PLANNING 1
If the land is found suitable, the data should be analyzed
INTRODUCTION TO SITE PLANNING AND LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
SITE PLANNING
• Site Planning is the art of arranging structures on the land
and shaping the spaces between, an art linked to
architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, and city
planning.
• It is the organization of the external physical environment to
accommodate human behavior. It deals with the qualities
and locations of structures, land, activities, and living things.
It creates a pattern of those elements in space and time,
which will be subject to continuous future management and
change. The technical output- the grading plans, utility
layouts, survey locations, planting plans, sketches,
diagrams, and specifications- is simply a conventional way
of specifying the complex organization.
• Professionals related to this practice are the Architects,
Landscape Architects, Engineers, and Environmental
Planners - for large-scale projects. Kindly refer to Republic
Act 10587 or the Environmental Planning Act of 2013.
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
• Landscape Architecture is a profession that deals with the
act of planning, designing, specifying, supervising, and
giving general administration and responsible direction to
the functional, orderly, and aesthetic arrangement,
changing, and development of natural scenery and land
areas to produce the most desirable effect for human use
and enjoyment of various outdoor spaces which consist of
landscape components and the softscape of plants; the
protection, conservation and rehabilitation of the natural
environment and scenery to enhance the ecological system
and quality of life; and as further defines by Republic Act
9053 otherwise known as the "Philippine Landscape
Architecture Act of 2000".
• A Landscape Architect is a person qualified to practice said
profession.
PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS
• The process of site planning begins with the gathering of
basic data relating specifically to the site under
consideration and the surrounding areas.
The data should include such items as master plans and
studies, zoning ordinances, base and aerial maps, surveys,
topographic data, geological information, hydrographic
data, soil classification, vegetation, and existing
easements.
After all information has been obtained, it must be
examined and analyzed.
Establish the site’s advantages and limitations.
Conclusions should be established.
After a thorough analysis of the site and after all
conclusions have been studied, it is then possible to
determine whether the land is suitable for the proposed use.
further to establish other specific parameters of the site.
These include items such as:
The best area to locate the building due to:
- Soil condition
- Topography
- Soil erosion
- Drainage patterns
- Land contour.
- Natural attractions of the site
Further studies, if needed, should be provided such as:
- Computer applications in site planning - Computer
graphics for easy pictorial and analytical studies
- Perspective and isometric depictions of topography
- Slope analysis
- Cut-and-fill calculations
- Watershed analysis
- Simulation studies
THE SEQUENCE OF THE SITE PLAN
SURVEY
• A survey is a checklist of information or data about a site.
The kind of data that would be required in some rather
normal examples of site planning. Such a list would be
drawn up after an initial analysis of the problem. To guide
the first survey, information would be gathered continuously
as the problem develops.
Steps that could be followed in conducting a survey (Based
on Kevin Lynch):
1. Initial personal reconnaissance notes, sketches,
photos – apparent character, problems, and
possibilities.
2. Collation of existing data: base and contour maps,
aerial photos, geological soil and water surveys,
climate records, ecological studies, engineering
reports, borings, census materials, histories, social
 studies market reports, traffic studies, legal and public - Location, elevation, and capacity
control documents, official proposals, record of current g. Sensuous qualities
controversies. - Character and relations of visual spaces
- Viewpoints, vistas, visual focal points
3. Summary description of the off-site context and its - Character and rhythm of visual sequences
changes: geographic location, surrounding - Quality and variation of light, sound, smell, and feel
populations, social and political structure, general
economy, ecological and hydrographic system, land 5. Data Correlation
use patterns, access system, principal off-site - Classification of the site by areas of similar structures,
destinations, and facilities. quality, and problems
- Identification of significant key points, lines, and areas
4. Data on the site and its immediate context: - Analysis of current and likely future changes in the
A. PHYSICAL DATA dynamic aspect of the site
a. Geology and Soil - Identification of significant problems and possibilities
- Underlying geology, rock character and depth.
- Soil type and depth, value as an engineering material, and Take Note:
plant medium When selecting a site, it should be noted that future
- Fill, ledge, slides, subsidence considerations and expansion should be met. Never select a
b. Hydrology site for its immediate application.
- Existing water bodies – variation and purity
- Natural and man-made drainage channels- flow capacity
purity GEOLOGY is the natural science that studies the Earth - its
- Surface drainage pattern, amount, blockages, untrained composition; the processes that shaped its surface; and its
depressions history.
- Water table- elevation and fluctuation, springs
- Water supply- quantity and quality TYPES OF ROCK
c. Topography 1. IGNEOUS ROCK- rocks produced by crystallization
- Pattern of landforms from a liquid.
- Contours 2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- when igneous rocks are
- Slope analysis exposed to the surface and weathering reduces them
- Visibility analysis to particles, these particles are moved by an erosional
- Circulation analysis process and deposited in layers into rivers and oceans.
- Unique features 3. METAMORPHOSED ROCKS- when sedimentary
d. Climate rocks are pushed to deeper levels of the earth, they
- Regional data on the variation of temperature, transform into metamorphosed rocks due to changes
precipitation, humidity, solar angle, cloudiness, wind in pressure and temperature.
direction, and force
- Local microclimates: warm and cool slopes, air drainage, Two (2) main ways in which geology influences the site
wind deflection, local breeze shade, heat deflection and planning decision-making process:
storage, plant indicators 1. The soil-bearing capacity limits what can be built on
- Sound levels, smell, atmospheric quality the site.
e. Ecology 2. The presence of geological features that restrict the
- Dominant plant/ animal communities- location and relative options for development because of varying degrees of
stability hazard to life.
- Their dependence on existing factors, self-regulation, and
sensitivity to change GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
- Mapping of general plant cover, including wood areas • Geophysical Investigations are made to determine the
- Specimen trees to be retained: their location, spread, geologic conditions that affect the design, safety,
species, and elevation at the base effectiveness and cost of a proposed project.
f. Man-made structures • Geophysical exploration methods: seismic, electrical
- Existing buildings outline, location, floor, elevations, type resistivity, sonic, electrical logging, magnetic and gravity
condition use methods
- Circulation facilities (roads, paths, rails, transit, etc.) • Subsurface borings: probing, wash borings, core drilling,
location, capacity, and condition calyx drilling, borehole photography, chum drilling, jack,
- Utilities (storm and sanitary sewers, water, gas, electricity, and hammer drilling
telephone, steam etc.) • Test pits, trenches, tunnels.
- Geological faults are lines of weakness caused by
previous movements of the earth’s crust and always
have a potential for further movement. If a building is
to be built in areas susceptible to earthquakes, special
precautions must be taken to enable the buildings and
structures to withstand the movement. This will add
substantially to site development costs.
Fault Types: (1) Quiescent Fault; (2) Normal
Fault; (3) Thrust and Reverse; (4) Lateral Slip,
Strike-Slip or Transform Fault; (5) Normal and Slip
Fault Combination; (6) Graben; and (7) Horst.
- Rock Outcrops on the site can be both problems and
assets depending on the purpose for which the site is
to be developed. For leisure areas, these rock outcrops
can be used as part of the landscape, i.e., used for
rock, climbing, fossil finding, as habitats for relatively
rare wildlife. If used for other purposes aside from
recreation, rock outcroppings can be costly to remove,
obliterate, or hide.
- Mineral Reserve: The site planner needs to establish
if the rocks, gravel deposits or sands underlying the
project area are of any economic value.
- Critical Subsurface Problems:
o Geologic fault lines
o High or fluctuating water table
o Presence of peat or other organic soils, or of soft
plastic clay, loose slit, or fine water-bearing sand
o Rock close to the surface
o New, unconsolidated fill or land previously used as
a dump, esp. if any toxic material may be present.
o Evidence of slides, floods, or subsidence
o Soil Liquefaction - generally associated with the
reduction in strength and stiffness of soil because
of increased pore water pressure caused by
earthquake shaking or rapid loading.
o Presence of underground caverns
o Landslips occur where surface materials are not
yet at a stable angle about the local geological
structure.
GEOMORPHOLOGY is that branch of Geology that deals with
the origin, nature, and distribution of landforms.
• Physiography - refers to the description of landforms.
• Landforms – are irregularities on the earth’s surface. They
are derived from volcanic, glacial, or erosional processes.
When designing a piece of property for architectural, landscape
architectural, and engineering usage, it is essential for the
designer to first confront the nature of the land, particularly its
form, its slopes, and its inherent capabilities for surface and
subsurface discharge of water, for supporting vertical and
horizontal structures, and for resisting erosion. This exercise
requires four basic geomorphologic information such as:
a. Soil Properties
b. Drainage
c. Topography and Slopes
d. Soil Erosion
A. SOIL PROPERTIES
1. Soil Profile
Legend:
O - a thin organic-rich layer at the surface that consists
of devaluating plant material and humus
A - also known as the topsoil layer, it consists of
organic material mixed completely with the mineral soil
particles
B - also known as the subsoil, it is the next layer where
materials leached from the overlying soil layers have
been deposited
C - represents the unconsolidated material that has not
been affected by the soil formation process
Bedrock or Ledge - if it exists near the surface, it is
found below the C horizon, and bedrock is found
directly below the B horizon.
2. Soil texture
- Soil is made up of a mixture of stone and earth.
- Soil can be classified either through a laboratory test or
a field test.
- Soil can be identified by such characteristics as the
kind and number of horizons or layers that have
 developed in them. The texture (the relative amount of
stones, gravel, sand, silt, and clay), the kinds
of minerals present and their amounts, and
the presence of salts and alkali.
- Stone: 3.00” and above
- Gravel: 0.08” – 3.00”
- Sand: 0.08” – 0.0002”
- Silt: 0.0002” – 0.00008”
- Clay: 0.00008” and lower
3. Soil Engineering Properties
- Soil Stability
• Shear strength determines the stability of soil and
its ability to resist failure under loading. Shear
strength is the result of internal friction and
cohesion. Internal friction is the resistance to
sliding between soil particles, and cohesion is the
mutual attraction between particles due to
moisture content and molecular forces.
• Under typical conditions, sand and gravel are
cohesion less. Clay soils have higher cohesion but
little internal friction.
• As a rule, the slopes constructed on cohesive soils
require flatter angles as the height of the slope
increases. Because of their internal friction, the
shear strength of sand and gravel increases about
increased normal pressure; therefore, the angle of
slope need not decrease with increased height.
• Care must be taken when construction takes place
at the top or bottom or a relatively large slope, and
particular attention must be given to the handling
of the storm runoff.
• Soil failure occurs when shear stress exceeds
shear strength. The reason for failure is either
increased stress or decreased strength brought
about by natural or human-induced activity, i.e.,
when the load at the top of a slope is increased or
lateral support at the base of a slope is removed
through excavation or erosion; when the moisture
of the soil is increased, etc.
- Soil Bearing Capacity
• Soil Bearing Capacity is the ability of the surface
and subsurface material to carry the weight of the
structures. The weight of the building can cause
the settlement of the solid which in time can
damage the building.
- Soil for Landscaping
• Topsoil is a critical medium for plants.
• Soil Features: Excellent Drainage; Content of
Humus; Relative Acidity (pH); and Presence of
Available Nutrients particularly Potassium,
Phosphorus, and Nitrogen
B. DRAINAGE
o GOOD DRAINAGE refers to the soil’s ability to transfer
gravity water downward through:
- Infiltration - the rate at which water penetrates the soil
surface (usually measured in cm or inches per hour);
- Permeability - the rate at which water within the soil
moves through a given volume of material (also
measured in cm or inches per hour)
- Percolation - the rate at which water in a soil pit or pipe
within the soil is taken up by the soil (used mainly in
wastewater absorption tests and measured in inches
per hour)
o POOR DRAINAGE means that gravity water is not
readily transmitted by the soil and soil is frequently or
permanently saturated and may have water standing on
it caused by:
- The local accumulation of water.
- A rise in the level of groundwater within the soil column.
- The size of the particles in the soil being too small to
transmit infiltration water.
C. TOPOGRAPHY
The topographic surface, the boundary between earth and
air, is the zone richest in living things. It has implications for
site development. The topography itself sometimes
determines the plan. The gradient of paths, the flow of
utilities, the use of areas, the disposition of buildings, and
the visual aspect are all affected by it.
Topography is the art or practice of graphic or exact
delineation in minute detail, usually on maps or charts of
the physical features of any place or region, especially
about their exact position and elevation. Topographic
elevations are indicated along given contour lines. A
graphic and numerical scale is displayed at the base of the
drawing.
Contours are sets of imaginary lines in a topography map
that connect all points of some arbitrary equal elevation on
the ground.
To avoid costly construction and to make maximum use of
grade variation, plans should always be studied about
accurately drawn topographical maps or sketches, if
possible, directly over them.
Topographic Maps are printed in 5 colors:
- Black - cultural features such as roads, railroads, and
civil boundaries
- Blue- water bodies
- Green- woodlands
- Red- developed urban areas.
- Brown- contour line
1. DRAWING A SECTION - It is adaptable to a great variety of planning forms
(groupings of buildings) - it is adequate for all types of
street patterns.

Disadvantages of a Level Site

- The grouping of buildings should be carefully studied
to create satisfactory system of drainage.
- Surfaces or recreation areas and yards require some
pitch for discharging water to surface inlets.

TYPES OF BUILDING LAYOUTS SUITABLE FOR LEVEL

SITES
a. ELEVATIONS

Steps:
1. Indicate the cutting plane.
2. Draw parallel lines according to contour interval and
proposed vertical scale. b. PLANS
3. Project perpendicular lines from the intersection of the
contour line with the cutting plane to the corresponding
parallel line.
4. Connect the points to complete the section and
delineate the ground line.

2. SLOPE ANALYSIS
Slope Analysis is useful for deciding on the distribution of
land use to have a plan showing the location of the vertical
and near-vertical banks, the very steep land, the steep
land, the moderately sloping land, the gently sloping land,
and the flat land.

Slope and Land Use:

<1% --------> do not drain well.
<4% --------> usable for all kinds of activities
4-10% --------> suitable for movement and informal activity
>10% --------> can be actively used only for hill sports or
free play
17% --------> approaches the limit that an ordinary loaded
vehicle can climb, for any sustained period.
20-25% --------> normal limit of climb for pedestrians
without resorting to stairs.
>50% --------> may require terracing or cribbing.

