sleeve bearings can suffer from oil whirl. Gears
produce vibratory forces which in turn cause vibrations at distinct unique frequencies. A single
gear set can produce five different basic frequencies. Side-bands, harmonics, and sum and
difference frequencies occur as secondary frequencies due to wear and faults.

1. Gear rotational speed

2. Pinion rotational speed
3. Gear mesh frequency
4. Hunting tooth frequency.
5. Assemblage phase frequency
Gear meshing frequency (The number of gear teeth times RPM.) is the most basic frequency.
Depending on the speed of the pinion and the number of teeth in the pinion this can be a high
frequency -in the kilohertz range. In addition, variation of this frequency can cause multiples,
and subharmonics as a result of gear wear. The hunting tooth or tooth repeat frequency is present
in gearboxes with common factors that wear a pattern on the gear teeth because a gear tooth on
one gear will not pass by every tooth in the mating gear before it makes a meshing cycle. The
assemblage phase frequency is also present on gear sets that have common factors. The number
of unique assembly phases in a gear set is equal to the product of the prime factors common to
the number of teeth in the gear and the pinion. Since a wear pattern results from service,
assembly phase is important in re-assembly of a disassembled gear set. Therefore it is important
that gear sets with common factors be marked before disassembly to retain the original assembly
phase.

Sometimes when the analyst cannot discern the source of a frequency the topic of ―ghost
frequency‖ comes up. This frequency which rarely occurs is commonly higher than
gearmesh and is not a multiple of gearmesh. A pattern is generated by the gear cutting
process that results in a large amplitude vibration that is not load sensitive. A high level
acceleration above 12 gs peak will have undesirable effect on the gear.

The following frequencies are associated with a double reduction gearbox.

fi = frequency of input shaft
fHsgm = gear mesh frequency = fi x Np (No teeth on pinion)
fis = intermediate shaft frequency = fi x Np/NG (No teeth on gear)
fisgm = fis x Nisp (No teeth on low speed pinion)
fls = intermediate shaft speed
NC = product of common prime numbers between gear and pinion
fa = assemblage frequency = fgm/NC
fHT = (fgm x NC)/NG x Np
Basic frequencies for an epicyclic gearbox can be found in Reference 9.

Types of Gearboxes:
The function of the gear set is to match the load, speed and orientation of the driver to that of the
driven so both machines can operate efficiently. For example, a 9.1 MW turbine operates
efficiently at 7500 RPM while the generator speed is 1800 RPM. This single reduction gearbox
(Figure 8) has herringbone gears (26/108 T) so it will not thrust on the turbine or generator. Due
to the load it has fluid film bearings. The reduction is 108/26= 4.15.

For even greater reduction a double reduction gearbox (Figure 20) may be used. This type
gearbox is commonly used with two-pole induction motors. In cases where a larger reduction is
required a triple reduction gearbox (Figure 21) will be used.
Figure 20 Double Reduction Gearbox (Courtesy of Lufkin Industries Inc.)

Figure 21 Triple Reduction Gearbox (Courtesy of Lufkin Industries, Inc.)

 Figure 22 shows a typical over/under gearbox used to drive
extruders. The input speed is 1150 RPM from a 5000 HP six
pole induction motor. The input pinion has 18 teeth and the
bull gear 59 teeth cut at 10 degree helix angle. The lower
output shaft has a mounted helical gear (35 teeth) that drives
the upper gear (35 teeth) that constitutes a second drive shaft
operating in the opposite direction..

Figures 23 show a double reduction speed reducer with a

change in direction used to drive a batch pulper in a paper
mill. It contains a bevel gear set to change direction and
provide reduction and a helical gear set to provide more
reduction and some vertical load. The input shaft of this
gearbox must rotate in the proper direction so that the thrust of
the helical gear set is up –resisting the gravity load of the
pulper. Otherwise the lower bearing will be loaded with the
gravity load and the thrust load of the helical gear set.

Figure 22 Over/Under Double

Drive Gearbox

Figure 23 Bevel Gearbox For Batch Pulper Application

(Courtesy of the Falk Corporation).

Some interesting gear combinations are sometimes used for reduction such as the gearbox shown
in Figure 24 which has two helical gear sets and a bevel gear set to reduce the four-pole motor
drive speed to low RPM and change the drive direction.
 Figure 24 Triple Reduction Gearbox With Change of Direction

Figure 25 is an example of a speed increaser where an engine operating at 300 RPM drives a
blower at 6000 RPM through three gear sets. Figure 26 shows the frequency analysis of the
blower gear drive.

