General topics

What are the early origins of agriculture?

Narmada valley – gatherers
Sulaiman and Kirthar hills (Afghanistan), Mehrgarh (Pak) – first crops by men and women -wheat and
barley (8000 yago), cotton (7000 yago), domestication of sheep and cattle (12000 yago)
Garo hills (along Brahmaputra, North East) – Agriculture
Vindhyas – Rice was first grown

How did India derive its name?

India – comes from Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit.
2500 yago, Irani and Greeks called Hindos/Indos and land east to it became India.
Bharata - people living in the north west – Rig Veda

What are the sources of past?

Manuscripts – birch tree bark – in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Sangam
Inscriptions – Stone, metal
Buildings – Stone, brick
Others – tools, weapons, coins, pots, pans, ornaments, clothes, graves, tombstones – stone, bone, clay,
metal; accounts of sailors and travelers

Why did hunter-gatherers started moving from one place to another?

Animals keep moving. Food exhausted at one place. Seasons keep changing. In search of water.

Explain some of the important prehistoric sites.

Paleolithic - Bhimbetka Caves (MP, Narmada banks) – Cave and Rock shelters, Kurnool Caves (AP)-
source of ash – suggested use of fire, Hunsgi (Maharashtra)
Neolithic/Early farmers and herders - Burzaholm(J&K)/Chirand(Bihar)/ DaojaliHading (Assam)/
Mehrgarh(Pak)/ Paiyampalli(TN)

Explain the timeline of stone ages.

2 milllion – 12000 yago - Paleolithic age – Old stone age
12000 – 10000 yago – Mesolithic age – Middle stone age – microliths
10000 – current – Neolithic age – New stone age – Early farmers and herders – fine cutting tools,
polished, mortars and pestles

The earliest animal to be domesticated was? Dog

Grasslands developed around which time? Why? Around 12000 yago due to warm climates
What are the different families of Indian languages?
Indo-European –Sanskrit/Assamese/Gujarati/Hindi/Kashmiri/Sindhi/Persian/English/European
Tibeto-Burman – Northeastern languages (NOT Assamese)
Dravidian – South Indian languages
Austro Asiatic – Jharkhand

Who wrote grammar for Sanskrit? Panini

When did the Buddha, Mahavira and Upanishadic thinkers emerge? 2500 yago.
When was Sangam literature composed? 2300 yago
When was iron used in the subcontinent? 3000 yago

Who was the first person to state that day and nights are caused due to earth’s own rotation?
Aryabhatta in his work Aryabhattiyam

Who are the important mathematicians in ancient India?

Aryabhatta, varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya
What are the important books in medicine in ancient India?
Charakasamhita by Charaka – on medicine
Susrutasamhita by Susruta – on surgical procedures

Harappa/IVC

What are the salient features of Harappa/IV civilization?

Developed 4700 years ago, across Indus river valleys.
Pak - Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ganweriwala, Chanhudaro, Sotkakoh
India-Rakhi Garhi(Haryana); Kalibangan(Rajasthan); Dholavira, Surkotada, Lothal(Gujarat)
Cities – two parts – west was smaller but higher (citadel) – east was lower town
Dholvaira (Rann of Kutchh)- divided into 3 parts, massive gateways and stone walls
Lothal (Sabarmati, Gulf of Khambat) - Dockyard
Straight drains with holes covered
Metals used – Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze
Copper from Rajasthan/Oman; Tin-Afghanistan/Iran; Gold-Karnataka; Precious stones-
Gujarat/Iran/Afghanistan
Crafts – terracotta, beadwork with Carnelian, Stone blades, Cloth embroidery, shell work, faience
(shiny/glassy surface) to make bangles, weights made of Chert, carts
Agriculture – wheat, barley, sesame, peas, rice, linseed, mustard- wooden plough & irrigation
Animals – sheep, cattle, goat, buffalo; ate fish and antelope
Harappan seals in Harappan script also found
3900 yago – ended – probably due to deforestation/floods/ruler incapacity

Early Vedic period

What are the features of Vedas (oldest to youngest)?