ANGLE OF REPOSE - the angle at which soil can be

safely inclined and beyond which it will fail.
A Slope Map is prepared to visually express these slope
patterns on the topographic map.
3. LEVEL SITE
Though not completely without problems, the level site
offers the planner the best and easiest solution to site
development.
Advantages of a Level Site
- Economical in site development
4. SLOPING AND ROLLING TERRAIN
Sloping Terrain
Next to a level site, a sloping site provides the planner with
a variety of building types and groupings. Different street
patterns could be employed.
- Advantages of a Sloping site:
a. Variety of building types and building groupings
b. Drainage problems are simpler. Water flows to
lowest level
c. Adaptable to a great variety of street patterns
 Rolling Terrain
More difficult to manage but creates a far more interesting
land development.
- Advantages of a Rolling terrain:
a. More interesting land development could attract
high-end buyers.
b. Economies of the first cost in sewer and drainage
lines
c. The practice of building parallel to contours will
reduce costly construction, grading, and filling.
d. On very steep sites, the building itself could serve
as the retaining wall.
- Disadvantages of a Rolling terrain:
a. Less variety of street patterns
b. Less variety of building type
5. IRREGULAR SHAPE AND SITES WITH ADVERSE
CONDITION
- Planning problems inherent in the site:
a. Unsuitable for low-rent housing
b. Difficult street pattern: a mixture of meandering
and curvilinear could be used.
c. Complex building arrangement
d. Abnormal grading arrangement
e. Limited natural platforms and space for buildings
and tenant yards
f. Inefficient utility layout
g. Expensive and extensive drainage layout
h. Unusable fragmented areas
i. Force high site improvement costs and recurring
maintenance problems.
D. SOIL EROSION
SOIL EROSION – when rocks are broken down
(weathered) into small fragments, and carried by wind,
water, ice, and gravity. Energy for this process is solar and
gravitational.
Four factors to consider in forecasting erosion rates:
a. Vegetation
- Foliage intercepts raindrops
- Organic litter on the ground reduces the impact of
raindrops.
- Roots bind together aggregates of soil particles.
- Cover density, in the form of ground cover or tree
canopy, decreases soil loss to runoff.
b. Soil Type
- Intermediate textures like sand will usually yield
(erode) first.
- To erode clay, the velocity of the runoff should be high
enough to overcome cohesive forces that bind the
particles together.
- Similarly, high velocities would be needed to move
masses of pebbles and particles larger than those of
sand.
c. Slope Size and Inclination
- The velocity of runoff is closely related to the slope of
the ground over which it flows. Slopes that are both
steep and long produce the greatest erosion because
they generate runoff that is high in velocity and mass.
- Slope also influences the quantity of runoff since long
slopes collect more rainfall and thus generate a larger
volume of runoff.
d. Frequency and Intensity of Rainfall
- Intensive rainfalls produced by thunderstorms promote
the highest rates of erosion.
- Accordingly, the incidence of storms plus total annual
rainfall can be a reliable measure of the effectiveness
of rainfall in promoting soil erosion.
The geomorphological processes that interest the site
planner are those that have an impact on the land over a
relatively short time scale, and particularly those that might
leave the surface unstable and difficult to develop.
- Erosion and deposition along rivers results in rivers
changing their course and making it ill-advised to
develop near them, or in the slow eating away of the
land along parts of the river, while along others the silt
is slowly deposited.
- Erosion is any process by which sediment is entrained
(eroded) and moved away from its original location by
gradational agents, which include gravity, water, wind,
ice, and humans.
- Sedimentation is the deposition and accumulation of
transported sediment, or precipitation of deposits from
water.
- Erosion of cliffs by the sea
- Rocks breaking away from mountainsides because of
frost action on the joints.
- Landslips occur where surface materials are not yet at
a stable angle in relation to the local geological
structure.
HYDROLOGY
WATERSHED- a geographic area of land bounded by
topographic features and height of land that captures
precipitation, filters and stores water, and drains waters
to a shared destination. Knowledge of watershed
boundaries is critical to water quality and stormwater
management.
AQUIFIERS are underground “reservoirs” of water.
The water is not usually held in ponds of water but in
the pores between individual particles which make up
the rock, or in the fissures of the rock. It is the water
tapped when drilling artesian wells.
Careful use of the site is important to protect the
aquifers. Contamination of the soil can cause damage
to the underground water. An aquifer can be
 contaminated by apparently normal events such as oils
from automobiles, fertilizers, waste disposal, etc.
WATER TABLE is the upper boundary of the zone of
groundwater, the top of an unconfined aquifer.
- Low Water Table - a problem for water supply and
vegetation
- High Water Table - the site is liable to flood, difficulties
in excavation cause flooding in basements, flood
utilities, and unstable foundations.
- Fluctuating Water Table - will cause heavy clay soil
alternatively to shrink and swell which damages the
building foundation.
- Underground Water Course - critical and no structure
should be sited over them.
FLOODPLAIN is a larger area with a low to moderate
flood susceptibility. A floodway is an area contained
within a floodplain that has a high susceptibility to flood
within which flood is unmanageable.
STORM SURGE results from high winds forcing water
ashore above normal tide levels. The surge is the
difference in water level elevation between the normal
tide level and the storm tide.
VEGETATION
The relevance of Plant Materials in site planning is in
their role in:
a. Climatic control
1. Solar Radiation – is Earth’s source of light and
heat. It warms the earth’s surface, is reflected by
paving and other objects, and produces glare.
Trees are one of the best controls for solar
radiation because:
 they block or filter sunlight.
 they cool the air under their canopies
providing natural air conditioning.
Scientists have recorded that with an air
temperature of 84deg F, the surface temp of
concrete paving was 108deg, while the surface
temp under shade trees was 20deg lower.
2. Wind – helps to control temperature. When winds
are of low velocity, they may be pleasant, but
when velocity increases, may cause discomfort or
damage.
Trees help to buffer winds in urban areas caused
by convection and Venturi effects.
3. Precipitation- Plants help to control precipitation
reaching the ground. By intercepting rain and
slowing it down, they aid in moisture retention, and
in the prevention of soil erosion. They also help
soil retain water by providing shade, or protection
from the wind, or by water shedding function of
trees’ roots.
b. Environmental Engineering
1. Air Purification – Plants clean air through the
process of photosynthesis where they use up
carbon dioxide emissions from cars and trucks
and in the process release oxygen in the air.
Trees also help filter out other pollutants, i.e. sulfur
dioxide, dust, pollen, and smoke.
2. Noise – To understand noise:
The sound level of normal conversation is about
60 decibels; a plane taking off produces 120
decibels at 200 ft.
Sound energy usually spreads out and dissipates
in transmission. Sound waves can be absorbed,
reflected, or deflected.
Plants absorb sound waves through their leaves,
branches, and twigs, especially those with thick
fleshy leaves and thin petioles.
Tree trunks deflect sounds, and it has been
estimated that a 100 ft. depth of forest can reduce
sound by 21 decibels.
3. Glare and Reflection- Plants reduce glare and
reflection caused by sunlight. A light source
received directly produces primary glare while
reflected light is secondary glare. Plants may be
used to filter or block glare by use of plants with
the appropriate size, shape, and foliage density.
4. Erosion Control- Plants are a primary means of
preventing erosion from stormwater runoff and of
controlling erosion during construction. Erosion is
also minimized by the plant's action of intercepting
rain, decreasing splash, and increasing water
absorption.
- Vegetation with extensive root systems imparts
stability to slopes.
- On sandy slopes, the presence of woody
vegetation can increase the angle of repose by 10
to 15 degrees.
c. Architectural and Aesthetic Uses
1. Space Definition – Plants can help in several
ways: As wall elements to form outdoor spaces, as
canopies to provide shade, or as ground covers to
provide color and texture on the base plane.
2. View Control – While trees and shrubs can
screen out objectionable views, they can also
provide backdrops for sculpture and fountains.
Additionally, they may provide filtered views of
buildings or spaces, or frame a view, maximizing
its effect.
 3. Mood – Plants affect peoples’ moods.
WILDLIFE
Wildlife relates closely to habitats provided by plant
communities. The three groups of habitat elements essential to
the different species of wildlife are:
1. Open land Wildlife – includes birds and mammals
commonly associated with crop fields, meadows,
pastures, and non-forested lands. Habitat elements
essential for open land wildlife include:
- Grain and seed crops
- Grasses and legumes
- Wild herbaceous upland plants
- Hardwood woody plants
2. Woodland Wildlife- These species need various
combinations of:
- Grasses and legumes
- Wild herbaceous upland plants
- Hardwood woody plants
- Cone-bearing shrubs such as pines.
3. Wetland Wildlife- wetland species include birds and
mammals needing habitats with:
- Wetland food plants or wild herbaceous plants of moist
to wet sites, excluding submerged or floating aquatic
plants;
- Shallow water development with water impoundments
not deeper than 5 ft.;
- Excavated ponds with ample supply of water at least
one acre and average 6ft depth.
- streams
CLIMATE
MICROCLIMATOLOGY is the study of climatic conditions
within a limited area. It is sometimes referred to as the “science
of small-scale weather”. It may be inferred that the purpose of
the scientific study is to discover facts and principles which may
be applied to improve the human condition. This is precisely the
case.
Microclimatic Principles: Whatever the climate or weather,
when it comes to planning an agreeable living environment
many microclimatic principles can be applied to advantage.
Among them are these:
• Eliminate the extremes of heat, cold, humidity, air
movement, and exposure. This can be achieved by
intelligent site selection, plan layout, building orientation,
and the creation of climate-responsive spaces.
• Provide direct structural protection against the discomfort of
solar radiation, precipitation, wind, storm and cold.
• Respond to the seasons. Each presents its problems; each
provides its opportunities for adaptation and enjoyment.
• Adjust community site, and building plans to the movement
of the sun. the design of living areas, indoors and out,
should ensure that the favored type and amount of light are
received at the favored time.
• Use the sun’s radiation and solar panels to provide
supplementary heat and energy for cooling.
• Consider the wind also as a time tested source of energy.
• Utilize the evaporation of moisture as a primary method of
cooling. Air moving across any moist surface, be it
masonry, fabric or foliage, is thereby made cooler.
• Maximize the beneficial effects of adjacent water bodies.
These temper the atmosphere of the warmer or cooler
adjacent lands.
• Introduce water. The presence of water in any form, from
film to waterfall, has a cooling effect, both physically and
psychologically.
• Preserve the existing vegetative cover. It ameliorates
climatic problems in many ways:
- It shades the ground surface.
- It retains the cooling moisture of precipitation.
- It protects the soils and environs from the freezing
winds.
- It cools and refreshes heated air by evapotranspiration.
- It provides sunscreen, shade, and shadow.
- It helps prevent rapid runoff and recharge the water-
bearing soil strata.
- It checks the wind.
• Install new plantings where needed. They may be
utilized for various types of climate control.
Windscreens, shade trees, and heat-absorptive
ground covers are examples.
• Consider the effects of altitude. The higher the altitude
and latitude (in the northern hemisphere), the cooler or
colder the climate.
• Reduce the humidity. Generally speaking, a decrease
in the humidity affects an increase in bodily comfort.
Dry cold is less chilling than wet cold. Dry heat is less
enervating than wet heat. Humidity can be decreased
by induced air circulation and the drying effects of the
sun.
• Avoid undrained air catchment areas and frost pockets.
• Avoid winter winds, floods, and the paths of crippling
storms. All can be charted.
• Explore and apply all natural forms of healing and
cooling before turning to mechanical (energy
consuming) devices.
MICROMATOLOGY NOTES
• Ideal climate for Human comfort - clear, air,
temperature in the 50-80 degrees Fahrenheit (10-27
deg. Celsius), humidity bet. 40-75%, air which is
neither stagnant nor subject to severe prevailing winds,
and protection from precipitation. (Body temperature
37 deg. C.)
• The sun’s orbit and angle of incidence vary with the
seasons. By orientation, screening, and overhang, the
amount of sunlight admitted to the interior can be
precisely controlled.
• Temperature and air flow inside and outside a building
- can be modified by orientation and siting, construction
 techniques, and tree planting, i.e., huts on stilts, narrow
streets in North African towns, windowless thick-walled
houses with courtyards and arcades in ancient Rome.
• Effect of soil - dry soil (sand, gravel, and the like) result
in higher temperatures and lower humidity; wet soils,
loams, and predominantly clay soils in poorly drained
marshy areas tend to lower temperatures and higher
humidity.
• Effect of water - land is warmer on the lee side of a lake
or ocean (winter) and cooler in the summer; large
bodies influence humidity and microclimate.
• Climate- interacting variables including temperature,
water vapor, wind, solar radiation, and precipitation.
• Plants and natural vegetation are good indicators of
microclimate - plants that thrive best in moist, cool
situations will be found in areas of higher precipitation
or north-facing slopes.
• Shade patterns of trees and buildings create
microclimate.
• Effect of topography - valleys and ridges
• Effect of water - land is warmer on the lee side of a lake
or ocean (winter) and cooler in the summer, large
bodies influence humidity and microclimate.
• Effect of the sun - the difference between concrete and
grass was 10 degrees even in the shade.
- Under the full sun- concrete 110 degrees, asphalt 124
degrees Fahrenheit, grass 95 deg. Fahrenheit.
- Shade patterns important in the use of outdoor spaces
• Effect of wind- windbreaks by solid screens create
turbulence on the lee; whereas permeability of plants
permits certain amounts to move through less
turbulence and greater shelter; wind tunnel devices are
used to predict the flow of air around and over
buildings.
• Plant materials, both trees and shrubs, are an integral
part of the site design. They serve not only as aesthetic
elements but buffer strips, screens, and dividers.
SUN ORIENTATION- Orientation for sun and prevailing
summer breezes always merits consideration. Latitude
determines the orientation of the sun whereas local conditions
determine the summer breeze. Orientation for sunlight is the
most successful when sunshine is made available in kitchens
and some sun reaches each room at some time of the day.
WIND ORIENTATION- Basically, plants control wind by
obstruction, guidance, by deflection and filtration. The
differentiation is based not only on the degree of effectiveness
of plants but on the techniques of placing them.
It must be remembered that plants as natural elements are not
predictable in size, shape, and growth rate and consequently in
their absolute effectiveness. Obstruction with trees as with all
other barriers reduces the wind speed by increasing the
resistance to wind flow. Coniferous and deciduous trees and
shrubs used individually or in combination affect air movement.
Windbreaks and Shelterbelts
Four (4) of the ways in which windbreaks reduce wind
speed horizontally:
1. By absorbing some of the energy of the wind
2. By frictional drag as the air passes through and
around the plants
3. By deflecting some of the wind to higher levels
4. By making the wind move in random patterns so
that it becomes turbulent

FACTORS AFFECTING BUILDING LOCATION AND

ORIENTATION
The location of buildings on a site or its relationship to other
buildings is extremely important. If properly situated, the building
achieves harmony with the topography, livability is enhanced,
drainage problems are minimized, and the building’s functional
efficiencies are increased. If the building is not properly situated,
many problems that cannot easily be corrected can and will
ensue.
• Orientation of the building to sun, wind and vista is a
basic consideration.
• Siting a building to conform with its topography will
result in a minimum of necessary grading, reduce initial
construction cost, and eliminate continuous drainage
problems.
• Noise pollution has now become a serious problem in
both urban and suburban areas. This can be controlled
or minimized by the judicious placements of the
structure on the site.
Extent of shelter from wind provided by a bldg. is hardly affected NOISE CONTROL
by its width. Site exposure to Roadway noise
• To evaluate the site’s exposure to roadway noise, we need
to consider all major roads within 1000 feet (304 meters) of
the sisite.n evaluation of the problem is undertaken by
coming out with a list.'
• Obtain available information, especially of proposed plans
and developments such as road widening and roadway
changes in traffic in the next 10-15 years.
Noise control could be achieved using the following:
The extent of shelter from wind provided by bldg. increases in • Adjustment for stop-and-go traffic
proportion to its length. • Adjustment to Mean Traffic Speed
• Barrier Adjustment: formed by the road profile, by a solid
wall or embankment, by a continuous row of buildings, or
by the terrain itself. To be an effective shield, the barrier
must block all residential levels of all buildings from line-of-
sight exposure to the road, and it must not have any gaps
that would allow noise to leak through.
• Truck traffic
• Adjustment of Road Gradient
Site exposed to Railway Noise
• Consider all above-ground rapid- transit lines and railroads
within 3000 feet (915 meters) from the site
Noise control could be achieved by the following:
• An effective barrier block
Extent of shelter from wind provided by bldg. increases in • Customer relations: by reducing travel operations during
proportion to its height. night times.
Site exposed to Aircraft Noise
• Consider all airport, both commercial and military, within 15
miles (24km)
• Are noise exposure forecast or composite noise rating
contours available?
• Any available information regarding approved plans for
runway changes?
• Know the number of daytime and more importantly night
time jet operations. Are there any super-sonic jet
operations?
• What are the flight paths of the major runways?
•
Landscape for Noise Control
The roof pitch of a building affects the extent of shelter from
• When external noise cannot be muffled at the source,
wind.
landscape barriers can provide some control within the site.
Barriers generally involve shielding or absorption, or both.
 - Combination of trees, low foliage, and ground cover
provides noise attenuation when significant masses of
such absorbing vegetation are involved.
- Foliage should be 500-1000 feet (152-305 meters)
deep to diminish properly the intensity of normal traffic
noise.
SITE PLANNING CONCEPT USING NATURAL FACTORS
PASSIVE COOLING - the technology of cooling spaces through
proper siting of structure and use of energy-efficient materials,
with the overall objective of energy conservation.
BEHAVIOR SETTINGS
ABRAHAM MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS
From bottom to top:
Physiological needs - need for water, food, air, warmth.
Safety and security needs - both psychological and
physiological.
Belonging needs - need for affiliation and be a member of a
group.
Self-Esteem needs - need to be held in esteem by oneself and
by others.
Cognitive needs - need to learn.
Aesthetic needs - need for sense of beauty.
Actualization needs - need to fulfill one's capacities/potential.
Self-Transcendence - spirituality
BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT
The interaction between human behavior and the nonhuman
environment is a two-way process.
Behavior is the result of interaction between:
- The environment / physical factors
- The individuals' physiological/ biological mechanism
and -psychological factors.
In design, we consider 3 human factors: physical,
physiological, and psychological factors:
1. PHYSICAL FACTORS:
- Relates to the physical shape and size of person and
the detailed form of the environment.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS:
- People need air, water, exercise, and protection from
the excesses of heat and cold.
- Also, a semi-physiological need is the need for self-
preservation and avoidance of pain.
- Establishment of City regulations and design
specifications for safety and security, i.e., fire code
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS:
- Human psychological and social needs, behavioral
patterns, and tendencies is the most difficult to define
and relate to the form of the environment
- Psychological needs and perception of the
environment differ according to a multitude of variables
including age, social class, cultural background, past
experience, motives, and daily routine of the individual.
Five (5) Generalized Groupings of Motivational
Forces and Psychological Needs:
1. Social Need - need for social interaction (sociopetal
form of design- designed to draw people together, to
engender social relationships), need for group
affiliation, need for companionship and for love.
2. Stabilizing Need - need to be free from fear,
anxiety, and danger; need for clear orientation,
organize the environment. To form and shape
environment according to a symbolic and metaphysical
urge.
3. Individual Need - need to experience and develop
self-awareness; need for privacy; need for identity and
sense of personal uniqueness in the environment -
spiritual connection
4. Self- expression - need for self- assertion and
exhibition, for dominance and power; need for status;
need for territory and play
5. Enrichment Need - need for self- realization and
personal creativity; need for beauty and aesthetic
experience (design for complexity).
 BEHAVIOR SETTING/ ENVIRONMENTAL
SETTING - standing patterns of behavior that repeat
themselves at regular intervals in some bounded
locality and in which space and behavior can be
considered.
- Behavior circuits- look at the track of activity followed
by an individual over a cycle of time.
- Site planning and human Environmental Preference:
a. Complexity and Diversity
b. Mystery
c. Legibility
d. Influence of Past Experience
e. Make available in the immediate neighborhood a
wide array of environmental settings that each
individual could choose to experience.
f. Enhance the visual qualities of the setting to
emphasize the uniqueness of the place so that
people develop individual attachments and group
perceptions.
HISTORIC FACTORS
1. Historical Buildings
2. Historic Landmarks
3. Archeology
PERTINENT LAWS
EXISTING LAND USE:
Land Use Plans are available in each city and
municipality to determine the areas for commercial,
institutional, industrial, residential, and open space
uses. These were planned according to the most
rational use of land concerning the natural and socio-
economic factors and under compatibility with adjacent
land uses. Each site must conform to the land use plan:
a residential subdivision, for example, cannot be
developed in a site designated as Industrial.
TRAFFIC AND TRANSIT SYSTEMS:
The relationship of traffic patterns to each other and the
site must be studied for adequacy of access and
efficiency of circulation within and outside of the site.
Efficient traffic and transportation systems will result in
the successful integration of the different
developments in the vicinity.
Direction of dominant traffic flow, both vehicular and
pedestrian will also help establish points of highest
visual impact for the site.
Access must also consider pedestrian movement.
DENSITY AND ZONING:
Density refers to the population per unit of land area.
This data will determine whether existing utilities and
land areas will be sufficient to sustain additional future
development, which will naturally add to the existing
population and bear on the capacity of these utilities.
Density is expressed in number of families or dwelling
units per hectare. It may also be expressed in Floor
Area Ratio (FAR).
Density influences the privacy, social contact among
people, and freedom of movement of an individual or a
group of people.
Zoning regulations, laws and codes are present in
every city and municipality to regulate the type of
development. It divides the city or municipality into land
use areas that are designated by building height,
building coverage, density of population, and open
space.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
The study of the community and its social and economic
structures are done to determine whether there is a need, an
interest, or any objections on the project.
Any proposed project must be compatible with the economy of
the community. For example, a high-end boutique is hardly
suitable in a low-income community.
The social structure of the community must be taken into
consideration to ensure that a proposed development will not
result in any displaced families and any major disruption in their
businesses and other activities.
UTILITIES
It is important to determine the existing availability of
utilities on site in terms of adequacy and efficiency. This
includes:
A. Water supply
Water intended for human consumption must meet
extensive physical, chemical, and biological standards
for quality and reliability. These standards include
color, taste, and transparency as well as freedom from
bacteria and chemicals related to human or industrial
wastes.
Sources of Water:
- Low-Yield Systems - wells, cisterns, and surface
catchments- for small projects requiring only a limited
water supply, there are several possible sources
including wells, springs, cisterns, and surface
impoundments (or catchments). The choice of system
generally depends on regional geo-hydrologic
conditions, with well (where they are feasible) usually
being the most cost-effective alternative.
- High- Yield Wells - for larger projects, such as a large
institution or a new town, a larger well or surface
reservoir may be required. The design of either system
will require specialized engineering and/or hydro-
geologic expertise. Development of high-yield wells
should consider legal/ environmental requirements and
the character and land use history of the tributary area.
B. Sanitary/sewage system
SEWAGE DISPOSAL- Some form of sewage disposal
is necessary in most buildings or land development
projects for the disposal of domestic waterborne
wastes. Such wastes are either piped off-site to a
 municipal sewer system or are treated and disposed of
on-site.
Types of Sewage Systems:
The type of sewage disposal system chosen for the
development of any tract of land will influence the
pattern and density of that development. The sewerage
for any project can include:
1. Simple, economical systems for the safe,
environmentally sound disposal of wastewater
2. More complex and costly systems for overcoming
the limits of poorly drained or impermeable soils
on sites that have good locations or other valuable
aspects.
3. More complex and costly systems for increasing
the density of development on site.
may be incorporated in the site development as natural assets
of the land.
SPATIAL PATTERNS is defined as the way an open space of
a given site is configured according to an arrangement of
elements that evoke activity or flow, both physically or visually.
PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS
Physical arrangement of buildings according to mass and
space.
ISOLATED BUILDING: enclosed within space

Regarding the selection of the ultimate

wastewater disposal alternatives, whether to
groundwater, surface water, or the atmosphere,
the designer should consider site conditions,
costs, local governmental regulations and policies
and impacts on water quality
BUILDING ENCLOSING SPACE AND SPACE ENCLOSING
BUILDING: interior space becomes cohesive therefore no
elements to alienate buildings

In general, connection to an existing municipal

system will be the least complex method. In
addition, where such connections are available,
they are often mandated by local officials. Note
that this may not be the least costly or the most ENCLOSED SPACE: isolated but cut-up with traffic lines
environmentally desirable alternative.

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
Development of any site will usually reduce the
permeability of the land and reduce the time in
which runoff is concentrated. Even a small amount
of development on a site, with naturally permeable
soils and poorly developed drainage ways, will
dramatically increase runoff and its impacts, even SPACE COHESIVE: less Isolated
if the proposed development has an efficient
drainage system.
Control of the harmful effects of runoff
include:
1. Minimizing the use of paved gutters or
drainage pipes and maximizing the use of
vegetated drainage swales etc.
2. Retarding stormwater runoff via various water UNDER/ OVER PASS: unified isolated buildings
impoundment techniques so that peak runoff
for frequent storms will be no greater after
development than before.
3. Providing maximum opportunity for
rainwaters to infiltrate the soil.
C. Drainage
D. Electric power supply BUILT-UP CORNERS: corners are built-up making the design
of buildings restricted since a similar shape must be adopted to
AESTHETIC AND PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS hold the design together
NATURAL FEATURES- When sites are characterized
by outstanding natural rock, water or plant material, these