Figure 25 Schematic Diagram of Blower and Lay Shaft Drive [10]

 Figure 26 Blower Gear Drive Frequencies [10]

Epicyclic gearboxes, Figure 27, are constructed of three basic gears- an internal ring gear, planet
gears carried by a moving carrier, and a sun gear. They are capable of a large reduction and have
six different arrangements.

1. Planetary: Stationary ring gear with a rotating sun gear and moving planet carrier.
2. Planetary: Stationary sun gear with rotating ring and moving planet carrier.
3. Star: Moving ring gear with a stationary planet carrier and a rotating sun gear.
4. Star: Stationary sun gear with a moving ring gear and a rotating planet carrier
5. Solar: Stationary planet carrier with a rotating ring and moving sun gear
6. Solar: Stationary ring gear with a moving sun and a rotating planet.

For the calculation of speed and torque ratios see Reference 9.

Figure 27a shows an epicyclic gear speed increaser used to drive two air compressors that has a
driven ring gear. The planetary gearbox is compact but complicated consisting of a ring gear
(red), a sun gear (purple), a planet carrier (blue) and three planetary gears (green). In this case the
ring gear is driven at 1800 RPM by a synchronous motor and the sun gear drives the compressors
at 13560 RPM.

Figure 27b shows an epicyclic gearbox that has a driven planet carrier.

a. Outer Ring Driven

(Courtesy of Maag Gear-Wheel Co LTD Zurich)

b. Outer Ring Fixed

Figure 27 Epicyclic Gearboxes

Gear Defects and Failure Mechanisms:
Gear defects in operating equipment are due to design, manufacturing, assembly, installation of
the gearbox in the plant, maintenance, and wear. Manufacturing defects such as cutting, boring,
construction, assembly, grinding, shaping and hardening usually show up at gearmesh and its
sidebands.

Installation defects such as misalignment, soft foot and driver/driven problems may induce
operating speed or gearmesh frequencies.

Maintenance and wear defects include breakage, pitting, scoring, abrasion, and surface fatigue.
Overloads, impact, and fatigue cause chipped, cracked, and broken teeth (Figure 18). Pitting,
Figure 28, is caused by surface fatigue or corrosion resulting from high contact stress. Scoring,
Figure 29, is caused by high surface pressure overheating and/or lubrication failure.
Instantaneous welding of the asperities will occur. Abrasion results from the presence of foreign
material in the gearbox. Lubrication is a major factor in wear. The surface to surface contact of
the gear teeth should have sufficient lubricant film between the teeth to avoid contact. Any
abrasive material between the teeth will enhance the wear. Corrosion may be destructive and
may be due to breakdown of the lubricant. Interference such as tight centers, insufficient
involute, thermal expansion, misalignment, incorrect profile will result in destructive wear.
Figure 30 shows the results of mismatched gears causing interference.

Figure 31 shows gear wear due to misalignment—basically the gear surface is subjected to high
Hertzian stresses due to being overloaded. Prohibited misalignment can be internal (assembly) or
external.

Surface fatigue occurs from repeated application and removal of loads which causes pitting or
spalling.

Pitch Line runout occurs when the pitch circle does not coincide with the center line of the gear.
This causes the gearmesh frequency to vary with gear rotation. This results in frequency
modulation of the gearmesh which appears in the spectrum as sidebands on the gearmesh.
Frequency modulation is not observable in the time domain because of the small incremental
changes. Apex runout in double helical gears results when an imaginary extension of the right
and left hand helical gear teeth (the apex line) varies with rotation. It will cause axial motion of
the shaft.
 Figure 28 Pitted Pinion [11 ] Figure 29 Scored Gear [12]

Figure 30 Mismatched Gear [13] Figure 31 Gear Wear Misalignment [14]

Measurement Considerations:
Measurement of vibrations of gearboxes present a challenge to the analyst due to the
construction of the unit, transducer type, transducer mounting requirements, wide frequency
range of the vibrations, resolution required to separate frequencies, and dynamic range required
to observe low frequency components of vibration as well as high frequency components in the
spectrum. This is because acceleration is the required measure at higher frequencies.

The construction of the gearbox may vary from cast iron to light fabricated steel. On heavy
boxes with thick walls, seismic signals may be attenuated to the point where rolling element
bearing defects are not detected. On light, fabricated boxes, the noise may be so great that an
analysis is difficult to perform. Synchronous time averaging may be required to perform the
analysis. This means triggers may be required from hidden shafts. All types of multipliers have
been invented by ingenious people to simulate a trigger from a hidden shaft.
Synchronous time averaging does eliminate the signal from rolling element bearing defects.
However this method will remove the signals from resonance that look like gearmesh.

