Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Modern History NCERT MadhupTiwari
Modern History NCERT MadhupTiwari
Government of India
• Governor general in council (Executive council - 4 members + Commander-in-chief of army and
Legislative Council – Executive council + 6 others)
• Similarly for Governors of Madras, Bengal and Bombay – all of these are nominated members
• Indian Councils Act of 1892 –
o Indirect election of some members but no direct elections
o Discussion of budget
• 1857, Municipal Councils were set up in towns – revenue collected from local taxes
• 1882, District Boards were set up but only people with property could vote
Financial Matters
• 1860, Budget was introduced and revenue distributed between centre and the provinces
• Centre – Post offices, railways, opium, salt
• Provinces – land revenue, stamp duty, customs duty
• Stamp duty – for taking a case to law courts
Army
• Provincial armies combined under the leadership of commander-in-chief
• 5 Indians for 2 Europeans. Only Europeans were army officials
• Divide and Rule – Troops of different regions, castes, tribes were combined
• Only martial race groups of Indians were recruited
• Fought battles in Afghan, Myanmar with Indian soldiers
Civil Services
• Steel frame of the British empire but suffered due to domination by bureaucracy
• 1853, Civil service recruitment began- minimum age 23y(1853), 21y(1866), 19y(1876)
• Indians were not given enough or equal opportunities – exams held in London
• 1883 – Ilbert Bill controversy – Lord Rippon
• 1886 – 3 new services – Indian Civil Service, Provincial Civil Services, Professional Services (Ex.
Educational service, etc.)
Princely states
• 1876 Act – Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
• India 2 parts – British India and Indian States
• Princely states were subordinated but will not be annexed
• States had no international relations. Foreign travel of princes was checked by Curzon.
Divide and Rule
• Tried to divide the society on the basis of exploiting exists divisions of caste and religion
• Favoured the states and divided people into state people and British Indians
• Refused to introduce social reforms after 1857 for the same reason
• Framed Muslims as the chief enemies of the 1857 revolt. Wrote historical works framing Muslims
as oppressors of Hindus. Discriminated against Muslims in civil services
Burden of Cultivators
• Zamindaris extorted the cultivators without looking into their economic conditions
• No agricultural advancements were made
• Letting and subletting increased the number of intermediaries and burden on the cultivators
• Pressure on the land increased due to high population and also smaller land holdings
• Focus on commercial crops had increased and loss of food grains (ex. American Civil war ended
cotton raw material to Britain in 1861-65)
Impoverishment of Peasantry
• Cultivators went into debt easily and their lands were ceased due to unproductive crops
• Famines occurred frequently due to monsoons and drought – more in late 19th C
• Famines reduced in 20th C due to improved irrigation, transport
Development of Irrigation
• Although irrigation was improving, it was costly due to payment of water charges. So the shift on
cash crops was imminent
• Dept. of Agriculture and Imperial Institute of Agriculture was set up in Pusa in Bihar and later
shifted to Delhi.
• Inequalities in land holdings and loss of employment around the year worsened the scenario
Development of Transport
• After 1857, focused on improvement of transport and communications, not for the Indians but
for their stronghold and economic interest
• 1853 – First railway line between Thane and Bombay, 1856 – Madras and Arakonam
• Ports of Bombay, Calcutta, Madras were connected with most important interior cities
• Cheaper freight charges to main ports but costlier in the interior – showing discrimination and
purpose of railways and roadways expansion was to serve economic interests of British
• Mainly focused on Economic Interests and Defence - mobilising troops
• Made transport cheaper for Indians, market outreach increased
• Paved way for development of industries by transporting coal and raw materials
• New class of workers emerged – casual unskilled labourers for laying railway lines
Drain of Wealth
• There was a continuous flow of India’s wealth to Britain termed as Drain of Wealth
• ‘Home charges’ – a large portion of revenue collected was sent to Britain
• Salaries of SOS their pensions in Britain were paid from Indian revenue
• A 1/3rd of the Indian revenue was sent to Britain
Cultural Awakening
Literature
• Literature in every modern Indian language began to grow since 19th C
• Mostly involved around the theme of humanism, freedom struggle, daily lives, social problems,
aspirations and struggles, previously – religion and mythology
• Verses replaced by prose writing such as novel, short story, drama and essays
• Language was local and simplified
• Literature promoted social reforms, awareness of social problems, patriotism and nationalism
• Important Personalities in literature
o Bhartendu Harishchandra – Hindi literature- spread ideas of reform
o Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Vande Mataram), Rab Tagore (Gitanjali, JanaGana)
o Gurujada Apparao – Telugu
o Hari Narayan Apte – Marathi
o Narayan Menn, Kumaran Asan – Malayalam
o Fakirmohan Senapathi – Odiya
o Subramania Bharati – Tamil
o Hemachandra Barua – Assamese
o Venkatappa Gowda Puttappa – Kannada
o Mohammad Iqbal – Urdu – Sare Jahan se Acha
o Prem Chand – Hindi, Urdu – struggle of the poor and village men
Art
• Abanindranath Tagore and oters revived classical Indian painting tradition, resulted in Bengal
school of painting
• Raja Ravi Verma painted legends from Indian epics and myths
• Amrita Shergil painted everyday life of people
• Nandalal Bose painted scenes from ancient legends
Growth of Press
• Many reformers were associated with journals and newspapers
• Powerful Indian press grew after 19th C in both Indian languages and English
• Became a powerful instrument for freedom struggle and gave expression to social, economic and
political demands
• Although many newspapers were persecuted by the British
o Amrit Bazar Patrika
o Hindu
o Indian Mirror
o Tribune
o Kesari
o Mahratta
o Swadeshamitran
o Prabhakar
o Indu-Prakash
Growth of Science
• Reformers favoured Science education as they thought lack of it was reason for backwardness
• Many reformers started Science societies (Ex. Syed Ahmed Khan)
• Superstitions such as prohibiting the dissection the body existed.