MONUMENT/ STATUE/ FOUNTAIN: Introducing a monument/
statue/ fountain creates a visual identity for the space
TERMINAL POINTS: use of terminal points is essential in siting
a building such as the Piazza San Marco in Venice
VISUAL RESOURCES
A. View – is a scene observed from a vantage point.
B. Vista – is a confined view, usually directed toward a terminal
or dominant feature. It has three components: a viewing station,
a view, and a foreground.
SUSTAINABILITY AND SITE DESIGNS
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN STRATEGIES
SITE PLANNING- Building design should integrate very nicely
with the natural environment and make the best use of the
existing site conditions.
BUILDING ORIENTATION
- Buildings should be laid under the orientation that
allows access to solar exposure in terms of the sun
path and prevailing wind
- Linear block with the least openings in deliberately
shielding off all accommodation from the west-sided
solar exposure.
BUILDING FORM
- The building form is developed for the topographical
contours to minimize the area of cutting solid and in
return filling back of soil to the site and to minimize the
disturbance of the construction to the existing trees and
landscape where digging up of soil and cutting off of
tress were minimized.
NATURAL VENTILATION
- Openable windows allow natural ventilation to reduce
the operation period of the A/C System during the mild
season.
NATURAL LIGHTING
- An open corridor around a central courtyard linking all
functional areas allows penetration of daylight and
shades the functional areas from direct sunlight.
- Natural lighting
- The balcony approach allows natural lighting for major
circulations to minimize the general lighting.
- Linear shape with a depth of a maximum 9 meters for
all accommodations to enhance daylight penetration.
- Green spaces
- Incorporation of a roof garden and landscaped terrace
enables the building to blend in with its surrounding
natural environment. Native species are used
wherever possible.
FORWARD-LOOKING
• The effects of climate on the type of construction couldn’t
be stressed enough/
• Climate will affect the types of materials used, the
orientation of the building, and even its elevation.
• Green architecture, also known as environmental design,
employs several design elements, and one could say they
are based on climate.
• It is the utilization of non- toxic, durable, and natural
resource materials in construction.
• The design also employs directional designs to maximize
day lighting, thermal and electric power, and the ability to
recycle wastes.
• The goal of such architecture is to construct a building today
that may be able to survive in a completely different
resource climate, one that is based on renewable energy.
SITE FURNITURE- Elements placed in a landscape or
streetscape for comfort, convenience, information, circulation
control, protection, and user enjoyment, i.e. bollards, benches,
signage, lighting, tree grates, utility boxes, etc.
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
- Appropriateness- is a major objective in the design and
placement of site furniture elements. It should respond
to the character of a site as well as to its existing and
proposed function.
- Response to setting- design should respond to the
essential identity or inherent character or a place.
DESIGN DETERMINANTS
- Cultural Factors- Social and Political Context
- Physical Factors- Climate, Natural Physiography,
Existing Built Environment
- Environmental Factors
- Regulatory Standards- understand the purpose and
rational for the regulation, i.e., light intensifies for
pedestrian and vehicles, signage and control systems,
height of mailboxes, intersection setbacks, width of
vehicular lanes, size of garbage etc.
 DESIGN PROCESS
DESIGN ELEMENTS
1. Seating
2. Shelter
3. Convenience Elements
4. Information
5. Lighting
6. Traffic Control and Protection
7. Utilities
8. Seasonal Elements
DESIGN FOR COMMUNITY/ PEOPLE
CLIMATE DESIGN- If the central purpose of planning is to
create for any person or group of persons an environment suited
to their needs, then climate must the first consideration.
Physical Characteristics:
- Perhaps the most obvious facts of climate are the
annual, seasonal, and daily ranges of temperature.
These will vary with changing conditions of latitude,
longitude, altitude, exposure, vegetation, and proximity
to such weather modifiers as the Gulf Stream, water
bodies, ice masses, or desert.
- The amount of precipitation in the form of dew, frost, or
snow is to be recorded, as well as seasonal variations
in humidity.
- The duration of sunlight in hours per day is planning
and design significance, as re the angles of incidence
at prescribed times of day and year and the intensity of
solar radiation.
- The direction and velocity of the winds and the date
and path of violent storms are to be charted. The
availability quantity and quality of potable water are to
be noted, together with the depths at which it occurs.
- The geologic structure is to be described, together with
the soil types and depths and the existing vegetation
and wildlife.
- Finally, the working together of all the physical
elements as an ecological system is described to
complete the story of regional climate.
Social Characteristics:
- The physical well-being and attitudes of people are
directly affected by climate, and these in turn prescribe
the planning needs.
- It is well, therefore, in the study of climatic regions to
note behavioral reactions and patterns of community
organization that are unique and attributable to the
climate or the weather.
- The special foods and dishes, the manner of dress,
and the traditional customs are indicative. And so it is
with the favored types of recreation, the level of
education, and cultural pursuits. Economic factors
such as agricultural yields and the production of goods
are to be noted.
- In short what one eats, drinks, believes, and is climate-
induced and characteristic of the region.
CLIMATE RESPONSE
- There is little to be done about the world climate except
to adjust to it
- The most direct form of adjustment is to move to that
region which has a climate best suited to one’s needs
or desires. Such migrations or attempted migrations
are the basis of much of human history.
- The alternative approach, barring admission to a
climatological Shangri-La, is to make the best of
existing conditions wherever one may be.
- In broad terms, the climatic regions of the earth are
four: the cold, the cool temperate, the warm-humid,
and the hot-dry.
It is proposed that within each region there is, for a given
climatological condition, a logical planning-design response.
1. Warm Humid Region
Conditions
- Temperatures high and relatively constant
- High humidity
- Torrential rainfall
- Storm winds of typhoon and hurricane force
- Breeze often constant in the daylight hours
- Vegetative covers from sparse to luxuriant and
sometimes jungle like
- The sun’s heat is enervating
- Sky glare and sea glare can be distressing
- Climatic conditions breed insects in profusion
- Fungi are a persistent problem
Community
- Spacing of habitations in the dispersed “hunter”
tradition
- Adjustment of community patterns to channels or areas
of air movement
- Avoidance of floodplains and drainage ways. Disturbed
areas are subject to heavy erosion
- Location of settlements in the lee of protective land
masses and forest and above the level of storm-driven
tides,
- Alignment of streets and placement of gathering places
to capture all possible air currents.
- Avoidance of natural growth insofar as feasible.
Disturbance of the ground-cover subjects soils to
erosion.
- Use of existing tree masses and promontories to
provide sunscreen to public ways and places.
Supplementary planting of shade trees is often
desirable,
- Planned location of settlements with the arc of the sun
to the rear not seaward, of the building sites.
- Location of settlements upwind of insect breeding
areas.
- Admittance of sun and breeze to building areas to
reduce fungi and mildew.
Site
- Design of the site spaces to provide shade, ventilation,
and the cooling effects of foliage and water
- Provision for air circulation and evaporation.
- Protection against driving rains and adequate runoff
capacity.
- Location of critical-use areas and routes in unexposed
places, above the reach of tides and flooding.
- Maximization, by exposure, channeling, and funneling,
of the favorable effects of the breeze
- Use of lush foliage masses and specimen plants as
backdrop and enframement and for the interest of form,
foliage, or floral display.
- Planning of outdoor activity areas for ruse in the cooler
morning and evening hours. Heat-of-the-day gathering
places should be roofed or tree-shaded.
- Reduction or elimination of glare by plan location and
well-placed tree plantings.
- Elevation of use areas and walkways by deck and
platform construction to open them to the breeze and
reduce annoyance by insects.
- Use of stone, concrete, metals and treated wood only
in contact with the ground.
Buildings
- Induction of cooling by all feasible means, including the
use of open building plans, high ceilings, broad
overhangs, louvered openings, and air conditioning of
local areas.
- Provision of air circulation: periodic exposure to
sunlight and artificial drying where required.
- Architectural use of the colonnade, arcade, pavilion,
covered passageway, and veranda: orientation of
entranceways and windows away from the path of the
storm track.
- Design of wind-resistant structures or lighter temporary
and expendable shelters.
- Design of rooms, corridors, balconies and patios as an
interconnected system of breezeways.
- Utilization, indoors and out, of indigenous plant
materials for the cooling effect of their foliage.
- Provision of shade, shade, shade.
- Positioning of viewing points away from the glare and
provision of well-designed screening.
- Elevation of structures above the ground, facing into
the breeze, and insect proofing of critical points and
areas.
- Provision of open, well-ventilated storage areas: use of
fungus-resistant materials and drying devices as
needed.
2. Hot-Dry (Desert Like) Regions
Conditions
- Intense heat in the daytime.
- Often intense cold at night.
- Expanses are vast.
- Sunlight and glare are penetrating.
- Drying winds are prevalent and often raise devastating
dust storms.
- Spring rains come as a cloudburst with rapid runoff and
heavy erosion.
- Water supply is extremely limited.
- Limited agricultural productivity necessitates the
importation of food and other goods.
- Irrigation is a fact of life.
Community
- Creation of cool and refreshing islands of use within the
parched surroundings.
- Provision of opportunities for group activity. Chill
evening in the desert, as on the tundra, suggest the
need.
- Adaptation of “outpost”, “fort”, and “ranch” plan
patterns.
- Within the dispersed compounds the planning of
compact spaces with narrow passageways and
colonnades to provide relief from the sun.
- Location of homesteads and trade centers in areas of
established ground covers: use of shelterbelt tree
plantations.
- Protection of all possible natural growth surrounding
the development.
- Avoidance of flood-prone areas. Those who have
experienced desert freshets will keep well out their
way.
- Minimization of irrigation requirements by compact
planning and multiple use of planted and seeded
spaces.
- Location of settlements and community centers close
to transportation and distribution nodes.
- Coordination of land use and traffic patterns with
existing and projected irrigation canal routes and
reservoir’s locations.
Site
- Amelioration of heat and glare by orientation away from
the sun, by shading, by screening, and by the cast-
shadow patterns of well-placed building components.
- Adoption of the corral- compound (herder)
arrangement of homesteads and neighborhood
clusters,
- Recognition of the automobile as the crucial means of
daily transport and a dominant site-planning factor.
- Screening of use areas and paths of movement from
the direct blast of the sun,Protection of outdoor activity
spaces from
 - exposure.
- Preservation of native plant materials as self-
sustaining and handsome components of the desert
landscape
- Avoidance of arroyos and floodplains as development
routes and sites.
- Limitation in the size of parks, gardens, and seeded
areas.
- Use of tubbed and container-grown plants, drip
irrigation, and hydroponic gardening.
- Incorporation of irrigation canals, ponds, and
structures as attractive site features.
Buildings
- Architectural use of thick walls, high ceilings, wide roof
overhangs, limited fenestration, light-reflective colors,
and a precise design response to the angles and arcs
of the sun.
- Exclusion of the chill night air by insulation, reduction
of heat loss, and use of localized radiant heat. The
open fireplace is a desert tradition for good reason.
- Low ranch-type spreads are a logical architectural
expression of the hot—dry climate and desert
topography.
- Provision of cool, compact, and dim interior spaces in
contrast to the stifling heat and brilliance of the great
outdoors.
- Sealing of all buildings against dust and wind. Airtight
openings and skillful architectural detailing are
required.
- Grouping of rooms or structures around planted and
irrigated courts and patios.
- Provision of spring rainfall catchment and storage.
Water from roofs, courts, and paved areas can be
directed to cisterns.
- Recycling of wastewater is prescribed. The type of use
will determine the degree of treatment and purification
required.
- The provision of food and fodder storage is an
important consideration in desert building design.
- Adaptation of irrigation to interior courts and garden
spaces. The evaporation of moisture from paved
surfaces, fountains, spray heads, mulches, or foliage
provides welcome relief from the heat.
3. The Cold Region
Conditions
- Scrub forest cover
- Short winter days
- Long winters
- Alternating freeze and thaw
- Rapid spring melt
- Extreme winter cold
- Deep snow
- Strong winds
- High wind-chill factor
- Deep frost
- Community
- Orientation to warming sun
- Utilization of all protective ground forms and covers as
windscreens and soil stabilizers
- Preservation of all possible vegetation, with the strong
wind-resistant edges left intact
- Grouping of activity areas to reduce travel time
- Avoidance of low ground, natural drainage ways, and
floodplain
Site
- Creation of enclosed courts and sun traps; use of
textured construction materials and warm, “primitive”
colors
- Use of short accessways, grouped entries, raised
platforms, and covered walks.
- Maximum utilization of daylight, orientation of building
toward sunlit spaces with views to the sky and sunlit
hills.
- Use of decks raised walkways, and flexible ground
surfacing to preclude frost heave.
- Use of post, beam, and platform construction to avoid
the need for extensive excavation and foundations.
Buildings
- Design or massive, low-profile, well-insulated
structures, with maximum exposure of walls and roof
areas to the sun and minimum exposure to the wind;
heat loss to be reduced in all ways possible, including
limitation of the window area,
- Use of steep roof pitches, deep overhangs, and
exaggerated storm drainage gradients and capacities
to facilitate runoff,
- Placement of window away from the prevailing winds:
orientation of the long building axis into the wind and
utilization of all possible topographic shielding and tree
screens
- Reduction of building perimeter and ground contact to
reduce foundation problems and heat loss
- Forest cover preserved and buildings nestled against
the protective slopes and tree masses
4. The Cool- Temperate Region
Conditions
- Variable temp from warm to hot in the summer, cold in
winter, and moderate in spring and fall
- Marked seasonal change
- Changing wind directions and velocities
- Soils are generally well drained and fertile
- Many streams, rivers, and freshwater lakes
- Topographically scenic, including marine, plain,
plateau, and mountainous areas
Community
- Definition of land use and trafficway patters to reflect
local temp ranges and other climatic conditions.
Extremes suggest compact plan arrangements; more
moderate conditions permit dispersal.
 - Alignment of streets and open spaces to block cold Disadvantages: causes traffic congestion due to the frequent
winter winds and admit welcome summer breezes crossings created.
- Design of streets, utility systems, and drainage
channels to meet extreme conditions
- Consideration of high winds, flooding, and occasional
snowstorms as important design factors
Site
- Possibility of, and necessity for, wide variety in the type
and size of outdoor activity areas RADIAL: Use of circumferential and radial roads to connect the
- Dramatization of the seasonal variations; consideration center of the city to the outskirts a ripple manner.
of spaces for winters, spring, summer, and fall activities
- Full utilization of scenic possibilities
Buildings
- Elimination by design, of extremes of demands for
cooling, heating, and ventilating
- Consideration of shrinkage, swelling, condensation,
freezing and snow loadings.
- Expansion and extension of plan forms when
desirable, since excavation and foundation MEANDERING: Used in highly mountainous sites. Following
construction are not generally a problem the contours of the topography.
Planning Considerations
- Clearly, architectural or landscape planning for the
well-being of a cultural group demands an
understanding not only of the physical nature of the
region and site but of the people as well.
- Then, given a specific location within the region and a
well-defined program of needs, the two- dimensional COMBINATION: using both the geometric and meandering
plan forms can be developed to achieve a pattern of street patterns. Geometric street pattern is used where the
appropriate, functional, and agreeable relationships. terrain is flat and meandering where the terrain is rolling.
- Sometimes the most important consideration in site
selection or planning is a realization of the need and
benefits of protecting the natural environment.
- Native Americans well understood that to preserve the
integrity of their hunting grounds their nomadic villages
must be widely dispersed and clustered.
MODIFIED GRIDS: The advantage of a grid system is its ability
Contemporary Americans have yet to understand the
to lay out streets in an easy and direct manner as well as the
timeliness and wisdom of this lesson.
easy installation of services following the grids of the streets.
One disadvantage of the grid is its relative monotony. To avoid
STREET
monotonous street layout a modified grid could be used.
STREET PATTERNS- There are different types of street
patterns suitable for various types of topography, each with its
own practicality, functionality, and charm. The problem is
choosing the type of street pattern for a particular site. One that
would give utmost performance.

GEOMETRIC: Linear or Street Ribbon. A straight road used to

connect one community to another. Crossings are few and far
between.

CUL-DE-SAC: The grouping of houses presents a far less

GRIDIRON: Site is divided into square or rectangular blocks. difficult problem that that of the straight street. A cul-de-sac is
Advantages: blocks and services are easy to layout. shaped so that the fronting houses automatically create an
enclosed space.
 • For effectivity, the length of a cul-de-sac should
not be longer than 500 ft. (152.4 meters)
• More compact if cul-de-sac is retained short
• A long version is considered a straight street with
a turnaround
• Utilizes an odd parcel of the land to full advantage.

LOOPS: Good opportunities exist for varied and interesting

house groups on lots flanking looped streets. One disadvantage
of loops is the eventual narrowness of certain lot frontages
especially along the curvature of the loop.

SITE GRADING
Site Grading involves the remodeling of existing landform to
TYPES OF STREETS
facilitate the functions and circulation of the site.
• Major roads (major arterials: highways, bi-ways,
expressways, super highways, freeways, motorways, Two Principal Relationships between Building and Land:
autobahns, etc.) 1. The land may be graded or adjusted to suit the
- Provide unity throughout contiguous urban areas architectural or engineering requirements, or
- Usually form boundaries for neighborhoods 2. The architecture may be adapted to meet variations in
- Minor access control; channelized intersection; parking ground level so that the original surface is disturbed
generally prohibited less.
• Secondary roads (minor arterial: avenue, boulevard, etc.)
- Main feeder streets Principal Objectives of Grading Design
- Signals where needed 1. Development of attractive, suitable and economical
- Stop signs on side streets building sites.
- Occasionally form boundaries for neighborhoods 2. Provision of safe, convenient, and functional access to
• Collector streets all areas for use and maintenance.
- Main interior streets 3. Disposal of surface runoff from the site area without
- Stop signs on side streets erosion to sedimentation, or its collection as needed for
• Local streets water features, debris basins, or irrigation storage.
- Local service streets 4. Diversion of surface and subsurface flow away from
- Non- conducive to through traffic buildings and pavements to prevent undue saturation
• Cul-de-Sac (dead ends, turn around, T junction, Y junction, of the subgrade that could damage structures and
hammer, loop_ weaken pavements.
- Street open only to one end with provision for a 5. Preservation of the natural character of the site by
practical turnaround at the other minimum disturbance of existing ground forms and
meeting of satisfactory ground levels at existing trees
to be saved/
 6. Optimums on-site balance of cut-and-fill; stockpiling for
reuse of existing topsoil suitable for the establishment
of groundcover or planting.
7. Avoidance of filled areas that will add to the depth or
instability of building foundations and pavement
subgrades.
8. Avoidance of wavy profiles in streets and walks and of
step in walks.
9. Avoidance of earth banks requiring costly erosion
control measures, except where these are needed in
places of costly retaining walls.
10. Keeping finished grades as high as practicable where
rock will be encountered close to the surface, thus
reducing the cost of utility trenching and other
excavation and improving growing conditions for
vegetation.
11. Avoidance of runoff water over roadways to prevent
hazardous driving conditions.

Functional and Visual Considerations

- Aesthetic appearance
- Screen out desirable views, i.e., parking lots and
highways
- Separate circulation and social uses
 3. Borrow Pit Method/ Grid Method- is appropriate for
complex grading projects and urban conditions, i.e.
excavation of buildings.

EARTHWORKS
• Finished Grade - the final grade after all landscape
development has been completed. It is the top surface of
lawns, planting beds, pavements, and so on, and is
normally designated by contours and spot elevations on a
grading plan.
• Subgrade - the top of the material on which the surface
material such as topsoil and pavement (including base
material) is placed.
• Compacted subgrade - subgrade that must attain a
specified density
• Undisturbed subgrade - soil that has not been excavated
or changed in any way
• Base/ Subbase - imported material (normally coarse or fine
aggregate) that is typically placed under pavements.
• Finished Floor Elevation (FFE) - the elevation of the first
floor of a structure; the term may be used to designate the
elevation of any floor.
• Topsoil - top layer of a soil profile, which may range in
thickness from <1” to >12”. Because of its high organic
content, it is subject to decomposition and therefore it does
not appropriate subgrade material for structure.

GENERAL STANDARDS/ RULES

Measuring Cuts and Fills
1. Average End Area Method- best suited for lineal
construction such as roads, paths, and utility trenching.
2. Contour Area Method- appropriate for large, relatively
uncomplicated grading plans and may also be used to
compute volumes of water in ponds and lakes. Mostly
used by landscape architects because it is more
accurate.
• To avoid moisture and structural problems, storm water
must be drained away from buildings. This is referred
to as positive drainage.
• Grade changes should be avoided within the drip line
of existing trees in order to protect the health of the
plants
• Legally, grades cannot be changed beyond the
property lines of the site.
 • The rate of storm runoff leaving the site after
construction has been completed should not exceed
the preconstruction rate.
• New construction should disturb the smallest area
possible to minimize erosion.
• The proposed grading and landform design should
respond to the function and purpose of the activities
and uses to be accommodated.
FOR ECONOMIC REASONS:
• Cut area be as close as possible to the fill area
• Clay, slit and loam are easy to load, spread, and
compact vs. sand, shale, etc.
• Curved grades with gentle slopes are easier to create
than are specific angular grades
• Average soil has an angle of repose of about 55 deg
for cut and 17 deg for fill
• In general, slopes of greater than 25% are considered
unsafe.
• Grass cutting machinery is not practical at slopes
greater than 30%
• Retaining walls over 3 ft. in height are expensive
requiring reinforcing, gravel backfill, “weep holes” to
relieve pressure.
INTRODUCTION TO LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
LANDSCAPE
- A picture representing a section of natural, inland
scenery, as of prairie, woodland, mountains, and
expanse of natural scenery seen by the eye in one
view.
- LANDSCAPE is more than just scenery.
LAND means both a place and the people living there.
SCAPE means to shape, association, and partnership.
- Landscape is the result of the action and interaction of
natural and/or human factors.
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
- The art and science of fitting land for safe, efficient,
healthful, pleasant, human use and enjoyment
- People, places, and stewardship of the land are
The Foundations of the landscape architecture
profession.
- Landscape architects shape the environment
and, in doing so, create an immense impact in
our lives, improving the richness and beauty of
our surroundings.
Republic Act No. 9053
“Philippine Landscape Architecture Act of 2000”
defines Landscape Architecture as “the act of planning,
designing, specifying, supervising and giving general
administration and responsible direction to the functional,
orderly and aesthetic arrangement, changing and development
of natural scenery and land areas to produce the most desirable
effect for human use and enjoyment of various outdoor spaces
which consist of landscape components and the softscape of
plants such as gardens, sports fields, playgrounds, recreational
grounds, camping sites, resorts, national and public parks,
historical parks, squares, memorial parks, subdivisions, parks
and parkways, zoological and botanical gardens, greenbelts,
cemeteries, plazas, patios, yards, outdoor shopping and
pedestrian malls, promenades, sidewalks, roads and walkway
systems, traffic islands, easements and circles, roof and open
interior gardens and courts, and other open spaces; the
protection, conservation and rehabilitation of the natural
environment and scenery to enhance the ecological system and
quality of life...”
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS
- Landscape Architects are trained professionals who
approach diverse landscape projects with artistic flair
and technical knowledge. They are holistic in their
approach, working with both poles of human culture –
the practical and analytical as well as the artistic and
intuitive.
- Aside from using the aesthetic elements of design,
landscape architects are knowledgeable in a gamut of
fields of study, such as architecture, urban planning,
engineering and construction, horticulture, the natural
sciences like geology and ecology, research methods
as well as the social sciences including economics and
psychology – all of which they combine to create well
thought- out spaces. The intensifying global attention
to sustainability and environmental conservation
means that landscape architects' skills are increasingly
in demand here and all over the world.
- SCOPE OF WORK: Landscape Architecture is
comprehensive, no less than the art and science of
analysis, planning, design, management,
preservation/conservation, and rehabilitation of the
land.
- "Landscape Architect" is a natural person qualified to
practice Landscape Architecture and who has been
issued a valid certificate of registration/professional
license and a valid professional identification card as
such by the Board of Landscape Architecture created
under this Act and the Professional Regulation
Commission.
- Landscape architects work on all types of outdoor
spaces, ranging from small residential gardens to
public parks and streetscapes, to planning of industrial
sites and urban cityscapes. Different from gardeners
skilled in crafting pockets of green, landscape
architects can execute more complex projects that
transform, enhance and conserve our natural and built
environment, creating inspiring places in which to live,
work and relax.
 3. Color (Color Theory) is often used in landscape
design by dividing the color spectrum into 4 categories:
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Neutral.
Using color theory landscapers used this wheel:
a. To choose adjacent colors in the spectrum to
provide unity.
b. Juxtapose items directly across from each other
on the wheel of contrast.
MOODS:
a. Warm Colors tend to excite the viewer. Colors like
red are natural for a focal point.
b. Cool colors are more likely to relax the viewer.
Colors like blue are a logical choice for meditation
- gardens.
4. Texture is the touch or visual surface quality of an
object or plant. The texture of a plant’s foliage or bloom
can be viewed as coarse, medium, or fine.
Mix plants with larger leaves (coarse texture) and
smaller leaves (fine texture) to avoid monotony in a
planting bed and to add visual interest. The greater the
distance the plant is, the smoother the texture appears
to be.