For gear related signals, it is best to measure near the bearings (Figure 32) in the axial direction
and in the load zone for all gears (except spur) that take thrust. Radial measurements are for mass
unbalance, misalignment, oil whirl, and distortion.

The type of transducer used will depend on the components to be analyzed. In high
horsepower/speed boxes, shaft vibrations for bearing function are measured by permanently
mounted proximity probes. These measurements are used to detect excessive bearing clearance,
mass unbalance, oil whirl, and misalignment. In rolling element bearing type gearboxes, seismic
transducers (velocity and acceleration) are used to detect gear meshing and bearing frequencies.
The frequency of the signal will determine which measure and/or transducer will be used. The
transducers must be mounted according to the maximum frequency encountered in the analysis.
For high speed/frequency gearing a small ten mV/g accelerometer may have to be hard mounted.

Figure 32 Gearbox Measurement Locations

Resolution through added lines (data collector) or zoom (FFT analyzer) is required to analyze
sidebands and difference frequencies. Expansion may be needed to detect difference frequencies
from data collector data that has the resolution but not the display capability.
A large dynamic range may be required to detect operating speed components of vibration in the
presence of gear meshing components — especially in an acceleration spectrum. A log scale
may be necessary to view the components.

Techniques for Defect Identification:

Techniques for detection of gear faults developed by Taylor [15] include
 Gearmeshing problems will show up at gear mesh frequency with sidebands at the
speed of the offending shaft.
 A cracked tooth will be present in the time domain as a pulse — at the frequency
proportional to the defective gear speed. In the frequency domain, natural
frequencies with sidebands and difference frequencies of the offending shaft will be
present.

Other gearbox faults [16] will be detected from vibration at shaft frequency and its orders,
subharmonics, and rolling element bearing frequencies.
 Looseness will be indicated in the frequency spectrum by harmonics of rotating
speed.
 Rolling element bearing defects will be observed by the presence of bearing fault
frequencies.
 Fluid film bearing defects will be indicated by harmonics of running speed, large
once-per-rev. vibration, and/or one-half order vibration.
 Misalignment and distortion will be detected from operating speed vibrations and
orders. In addition, gearmesh frequencies with sidebands may be generated in this
situation.

Gearbox Case Histories:

A batch pulper gearbox of similar design to Figure 23 suffers from pinion eccentricity which
causes the pinion to move on and off the pitch line. When the gear set is off the pitch line
constant velocity transmission is not produced and frequency modulation occurs. Note the once-
per-rev component of vibration at 30 Hz. (Figure 33) The gearmesh (738 Hz) has to be
identified because of all the noise in the spectrum. The time waveform shows the gearmesh and
noise modulating the once-per-rev. The level of vibration is not very high – 0.14 IPS peak.
 Figure 33. Eccentric Pinion

Figure 34 is four spoked gear used in a gearbox that drives a center press roll. The spoked (4)
gear had a varying natural frequency due to the varying support stiffness of the gear ring that was
close to the gearmesh frequency. Thus the gear set would go in and out of resonance four times
per gear revolution yielding a vibration of 2.88 IPS-peak, Figure 35. This caused amplitude
modulation at 16 Hz. Note the sideband around gearmesh at 16 Hz. A new gear had to be
installed.

Figure 34 A Four Spoked Gear

 Figure 35 Amplitude Modulation Due To Varying Gear Flexibility

A double reduction gearbox (Figure 23) with a high speed spiral bevel gearset (25T pinion/46T
gear) and a low speed helical gearset (20T pinion and 99T gear) was experiencing random
failures.

Calculate the gearmesh associated frequencies for the gearbox shown if the input speed
is 1,781 RPM.

1,781
Input shaft frequency = = 29.68 Hz
60
High speed gearmesh = 29.68 x 25 = 742 Hz
Intermediate shaft
frequency = 742/46 = 16.13 Hz
Low speed gearmesh = 16.13 Hz x 20 = 322.6 Hz
Low speed shaft
frequency = 322.6/99 = 3.26 Hz
Low speed gear teeth factoring
Pinion 20 = 2 x 2 x 5
Gear 99 = 3 X3 X 11
Product of common prime numbers = 1
 No common factors.
Hunting tooth frequency = (322.6 X 1)/ (20 X 99) = 0.162 Hz

Assemblage frequency = 322.6/1 = 322.6 Hz

Since this gearbox has no common factors it will have even wear (each tooth contacts
each tooth of the mating gear before the repeat occurs).