Rig Veda – Knowldege, Suktas of Indra, Agni and Soma(plant) – Largest, Oldest – 3500 yago
Later Vedic literature:
Sama Veda – Music and Dance – Smallest Veda
Yajur Veda – Prayers
Atharva veda – Daily life, Magical charms – Youngest

Did women compose hymns in Vedas? Yes

What is the language of Vedas? Vedic Sanskrit
Who are the different kinds of people in (Early) Vedic period?
Brahmins – performed rituals
Rajas – chosen by jana, no armies/palaces/taxes/capital cities – performed yajnas
Aryas – composed Vedas
Dasus – slaves

Write about megaliths of (Early) Vedic period.

Started around 3000 yago
Megaliths indicated burials, buried with Black and Red ware pots, and animals.
Iron tools, ornaments of gold and stone were found – indicate social hierarchy.
Portholes -to bury more than one person.
Inamgaon(Maharahstra, river Ghod, Bhima) is an important site (3600-2700 yago)
Brahmagiri (Karnataka) and Adichanallur (TN) are other sites

Early Kingdoms of Later Vedic period

Show transition of Early to Later Vedic period.

3500 yago – Early Vedic
3000 yago – Janapadas
2500 yago – Mahajanapadas
How are rajas of Later Vedic period different from the Early Vedic period?
Became rajas by performing very big sacrifices/yajnas – Ex. Ashwamedhayajna

Which people were not allowed to study Vedas? Women and Shudras

Write about Janapadas.

Emerged around 3000 years ago.
Janapada – land where jana sets foot. Became rajas of janapadas (janas, in case of Early Vedic period) by
performing sacrifices.
Purana Qila (Delhi), Hastinapura (Meerut, UP), Atranjikhera (Etah, UP)
Started growing sugarcane. Introduced Painted Greyware.

Write about Mahajanapadas.

Some Janapadas became more important ~ 2500 years ago – Mahajanapadas
Had capital city, fortified walls, forts, armies
Payments made through punch market coins
Tax collection began (on agri –1/6th bhaga/crafts persons/herders/hunters/gatherers/goods)
Iron ploughshares were used. Transplantation of paddy started.
New class of Kammakaras (landless agri labourers) emerged.
Kausambi(UP)/Rajagriha(Bihar)/Vaishali(Bihar)/Ujjain(MP)/Taxila(Pak)

Who could not participate in ganas and sanghas? Women, dasas, kammakaras.
When did the Ganas and Sanghas end? ~1500 yago.

Religion

What are Puranas and how are they different from Vedas?
Puranas contain stories of Vishnu, Shiva and Durga, creation of the world and about kings.
Unlike Vedas, women and shudras could also study puranas.

Who compiled Puranas? Vyasa

Which stories are often shown in railings of stupas and paintings such as in Ajanta? Jatakas

What were the six Indian philosophical schools of thought?

Vaishesika – Konada
Nyaya - Gotama
Samkhya - Kapila
Yoga – Patanjali
Purva Mimamsa - Jamini
Uttara Mimamsa - Vyasa

Religious buildings

What were the important architectural features of Hindu temples?

Garbhagriha – where image of the chief deity is placed
Shikhara – structure built on top of garbhagriha to show sacredness
Mandapa – hall where people assemble
What were the important architectural features of Buddhist stupas?
Stupas has relic caskets (containing bones, teeth, ashes of Buddha and things they used).
Stupas also has prakadshina pathas for devotees to enter.

Buddhism and Buddha

Buddha belonged to which group? Sakya gana. He was a Kshatriya.