• Mahendralal Sircar was the first Indian medical student to dissect the human body. 1876 – started
the Indian Association of Cultivation of Science
• 1920s – Indian Science Congress Association was set up
• Important Personalities
o P C Ray
o J C Bose
o C V Raman – Nobel prize in 1930
o Meghnath Saha
o D N Wadia
o Birbal Sahni
o P C Mahalanobis – statistics
o Ramanujan
o S Visweswarayya – Engineering and technology, dams, hydro power, sericulture, etc.
• However they were hampered in work due to lack of research facilities
• They could not use their scientific knowledge for the advancement of the country
All these social and religious reforms, developments in literature, art, science, press, education awakened
the Indians. The changes in economic life and these developments promoted national consciousness and
led to the struggle of freedom from the British.
• Army:
o British maintained large army to suppress Indian people
o Waged wars against foreign countries with whom Indians had no conflict
o Cost was paid by Indian lives and by revenue collected from India
• Indians did not have a say in the governance and politics of the country.
• Civil services recruitment was rigged and people were let off with petty reasons (Surendranath
Bannerjee).
• Radical hatred was the common feature of subjection by Imperialists. Train compartments,
hospitals, parks were reserved for whites.
• Newspapers, journals and certain books (Italian unification by Mazzini) were banned
What started as an expression of specific grievances and demands gradually developed into a united nation-
wide movement for complete independence from foreign rule.
1878 – Arms Act – forbade Indians from possessing arms (Lord Lytton)
1878 – Vernacular Pess Act (Lord Lytton)
1883 – Ilbert Bill controversy (Lord Rippon)
• Initially the INC had members who were upper sections of the society such as industrialists,
traders, lawyers from upper and middle educated class. Gradually, other sections such as
educated lower middle class and lower sections of the society had joined. It turned into a mass
movement gradually.
• Lal – Bal – Pal criticized the moderates’ policy and advocated for the attainment of Swaraj. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak – “Swaraj is my birthright and I must have it”. Kesari newspaper. Organised
hartals and boycott of foreign goods
• From a movement of small sections of the society it turned into an active movement in which
millions participated with the aim of attaining freedom.
World events like Ethiopian win over Italy, Japan’s victory over Russia, Russian revolution influenced the
Indian people.
Partition of Bengal:
• Bengal was the largest province – Bengal, Orissa and Bihar. It was said to divide Bengal for
administrative purposes but the real aim was to suppress the national movement and create a rift
between Hindus and Muslims
• Eastern parts of Bengal was separated and added to Assam creating a new province
• Surendranath Bannerjee, Bipin Chandra Pal and Abdul Rasul were prominent leaders
• Rabindranath Tagore observed this day as the day of unity and solidarity of Indian people
• Hindus, Muslims and Christians tied Rakhi
• New methods of Swaraj and Boycott movements were introduced.
• Methods of nationalist movement became more radical unlike the expectations of the British
Rise and fall of Revolutionaries (1st wave) – Around 1st World War
• Believed in using force, firearms and explosives and formed secret societies.
• Abhinava Bharat Society in Maharashtra and Anushilan Samiti in Bengal were important
• Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Aurobindo Ghosh, Brainda Kuma Ghosh, Madam Bhikaji Cama,
Shyamaji Krishnavarma, Barkatulla Iyer, Lala Hardayal, Rasbehari Bose, Savarkar, Sohan Singh
Bhakna, Obeidulla Sinshi and MN Roy
• They also operated from North America, London, Paris, Berlin.
• Ghadar journal and party started
• Bagha Jatin organised a revolt with the help of Germany
• They did not succeed but inspired people with their fearlessness. Reasons for failure:
o Believed that killing individuals would be able to free the country
o Organised small groups and did not unite the masses
o Failed to see that a powerful empire could not be defeated by individual acts of violence
Emergence of Gandhiji
• Entered Indian scene during the 1st World War. Before that, he fought against racism of whites
against Indian people in South Africa where he developed Satyagraha.