However, Figure 36
shows a gear meshing
problem caused by
improper installation
of a bevel gear set
(Figure 32). The end
float and backlash are
not correctly set
causing large
amplitude high speed
gearmesh (740 Hz)
and two times high

Figure 36. Excessive Gearmesh in Right Angle Gearbox — speed gearmesh

Setup Problem (1,485 Hz). The
energy around the two
times gearmesh is huge. Figure 37 is a zoom around the gearmesh frequency which shows
sidebands at gear speed (960 RPM). Note the peak vibration is 0.663 IPS while the rms is 0.265
– a crest factor of 0.663/0.265 equals 2.5.

Figure 37 Zoom Around HSGM

The single reduction gearset whose data are shown in Figure 38 is used between a 10 MW steam
turbine and a four (4) pole generator. The spectrum shows frequencies at one-half gearmesh
frequency (1,625 Hz) due to the fact that a wear pattern is being formed by gear teeth that have a
common factor of two.

Figure 38 Common Factor (2) Problem In a 10 MW Turbine Generator Gearbox

A broken, cracked, or chipped gear tooth, will cause pulses in the spectrum. Figure 39 is an
example where two (2) closely spaced gear teeth were chipped. Because they were in mesh at
the same time, a single pulse per revolution (46.48 ms) was observed in the waveform. In the
spectrum, difference frequencies (21.5 Hz) can be observed. However, from the spectrum it is
not known where the impact originates. It could be some form of looseness.
 Figure 39 Broken Gear Tooth

A gearset with a common factor of five (5) was periodically monitored and spectra [7] were
compared in a spectral map (Figure 40). On appearance of a growing one-fifth gearmesh
frequency component the gearbox was inspected showing a herringbone bull gear with every
fifth gear tooth missing on one side of the mesh (Figure 41). Common factors do cause early
deterioration.

Figure 40 Trend of Gearbox Output Gear Showing an Increase at

One-Fifth the Gear-Mesh Frequency. [7]
Figure 41. Close-Up of Bull Gear Showing Failure Pattern of Every Fifth Tooth [7]

Conclusions:
It does pay to know the gearbox because of all the frequencies present in the FFT data. There are
many diagnostic methods available to analyze gearboxes. Only the fundamental methods were
discussed in this paper. The analyst should consult available books, magazines, journals, and
notes for advanced analytical methods (17). Since the instruments available today have such a
high capability to crunch the numbers from good digital or analog data it is up to the analyst to
acquire good data and apply appropriate analysis.

References:
1. Drago, Raymond J., Fundamentals of Gear Design, Butterworths, Stoneham, MA (1988).
2. Shigley, Joseph Edward, Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, NY (1963).
3. Ham, C.W, and Crane, E.J., Mechanics of Machinery, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
company, New York, NY, 1948.
4. Bechman, Ken, Mini Symposium on Gears, 19th Annual Meeting, June 1995, The Vibration
Institute, Willowbrook, IL 60527.
5. Arief, Eira, ―Gas Turbine Electric Generator Gearbox Vibration‖, Vibrations, June, 2007,
VI Press Inc. Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
6. Valance, Alex and Doughtie, Venton Levy, Design of MACHINE MEMBERS, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1951.
7. Martinez, R. and Crawford, M., ―The Failure of a Non-Hunting Tooth Gearset,‖ Vibrations,
June 1996, VI Press Inc., Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
8. Hamilton, John B., ―The Importance of Gear Assembly Phase‖, Vibrations, March 2002, VI
Press, Inc., Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
9. Ferguson, R. J., ―Short Cuts For Analyzing Planetary Gears‖ Machine Design, Cleveland
Ohio, May 26, 1983.
10. Ehrhardt, D. B., Tyrer, F., and Boyer, R.K., ―Condition Evaluation of Cooper GMVA-12
Blowers by Monitoring Gear-Mesh Frequencies of the Primary Drive Gear Train‖,
Vibrations, March 1997, VI Press Inc., Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
11. Klein, Greg, ―Fatigue Spalls on Inner Race of Pump Gearbox Bearings‖, Vibrations, March
2002, VI Press Inc., Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
12. Smith, Richard L., ―Gear Problems Can Have More Than One Cause‖, Vibrations, March
1994, VI Press, Inc., Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
13. Woodson, Damon, ―Mismatched Gears Cause Severe Wear and Vibration‖, Vibrations,
March 2003, VI Press Inc. Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
14. Kumar, Sajeev, ―Vibration and Oil Analysis Cause a Gearbox Problem‖, Vibrations,
September 2004, VI Press Inc., Clarendon Hills, IL 60514.
15. Taylor, James I., The Gear Analysis Handbook, Vibration Consultants, Inc., Tampa, FL
(2000).
16. Taylor, James I., The Vibration Analysis Handbook, Vibration Consultants, Inc., Tampa, FL
(1994).
17. Randall, Robert Bond, Vibration-Based Condition Monitoring, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,
Chichester, UK