DESIGN COMPOSITION PRINCIPLES

1. Contrast
- 2. Proportion
- DEMAND: As of 2021, there are only 400+ 3. Scale
registered and licensed Landscape Architects in the 4. Balance
Philippines as compared to 38,000+ architects and 5. Rhythm
90,000 civil engineers. 6. Unity
Note: Of these 400+, 60% are either living and
practicing abroad, inactive, or have passed away. BASIC LANDSCAPE COMPONENTS
1. Hardscape- non-living components (such as
pavement in walkways)
LANDSCAPE DESIGN 2. Softscape- living components (vegetation)
- Landscape Design is an independent profession and a
design and art tradition combining nature and culture.
- BASIC ELEMENTS
1. LINE (Line of Sight)- The line of sight is the viewer's
eye movement or flow being influenced by the
arrangement of plants and their borders.
Eye movement is unconsciously affected by the way
plant groupings fit or flow together, both on the
horizontal and vertical planes.
- Hedges or rows of plants direct the attention
to a focal point or specific area.
- Meandering lines or curves leads to slow
movement and create a natural, undisturbed
feeling.
2. FORM- Form is the shape of a plant. (Upright, Oval,
Columnar, Spreading, Broad Spreading, Weeping) TAXONOMY OF PLANTS
Tall Plants create a vertical look, drawing the eye Taxonomy- a branch of science concerned with classification of
upward. organisms.
Low spreading plants draw the eye to the horizon. Nomenclature- The scientific names of species is binomial
Use individual specimen plants to break monotony and consisting of a generic name and specific name.
create interest.
A mixture of a variety of form becomes confusing.
PLANT SPECIES
Species- genetically pure plant strains and usually varieties
Hybrid- mix of two different varieties
Cultivars- varieties emerged through selective cultivation.

PLANT ORIGIN
Native- plant that originates naturally form a particular location.
Indigenous- native to several places.
Endemic- native specifically to a certain locality and nowhere
else.
Exotic- native to another locality and introduced to a certain
location.

Ground Cover- 150-300mm.

Low Shrub- 450-1000mm.
Small Shrub- 1-1.5m.
Medium Shrub- 1.5-2.5m.
Large Shrub- 2.5-7.5m.
Tree- 5m-up
GREEN AND SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY RELATED TO CONSTRUCTION
SYSTEM
Building technology is predominantly related to the
construction systems used to be used for the project. This is
because, as history has shown, construction systems tend to
evolve depending on new developments or technologies being
developed or practiced. From the transition from the trabeated
system to the actuated system up to the advanced building
construction systems. These are things that has to be taken into
consideration as you perform architectural programming since
the system used will have an impact on the character of your
design, the sizes of the structural elements, and the clear
spaces between bays that will be used to house human activity.
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY SUPPORTING GREEN
ARCHITECTURE
Some of the common examples of these are (1)
generation of renewable energy using solar panels and (2)
conservation of water through rainwater harvesting.
GREEN ARCHITECTURE vs. SUSTAINABLE
ARCHITECTURE
While these two terminologies are often used
interchangeably, there is a definite difference between them.
Although both of them are looking at reducing our carbon
footprint and promoting a better-built environment, the term
"sustainable architecture" is more comprehensive than "green
architecture".
Green Architecture looks at the building that you are
designing in isolation. It focuses more on the features that you
have incorporated in the design to reduce the energy
consumption of its future users. Again, this can be done with the
addition of systems for generating renewal energy (e.g., solar
panels, wind turbines, etc.), recycling water so as not to waste
potable water (e.g., rainwater harvesting, use of eco-friendly
fixtures, etc.), altering the building skin to minimize entry of heat
(e.g., Low-E glass, green wall, kinetic sun shading, etc.), and
using building material with low carbon footprint. With the
inclusion of these items and systems, a structure can be
considered as "green".
However, Sustainable Architecture, goes beyond
these elements and the project itself to look at the system,
including the sourcing of the materials and systems introduced
in our buildings. For example, if the inclusion of low-e glass in
our facade will require for the importation of these materials, the
energy spent and carbon emission from the production of these
materials and transport from source to the project site might
mean that our project is not sustainable since to be able to add
this feature we have generated a bigger carbon footprint. In
contrast with green architecture which focuses only on the
building that we are designing, sustainable architecture is
looking at the entire system, hence more comprehensive.
SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPING encompasses a variety of
practices that have developed in response to environmental
issues.
These practices are used in every phase of
landscaping, including design, construction, implementation,
and management of residential and commercial landscapes.
PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPING
• The typical landscape requires many inputs: time, money,
labor, water, chemicals, and fertilizers. Most homeowners
would be happy to reduce the amount of time, money, and
labor that goes into their yards. The environment also
benefits from decreased use of resources such as water,
and potentially polluting elements such as chemicals and
fertilizers.
• Our landscapes also create wastes which most of us never
think of: plant trimmings and weeds, polluted runoff from the
use of chemicals and fertilizers, and water lost by
evaporation from plants and soils.
• The concept of sustainable landscaping asks us to examine
the input and output of our landscaping and find ways to
minimize both.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPING
1. Water- Grey water and rainwater
2. Soil- Aspects of soil composition, slope, and need for
amendments must all be considered.
Different soils have varying water needs.
Healthy soil is an important foundation for every
landscape.
Characteristics of soil can help determine the best
choice of plants and irrigation systems for landscape.
3. Plants- Trees are form of green infrastructure offering
a wide range of human, social, environmental, and
economic benefits.
Successful landscape design can ensure that existing
and new trees are healthy long lived components in the
urban environment, providing these benefits
sustainably into the future.
4. Air
SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES been finalized yet, there are techniques that we can use to do
1. Low Impact Site Development quick estimates, one of which is the 17-line cost estimate shared
2. Pesticide Issues below:
3. Reduction of stormwater run-off using bioswales, rain
gardens, and green roof and walls.
4. Reduction of water use in landscape through design of
water-wise garden techniques (sometimes known as
xenscaping)
5. Biofiltering of wastes through constructed wetlands
6. Landscape irrigation using water from showers and
sinks, known as grey water.
7. Energy-efficient landscape design in the form of proper
placement and selection of shade trees and creation of
wind breaks.
8. Creating and enhancing wildlife habitat in urban
environments.
9. Permeable paving materials to deduce stormwater run-
off and allow rainwater to infiltrate into the ground and
replenish groundwater rather than run into surface
water.
10. Use of sustainably harvested wood, composite wood
products for decking and other landscape projects, as
well as use of plastic lumber
11. Recycling of products, such as glass, rubber from tires
and other materials to create landscape products such
as paving stones, mulch and other materials.
12. Soil management techniques, including composting
kitchen and yard wastes, to maintain and enhance
healthy soil that supports a diversity of soil life.
13. Integration and adoption of renewable energy,
including solar-powered landscape lighting.

NON-SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE PRACTICES

Severe degradation of the surrounding ecosystem;
1. harm to human health, especially in the case of
degraded drinking water supplies;
2. harm to flora and fauna and their habitats;
3. sedimentation of surface waters caused by stormwater
runoff;
4. chemical pollutants in drinking water caused by
pesticide runoff;
5. health problems caused by toxic fertilizers,
6. toxic pesticides, improper use, handling, storage and
disposal of pesticides;
7. air and noise pollution caused by landscape
equipment;
8. invasion of wild lands by non-native weeds and insect
pests;
9. and over-use of limited natural resources.

COST CONSIDERATIONS
Cost is a design constraint in any project, which is why we need
to conduct cost estimates at every stage of the design to ensure
that we are not exceeding the client's budget. When the design
is completed, we can create a detailed cost estimate since all of
the details, measurements, and specifications are already in
place. However, at the early stages, when the design hasn't
PLANNING 2
URBAN DESIGN
• Urban design as a profession though some might
considered to be relatively new is not new. It was coined
as 'civic design' - which fundamentally focuses on the siting
of buildings and their relationship to open spaces, in North
America in the late 1950's but it only gained popularity in
the early 1970's to address the growing and intricate urban
problems. It has also been historically credited in forming
cities. Recently, urban design denotes a more expansive
approach - evolving from an initial, predominantly aesthetic,
focusing only with the distribution of building masses and
the spaces between buildings; it is now primarily concerned
with the quality of the public realm (public space, public
environment or the public domain) - both physical, socio-
cultural, and the making of places for people to enjoy and
use.
• Public spaces are areas that are open and accessible to
all people. Examples of these are: streets, pathways,
sidewalks, parks, public squares, natural areas, beaches
and public buildings such as libraries. Ample public space
is considered essential to the quality of life and economy of
a city. Public space may include places for personal solace,
companionship, family and community.
Since urban design involves the design and coordination of all
that makes up the city, the public space is only one among
the elements of urban design. It also includes the following:
• Buildings - the most pronounced elements of urban
design; they shape and articulate space by forming
and shaping the street walls of the city.
• Public Spaces - these are the living room of the city,
the place where people come together to enjoy the city
and each other.
• Streets - the connections between spaces and
places, as well as being spaces themselves. They are
defined by their physical dimension and character as
well as the size, scale, and character of the buildings
that line them. Streets range from grand avenues to
small, intimate pedestrian pathways and corridors. The
pattern of the street network is part of what defines a
city and what makes each city unique.
• Landscape - the green part of the city that weaves
throughout - in the form of urban parks, street trees,
plants, flowers, and water in many forms. The
landscape helps define the character and beauty of a
city and creates soft, contrasting spaces and elements.
• Transport- Transport systems connect the parts of the
cities and help shape them and enable movement
throughout the city. The balance of these various
transport systems is what helps define the quality and
character of cities. The best cities are the ones
that elevate the experience of the pedestrian while
minimizing the dominance of the private automobile.
Urban design weaves together these elements into a coherent,
organized design structure.
But, urban design is not easily understood by people most
especially laymen; and there does not exist a commonly agreed
definition of urban design yet, mainly due to its interdisciplinary
and multi-disciplinary character which makes urban design,
ambiguous. The terms "urban" and "design" are broad terms
which could have many different definitions to different people.
"Urban" suggests the characteristics of towns and cities; while
"design" refers to activities of sketching, planning, and
arranging and pattern making. But within the practice of urban
design, "urban" has a wide and inclusive meaning embracing
not only the city and the town but also the village and the hamlet.
And "design", rather than having a narrowly aesthetic
interpretation, is as much about problem solving and/or the
processes of delivering or organizing development.
In the Philippine settings, urban areas definition are governed
by the established criteria of the National Statistics Coordination
Board (NSCB).
The creative articulation of space is the most prominent
aspect of urban design. The following artistic principles are
an integral part of creating form and spatial definition.
- Order - a situation in which everything
is arranged in its correct place; the way in
which people or things are arranged, either
in relation to one another or according to
a particular characteristic
- Unity - is a measure of how well each element of
your design works together
- Balance - is the distribution of the visual weight of
objects, colors, texture, and space.
- Proportion - refers to the relative size and scale of the
various elements in a design
- Scale - is the size of one object in relation to the other
objects in a design
- Hierarchy - is when an element appears more
important in comparison to other elements in a design
- Symmetry - the quality of
having parts that match each other, especially in a
way that is attractive, or similarity of shape or contents
- Rhythm - Rhythm in architecture is the repetitive use
of a group of visual elements, at least three times, to
establish a recognizable “pattern.”
- Contrast - As a principle of art, contrast refers to the
arrangement of opposite elements and effects. For
example, light and dark colors, smooth and rough
textures, large and small shapes. Contrast can be used
to create variety, visual interest, and drama in an
artwork.
- Context - context gives meaning to parts of
a building by reference to its surroundings.
The context of a building includes physical or natural
factors (for example, the curve of an adjacent river),
 socio-cultural factors (for example, the site’s previous
use), and so on.
- Detail - the small features of something that you
only notice when you look carefully
- Texture - refers to the surface quality in a work of art.
We associate textures with the way that things look or
feel. Everything has some type of texture. We describe
things as being rough, smooth, silky, shiny, fuzzy, and
so on.
- Harmony - a situation in
which people are peaceful and agree with each other,
or when things seem right or suitable together
- Beauty - the quality of
being pleasing, especially to look at, or someone or
something that gives great pleasure, especially when
you look at it
URBAN DESIGN STAKEHOLDERS
1. Local and National Government Agencies - as they are
the ones who oversee the implementation of rules and
regulations, guidelines, and other development controls set
in a certain location.
2. Practitioners - as they are the individual or group who
formulate ideas, concepts, and design and others are
responsible for the implementation. These are
professionals such as architects, engineers, etc.
3. Property developers and investors - as they are the ones
who initiate and influence a specific development in an
area.
4. Community Groups - as they are the ones who can
represent the public people and relay their needs to
addressed by the good urban design.
5. Public People - as they are the ones who will be affected
by the effects of good urban design and improve their
quality of life.
VALUE OF GOOD URBAN DESIGN
The list below of values of urban design is based on the
research conducted and funded by the Ministry for the
Environment in Wellington, New Zealand. It mainly shows the
broad conclusion about the benefits of good urban design might
offer.
- Good urban design can offer significant benefits to the
community; conversely, poor design can have significant
adverse effects on the urban environment, society, and
economy.
- While good urban design sometimes costs more upfront;
this is not necessarily the case; moreover, long-term costs
can be avoided.
- Communities value a better quality of life that good urban
design can deliver.
- Urban design can affect people's ability and willingness to
undertake physical exercise: good design can offer health
benefits.
- Urban design can help make towns and cities safer and
more secure.
- Urban design elements are interconnected: urban design is
most effective when some factors come together (e.g.,
mixed-use, density, and connectivity).
GOOD URBAN DESIGN ADDS VALUE.
According to the research published by CABE, together with
DETR in Great Britain, that good urban design adds value by
increasing the economic viability of development and by
delivering social and environmental benefits.
• ECONOMIC VALUE
- producing high returns on investments (good rental returns
and enhanced capital values);
- placing developments above the local competition at little
cost;
- responding to occupier demand;
- helping to deliver more lettable area (higher densities);
- lettable means capable of being rented or leased
- reducing management, maintenance, energy, and security
costs;
- contributing to more contented and productive workforces;
- supporting the "life-giving" mixed-use elements in
developments;
- creating an urban regeneration and place marketing
dividend;
- differentiating places and raising their prestige;
- opening up investment opportunities, increasing
confidence in development opportunities and attracting
grant monies; and
- reducing the cost to the public purse of rectifying urban
design mistakes.
• SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE
- creating well connected, inclusive and accessible new
places;
- delivering mixed-use environments with a broad range of
facilities and amenities available to all;
- providing development sensitive to its context;
- enhancing the sense of safety and security within and
beyond developments;
- returning inaccessible or run-down areas and amenities to
beneficial public use;
- boosting civic pride and enhancing civic image;
- creating more energy-efficient and less polluting
development; and
- revitalizing urban heritage.
THE VALUE OF SPECIFIC URBAN DESIGN ELEMENTS
The Value of Urban Design based on the study from the Ministry  promote social connectedness and vitality;
for the Environment examined evidence relating to eight core  help encourage greater physical activity, with
elements of urban design. These elements below have their consequent health benefits;
critical economic, social, and environmental findings, which you  help conserve green spaces, in conjunction
can see in the table below. with certain kinds of urban development; and
1. Local Character- The distinctive identity of a particular  reduce run-off from vehicles to water, and
place that results from the interaction of many factors, overall emissions to air/atmosphere (although
including built form, people, activity, and history. air emissions may be more locally
Key findings: Urban design that respects and supports concentrated).
local character can: 4. Mixed-Use: Where a variety of different living and
working activities are in close proximity within a
 attract highly skilled workers and high-tech
neighborhood.
businesses;
Key findings
 help in the promotion and branding of cities
 Urban design that supports mixed-use
and regions;
neighborhoods (in conjunction with other
 potentially add a premium to the value of
factors including connectivity and relatively
housing;
high intensity of different uses) can:
 reinforce a sense of identity among residents,
 offer people convenience, choices, and
and encourage them to help actively manage
opportunities, which lead to a sense of
their neighborhood;
personal well-being;
 offer people meaningful choices between
 allow parking and transport infrastructure to
very distinctive places, whose differences
be used more efficiently;
they value; and
 lower household spending on transport;
 encourage the conservation and responsible
 increase the viability of local shops and
use of non-renewable resources.
facilities;
2. Connectivity- The physical conditions were facilitating
access within a region, city, town, or neighborhood.  encourage walking and cycling - bringing
Key findings health benefits, reducing the need to own a
car and thus reducing emissions;
 Well-connected cities, towns, and
neighborhoods can:  increase personal safety; and
 enhance land values;  enhance social equity.
5. Adaptability- The capacity of urban buildings,
 make local shops and facilities more viable;
neighborhoods, and spaces to adapt to changing
 improve people's safety and security by
needs.
encouraging surveillance;
Key findings
 encourage more walking and cycling, leading
 Urban design that addresses adaptability can:
to health benefits; and
 extend the useful economic life of buildings
 reduce vehicle emissions through fewer cars
and public spaces;
being used for non-work trips.
 increase the diversity of uses and users in a
3. Density- The concentration of population and activity
public space, and the length of time it is used
in an urban area.
for;
Key findings
 encourage the conservation of non-
 Urban design that promotes a higher density
renewable resources; and
of buildings and public spaces (in conjunction
with other conditions, such as mixed-use,  contribute to economic success over time.
good building design, and adequate open 6. High-quality public realm- All parts of the physical
space) can: environment of towns and cities that the public has
access to, and that form the setting for community and
 deliver savings on land, infrastructure, and
public life.
energy;
Key findings
 reduce the economic costs associated with
 An urban design approach that emphasizes
time spent traveling;
quality in the public realm can:
 help concentrate knowledge and innovative
activity in the core of the city;
  lead to an enhanced urban economic 2. Should it focus only on the visual qualities of the urban
performance by attracting more people and environment or, more broadly, address the
activities; organization and management of urban spaces?
 encourage greater participation in community 3. Should it simply be about transforming spatial
arrangement, or about more deeply seated social and
and cultural activities, and enhance civic pride
cultural relations between spaces and society?
and commitment to the community;
4. Should urban design be the province of architects,
 increase the use of public space and support landscape designers, or planners?
associated business; and 5. Should it be a public or private activity?
 enhance personal safety. 6. Should it be seen as an objective-rational process (a
7. Integrated Decision-Making: Integration between science) or an expressive-subjective process (an art)?
and within organizations involved in urban policy, 7. Should the focus of urban design be its product (the
planning, and implementation, as well as the urban environment) or the process by which it is
integration of the different urban design elements. produced?
Key findings These ambiguities essentially attempt to classify and distinguish
 An integrated approach to decision-making the areas where urban design applies or works - either on the
end-product, which is normally manifested in the physical form
can:
and/or the processes used to arrive at the product of urban
 increase opportunities for greater numbers of design. Appleyard (1982) states that there should not or cannot
people to benefit from good urban design; be a single definition of urban design and if the existence of
and different kinds of urban design is recognized, then it is possible
 allow the urban design to produce the to get a better understanding of the nature of it.
greatest possible benefits by working with
complementary economic, social, and URBAN DESIGN DISTINGUISHING FACTORS
environmental policies. Traditionally, urban design has been regarded either as a
8. User Participation- The public consultation process, subset of planning or as an extension of architecture. It is
and other forms of involvement in urban design concerned in particular the shaping and use of urban public
projects, such as surveys or design workshops. spaces. It also deals with the large-scale organization and
design of the city, with the massing and organization of buildings
Key findings
and space between them, but not with the design of the
 User participation in urban design activity individual buildings. We could analyze the various development
can: factors that differentiate urban design from the other disciplines
 improve the fit between design and user through the table below.
needs;
 allow more effective use of resources, by
providing informed direction for decision-
making;
 offer time or cost savings during the decision-
making process, by encouraging increased
user support for positive change;
 develop a greater sense of 'user ownership'
over changes, and legitimize user interests;
and
 enhance a sense of community and local
democracy.
AMBIGUITIES OF URBAN DESIGN
Aside from the two (2) problematic words or terms associated to
"urban design", there are seven (7) ambiguities (questions) that
needs to be addressed and clarified for us to have a common
understanding of urban design:
1. Should urban design be focused at particular scales or
level?