Where did Buddha pass away? Kusinara/Kushinagar (UP)
Where did Buddha attain enlightenment? Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
What were the main teachings of Buddha? Tanha(constant craving) and Karma
Which language did Buddha preach in? Prakrit
Rules for Buddhist sangha are written in? Vinaya Pitaka
Were there any restrictions on joining Buddhist sangha? Everyone could join. Only permission was
required (Ex. Wives from husbands, children from parents, slaves from masters).
What were the shelters for Buddhist monks? Monasteries or Viharas
What are the two main features of Mahayana Buddhism? When was this form active?
Buddha’s statues were made. Belief in Bodhisattvas began. Started 1900 yago with Kushanas.
Where was Mahayana Buddhism spread to? China, Japan, Korea and Central Asia
Where was Theravada Buddhism spread to? Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thai, Indonesia, SE Asia
Who were the famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrims? When did they arrive?
Fa Xian – 1600 yago - Bengal
Xuan Zang – 1400 yago - Nalanda
I-Qing – 1350 yago

Jainism and Mahavira

Who was the 24th tirthankara? Vardhamana Mahavira

Mahavira belonged to which group? Lichchhavis, a Vajji Sangha. He was a Kshatriya.
What were the main teachings of Mahavira? Ahimsa
Which language did Mahavira preach in? Prakrit
Who could not join Jainism? Why? Farmers. As they had to kill insects – ahimsa.
Where were the teachings of Mahavira written? Valabhi, Gujarat- 1500 years ago

Upanishads

What was the main idea of Upanishadic thinkers?

They looked for something permanent in the universe after death.
Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal soul) will eventually be one.
Were women allowed as Upanishadic thinkers? Yes. Gargi was famous for learning.
Were poor allowed as Upanishadic thinkers? Rarely. Satyakama Jabala was a famous one.
Who was the famous Upanishadic thinkers? Shankaracharya

Bhakti Movement

What is Bhakti?
A person’s devotion to his/her chosen deity.
Bhakti emphasized devotion and individual worship of a god/goddess and no sacrifices
Bhakti gods were created in beautiful images and sculptures according to one’s devotion
Who can follow Bhakti? Everyone irrespective of class/caste/gender
Who were the important deities of Bhakti period? Shiva, Vishnu and Durga

Villages & Cities

Where did the early cities appear?

4700 yago - Indus Valley Cities appeared
2500 yago – Magadha Empire along Ganga and Son (Bihar)- first big kingdom

Name the important prehistoric settlements.

Burzaholm – pit houses
Mehrgarh – square/rectangular houses + burials with animals
Kurnool & Bhimbetka – Caves & cave/rock shelters

What were the different kinds of people living in the South?

Vellalar – Large landowners
Uzhavar - Ordinary ploughmen
Adimai/Kadaisiyar – Slaves/landless laborers

What were the different kinds of people living in the North?

Grama Bhojaka – village headman (tax collector, police and judge), largest landowner
Grihapati – Smaller landowners
Dasa Karmakara – landless laborers

What is Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)?

Pottery found in the northern subcontinent, metallic looking with a shiny black surface.

What are the important centers for textile in North and South? Varanasi and Madurai
What are Shrenis? Merchant organizations, served as banks.
What is amphorae? Tall double handled jars containing oil/wine imported from Mediterranean.
What is Arretine ware? Stamped red glazed pottery impoted from Italy.
Which regions was Arikamedu port trading with? Italy, Rome and Mediterranean region
What metal were the punch marked coins made of? Silver
Punch marked coins were in use in which time? 2500 yago
Which northern city was important for Janis, Buddhists and Hindu cultures? Mathura
Settlement in Arikamedu was during which period? 2200-1900 yago
Which spice was referred to as black gold by Romans? Pepper

Ancient Indian Kingdoms

What is Prashasti? Inscriptions in praise of someone.

Magadha Empire

Write about Magadha empire, a Mahajanapada.

Capital – Rajagriha (Rajgir, early) and Pataliputra (Patna, later) – both in Bihar.
Located between Ganga and Son.
Elephants used in army. Iron ore mines.
Important rulers – Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadmananda.
Alexander invaded but ran away.

What was the name of Prakrit language spoken in Magadha empire? Magadhi

Vajji Empire

Write about Vajji empire, a Mahajanapada.

Capital at Vaishali (Bihar). North of Magadha empire.
Consisted of ganas(group of many) and sanghas(organization/association).
Many rulers/rajas ruled at once unlike Magadha.
Digha Nikaya describes an account of Vajjis.