• Satyagraha – undergo any hardship and suffering including imprisonment, non-violent protest
• Activities taken up by Gandhi which made him an undisputed leader of masses:
o 1917, Champaran Satyagraha, Bihar – against excesses of indigo planters on poor peasants
o 1918 – Textile workers of Ahmedabad demanded increase in wages
o 1918 – Peasants of Kheda in Gujarat demanded suspension of land revenue
• Methods adopted by Gandhi which made the national movement truly mass based
o Open defiance of laws
o Boycott of offices
o Boycott of law courts and offices
o Peaceful demonstrations
o Picketing of shops
o Stoppage of business
• Social reforms:
o Advocated against untouchability – in Ashrams, they did all the jobs of so-called
untouchables. Referred to them as Harijans
o Worked for the upliftment of people in villages – Believed that there is no progress of
India without progress of villages as 80% resided in villages
o Promoted village industries and Khadi. Charkha became a symbol of village industries and
later part of the flag of Congress
• Advocated Hindu-Muslim unity and brotherhood
Swaraj Party
• During NCM. Legislatures were boycotted but some of Congress under the leadership of C R Das,
Motilal Nehru, Vithalbhai Patel wanted to be elected to legislatures to bring the change from within.
• Other group was led by Vallabhai Patel, C Rajagopalachari and Rajendra Prasad wanted to engage
in the Constructive Programme.
• 1922 session at Gaya, presided by C R Das – Congress rejected the proposal for entering
legislatures.
• 1923 – Congres Khilafat Swaraj Party or Swaraj Party was formed. The Swarajists won a large
number of seats in the legislatures and kept the anti-British spirit alive. They made it very difficult
for the British to pass laws.
Both workers and peasants were influenced by socialistic ideas and they deeply influenced the social and
economic objectives of the freedom struggle.
Spread of Socialism
• The international revolutions(America, France and Russia) spread the ideas of socialism, especially
the Russian revolution called out for establishing social and economic equality of all and opposed
the imperialist rule.
• M N Roy, S A Dange, Singaravelu, Shaukat Usmani, Muzaffar Ahmed were popularising the ideas
of socialism. Some of these groups formed the Communist Party of India in 1925.
• J Nehru was the most prominent leader helped in spread of socialist ideas. In 1934, he formed the
Congress Socialist party within the Congress which played an important role in organising peasants
and workers.
• Young leaders emphasised on organising the masses and clarified the aims of the nationalist
movement. Advocated that independence is must for removing backwardness and poverty
• Influenced by socialist ideas and anti-imperialist foreign policy of USSR and its progress
• Jawaharlal Nehru – one of the first leaders to recognise the suffering of people in princely states
and made these people part of the nationalist movement
• S C Bose – Resigned ICS after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and participated in the national
struggle, NCM. Popularly known as Netaji.
• They were not satisfied with Swaraj and emphasised for complete independence. The nationalist
movement became increasingly militant under their influence.
• 1927 - Simon Commission was vehemently rejected by the people as there was no Indian member
and the report mentioned nowhere of Swaraj. Lala Lajpat Rai was injured and succumbed after
beatings in the protests.
• 1927 - Madras Congress session headed by M A Ansari & AIML boycotted the Commission.
• Indian Independence League was created and led by J Nehru, S C Bose, Srinivas Iyengar, Sarat
Chandra Bose. It advocated for Complete Independence.
• 1928 – Although Congress passed a resolution in 1927 for complete independence, it passed a
resolution demanding a dominion status in 1928 under the presidentship of Motilal Nehru at
Calcutta. It gave a one year ultimatum.
• 1928 – Congress session presided by J Nehru. After the one year ultimatum ended, Gandhi
declared that in A1 of the Congress constitution, Swaraj meant complete independence. They also
launched the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM).
• The Congress also declared 26th January to be the Independence Day every year.
Achievement of Independence
• The British Govt. dragged India into war without the consent of the people. Congress leaders
were opposed to fascist and imperialist policies and offered to help on the condition that India
be made an independent nation. But the Govt. refused. In response to this, Congress resigned
from all its ministries in 1939.
• 1940 – Congress session at Ramgarh, Congress launched the Individual Satyagraha movement-
Vinoba Bhave was the first one. Shrikrishna Sinha, C Rajagopalachari and others arrested.
• 1942 – War compelled British to open talks with India and Sir Stafford Cripps came to India as
Cripps Mission, which was a failure. The British did not agree to form a national govt. but agreed
to a constituent assembly. However, it will not be elected and will contained nominated princes.
Coming of Independence
• 1946 – British Govt. announced end of rule over India.
• Cabinet Mission was sent to discuss transfer of power. Proposed interim govt. headed by J Nehru
and Constituent Assembly composed of members elected by provincial legislatures and nominees
of Indian States. Muslim League and Princes refused to participate in the discussions of Constituent
Assembly.
• Viceroy Mountbatten, presented a plan for the division of India into 2 independent states of India
and Pakistan.
• 1946 – Communal riots in Bengal, Bihar and Bombay where thousands of Hindus and Muslims
were killed. Due to hatred advocated by the communal parties and British.
• Congress accepted the partition as there was no other way to gain independence.
• West Punjab, East Bengal, NWFP and Sindh were formed into Pakistan.