TRADITIONS OF THOUGHT IN URBAN DESIGN
Historically, there are three (3) traditions of thought in urban
design. Following are brief descriptions of these traditions and
the personalities that are recognized to advocate the traditions:
1. THE VISUAL-ARTISTIC TRADITION
• More architectural and narrower understanding of
urban design
• Predominantly 'product oriented', focused on the visual
qualities and aesthetic experience of urban spaces
rather than on the cultural, social, economic, political,
and spatial factors and process contributing to
successful urban design.
• This tradition failed to acknowledge public perceptions
of townscapes and places.
• Camillo Sitte on his book entitled 'City Planning
According to Artistic Principles" promoted this thought
of urban design.
2. The Social-Usage Tradition
• Emphasized the way in which people use and colonize
space
• Encompass issues of perception and sense of place
which is the element lacking in the previous tradition.
• Kevin Lynch's on his treatise the Image of the City
attempted to shift the focus of urban design in two (2)
ways:
- In terms of appreciation of the urban environment
- In terms of the object of the study
• Jane Jacobs is also a key proponent and
advocate of this tradition. In her book: "The
dearth and life of Great American Cities", she
argues that the city could never be a work of art
because art was made by 'selection from life',
while a city was life at its most vital, complex and
intense. Concentrating on the socio-functional
aspects of the streets, sidewalks, and parks,
Jacob's emphasized their role as container of
human activity and places of social interaction.
3. THE MAKING-PLACES TRADITION
• From the synthesis of earlier traditions, urban
design is simultaneously concerned with the
design of urban space as an aesthetic entity and
as a behavioral setting.
• It focuses on the diversity and activity that help to
create successful urban places, and in particular,
on how well the physical milieu supports the
functions and activities taking place there.
• With this concept comes the notion of urban
design as the design and management of the
'public realm'. The public realm is defined as the
public face of the buildings, the spaces between
frontages, the activities taking place in and in
between these spaces, and the managing of these
activities, all of which are affected by the uses of
the buildings themselves.
Urban design involves place-making - the creation of
a setting that imparts a sense of place to an
area. This process is achieved by establishing:
• identifiable neighborhoods
• unique architecture
• aesthetically pleasing public places and vistas
• identifiable landmarks and focal points
• human element established by compatible
scales of development and ongoing public
stewardship.
KEY ELEMENTS OF PLACE-MAKING INCLUDE:
• lively commercial centers
• mixed-use development with ground-floor retail
uses
• human-scale and context-sensitive design; safe
and attractive public areas
• image-making
• decorative elements in the public realm
SEVEN (7) OBJECTIVES OF URBAN DESIGN RELATING TO
'CONCEPT OF PLACE.'
• Character – a place with its own identity
• Continuity & Enclosure – a place where public &
private spaces are clearly distinguished\
• Quality of the Public Realm – a place with attractive
& successful outdoor areas
• Ease of Movement – a place that is easy to get to and
move through
• Legibility – a place that has a clear image and is easy
to understand
• Adaptability – a place that can change easily
• Diversity – a place with variety and choice
The process of making places is achieved by establishing
identifiable neighborhoods, unique architecture, aesthetically-
pleasing public spaces, and vistas, identifiable landmarks and
focal points, and a human element established by compatible
scales of development and on-going public stewardship.
 The key elements in Place-Making include:
 Lively commercial centers
 Mixed-use development with ground-floor retail uses
 Human-scale and Context-sensitive design
 Safe and attractive public areas
 Image-making
 Decorative elements in the public realm
URBAN DESIGN DEFINITION, SCOPE, THEORY AND
APPLICATION
• Urban design can be roughly defined as the art and
science of shaping cities and town, giving form and
character through the design of public spaces
• Involves arrangement of public spaces, buildings,
transport systems, services, and amenities
• Traditionally, a subset of architecture, planning and
landscape architecture
• It is designing of cities without dsigning buildings
(Barnett)
• The art of making places (Cowan) - the recent
"thought" in the traditions of urban design.
Urban design on the other hand connects people and
places; movement and urban form; and natural and built
environments. It also transcends planning and
transportation policy; building and landscape design;
engineering and development economics.
Urban design involves many stakeholders whose interests
and priorities may conflict and the physical product of urban
design should serve the community's needs and
expectations with its social, cultural, and economic
outcomes. In relation to planning, urban design is
concerned with finding and appropriate physical framework
for human activities in cities. This makes urban design a
highly complex phenomenon; as a result the definition can
or should not be limited to physical design (Memluk).
But essentially, our common understanding is that it
involves the planning and design of the public
realm (public domain, public spaces) whether in a small
urban areas or large city for the use, enjoyment and
enhancement of their quality of life.
Some parts of private spaces such as private gardens,
building facades, backyard and front yard are within
purview of urban design. These private spaces can be
manipulated and controlled through prescriptive
development or design guidelines in order for these
spaces be used for public use.
Some strategies or tools to ensure that public spaces are
provided for people are through development controls or
guidelines. Among these are the following:
1. INCENTIVE ZONING is a provision of a municipal
zoning ordinance that allows developers to create a
higher density (usually expressed as housing units per
hectares) in return for providing some feature
considered to be in the public interest such as plazas,
arcades, and other open spaces. This extra often is
called a density bonus.
2. CLUSTER ZONING requires the density of the
development to be determined up front and designates
a large amount of the land to be green space. In easier
terms, this type of zoning places homes close together
(sometimes joined together, as in town homes) with
small (if any) yards and a large area of green space
that everyone can use.
Benefits of cluster zoning are the uses of the green
space. They can be available for residents to exercise,
walk dogs, or even hike in. It may give residents the
opportunity to have a little bit of nature available in an
urban setting. While residents may not have much
room for yards of their own, they can relax and
socialize in the green space that is just steps away.
There are downsides to living in a development that is
cluster zoned. As mentioned earlier, the homes may
be connected (as in town homes). They may also be
small garden homes. The residents may be sacrificing
square footage and privacy for the green space in the
development.
Floor area ratio means the ratio between the sum of
the areas of all floors of a building and the total area of
the lot.
Floor area ratio (FAR) - is the relationship between
the total amount of usable floor area that a building
has, or has been permitted to have, and the total area
of the lot on which the building stands. A higher ratio
likely would indicate a dense or urban construction.
Local governments use the floor area ratio for zoning
codes.
FAR = Total Building Floor Area/Gross Lot Area
The floor area ratio accounts for the entire floor area of
a building, not simply the building's footprint. Excluded
from the square footage calculation are unoccupied
areas such as basements, parking garages, stairs, and
elevator shafts.
Buildings with different numbers of stories may have
the same floor-area-ratio value. Every city has a limited
capacity or limited space that can be utilized safely.
Any use beyond this point puts undue stress on a city.
This is sometimes known as the safe load factor.
The floor area ratio is variable
because population dynamics, growth patterns, and
construction activities vary and because the nature of
the land or space where a building is placed varies.
Industrial, residential, commercial, agricultural and
non-agricultural spaces have differing safe load
factors, so they typically have differing floor area ratios.
In the end, local governments establish regulations
and restrictions that determine the floor area ratio.
The floor area ratio is a key determining factor for
development in any country, city or area. A low floor
area ratio is generally a deterrent to construction. Many
industries, largely the real estate industry, seek hikes
in the floor area ratio to open up space and land
resources to developers. An increased floor area ratio
allows a developer to complete more building projects,
which inevitably leads to greater sales, decreased
expenditures per project, and greater supply to meet
demand.
Floor Area ratio is sometimes called floor space
ratio (FSR), floor space index (FSI), site
ratio or plot ratio.
The difference between FAR and FSI is that the first is
a ratio, while the latter is an index. Index numbers are
values expressed as a percentage of a single base
figure. Thus, an FAR of 1.5 is translated as an FSI of
150%.
Example of How to Use the Floor Area Ratio
The floor area ratio of a 1,000-square-foot building with
one story situated on a 4,000-square-foot lot would be 0.25x. A
two-story building on the same lot, where each floor was 500
square feet, would have the same floor-area-ratio value.
• Considered another way, a lot has a floor area ratio of
2.0x and the square footage is 1,000. In this scenario,
a developer could construct a building that covers as
much as 2,000 square feet. This could include a 1,000
square foot building with two stories.
In a nutshell,
• The floor area ratio is the relationship of the total
usable floor area of a building relative to the total area
of the lot on which the building stands.
• A higher ratio usually indicates a dense or highly
urbanized area.
• floor area ratios vary based on structure type, such as
industrial, residential, commercial, or agricultural.
Other development controls or guidelines to regulate the
use of private space for urban design are:
- Building heights
- Building setbacks
- Building bulk
- Architectural character
Examples of Urban Design Projects
- Streetscapes
- Mixed-use redevelopment
- Parks and open spaces
- Environmental graphics/way finding
- Environmental art
- Urban renewal
- Historic preservation
- Township creation
- Waterfront development
- Environmental lighting
Urban Design Best Practices
- New Urbanism
- Smart Growth
- Heritage Conservation
- Landscape Urbanism
- Transit Oriented Development
- Sustainable street network
VALUE OF URBAN DESIGN?
Quality or good urban design is important for everybody
because our lives are connected through our common built
environment. We all live and work in buildings, and use streets,
public spaces, transport systems, and other forms of urban
infrastructure. Quality urban design creates places that work
and places that we use and value.
Urban design has economic, environmental, cultural, and social
dimensions. Increasingly we are recognizing the economic
importance of our towns and cities to the national economy.
Quality of infrastructure and quality of life are key factors in
creating successful towns and cities. Urban design can have
significant positive effects on both. Quality urban design also
increases economic value with higher returns on investment,
reduced management and maintenance costs, more productive
workplaces, and enhanced image and prestige.
Quality urban design values and protects the cultural identity
and heritage of towns and cities and provides for creativity. It
reinforces city’s and community’s distinctive identity. Quality
urban design also adds social, environmental, and cultural
benefits by creating well connected, inclusive and accessible
places, and by delivering the mix of houses, uses and facilities
that we need. It can enhance safety, reduce crime, and fear of
crime and enhance energy efficiency. Quality urban design can
provide us with more and better opportunities for physical
activity, resulting in improved physical and social well-being.
Quality urban design produces benefits at a city-wide level as
well as at the scale of neighborhoods and individual
buildings or spaces. For example, a well-designed transport
network integrated with land use improves accessibility and
mobility, contributes to a better quality of life, encourages
healthier lifestyles, uses less non-renewable energy, and
contributes to improved economic performance.
A well-designed building and adjacent spaces produce higher
capital values and rental returns, lower long-term maintenance
costs, increased productivity from its occupants, better security
and less crime and fear of crime, and increased civic pride.
The benefits of quality urban design accrue to businesses
through increased productivity and prestige; to communities in
improved urban environments and safer, healthier places; and
to developers and investors in better returns on investment.
COMMON THEMES AND PRINCIPLES OF GOOD (URBAN)
DESIGN
• Character, image and response to context – places
which have their own character, and which are well
related to their context.
• Spatial coherence and town-scape structure –
buildings which have a collective value and create
places which are distinctive and understandable.
• Building design quality and external appearance –
buildings which are designed to be visually
appropriate, attractive and fit for purpose providing
architectural quality Movement, linkages,
permeability and accessibility – developments and
places which support good connections, and which are
well integrated.
• Security and safety – designing places which are
inherently safe in design.
• Mixed-use, density and diversity – promoting uses
which add to vitality and variety.
• Adaptability and flexibility – ensuring places and
buildings are robust.
 • Sustainability and eco-design – buildings and
schemes which are more energy efficient.
• Design process and ongoing maintenance and
management – ensuring an effective design process
starting with good analysis and ensuring ongoing care
is considered.
ECONOMIC VALUE OF URBAN DESIGN - Good urban design
can be a factor for economic growth and regeneration as stated
in the discussion above. Good urban design is being considered
as a public good since it provides benefits to the public.
PUBLIC GOOD- In economics, a public good refers to a
commodity or service that is made available to all members of a
society. Typically, these services are administered by
governments and paid for collectively through taxation.
Examples of public goods include law enforcement, national
defense, and the rule of law. Public goods also refer to more
basic goods, such as access to clean air and drinking water.
HOW PUBLIC GOODS WORK- The two main criteria that
distinguish a public good are that it must be non-rivalrous and
non-excludable. Non-rivalrous means that the goods do not
dwindle in supply as more people consume them; non-
excludability means that the good is available to all citizens.
These criteria are also present in the urban design thus,
provision of good urban design is provision of a public good.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Public goods are commodities or services that benefit all
members of society, and which are often provided for free
through public taxation.
• Public goods are the opposite of private goods, which are
inherently scarce and are paid for separately by
individuals.
• Societies will disagree about which goods should be
considered public goods; these differences are often
reflected in nations’ government spending priorities.
RATIONALE FOR GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION IN
PROMOTING GOOD URBAN DESIGN
• based upon issues on equity and unequal distribution of
wealth
• economic efficiency, prevention of market failures
• welfare of society – health and environmental impacts
• investments in regeneration to reverse physical and social
decay, consequently reversing economic decline. Returns
on investments would be:
- economic – job creation, business formation, market
renewal
- social – improved community facilities, health,
- environmental – sustainability, health
COSTS OF GOOD (URBAN) DESIGN
- more challenging or complicated building format –
height/massing
- increased specification of construction and finish
materials
- more sophisticated or complex construction methods
- higher environmental standards and better
environmental performances
- more open spaces or streets within the scheme
- more or better infrastructure
- time – to get design right
- skills – namely the cost of using suitably qualified
designers
- cultural change and initial time costs as developers
leave their comfort zones.
URBAN DESIGN COMPONENTS
1. Urban Spatial Structure
- Urban on a large, or macro scale
- It involves the deliberate distribution, scaling, and
combination or separation of land uses to create an
integrated whole which defines the form of the community
e.g. locating, linking, and defining roles for activity centers,
open spaces, or major transportation corridors
- In the contemporary period, it adapts the concept of live,
work, and play - everything is within reach.
2. Urban Beautification
- Urban design on a medium scale.
- Involves landscaping or beautification of public and private
areas of the city.
- Defining the relationship between the physical location of
different uses and the placement of buildings.
3. Urban Decoration
- This is an urban design on a small or micro scale
- Involves projects such as the choice of street furniture or
colored and textured pavers to decorating an area
- Like urban beautification, many of the decorating activities
carried out in the renovating of areas are thought of as
being urban design but in reality, they are simply the micro-
component of the overall urban design concept.
BUILDING AND SITE DESIGN STANDARDS ARE TO BE
REGULATED COVERING STANDARDS FOR:
• Building Design - there are cities or certain areas that
being restricted with the building design or building
character
• Setbacks - some must strictly follow the minimum required
setback but there are other regulations and standards the
give way to some areas like a commercial and a business
district.
• Building Placement - this may include the consideration of
providing open space within the lot that includes the
required setback. The placement of the building also points
out the importance of user flow in the site and in the
building.
• Impervious Coverage Allotments - this may include
patios, paved and unpaved driveways, sidewalks,
roadways, parking lots, and other decks.
• Critical Areas Protection and Preservation - this refers
to those components that either have historical value or part
of the national environmental preserved areas.
• Natural Vegetation Retention - this may include century-
old trees inside a lot that being developed or other natural
vegetation that needs to preserve and retain.
IMAGE OF THE CITY (Kevin Lynch)
- Imageability means quality in a physical object that
evokes a strong image
- Imageability of a city is important to understanding its
urban design
- images may be analyzed into 3 components;
 identity (as a separate entity)
 Structure (the spatial relationship between
elements)
 Meaning (practical or emotional)
FIVE ELEMENTS
1. PATH- Channels along which the observer moves. They
may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, and
railroads. For many people, these are
the predominant elements in their image.
People observe the city while moving through it.
Along these paths, the other environmental elements are
arranged and related.
Strong paths are:
 easily identifiable
 have continuity and directional quality
 are aligned with a larger system
2. EDGE- Edges are linear elements not used or not
considered as paths. They are the boundaries between two
phases and linear breaks in continuity. Examples of Edges
are shores, railroads, cuts, edges of development, and
walls.
Edges are lateral references rather than coordinate axes.
They may be barriers, more or less penetrable, which close
one region off from another. Or they may be seams, lines
along which two regions are related and joined together.
Not as dominant as paths but are for many people important
organizing features, particularly in the role of holding
together generalized areas. This may be in the form of the
outline of a city by water or wall.
Strong edges are:
 Visually prominent
 Continuous
 Impenetrable to cross-movement
3. DISTRICT- These are the medium-to-large sections of the
city. It conceived of as having a two-dimensional extent,
which the observer mentally enters "inside of" and
recognizable as having some common, identifying
character. Most people structure their city to some extent
with individual differences as to whether paths or districts
are the dominant elements.
The district's dominance depends upon the individual and
the given district. Districts are recognizable as having a
common, identifying character with a variety of physical
characteristics or components. These are:
 activity and use
 building types and detail
 physical characteristics (topography, boundaries, age,
etc.)
 inhabitants (ethnic or class)
4. NODES- Nodes are points, strategic spots in a city into
which an observer can enter. They are intensive foci(focus)
in which the observer is traveling. They are also directly
related to the concept of paths and the concept of districts.
They may be:
 junctions and concentrations.
 A thematic concentration
Nodes may be simply concentrations, gain their
importance from being the condensation of some use
or physical character, or as a street-corner hangout or
an enclosed square. Some of these concentration
nodes are the focus and epitome of a district, over
which their influence radiates and of which they stand
as a symbol. They may be called cores.
5. LANDMARKS- Landmarks are another point of reference
but in this case, the observer does-not enters within them.
They are physical elements that may vary widely in scale.
Landmarks are unique and special in place of the
continuities used earlier. Other landmarks are primarily
local, being visible only in restricted localities and from
certain approaches.
These are the innumerable signs, storefront, trees,
doorknobs, and other urban detail, which fill in the image of
most observers. They have been frequently used clues of
identity.
RESPONSIVE ENVIRONMENT (Ian Bentley)
Bentley and his colleagues discuss that the built environment
should provide freedom of choice to the people that make a
place. This concept is what they called a "responsive
environment". They give emphasis on the idea that planning
towards a responsive environment should be a "product of
progressive social and political attitudes".
HOW DOES DESIGN AFFECT CHOICE?
The design of a place affects the choices people can make, at
many levels:
- PERMEABILITY (it affects where people can go, and
where they cannot)
Only places that are accessible to people can offer them
choices. The quality of permeability is the number of
alternative ways through an environment - central to
making responsive places.
Permeability has fundamental layout implications. In the
two diagrams above, the first image offers a greater
choice of routes than the second image. It is therefore
more permeable.
“Physical and visual permeability depends on how the
network of public space divides the environment into
blocks.”
There is a decline in public permeability because of
current design trends.
 Scale of development
 Hierarchal Layout
 Segregation
- VARIETY (it affects the range of uses available to
people)
Easily accessible places are irrelevant unless they offer a
choice of experience. Variety - particularly of uses is
the second key quality next to permeability. A variety of
experience implies places with varied forms, uses, and
meanings.
Developers and planners are more concerned with
economic performance and easier management than with
variety. Thus, the end-product is the modern zoned city,
where choice depends on mobility.
- LEGIBILITY (it affects how easily people can
understand what opportunities it offer)
Legibility is considered as the third stage of design. In
practice, the degree of choice offered by a place depends
on how legible it is; how easily people can understand its
layout. In this stage, the elements that give the perceptual
structure to the place should now be brought into the design
process.
 Legibility in the old days - important buildings
stood out.
 Legibility of form and use is reduced in the modern
environment.
 Legibility is strengthened by Lynch's physical
elements of the city
- ROBUSTNESS (it affects the degree to which people
can use a given place for different purposes).
These are places that can be used for many different
purposes. There are three key factors that support long
term robustness.
 Building depth
 Access
 Building Height
The design of small scale robustness also depends on
extra factors:
 hard and soft spaces
 active and passive spaces
 size and shape
 details
By this fourth stage in the design, we have begun to focus
on individual buildings and outdoor places. Our objective is
to make their spatial and constructional organization
suitable for the widest possible range of likely activities and
future uses, both in the short and the long term.
- VISUAL APPROPRIATENESS (it affects whether the
detailed appearance of the place makes people aware
of the choices available)
This stage of design focuses on what the output should look
like in more detail. This is important because it strongly
affects the interpretations people put on places - whether
designers want them or not, people do interpret places as
having meanings.
A place has visual appropriateness when
these meanings help to make people aware of the choices
offered by the qualities.
- RICHNESS (it affects people's choice of sensory
experiences)
By this stage, we are dealing with the smallest details of the
project. We must decide whereabouts in the scheme to
provide richness, both visual and non-visual, and select
appropriate materials and constructional techniques for
achieving it.
Design for all senses.
For most people, sight is the dominant sense. Most of the
information we handle is channeled through our eyes, so a
large part of this stage of design is concerned with visual
richness. But richness is not a purely visual matter, other
senses also have design implications such as:
 the sense of motion
 the sense of smell
 the sense of hearing
 the sense of touch
- PERSONALIZATION (it affects the extent to which
people can put their own stamp on a place)
Personalization allows people to achieve an environment
that bears the stamp of their own tastes and values.
Personalization makes a person's pattern of activities more
clear.
Types of Personalization: Users personalize in tow ways:
  to improve practical facilities, and - “mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon”
 to change the image of a place. - Less need for municipal control
Constraints on Personalization: Personalization is affected - Self-managing
by three main factors: 8. FOSTERS FREQUENT AND MEANINGFUL CONTACT
 tenure, - Improves sociability
 building type, and - More cultural exposure, interaction
 technology. - Exchanges and preserves information, wisdom, values
- Supports the barter system
- Reduces race and class barriers
CREATING AND IDENTIFYING THE SENSE OF PLACE AND
SENSE OF TIME
9. CREATES IMPROVED ACCESSIBILITY
- More walkable
One reason that cities and towns routinely fail at - Safe for pedestrians
creating active social environments is that the community is not - Compatible with public transit
involved in establishing a vision for the place from the outset. - Reduces need for cars and parking
Instead, officials, designers, and planners use - More efficient use of time and money
a project-based approach, whereby they deem what is wrong - Greater connections between uses
with the street, park, or either public space, and make the 10. PROMOTES A SENSE OF COMFORT
necessary “improvement” without truly consulting the - Visually pleasing
community in what they might want to see or do there. - Generally stimulating
- Sense of belonging
On the other hand, a community-based - Greater security
approach involves a broad cross-section of residents and other - Better environmental quality
local leaders in defining the project from the start.
11. DRAWS A DIVERSE POPULATION
This not only provides a prime opportunity to gather - More women, elderly, and children
local knowledge and ideas for creating a successful place, but it - Greater ethnic and cultural pluralism
also fosters the natural stewardship, in-kind donations, and - Encourages a range of activities and uses
partnerships that contribute to that success. - New services, retail, and customer niches
- Variation and character in the built environment
For these solutions to be successful, they need to go
- Encourages community creativity
farther and incorporate two critical factors:

- The design of communities should focus on creating social,

ORNAMENT AND DECORATION
public places – destinations that are accessible in a Another distinct element of urban design is the ornaments and
multitude of ways decorations. They will be taken to mean the ways in which the
- Communities should be involved from the outset in planning main elements within the city are arranged to form a pleasing
and design, making changes and generating a vision for a and memorable pattern. According to the Shorter Oxford
place English Dictionary, both ornament and decoration
BENEFITS OF PLACE mean embellishments - detail or feature to make a place more
6. BUILDS AND SUPPORTS THE LOCAL ECONOMY attractive.
- Small-scale entrepreneurship ORNAMENT
- More quality goods available - Has more formal overtones – the architectural work
- Higher real estate values associated with certain architectural styles or the work
- Local ownership, local value of individual architects.
- More desirable jobs - Installation of sculptures, fountains, obelisks, and
- Increased currency velocity similar features into the urban scene.
- Greater tax revenue DECORATION
- Less need for municipal services - Has everyday associations - e.g. one decorates the
7. NURTURES AND DEFINES COMMUNITY IDENTITY home or the living room. In the case of urban design, it
- Greater community organization can be decorating the streets for certain events.
- Sense of pride and volunteerism
- The perpetuation of integrity and values
 - Describe populist activities such as the placing
of gnomes in the front garden, topiary work,
or decorating the city for festivals.
FUNCTIONS OF ORNAMENT AND DECORATION
- To go beyond the decoration of individual buildings and
to enrich the decorative themes of a locality.
- To enhance the physical, social, and spiritual qualities
of the location.
- To develop the “legibility” and “imageability” of the city
(a legible city can be easily visualized in the mind's eye
having a clearly defined easily recognized and
distinctive perceptual structure).
PRIMARY ROLE OF ORNAMENT AND DECORATION
- Unifying parts of the city into a comprehensive whole .
- Emphasize and clarify the five components of a city by
Kevin Lynch and so strengthen the city’s image and
enhance its attraction for citizen and visitor.
- Contribution to formal qualities of the city such as
visual order or unity, proportion, scale, contrast,
balance, and rhythm.
PHYSICAL VARIABLES OF DECORATION
1. UNITY
- Probably the most important quality of any work of art
and cannot be composed of scattered elements
without relation to each other
- Environment to have an understandable simple pattern
of signs and clues.
- Establishment of centers or places (proximity),
directions or paths (continuity) and areas or districts
(enclosure)
2. PROPORTION
- Some central ideas, a visual element or group of
related elements should dominate the whole
composition.
3. SCALE
- Relationship of buildings and urban space to the size
of a human being. Visual qualities of urban space and
its architectural envelope and the act of healing or
making the city whole are both closely related to the
correct scaling of the urban landscape.
4. HARMONY
- All elements conform to certain ratios which
relate continuously to all other ratios
- The city must be experienced to be appreciated.
It is to be experienced by all senses; sounds,
smells, and texture is important
5. BALANCE AND SYMMETRY
- Visually well adjusted. A simple pair of scales is used
as an analog for balance in design.
- Symmetry is the balance of formal axial buildings. The
formal symmetrical decoration is best viewed from the
central axis.
6. RHYTHM
- Rhythm is a basic characteristic of our nature; a pattern
imposed by the mind
- Rhythm in architecture is the product of grouping of
elements, of emphasis, interval, accent, and direction.
It is the sense of movement by the articulation of the
members making up the composition
7. CONTRAST
- Good design should avoid monotony, it should have
interest and accent.
- It should have to be kept within proportion to avoid
perceptual overload.
- The contrast of horizontals from the verticals, contrast
of form and anti-form of buildings.
PUBLIC SPACE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN Architecture
and public space, when working together, multiplies urban
vitality effects. It is intended to foster neighborhoods with activity
at the local level, with endowments on the edges that are shared
with adjacent areas, but also at the urban and metropolitan
level, because it will have uses that will attract people.
Public space is a hot topic. In the West, there is anxiety that too
much of it is being privatized and governed by the rules of those
who paid for it, rather than being always accessible to all people.
Publicly funded public spaces have rules too, of course. ‘All
people’ doesn’t include muggers or vandals. The use of shared
space is always conditional. In this debate about the
privatization of public space, ‘public’ has had much more
attention paid to it than ‘space.’
THE NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT
• Developed by and American planner, Clarence Arthur
Perry.
• Had a huge impact on urban planning worldwide.
• Perry believed that “cities should be built (or rebuilt) to
consist of an agglomeration of smaller units typically
centered on and served by an elementary school and
 bounded by major roads with shopping centers at
intersections.
- Children of such units would be able to walk to their local
school without having to cross major roads; the limited size
of the units (typically 6-10,000 inhabitants) would
encourage community spirit.
• The theory was first publicized in 1939 in Housing for
the Mechanic Age and gained rapid acceptance.
• The “neighborhood unit” concept began as a means of
combating the existing neighborhoods during this
period seen as “islands locked” amidst a burgeoning
sea of vehicular traffic, a dangerous obstacle that
prevented children (and adults) from safely walking to
nearby playgrounds and amenities.
• The “neighborhood unit” concept evolved to serve a
much broader purpose, of providing a discernible
identity for the concept of the "neighborhood", and of
offering to designers a framework for disseminating the
city into smaller subareas (suburbs)
The Neighborhood unit defines the neighborhood as a
component of a town and defines its size based upon
a five-minute walking radius.
• the center holds cultural uses such as a school.
• a five-minute walking distance is approximately 160 acres.
• Clarence Stein expanded the definition of neighborhood
center (1942) by connecting the neighborhoods to create
towns. In the 1920s and 1940s, the centers and anchors of
neighborhoods were the schools.
• More recently, the quarter-mile walking radius has been
expanded to a half mile with the addition of a transit hub.
• Traditional neighborhood size works well in the town,
village, and urban city scales.
PRINCIPLES of Neighborhood Concept
1. Center the school - to encourage a child's walk to school,
which was only about one-quarter of a mile and no more
than one-half mile and could be achieved without crossing
a major arterial street.
2. Size the neighborhood to sufficiently support a school
- between 5,000 to 9,000 residents, approximately 160
acres at a density of ten units per acre.
3. Implement a wider use of the school facilities – to serve
neighborhood meetings and activities, and construct a large
play area around the building for use by the entire
community.
4. Place arterial streets along the perimeter - to define and
distinguish the “place” of the neighborhood and by design
eliminate unwanted through-traffic from the neighborhood.
In this way, major arterial defines the neighborhood, rather
than divide it through its heart.
5. Design internal streets using a hierarchy that easily
distinguishes local streets from arterial streets, using
curvilinear street design for both safety and aesthetic
purposes. Streets, by design, would discourage unwanted
through traffic and enhance the safety of pedestrians.
6. Restrict local shopping areas to the perimeter or
perhaps to the main entrance of the neighborhood, thus
excluding non-local.
7. Dedicate at least 10 percent of the neighborhood land
area to parks and open space.
• creating places for play and community interaction
(community idealism)
• protecting and promoting public health and of
considering the safety and welfare of citizen traffic
destined for these commercial uses that might intrude
on the neighborhood.
TRADITIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT
Community design issues and concepts also apply on a larger
scale than the appearance of one building or project.
Communities around the state reflect a variety of different
development patterns that reflect evolving design concepts at
different points of time -- e.g., the grid street patterns of the older
sections of some communities, the curvilinear street pattern of
communities built in the 1950's and 1960's, and the cul-de -acs
of the 1970's and 1980's and the dispersed development
patterns of the 1990's.
Increasingly people are returning to the concepts of traditional
neighborhood design, also sometimes referred to as "new
urbanism" or "neo-traditional neighborhoods." The concepts
focus on a number or planning and design principles from the
early 1900's and earlier.
 • A mixture of uses that integrate work places,
commercial areas (such as grocery stores), civic
spaces (such as parks and town squares) and housing
(mixing housing types and sizes). The design concepts
also follows street patterns based on grids or variations
of grids
• Lots sizes in such developments tend to be smaller
than in most conventional subdivisions so they
consume less land for the same amount of dwelling
units. They average five or more dwelling units per net
acre instead of the one to three houses per net acre
that is common in many developing areas.
• Walking is encouraged with sidewalks, trees along the
streets, narrow roads that slow down cars, and
commercial, and parks that are located a short walk
from most houses. Public transportation is also
encouraged.
FOUR COMMON ATTRIBUTES OF TRADITIONAL
NEIGHBORHOOD DEVELOPMENT
1. Neighborhood Size-traditional neighborhoods are generally
limited in size to encourage pedestrian activity. The optimal size
of a neighborhood is 1/4 to 1/3 of a mile from center to its edge,
a distance equal to a five-to-10-minute walk at an easy pace. Its
limited area gathers the population within walking distance of
many of its daily needs.
2. The Street Pattern- designed to accommodate the needs of
all modes of transportation. The neighborhood consists of a
interconnected network, like grids, of small thoroughfares. An
interconnected street pattern with smaller blocks provides
multiple routes, diffusing automobile traffic and shortening
walking distances. This pattern keeps local traffic off regional
roads and through traffic off local streets. Neighborhood streets
of varying types are designed to provide equitably for pedestrian
comfort and automobile movement. Sidewalks are required.
3. Mix of Land Uses- structured to provide a balanced mix of
residences, shops, workplaces, civic uses, and recreation within
the neighborhood. The integration of multiple land uses allows
residents to meet more of their daily needs through shorter trips.
3. Public Open Spaces- Formal and informal open
space is located throughout a traditional neighborhood.
The design of the neighborhood gives priority to open
space. These spaces enhance community activity,
identity, and civic pride. The neighborhood plan
creates a hierarchy of useful open spaces: a formal
square in the neighborhood center, parks and
playgrounds throughout the neighborhood, and streets
that promote walking and encourage informal
meetings.
The existing zoning ordinances, subdivision regulations and
other land use regulations of many communities are designed
for development patterns of the 1960's or 1970's. The
requirements of these regulations often prohibit the construction
of traditional neighborhoods. Often existing zoning ordinances
disallow the densities that are necessary for traditional
neighborhoods. The ordinances also generally preclude the
introduction of different uses in neighborhoods.
BENEFITS:
• Creates walkable neighborhood
• Brings life to communities by allowing mixture of
uses
• Encourages transportation mode options
• Protects 'open spaces'
• Preserves 'village center'& public space concept
• Creates communities designed for 'live-work-play'
• Reduces vehicle congestion
RADBURN
• Conceived by Clarance Stein and Henry Wright.
• Influencing factors:
• rapid industrialization after WWI
• migration to rural cities; dramatic growth of cities
• housing shortage
• need to provide housing and protection from motorized
traffic.
The “Radburn“ planning was inspired by Henry Wright’s “Six
Planks for a Housing Platform” as follows:
1. Plan simply, but comprehensively. Don't stop at the
individual property line. Adjust paving, sidewalks, sewers
and the like to the particular needs of the property dealt with
- paving, sidewalks, sewers and the like to the particular
needs of the property dealt with - not to a conventional
pattern. Arrange buildings and grounds so as to give
sunlight, air and a tolerable outlook to even the
smallest and cheapest house.
2. Provide ample sites in the right places for community
use: i.e., playgrounds, school gardens, schools, theatres,
churches, public buildings and stores.
3. Put factories and other industrial buildings where they
can be used without wasteful transportation of goods or
people.
4. Cars must be parked and stored, deliveries made, waste
collected (Vehicular Movement) - plan for such services
with a minimum of danger, noise and confusion.
5. Relationship between buildings. Develop collectively
such services as will add to the comfort of the individual, at
lower cost than is possible under individual operation. 6.
6. Arrange for the occupancy of houses on a fair basis of
cost and service, including the cost of what needs to be
done in organizing, building and maintaining the
community.
The Idea
• Separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic
• Super block - large block surrounded by main roads
• Houses grouped around small 'cul-de-sacs' – each
accessed from main road
• Living, bedroom faced gardens & parks, service areas to
access roads
• Remaining land – 'Park areas'
• Walkways – designed such that pedestrians can reach
social places without crossing automobile street.
SMART GROWTH
Smart growth is development that supports economic growth,
strong communities and environmental health. It is sometimes
called, "new community design" which focuses on the physical
design of communities to create livable and walkable
neighborhoods is also associated with "smart growth".
“Smart growth” covers a range of development and
conservation strategies that help protect our health and natural
environment and make our communities more attractive,
economically stronger, and more socially diverse.
Proponents of 'smart growth" in the 1970s are Architects Peter
Calthorpe and Andres Duany. It is the time when planners
promote the idea of compact cities and communities.
• Archt. Peter Calthorpe promoted and popularized the
idea of urban villages that relied on public
transportation, bicycling, and walking instead of
automobile use.
• Archt. Andres Duany promoted changing design codes
to promote a sense of community, and to discourage
driving.
In response to increasing community concerns about the need
for new ways to grow that boost the economy, protect the
environment, and enhance community vitality, the US
Environmental Agency joined with several non-profit and
government organizations to form the Smart Growth Network
(SGN) in 1996. The SGN’s partners include environmental
groups, historic preservation organizations, professional
organizations, and local and state government entities. They
work to encourage development that serves the economy,
community and the environment.
MAIN FEATURES OF SMART GROWTH:
1. Compact neighborhoods and mixed-use
development:
o This reduces sprawl & protects the climate.
o Includes adopting redevelopment strategies & zoning
policies that channel housing and job growth into urban
centers & neighborhood business districts.
o Create compact, walkable, bike-& transit-friendly hubs
by incorporating mixed-use development with homes,
offices, galleries, and shops, inclusion of affordable
housing, restriction on suburban design forms, and
inclusion of parks and recreation areas.
2. Transit-oriented development: TODs are residential
or commercial areas designed to maximize access to
public transport.
3. Pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly design: Biking and
walking instead of driving can reduce emissions, save
money on fuel and maintenance, and foster a healthier
population.
4. Revitalization of run-down areas: Cleaning up and
redevelopment run-down areas or brownfields/infill
(abandoned, idled, or underused industrial and
commercial facilities where redevelopment is
complicated by real or perceived environmental
contamination) can remove blight and environmental
contamination, catalyze neighborhood revitalization,
lessen development pressure at urban edge.
5. Open space preservation: Preserving natural lands
and encouraging growth in existing communities
protects farmland, wildlife habitat, and outdoor
recreation.
Smart growth is guided by these 10 principles:
1. Create range of housing opportunities and choices
Integrating different housing types like singleand multi-family
structures in new housing developments can support a more
diverse population and allow more distribution of households of
all income levels across the region.
BENEFITS
• Imitigation of environmental costs of auto dependent
development
• better jobs-housing balance
• generate a strong foundation of support for transit
stops, commercial centers and other services.
2. Create walkable neighborhoods
Done by building places with multiple destinations within close
proximity, where streets and sidewalks balance all forms of
transportation. They locate within an easy and safe walk of
goods and services that a community resident or employee
needs on a regular basis, which makes pedestrian activity
possible, thus expanding transportation options, and creating
streetscapes that better serve a range of users.
BENEFITS
• lower transportation costs
• greater social interaction
• increased physical activity thereby improving personal
and environmental health
• expanded consumer choice.
3. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration
Since different communities have different needs, programs
addressing them are best defined by the people who live and
work there.
Encouraging community and stakeholder collaboration can lead
to creative, speedy resolution of development issues and
greater community understanding of the importance of good
planning and investment.
BENEFITS
• improves public support
• leads to innovative strategies that fit unique needs of
each community
4. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense
of place
Encourages communities to craft a vision and set standards and • reduced green-field development and agricultural land
construction that respond to community values of architectural conversion.
beauty and distinctiveness as well as expanded choices in 10. Take advantage of compact building design
housing and transportation. Creating unique and interesting Suggests that communities be designed in a way which permits
communities which reflect the values and culture of the people more open space to be preserved, and that buildings can be
who reside there and foster a more cohesive community fabric. constructed which make more efficient use of land and
BENEFITS resources by encouraging buildings to grow vertically rather
• community cohesion than horizontally, and by incorporating structured rather than
• strong sense of belongingness of the people surface parking.
5. Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost
effective BENEFITS
Since the private sector has the needed capital in developing • reduction of footprint of new construction
our communities, governments should help make smart growth • preservation of green spaces
profitable to private investors and developers by making the • cheaper to provide and maintain services and utilities
right infrastructure and regulatory decisions. (water, sewer, electricity, etc.)
BENEFIT Since smart growth advocates compact development, it tackles
• private sector support and addresses the problems of urban sprawl. Bitannica.com
6. Mix land uses defines urban sprawl (also called sprawl or suburban sprawl) as
Putting uses in close proximity to one another provides a more the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns,
diverse and sizable population and commercial base to support often characterized by low-density residential housing, single-
services. use zoning and increased reliance on the private automobiles
BENEFITS for transportation. Urban sprawl is caused in part by the need to
• economies of agglomeration accommodate a rising urban population; however, in many
• increase in social interaction metropolitan areas it results from a desire for increased living
• revitalization of community life space and other residential amenities.
• enhance vitality and perceived security towards the
streets. Comparison between "smart growth" and urban sprawl
7. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty and
critical environmental areas Attribute Sprawl Smart Growth
"Open space” – natural areas both in and surrounding the Density Lower density, Compact developmen
locality that provide important community space; habitat for dispersed
plants and animals; farms; places of natural beauty and critical development
environmental areas (e.g. wetlands) Growth pattern Urban periphery Infill (brownfield)
BENEFITS (greenfield development
• Green space and wildlife habitat preservation development
• reduced water pollution Land use mix Homogeneous Mixed land use
• help in reducing air pollution (single-use,
• reduced heat island effect segregated) land
8. Provide a variety of transportation choices uses
Multi-modal approach to transportation with supportive Scale Large scale. Larger Human scale. Smaller
development patterns by increasing high quality transit service; buildings, blocks, buildings, blocks and
creating connectivity within road networks; and ensuring wide roads. Less roads. More detail since
connectivity between pedestrian, bike, transit, and road detail since people people experience the
facilities. experience the landscape up close, as
BENEFITS landscape at a pedestrians.
• improved transportation options distance, as
• more efficient transportation motorists.
• reduced air pollution Public Regional, Multi-nodal
9. Strengthen and direct development towards existing services consolidated, larger. transportation and land
communities (shops, Requires automobile use patterns that
Direction of development towards existing communities already schools, access. support walking, cycling
served by infrastructure and utilizing resources that existing parks) and public transport.
neighborhoods offer can conserve open space and Transport Automobile oriented Multi-modal
irreplaceable natural resources at the urban fringe. transportation and transportation and land
BENEFITS land use patterns, use patterns that
• reduced development and service costs poorly suited for
 walking, cycling and support walking, cycling 13. NON-RESIDENTIAL PUDs
transit. and transit. - The municipalities may identify certain limited areas or
Connectivity Hierarchical road highly connected roads, situations for PUDs that include only non-residential uses,
network with sidewalks and paths, i.e. regional commercial centers or industrial parks.
numerous loops and allowing relatively direct 14. MIXED-USED PUDs
dead-end streets, travel by motorized and - Most common use of PUDs
and unconnected non-motorized modes. - Promotes (requires) and integrated mix of residential and
sidewalks and paths non-residential uses at moderate to high densities of
,with many barriers to development, as are found in traditional town and village
non-motorized travel. centers, and other designated growth center.
Street design Streets designed to Streets designed to 15. OTHER PUDs
maximize motor accommodate a variety - Rural mixed-use PUD
vehicle traffic volume of activities. Traffic - Resort PUD
and speed. calming.
Planning Unplanned, with little Planned and OBJECTIVES OF PUD
process coordination between coordinated with 1. Urban Redevelopment
jurisdictions and jurisdictions and
2. Traditional Neighborhood
stakeholders stakeholders
3. Design Open Space Preservation
Public space Emphasis on the Emphasis on the "public
"private realm" realm" (streetscapes, 4. Brownfield Redevelopment: Brownfield - a tract of land
(yards, shopping pedestrian environment, that has been developed for industrial purposes,
malls, gated public parks, public polluted, and then abandoned.
communities, public facilities) 5. Urban Infill and Redevelopment- Infill development -
clubs) refers to the development of vacant parcels within
previously built areas. These areas are already served
PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT (PUD) by public infrastructure, such as transportation, water,
A PUD is a site upon which residential, commercial, wastewater, and other utilities.
industrial, or other land uses or any combination thereof may be 6. Mixed-use development
authorized flexibly to achieve the goals of the municipal 7. Other objectives:
comprehensive plan. It can encourage or require clustered
- Flexibility in design
developments and is increasingly used in more rural settings to
- Accumulation of large areas
protect farmland and open spaces.
- Creation of a variety of residential and compatible
It is a tool used by cities and municipalities to
encourage or require flexibility, creativity and innovation in neighborhood arrangements
the planning and design of development to achieve a - Clustering of one residential type for better use of land
variety of objectives. and open spaces
Zoning regulations need not be uniform for each - Allowance of sufficient freedom for the developer
class or type of land use, but where the use of land shall - Efficient use of land
be in accordance with a preliminary PUD plan approved by - Establishment of criteria
PUD FEATURES (DERIVED FROM THE LAND USE
the legislative body. In this case, the property is subject to
SYSTEM)
a different set of controls. Some PUDs are entirely
residential, and some are entirely commercial. COMPREHENSIVE LAND PUD
USE PLAN (CLUP)
TYPES OF PUDs
12. RESIDENTIAL PUDs
- Planned residential developments of PRDs - Long-term Plan - Medium-term program
- In rural districts, to encourage or require limited, clustered, - Not adopted and - Adopted and followed by
low-density residential development while emphasizing the observed by local local legislative body.
protection of important natural features and resource lands legislative body. - Deals with pertinent
identified in the municipal plan. - Dealt with irrelevant, problems seeking
- In urban settings, PRD standards may allow a mix of unimaginable problems realizable objectives.
housing types and promote a more pedestrian oriented seeking unrealizable
neighborhood design that incorporates moderate to high goals.
densities of development, street trees, sidewalks, and
ZONING PUD
parks.
 - Segregation of uses, - Mixture of uses, - Enhance sustainability by making efficient use of
emphasizing emphasizing existing community amenities and infrastructure.
disharmony. disharmony.
- Single lot focus, - Unified control, unit - Promote compact development and increase density
incremental development. Create a mixture of uses.
development. - Administrative
- Preset regulation regulation
STRATEGIES FOR INFILL DEVELOPMENT
Diversity - promote a mix of uses, including housing, retail,
SUBDIVISION CONTROL PUD
and commercial uses both horizontally and vertically
- Automatic disposal, - Necessary site plan
limited design control review, extensive Density - Successful infill development is often dense enough
- Fractional open space design control to make transit viable and support walkable retail districts.
contribution - Significant open space Transit - Infill projects can increase ridership on existing
- Formal one shot, - Staged platting systems and make transit an even more viable option.
platting procedure, producing self- Scale - Take into account the grain and scale of existing
extensive expenses by contained units, limited frontages, sidewalks, streets, transit systems need significant
the developer. expense to the densities.
developer. Massing and articulation - Successful massing strategies
promote interaction between the sidewalk pedestrian and the
Examples of PUDs in the Philippines building by creating a street frontage that is appropriate at the
ground level.
1. Tondo Foreshore area
2. Baseco
3. Chinatown TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT
4. Pandacan Oil Depot area TOD is generally defined as development that is located within
5. Old Bilibid area a 10-minute walk, or approximately 0.5 mile, from a light rail,
6. San Lazaro area heavy rail, or commuter rail station. It also includes development
7. Intramuros along heavily used bus and bus rapid transit corridors. In some
8. Addition Hills communities, waterborne transit supports TOD.
9. Rockwell center
10. Eastwood city A mix of uses, including housing, retail, office, research, civic,
11. Bonfacio Global City and others characterizes TOD projects. TOD also involves
12. Bay City development at higher densities than typical, to take advantage
13. New Manila Bay - City of Pearl Project of transit proximity and planning and design elements that
encourage walkability and create pedestrian-friendly
INFILL DEVELOPMENT
Infill development occurs on vacant or underused lots in connections to the surrounding community. TOD projects range
otherwise built-up sites or areas. Infill projects can take widely in size, from infill loft developments to mixed-use centers
several forms, such as small addition in a residential to entire new communities.
backyard, a single-lot development, a brownfield
TOD CONCEPT
development, or multi-parcel projects in urban
Many communities have limited opportunities for TOD because
downtowns.
land areas within the half-mile radius have already been
GOALS AND BENEFITS OF INFILL developed, transit is not yet an available transportation option,
- Preserve open space, agricultural land, and forests or potential development sites are not a suitable size for TOD.
Most TOD projects contain at least 100,000 square feet (or 60-
by reducing development pressures on greenfield
80 housing units), and many are far larger. TOD can be
sites. developed at a smaller scale, but such projects have more
- Provide opportunities to revitalize a neighborhood difficulty absorbing the costs of creating a pedestrian-friendly
or downtown. public realm. That said, economic benefits often accrue from
reduced parking requirements and increased densities. When
- Increase the tax base for a jurisdiction by creating or
potential TOD sites become available, communities should be
renewing a property’s value. ready to take advantage of the unique potential they ofer.
- Make efficient use of abandoned, vacant, or
underused sites. TOD TYPES
8. Suburban TOD
 9. Rural TOD
10. Urban Center TOD
BENEFITS OF TOD
Certain benefits of TOD make it distinct from conventional
development approaches. These benefits are numerous and
include quality of life, public health, economic development,
community character, environmental quality, and transit use.
1. Quality of Life: Transit-oriented development can
result in many quality-of-life benefits including reducing
automobile dependency, increasing the range of
housing options, both the types of housing and the
range of affordability available to a community, and
enhancing the vitality of neighborhood main streets
and centers.
2. Public Health: Because transit-oriented development
reduces automobile dependency, residents can take
advantage of a more walkable environment. Reduced
vehicle trips also result in improved air quality.
3. Economic Development: Transit-oriented
development provides affordable access to jobs for
people without automobiles or with fewer automobiles
per household, attracts employers to locate around
station areas, and broadens the overall tax base.
4. Community Character: The increased density in TOD
projects provides opportunities to create public spaces
and well-designed buildings that give identity and
vitality in those spaces.
5. Environmental Quality: In addition to the public
health benefits, transit-oriented development provides
a design alternative to sprawl, and is an opportunity to
pursue environmentally sensitive site planning and
'green' architecture.
6. Transit Use- Increased ridership and the potential for
additional funding sources for new transit facilities are
among the transit benefits of TOD.
SITE PROGRAMMING
When developing an overall site program for transit-oriented
development, four principles for achieving optimal use and
function of the site should be considered.
• Build Densely: One of the primary characteristics of
transit-oriented development is an increased level of
density as compared to conventional development. Building
to a higher density lets one take advantage of reduced auto
dependency, make efficient use of TOD sites, support
pedestrian-friendly shops, and create lively, people-filled
environments. Locating between 1,500 and 2,500 housing
units within walking distance can support a new block of
'main street' retail space, according to a 2002 study by
Goody Clancy and the real estate firm of Byrne McKinney.
• Mix Uses: Along with higher densities, transit-oriented
development can also be characterized by the emphasis on
a mixed-use environment. To create such a dynamic,
enliven sidewalks and public with as much detail as the
market will support, provide tax revenue-generating and
job-producing commercial development, and provide
opportunities for residential to be located adjacent to or
above such uses. This intentional programming can
reinforce the vitality of town centers and main streets,
where transit stations are often located, The decision to
include residential above or adjacent to commercial and
office uses will depend upon economic feasibility, market
forces, local preferences, or other factors.
• Mix Housing Ty pes and Price: Take advantage of
creating housing at higher densities to increase the
diversity of housing in the community including affordable
housing. According to the Urban Land Institute (ULI), the
share of households with children looking for housing will
drop significantly by 2025, producing demand for a wider
range of housing options.
• Reduce Parking Requirements: One of the most
important outcomes of transit-oriented development is
increased transit use. Lower parking requirements and
dedicated bicycle paths and bicycle parking are among the
actions that can be taken to achieve this. The higher density
and land values of TOD often make it feasible to construct
structured parking or below-grade parking in place of
surface lots. Lower parking ratios reduce overall project
costs. Mixed- use projects can further reduce parking
requirements by enabling shared parking,such as office
workers during weekdays and residents during evenings
and weekends.
SITE DESIGN
Within a transit-oriented development site, the following design
features should be emphasized in the site planning process.
• Pedestrian Access: Provide convenient, direct, and public
pedestrian access to transit through TOD projects. Create
continuity with local streets, and locate retail and other
pedestrian- friendly uses to encourage pedestrian flow to
nearby commercial districts and main streets.
• Public Spaces- Create new public spaces, including lively
streets, squares, and parks, that enhance nearby
commercial districts. Take advantage of the increased
pedestrian activity generated by both transit and TOD.
Relate the new spaces to public and semi-public uses that
may also cluster to TOD locations.
• Sense of Place- Create a sense of place by orienting
buildings and public spaces to create a strong sense of
identity for the development, and by using buildings to
frame public spaces. Consider design guidelines or
standards that celebrate these places.
• Pedestrian Experience- Foster an enriched and
invigorated pedestrian experience. Include retail and other
pedestrian-friendly uses. Maximize windows and entries to
build a sense of connection between pedestrians activities
within buildings. When surface parking is needed, locate it
on the side or rear of buildings. Visually screen parking
areas with vegetation or create urban blocks that allow for
screening of parking structures with residential units or
retail on street level.
• Character and Quality- Enhance the quality and character
of surrounding communities. Allow for well-designed
buildings that emphasize place making. Orient buildings to
new and existing streets and squares. Use transitions in
height and massing to respect, but not mimic, the fabric of
nearby districts.
• Architecture- Encourage architecture that reflects transit's
civic importance, creating buildings that, regardless of of
architectural style, employ materials and design that
convey a sense of quality, permanence, and community-
enriching character.
• Sustainability- The combination of transit use and intense
development around transit stations is one of planning's
most powerful policies for long-term sustainability. Plans,
guidelines and development approaches should work to
reinforce this use and intensity. On a building or project
scale, build for sustainability, including site and building
design, which reflects a commitment to environmental
responsibility.
PARTICIPATION
ROLE OF PARTICIPATION
Community participation is the involvement of people in the
creation and management of their built and natural
environments. Its strength is that it cuts across traditional
professional boundaries and cultures. The activity of community
participation is based on the principle that the built and natural
environments work better if citizens are active and involved in
its creation and management instead of being treated as
passive consumers (Sanoff 2000).
The main purposes of participation are:
- to involve citizens in planning and design decision-making
processes and, as a result, make it more likely they will
work within established systems when seeking solutions to
problems;
- to provide citizens with a voice in planning and decisions,
service delivery, and overall quality of the environment, and
- to promote a sense of community by bringing together
people who share common goals.
Participation should be active and directed; those who become
involved should experience a sense of achievement. Traditional
planning procedures should be reexamined to ensure that
participation achieves more than simply affirmation of the
designer’s or planner’s intentions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPATION
Although any given participation process does not automatically
ensure success, it can be claimed that the process will minimize
failure. Four essential characteristics of participation can be
identified:
- Participation is inherently good.
- It is a source of wisdom and information about local
conditions, needs, and attitudes, and thus improves the
effectiveness of decision making.
- It is an inclusive and pluralistic approach by which
fundamental human needs are fulfilled and user values
reflected.
- It is a means of defending the interest of groups of people
and of individuals, and a tool for satisfying their needs,
which are often ignored and dominated by large
organizations, institutions, and their bureaucracies.
- Experiences in the participation process show that the main
source of user satisfaction is not the degree to which a
person’s needs have been met, but the feeling of having
influenced the decisions.
LADDER OF CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
The ladder of citizen participation presents a typology of eight
levels of participation. Each rung of the ladder corresponds to
the degree to which stakeholders had power in determining the
outcome. The gradation represented go from non-participation
to token participation to various degrees of citizen power. While
the ladder was conceived in the context of federal programs of
the late 1960's, planners and urban designers today still should
strive to ensure that they are working near the top of the ladder
in their public participation activities.