Mauryan Empire

When was the Maurya Empire established? ~2300 yago

Who were main rulers of Maurya empire? Chandragupta Maurya (founder), Bindusara, Asoka
Who was in Chandragupta Maurya’s court? Chanakya/ Kautilya
What was the main work of Kautilya/Chanakya? Arthashastra
Asoka’s inscriptions were found in which countries? India, Pakistan, Afghanistan
Which were important cities of Maurya Empire? Pataliputra(main capital)/Taxila/Ujjain
Greek ruler Seleucus sent a messenger to Chandragupta. Name him. Megasthenes
Royal princes were sent to provinces as what in Mauryan Empire? Governors
Who was the first ruler to take his message to people through inscriptions? Asoka
What was the script & language of Asoka’s inscriptions? Prakrit, written in Brahmi script
What was the main teaching of Asoka? Dhamma(Prakrit)/ Dharma(Sanskrit)
Who did Asoka appoint to preach Dhamma? Dhamma Mahamattas
Asoka sent messengers to which countries? Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sri Lanka
When did the Mauryan empire collapse? 2200 years ago

Kushanas

Which rulers controlled the Silk route? Kushanas

Major centers of power of Kushanas were? Peshawar, Mathura, Taxila
Who issued gold coins for the first time? Kushanas
Kushanas were active during which period? 2000 yago
The most important ruler of Kushanas? Kalinga
Who composed biography of Buddha? Ashvaghosha. He was in Kalinga’s court.
Which language was Buddhacharita composed in? Sanskrit

Gupta dynasty

When did Gupta dynasty begun? 1700 yago

Who was the poet in the court of Samudragupta? Harishena
Who was the Gupta king who played veena? Samudragupta
What is the relation of Aryavartas and rulers of Dakshinapathas wrt Samudragupta?
Aryavartas were conquered by Samudragupta. The 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha were defeated by him but
kept ruling and paid tributes to Samudragupta.

Explain the lineage of important Gupta rulers.

1. Chandragupta- wife Kumara devi – belonged to Lichchhavi gana – Maharaj-adhiraja
2. Samudraputa – Harisena in court – composed prashasti as Kavya in Allahabad
3. Chandgragupra II/ Vikramaditya – Kalidasa and Aryabhatta in court
4. Harshavardhana – 1400 yago – Banabhatta in court

Who wrote Harshacharita and in what language? Banabhatta, in Sanskrit

Harshavardhana was stopped at Narmada by which King? Pulakeshin II of Chalukyas
The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi belongs to which dynasty? Guptas

South Indian Kingdoms

Who were Muvendar? The three chiefs of Cheras, Pandyas and Chola families. They became powerful
in the South 2300 yago.

What was the capital of Cholas, Cheras, Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas?
Cholas - Puhar/Kavertipattanam
Pandyas – Madurai
Pallavas - Kanchipuram
Cheras – Muziri/Vanchi
Chalukyas – Aihole

Who were known as lords of dakshinapatha? Satavahanas

The most important ruler of Satavahanas/dakshinapatha? Gautamiputra Satakarni
Who was the court poet of Pulakeshin II who composed his prashasti? Ravikirti
What were the administrative positions in the South Indian kingdoms?
• Maha-danda-nayaka – Chief Judicial Officer (Harisena)
• Kumar-amatya – Important minister
 • Sandhi-vigrahika – Minister of war and peace
• Nagara-shreshti – Chief banker or merchant of the city
• Sarthavaha – leader of merchants
• Prathama-kulika – Chief craftsman
• Head of Kayashta/scribes

Who were Samantas? Independent military leaders who maintained mercenary armies

How did people assemble in South Indian kingdoms?

Sabha – assembly of brahmins
Ur – assembly of land owners who were not brahmins
Nagaram -assembly of merchants

What languages were used in the ancient South Indian kingdoms?

Kings and Brahmins – Sanskrit; Everyone else spoke in Prakrit

Who composed Silappadikaram in Tamil and when? Ilango, 1800 yago

Who composed Manimekalai in Tamil and when? Sattanar, 1400 yago
Who composed Abhignana Sakuntalam? Kalidasa