CATEGORIES OF PARTICIPATION
Participation can be classified into four categories, or
“Experiences” to achieve agreement about what the future
should bring (Burns 1979)
- Awareness: this experience involves discovering or
rediscovering the realities of a given situation so that
everyone who takes part in the process speaks the same
language, which is based on experiences in the field where
change is proposed.
- Perception: this entails going from awareness of the
situation to understanding it and its physical, social,
cultural, and economic ramifications. It means sharing so
that the understanding, goals, and expectations of all
participants.
- Decision making: this experience concentrates on
working from awareness and perception to a plan for the
situation under consideration. Here participants propose
plans, based on their priorities, for professionals to use as
resources to synthesize alternative and final plans.
- Implementations: many community-based planning
processes stop with awareness, perception, and decision
making. This can have significant detrimental effects on a
project because it ends people’s responsibilities when the
“how-to, where-to, when-to, and who-will-do-it” must be
added to what people want and how it will look. People must
stay involved throughout the processes and take
responsibility with their professionals to see that there are
results (Hurwitz 1975)
DETERMINATION OF GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
The planning that accompanies the design of any
participation program should first include a determination of
participation goals and objectives. Participation goals will differ
from time to time and from issue to issue. In addition,
participation is likely to be perceived differently depending on
the type of issue, people involved and political setting in which
it takes place. If differences in expectations and perception are
not made clear, the expectations of those involved in the
participation program will likely not be met, and people will
become disenchanted.
Related to this, to address participation effectively, the
task should conceptualize what the objective is for involving
citizens. For example, is the participation intended to:
- generate ideas
- identify attitudes
- disseminate information
- revolve some identified conflict
- measure opinions
- review a proposal; or
- provide a forum to express general feeling
PLANNING FOR PARTICIPATION
Once planners have identified the overall goals and objectives
for the participation process, planning for participation requires
the following steps (Rosner 1978)
- Identify the individuals or groups that should be involved in
the participation activity being planned.
- Decide where in the process the participants should be
involved, from development to implementation to
evaluation.
- Articulate the participation objectives in relation to all
participants who will be involved.
- Identify and match alternative participation methods to
objectives in terms of the resources available.
- Select an appropriate method to be used to achieve specific
objectives.
- Implement chosen participation activities.
- Evaluate the implemented methods to see to what extent
they achieved the desired goals and objectives.
-
THEORY AND PRACTICE
The theories and practices of participation can be synthesized
into the following five statements:
There is no “best” solution to design and planning
problems. Each problem can have several solutions, based
traditionally on two sets of criteria:
- Facts; the empirical data concerning material strengths,
economics, building codes, and so forth.
- Attitudes; interpretation of the facts, the state of the art in
any particular area, traditional and customary approaches,
and value judgements.
- “Expert” decisions are not necessarily better than “lay”
decisions”
Given the facts with which to make decisions, citizens can
examine the available alternatives and choose among them. In
a participation process, planners and designers should work
along with citizens to identify possible alternatives, discuss
consequences of various alternatives, and state opinions about
the alternatives (not decide among them).
“A planning task can be made transparent.”
Professionals often consider alternatives that are frameworks in
their minds. They should be presented for users to discuss. After
understanding the components of planning decisions and
exploring alternatives, citizens in effect can generate their own
plan rather than to react to one provided for them. The product
is more likely to succeed because it is more responsive to the
needs of the people who will use it.
“All individuals and interest groups should come together
in an open forum.”
In this setting, people can openly express their opinions, make
necessary compromises, and arrive at decisions acceptable to
all concerned. By involving as many interests as possible, the
product is strengthened by the wealth of input. In turn, learning
more about itself strengthens the citizens’ group.
“The process is continuous and ever changing.”
The product is not the end of the process. It must be managed,
reevaluated, and adapted to changing needs. Those most
directly involved with the product, the users, are best able to
assume those tasks.
The professional’s role is to facilitate the citizen group’s ability
to reach decisions through an easily understood process. Most
often this will take the form of making people aware of
alternatives. This role also includes helping people develop their
resources in ways that will benefit themselves and others.
INDICATORS OF THE VALUE OF PARTICIPATION
A review of the public literature, conducted by Lach and Hixson
(1998), revealed that participants valued such issues as public
acceptability, accessibility, good decision making, education
and learning, time commitment, and trust. To identify value and
cost indicators of public involvement, they conducted interviews
with people who had been involved in participatory projects.
Combining the literature review, interviews, and expert
judgement, they identified these key indicators of the value of
the participation.
- Opening the process to stakeholders
- Diversity of viewpoints
- Meaningful participation
- Integration stakeholder concerns
- Information exchange
- Saving time
- Saving and avoiding cost
- Enhanced project acceptability
- Mutual learning
- Mutual respect
Lach and Hixson also developed direct and indirect cost
indicators of the public involvement effort. Certain costs can be
linked to traditional accounting practice, such as preparation
and participation time, facilities, materials, and services. Other
indirect costs, such as participants’ time commitment, lack of
opportunity to participate in other projects, and heavy emotional
demands on participation, cannot be easily measured. The
intent of their research was to develop prototype indicators to be
tested in ongoing and completed public involvement programs.
Results from project participants indicated that the positive
aspects of their involvement were twofold: (1) a diversity of
viewpoints in the participation process was valuable; (2) project
savings occurred in the form of saving and avoiding cost.
PARTICIPATION PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES
Most development projects employ a wide range of participatory
processes and techniques. They require different resources and
respond to different objectives identified by the community
group. Each technique is briefly defined in the following list, and
its deployment is noted at the beginning of each project.
- Charrette: A process that convenes interest groups in
intensive, interactive meetings lasting several days.
- Community action planning: A process that empowers
communities to design, implement, and manage their own
community programs.
- Focus groups: A structured interview consist of several
individuals, permitting discussion of ideas.
- Game simulation: A technique of abstracting the essential
elements of a problem without the normal constraints.
- Group interaction: A process in which interpersonal
techniques are used to facilitate discussion and problem
solving.
- Participatory action research: An empowerment process
that involves participants in research and decision making.
- Public forum: An open meeting held by an organization or
agency to present information about a project at any time
during the process.
- Strategic planning: A process for developing strategies
and action plans to identify and resolve issues.
- Visioning: A process to think about how the community
should be and find ways to identify, strengthen, and work
toward the end.
- Workshop: Working sessions to discuss issues to reach
an understanding of their importance.
URBAN RENEWAL
A comprehensive scheme to redress a complex of urban
problems, including:
• unsanitary, deficient, or obsolete housing.
• inadequate transportation, sanitation, and other
services and facilities; haphazard land use; traffic
congestion.
• and the sociological correlates of urban decay, such as
crime.

Early efforts usually focused on housing reform and
sanitary and public health measures, followed by a growing
emphasis on slum clearance and the relocation of population
and industry from congested areas to less-crowded sites, as in
the garden city and new-towns movements in Great Britain. Late
20th-century criticisms of urban sprawl prompted new interest in
the efficiencies of urban centralization.
Each country approaches urban renewal according to its
means and its political and administrative systems. One of the
chief activities of urban renewal is redevelopment, which is
achieved through the clearance and rebuilding of structures that
are deteriorated or obsolete in themselves or are laid out in an
unsatisfactory way. Other aspects of urban renewal involve the
reuse of the land for new purposes, rehabilitation of structurally
sound buildings that have deteriorated or lost their original
functions, and conservation—a protective process designed to
maintain the function and quality of an area, for instance, by
requiring or assisting adequate maintenance while preventing
inappropriate development or uncharacteristic changes in the
use of land and buildings.
Important processes in urban renewal
• Enlargement of pedestrian zones, mostly in the centers
of cities
• Renewal of historic tradition –housing, industrial units,
open spaces, green areas, parks, specific milieus
• New construction – interpolations or renovations of the
whole part of a city .
• The creation of new construction zones
• Construction of new housing and business buildings
• “Beautification”, refurbishing usually of central parts of
cities – new lights, new pavements, new urban
“furniture”
• Rehabilitation of old and organization of new green and
recreation areas
• Restrictions of the extension of private traffic,
especially into central zones
• Better organization, expansion, and multiplication of
types and means of public transportation.
MAJOR TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN URBAN RENEWAL –
• Reconstruction
• A process of change of primarily physical structure of
a city.
• Process, actions: new construction.
• Less a process of rehabilitation of the existing
structures and social composition of population.
• Usually, limited to local issues, indirectly affecting
wider areas of the city
• Revitalization
• Wider and more complex process of urban renewal.
• A complex evaluation of the reasons for degradation
and the needs for revitalization – of what, why, “how
much”, and “how”?
• “Bringing back the life” into the degraded urban
situations.
• Actions, methods, concepts: reconstruction, bringing in
“new, more carrying population”, new constructions,
rehabilitation of the existing structures and contents,
new situations.
• Regeneration
• Similar to revitalization.
• Development and implementation of many measures
to revitalize, regenerate and reconstruct of the
degraded parts of cities, as a whole and/or as parts,
milieus.
• Actions: reconstruction of the existing structures,
situations, construction of new structures and spaces,
rehabilitation of “old” parts ...
• Sensitive towards the existing structures that are taken
as starting points in the planning of regeneration –
what, how, what is “valuable”, where ...
• Restoration
• Primarily a process of the renewal of traditional, but
degraded elements of physical structures (situations)
that used to exist before.
• Restoration of old layouts of streets, squares, milieus,
details... “going backward”.
• Reconstruction of industrial architecture.
• A combination of the facsimile methods, principles of
“retraditionalization”, old and new structures.
• Reconstruction of old elements but also new
construction and replicas of old milieus.
Touristification? Commercialization of the remains of
the past?
• Gentrification
• A process of change of social structure of inhabitants,
mostly in the degraded parts of the city.
• Type of change – from poor to rich social structures
...from less to higher carrying capacity of the
inhabitants.
• Who will start to live in the regenerated urban
conditions ... and ...will introduce “new lifestyles”,
bringing in also higher levels of aspirations in
consumption?
• In that sense expanded the changed structures
(“gentrified”) to the wider parts of cities.
PRINCIPLE OF URBAN RENEWAL
• Urban renewal must be planned and – fundamentally –
realized with the current residents and entrepreneurs.
• Planners must reach an agreement with residents and
entrepreneurs about the aims of the renewal measures.
Technical and social plans will go hand in hand.
• The special character (of Kreuzberg) must be preserved. In
parts of the city that are under pressure, confidence must
be reawakened. Fundamentally threatening damage to
housing should be redressed immediately.
• The careful change of floor plans will enable new housing
types.
• The renewal of houses and buildings must be gradual and
must be completed little by little.
• The physical situation must be improved by minimum
demolition, green development in courtyards, and by the
decoration of facades.
• Public facilities such as streets, squares and parks must be
renewed and preserved in accordance with public needs.
• The rights of participation and tangible rights of persons
affected by the social planning must be settled.
• Decisions about urban renewal must be made in an open
way and preferably be discussed on location. The
participation of affected people is to be reinforced.
• After confidence has been generated, urban renewal needs
solid financial commitments. Money must be available
quickly.
• New forms of project responsibility must be developed. The
responsibility for the commissioning and the responsibility
for the actual work of the renewal measures must be
separated.
• Urban renewal according to this concept must be secured
for the duration of the International Building Exhibition.
OBJECTIVES OF URBAN RENEWAL
Urban renewal needs the participation of the government, the
URA, relevant District Councils, individual owners, professionals
and non-governmental organizations. The main objectives are:
• improve the living conditions of those residing in old
districts;
• redeveloping dilapidated buildings into new buildings of
modern standard and environmentally-friendly design;
• restructuring and re-planning of concerned urban areas;
• designing more effective and environmentally-friendly
local transport and road networks within the concerned
urban areas;
• rationalizing land use within the concerned urban areas;
• promoting sustainable development in the urban areas;
• promoting the timely maintenance and rehabilitation of
buildings in need of repair;
• preserving buildings, sites and structures of historical,
cultural or architectural value;
• preserving as far as practicable local characteristics;
• preserving as far as practicable the social networks of the
local community;
• providing purpose-built housing for groups with special
needs, such as the elderly and the disabled;
• providing more open space and community/welfare
facilities; and
• enhancing the townscape with attractive landscape and
urban design.
EXAMPLES OF URBAN RENEWAL
1. Cheonggyecheon, Seoul, South Korea
Cheonggyecheon is a 10.9 km (7.0 miles)
long, modern public recreation space in downtown
Seoul, South Korea. The massive urban renewal
project is on the site of a stream that flowed before the
rapid post-war economic development required it to be
covered by transportation infrastructure. The $900
million project initially attracted much public criticism
but, after opening in 2005, has become popular among
city residents and tourists. The stream was opened to
the public in September 2005 and was lauded as a
major success in urban renewal and beautification.
Creating the environment with clean water and natural
habitats was the most significant achievement of the
project. Species of fish, birds, and insects have
increased significantly as a result of the stream
excavation.
The stream helps to cool down the
temperature on the nearby areas by 3.6 °C on average
versus other parts of Seoul. The number of vehicles
entering downtown Seoul has shown a decrease of
2.3%, with an increasing number of users of buses (by
1.4%) and subways (by 4.3% - daily average of
430,000 people) as a result of the demolition of the two
heavily used roads. This has a positive influence by
improving the atmospheric environment in the region.
The project attempted to promote the urban
economy through amplifying urban infrastructure for a
competitive city within the existing business and
industrial area centered on the stream. The Urban
renewal project was the catalyst of revitalization in
downtown Seoul. Cheonggyecheon became a center
for cultural and economic activities.
2. Rockwell Center, Makati City, Philippines
In 1995, Rockwell Land’s story began with the
transformation of an unused thermal power plant into a
thriving, self-sustained community. Now known as the
Rockwell Center, this flagship development was the
first of several exceptional communities which now
 serve as the benchmark for living, leisure, and
business.
A member of the Lopez Group of Companies,
Rockwell Land continues to raise the standard for living
spaces, creating environments that seamlessly
harmonize residences, workspaces, and lifestyle hubs,
all with the Rockwell signature of innovation,
exclusivity and unparalleled quality.
previous inhabitants of lower social status (Hamnett, 1991).
Evidently, gentrification involves physical upgrading and
shift in the social composition residents, as well as
economic and cultural changes.
2. Incumbent upgrading: Incumbent upgrading implies that
long-term residents (owner-occupiers) of the neighborhood
invest in the renovation of their properties to improve their
own housing conditions (Beauregard & Holcomb, 1981).

In contrast to gentrification, rehabilitation of housing by

URBAN REVITALIZATION
incumbent upgrading does not displace indigenous population.
Urban revitalization means to put new life into cities
Beside gentrification and incumbent upgrading does not
and to upgrade areas for higher social and economic uses.
displace indigenous population. Beside gentrification and
Urban revitalization involves investment to remodel or rebuild a
incumbent upgrading (Criekingen and Decroly, 2003)
portion of urban environment to accommodate more profitable
recognized two other processes, marginal gentrification and
activities and expand opportunities for consumption, particularly
upgrading, which are however rather nuances of the previous
retail and housing for middle- and upper-income households.
two. While gentrification is lead by new class of highly skilled
According to Cowan (2005) revitalization is used to
and highly paid 'gentrifiers' and results in creation of wealthy
refer to ways of bringing a place to life (e.g. finding new uses for
neighborhood, marginal gentrification is associated with middle
old buildings, promoting cultural activities) that, unlike
class households and implies rather trendy than wealthy
regeneration do not necessarily involve significant buildings.
neighborhood as an outcome (Criekingen & Decroly, 2003).
Upgrading refers to revitalization process in long established
Two (2) Major Components of Urban Revitalization
middle- and upper-class neighbourhoods where the physical
1. Social Component – focused on residential areas
improvements mainly consist of minor renovations made by
2. Economic Component – targeted at commercial services
newcomers (Criekingen & Decroly, 2003).
Residential restructuring implies rehabilitation of housing stock
Two (2) Contrasting Process in Commercial Revitalization
and residential environment of inner city neighborhoods with a
1. Adaptive re-use - the conversion of industrial sites and
view to attract middle class consumers. Commercial
warehouse (brownfields) in Central and inner cities into
redevelopment of CBD or local commercial centers entails
residential lofts, retail stores or office spaces (Zielenbach,
physical renovation and economic revitalization secured by new
2000).
retail and office schemes, congress and cultural centers or sport
2. Commercialization - Commercialization implies the
arenas.
increase of commercial functions in total land use of the
area either by replacement of previously residential
Two (2) Approaches to Revitalization (Zielenbach)
functions in existing structure or by new construction on
1. Individual-based approaches aim at people and
empty or previously developed land (Sykora, 1999).
improvement of their living conditions in neighborhoods
(e.g. anti-poverty programs, new employment
EIGHT (8) KEY ELEMENTS OF SUCCESSFUL
opportunities, and support of social institutions).
REVITALIZATION PROGRAMS
2. Place-based approaches emphasize local economic
Urban commercial districts face complex and locally
development and increase in real estate values (e.g.
specific problems and no one approach can possibly be
adaptive re-use, gentrification, incumbent upgrading). Two
successful in every urban district. Local Initiatives Support
(2) Processes of Larger Revitalization Changing residential
Corporation’s (LISC) strategy for commercial revitalization is
neighborhoods Transforming commercial areas the
built around the need for flexible, on-theground responses to
processes of residential revitalization generally suppose
the specific issues facing each neighborhood. The specific work
improvements to the built environment, yet they vary in
plans and projects of each program will vary tremendously, but
terms of population change and social status growth.
LISC’s experience to date leads to the conclusion that
successful neighborhood commercial revitalization programs
Two (2) Contrasting Process in Residential Revitalization
share the following key elements:
(Beaugard and Holcomb,1981)
1. Community Initiated: Successful urban neighborhood
1. Gentrification: Gentrification involves invasion of middle-
business district revitalization programs must evolve from
class or higher-income groups to traditionally working class
key community stakeholders’ desire to affect positive
areas where they renovate housing and displace the
 change. Key stakeholders include residents, merchants
and property owners supported by community-based
organizations, local government and others important to the
revitalization process.
2. Comprehensive: Truly effective urban neighborhood
business district revitalization programs must be
comprehensive in their design and implementation,
addressing a wide array of social, economic, physical and
political issues.
3. Collaborative: Creating an effective collaborative process
is extremely important to the revitalization effort for two
primary reasons: It allows stakeholder voices to be heard
and brings together the collective resources of the
community.
4. Diverse: Based on current demographic trends, urban
neighborhoods are becoming increasingly culturally,
racially, and economically diverse places to live, work and
recreate. The best revitalization programs embrace this
diversity and incorporate it as a community asset.
5. Vision Directed: Obtaining community buy-in for a specific
vision-directed revitalization plan for a neighborhood
business district can be very challenging but is critical to
success. The agreed upon vision should focus on the future
and lead to specific, realistic and achievable activities
directed toward changes—both large and small— within a
certain timeframe within a certain timeframe.
6. Capital Intensive: In most urban neighborhoods, success
will involve significant new capital investment in commercial
and residential real estate development, interior and
storefront renovations, infrastructure and streetscape
improvements. The revitalization plan must ensure the
availability of adequate capital to support these types of
activities.
7. Market Oriented: Urban neighborhood business districts
must begin their revitalization efforts with the appropriate
market information including an in-depth analysis of the
specific economic, social and physical conditions present in
the district. Conducting market analyses, completing
business inventories, undertaking consumer surveys and
other market research will greatly assist stakeholders in
understanding their markets and will lead to the
development of realistic strategies for economic growth.
8. Sustainable: Revitalization of urban neighborhood
business districts requires a longterm approach.
Stakeholders must continuously identify resources, both
financial and human, to sustain the revitalization effort as
well as build new institutional and systemic change
mechanisms to manage the business district as a
community asset over the course of many years.
URBAN REDEVELOPMENT
Redevelopment consists of the removal of existing
buildings and the re-use of cleared land for the implementation
of new projects (Miller, 1959). This approach is applicable to
areas in which buildings are in seriously deteriorated condition
and have no preservation value, or in which the arrangement of
buildings are such that the area cannot provide satisfactory
living conditions (Miller, 1959). In such cases, demolition and
reconstruction, of whole blocks or of small sections, is often
thought to be the only solution to ensure future comfort and
safety of the residents.
For developers, redevelopment represents maximum
profit through the sale of new centrally-located units. For local
governments, this approach represents maximum use of land,
higher floor area ratio, and has the advantage of introducing
higher income groups and commercial activities to the city
center, which increase tax revenues. It also leads to higher
population density and improved services and infrastructures,
which is highly desirable for modernizing inner-city areas (Zhu
Zixuan, 1989).
However, this approach may carry heavy social and
environmental costs. The demolition of architectural
environments is probably the most serious consequence of the
redevelopment approach (Kazemian, 1991). It can bring about
the sacrifice of a community's cultural heritage and the
destruction of viable neighborhoods, depriving people of
valuable housing resources which in many cases still serve a
useful function (Frieden, 1964). Redevelopment generally
involves the relocation of the original population to another part
of the city. Even when the residents are rehoused on the same
site after its redevelopment, the transformation of the
neighborhood beyond recognition has inevitable psycho logical
impacts upon the community.
In his book The Future of Old Neighborhoods, Bernard
J. Frieden (1964: 123) summarizes the social costs of
redevelopment in these terms:
"For tenants, owners, and businessmen alike,
the destruction of the neighborhood exacted social and
psychological losses. The clearance destroyed not
only old buildings, but a functioning social system. The
scattering of families and friends was especially
harmful to the many older people."
Redevelopment leads to the destruction of badly
needed housing units and it does not prevent slums from
reappearing in other parts of the city. It also contributes to the
impoverishment of the original residents by reduction of job
opportunities, as resettlement areas are usually located outside
of the city proper (Mirbod, 1984).
In the majority of western countries, redevelopment
has been discarded as a way to rejuvenate old city centers.
However, in many developing countries, redevelopment through
slum clearance and reconstruction is still regarded as the only
viable way to improve housing conditions and to modernize municipal government had clear control - streets, municipal art,
inner-city areas. public buildings, and public spaces. The results can be seen
today in dozens of cities, particularly in civic centers, municipal
OBJECTIVES OF REDEVELOPMENT buildings, and the like.
• Promote historic preservation to maintain the township’s The City Beautiful movement obviously has closed
unique character, protect designated historic resources and links to the municipal art movement, and to argue about whether
complement economic development efforts. a turn-of the century city hall and adjacent public spaces are
• Provide a balanced land use pattern that preserves products of one movement rather than the other is unimportant.
residential neighborhoods, strengthens the vitality of Perhaps what distinguishes the two movements is more a
commercial districts, enhances remaining industrial areas, matter of scale than intent. The municipal art movement tended
preserves and addresses parks and open space, protects to focus on particular points in the city: an arch, a plaza, a traffic
environmentally sensitive natural features, accommodates circle, a fountain. The City Beautiful movement sought to create
community facilities and facilitates local/regional or remake a part of the city: a civic center, a boulevard, a
circulation. parkway.
• Eliminate blighting, deteriorated and deteriorating
area/influences. JANE JACOBS AND THE SOCIAL USAGE TRADITION
• Support and stimulate further growth of commercial and THE SOCIAL USAGE TRADITION- The social usage tradition
industrial uses and other similar uses consistent with the emphasized the way in which people use and colonize space. It
Redevelopment Plan. encompassed issues of perception and sense of place.
Kevin Lynch identified as the key proponent of this approach.
CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT Jarvis (1980 p.58) highlights that Lynch's attempt to shift the
One can consider the City Beautiful Movement a way focus of urban design in two ways.
opening new ideas in planning (urban design) where the intent
 In terms of appreciation of the urban
is to improve and beautify the public spaces in cities - a sort of
environment: rejecting the notion that this was an
redevelopment and/or renewal strategy during the 1890s to
exclusive and elitist concern, Lynch emphasized that
1920s mostly in American cities.
pleasure in urban environments was a commonplace
The City Beautiful Movement brought together the
experience.
ideas of municipal art, civic improvement, and landscape
 In terms of the object of study: instead of examining
design. The event that is generally considered to mark the
the physical and material form of urban environments,
beginning of the movement is the 1893 Columbian Exposition in
Lynch suggested examining people's perception and
Chicago.
mental images.
Designed by Daniel Burnham, possibly the most
JANE JACOBS - whose book "The Death and Life of Great
prominent architect and urban designer of the day, and
American Cities" attacked many of the fundamental concepts of
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr (the son of the designer of Central
"Modernist" urban planning and heralded many aspects of
Park), the fairgrounds presented the visitor with a carefully
contemporary urban design - was a key proponent of Social
integrated combination of landscaped areas, promenades,
Usage Tradition, arguing that the city could never be a work of
exposition halls, and other buildings. By the time the exposition
art because art was made by "selection from life", while a city
closed, some 26 million people had seen it. By itself, the
was "life at its most vital, complex and intense".
exposition opened the nation's eyes to what the planner, the
Concentrating on the socio-functional aspects of streets,
architect, and the landscape architect, working in concert, could
sidewalks, and parks - Jacobs emphasized their role as
do.
containers of human activity and places of social interaction.
"In this "White City" of almost 700 acres
Chicagoans and millions of visitors accustomed to
urban ugliness, saw for the first time a splendid
example of civic design and beauty in the classic
pattern and on grand scale, and they liked it. Indeed it
marked the beginning in this country of orderly
arrangement of extensive building and grounds."

One effect of the exposition was to set off a wave of

planning activity in American cities. Plans coming out of the City
Beautiful movement tended to focus on those things over whihc
EARLY PLANNING THEORIES 5. New Capitals- Due to the difficulty of redesigning and
improving a city that already has lots of structures and
1. The Reform Movements- The reform movements is a
settled communities, there was a trend to propose to
collection of urban planning proposals by socialists
move the capital city to another location so that it can
whose idea is not just to improve the city but to create
be built and designed "from scratch". Some examples
improvements in the lives of the workers.
of this is Brasilia in Brazil by Lucio Costa, Canberra in
One example of this is Robert Owens and his
Australia by Walter Griffin, Chandigard in India by Le
Owenite Communities. According to Owens, the
Corbusier, and New Delhi in India by Sir Edward
character of man is formed by circumstances over
Lutyens.
which he had no control. Because of this, the great
6. City of Towers- Le Corbusier proposed the Radiant
secret in the right formation of man's character is to
City which is designed to contain effective means of
place him under proper influences from his earliest
transportation, as well as an abundance of green
years. To do this, he established New Lanark Mills,
space and sunlight. At the core of this plan is zoning.
wherein he implemented some of his ideas.
Although, at first glance, it appears to be similar to our
Another personality related to this is Tony
present-day city of towers, the main difference of this
Garnier. Garnier's idea is that all men are inherently
one with the current scenario is that for Le Corbusier,
cooperative and equal; and that there is a need for man
building vertically is a move to be able to have more
to be emancipated from the monotony of labor to be
open spaces at ground level.
able to take on more fruitful occupations. His proposal,
7. Broadacres and Mile High Illinois- For Frank Lloyd
Une Cite Industrielle, discussed a hypothetical
Wright, with the developments in modern technology,
industrial city for approximately 35,000 inhabitants, to
transportation, and communication systems, there was
be situated on a plateau with high land and lake to the
no longer any need for people to huddle together in
north and a valley and river to the south.
cities. In line with this, broadacres proposes that each
2. Garden City Movement- The Garden City Movement,
person should be given an acre of land on which to
proposed by Ebenezer Howard, is a hypothetical city
raise his own food. All of the other provision of his
that will be able to combine the positive characteristics
proposal also promotes decentralization.
of both the town/city and country, without any of their
Another proposal of Frank Lloyd Wright is the
negative characteristics. The most important feature of
Mile High Illinois - a visionary skyscraper that is over 1
this proposal is the agricultural belt that will limit the city
mile high, which will consolidate all the government
growth and concentrate the social life within the city.
offices in Chicago. In his vision, 10 of these
The first garden city that was established is Letchworth
skyscrapers will be able to replace all of Manhattan.
in Hertfordshire, England, designed by Raymond
8. Arcology- This is a proposal by Paolo Soleri for a very
Unwin and Barry Parker in 1902. This is followed by densely populated, ecologically low-impact human
Welwyn, which was designed by Louis de Soissons.
habitats. The term Arcology is formed from the
3. Parks Movements- This movement is spearheaded combination of Architecture and Ecology.
by Frederick Law Olmsted who designed (among
9. The Linear City- This proposal by Arturo Soria y Mata
many others) Central Park in New York. According to
replaced the traditional idea of the city as having a
Olmsted, cities should be designed 2 generations
center and a periphery with the idea of constructing
ahead to maintain sufficient breathing space.
linear sections of infrastructure along an optimal line
4. City Beautiful Movement- This is an American urban
and then attaching the other components of the city
planning movement led by architects, landscape
along that line. The arrangement of the components
architects, and reformers. The movement started with
are dependent on the direction of wind.
the Daniel Burnham's exhibit of the White City during 10. Roadtown and Motopia- Edgar Stephen Chambless
the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition.
wrote Roadtown, wherein he proposed a linear city
City Beautiful Movement focused on incorporating a built on top of the railway line. A somewhat similar
civic center, parks, and grand boulevards in the design
proposal was made by Geoffrey Jellicoe, with Motopia,
of cities. As the name suggests, it's the total
which is a network of rooftop highways with traffic
concentration on the monumental and on the
circles every mile, leaving the ground plane completely
superficial, including the use of architecture as
free.
symbols of power. Examples of these are most of the
11. Mixed-Use Development- Although mixed-use
plans of Daniel Burnham (including his proposal for
development is common nowadays, during the time of
Manila) and the redesign of Paris under Baron
the early planning theories, it was still a very novel
Georges-Eugene Haussmann.
 idea. The Barbican Estate in London, designed by
Chamberlain, Powell, and Bon, was an early type of
PUD. The project intended to increase the local density
while providing a breathing space through substantial
open area.
12. Neighborhood Unit- This is a planning theory
proposed by Clarency Perry which encourages social
interaction and cohesion among residents living in the
neighborhood by segregating high vehicular traffic
areas in the periphery and the pedestrian traffic at the
core. His ideas were realized by Clarence Stein
through the design of Radburn.