Reservoir Engineering 1

(PET 323)
Dr O.O. Akinsete
 Course Content
• Introduction

• Material Balance Equation

• Water Influx
INTRODUCTION
• Note that every reservoir is composed of a unique combination of
geometric form, geological rock properties, fluid properties and
characteristics, and primary drive mechanism.

• Reservoirs are not identical in all aspects, they can be grouped according to
the Primary Recovery Mechanism by which they produce.

• The recovery of oil by natural drive mechanisms is called Primary Recovery

– which refers to the production of hydrocarbons from a reservoir without
the use of any process (such as fluid injection) to supplement the natural
energy of the reservoir.
• For a proper understanding of reservoir behaviour and predicting future
performance, it is essential to have knowledge of the driving mechanisms
that control the behavior of fluids within reservoirs.
• The overall performance of oil reservoirs is largely determined by the
nature of the energy, i.e., driving mechanism, available for moving the oil
to the wellbore.
• There are fundamentally six driving mechanisms that provide the natural
energy required for oil recovery:
i. rock and liquid expansion drive;
ii. depletion drive;
iii. gas cap drive;
iv. water drive;
v. gravity drainage drive;
vi. combination drive.
• The typical performance characteristics of each drive mechanism are in
terms of:
i. ultimate recovery factor;
ii. pressure decline rate;
iii. gas–oil ratio;
iv. water production.
THE MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
• The Material Balance Equation (MBE) has long been accepted as one
of the basic tools of reservoir engineers for interpreting and
predicting reservoir performance.
• The MBE, when properly applied, can be used to:
i. estimate initial hydrocarbon volumes in place
ii. predict reservoir pressure
iii. calculate water influx
iv. predict future reservoir performance
v. predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of
primary drive mechanisms.
• The accuracy of the calculated values depends:
i. on the reliability of the available data and
ii. if the reservoir characteristics meet the assumptions that are associated
with the development of the MBE.

• The MBE is based on the principle of conservation of mass – i.e. to keep

inventory of all materials entering, leaving, and accumulating in the
reservoir.
• The MBE is commonly known as a tank model i.e. region that is
characterized by homogeneous rock properties and described by an
average pressure, i.e., no pressure variation throughout the reservoir, at
any particular time or stage of production.
• These assumptions are of course unrealistic since reservoirs are generally
considered heterogeneous with considerable variation in pressures
throughout the reservoir.
• However, it is shown that the tank-type model accurately predict the
behaviour of the reservoir in most cases if accurate average pressures and
production data are available.
• It is also known as zero-dimensional (0-D) model.
 The Generalised MBE
• The Basic Assumptions made in using the MBE are as follows:
1. Constant temperature
2. The reservoir has uniform porosity, permeability, and thickness characteristics.
Also, the shifting in the gas–oil contact or oil–water contact is uniform
throughout the reservoir.
3. The fluid recovery is considered independent of the rate, number of wells, or
location of the wells.
4. The time element is not explicitly expressed in the material balance when
applied to predict future reservoir performance.
5. All parts of the reservoir have the same pressure and fluid properties are
therefore constant throughout.
6. Constant reservoir volume
The following symbols are used in deriving the MBE
• Schilthuis (1941) presented the concept of MBE on volumetric basis
as:
initial volume = volume remaining + volume removed
• The MBE calculations required the total pore volume (PV) to be expressed as
follows:
PV occupied by the oil initially in place at pi 
 PV occupied by the gas in the gascap at pi
PV occupied by the remaining oil at p
 PV occupied by the gas in the gascap at p
 PV occupied by the evolved solution gas at p
 PV occupied by the net water inf lux at p
 change in PV due to connate water exp ansion
 PV reduction due to rock exp ansion
 PV occupied by the injected gas at p
 PV occupied by the injected water at p
 Initial volume of oil  NBoi (bbl )

initial volume of gascap GBgi

m 
initial volume of oil NBoi

initial volume of gascap, GBgi  mNBoi (bbl )

• Total initial volume of hydrocarbon system:

initial oil volume  initial gascap volume  PV 1  S wi 
NBoi  mNBoi  PV 1  S wi 
NBoi  mNBoi NBoi 1  m 
PV  
1  S wi 1  S wi
 The General Material Balance Equation (MBE)

     
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg  We  W p Bw  Ginj Bg inj  Winj Bwinj
N
 Bg   swi cw  c f 
Bo  Boi   Rsi  Rs Bg  mBoi   1  Boi 1  m  p
 Bgi   1  swi 

Note : Gp  RpN p
• Each term in the numerator of the left hand side of the general MBE
represents an amount of hydrocarbon or water production and injection.

• Each term in the denominator of the left hand side of the general MBE
accounts for a method of fluid production.

• The first three terms account for the expansion of any oil and/or gas zones
present

• The fourth term accounts for the change in void space volume – which is
the expansion of the formation and connate water
 For a Volumetric Undersaturated Reservoir
• Oil reservoir is considered as undersaturated when the reservoir pressure
is above bubble point pressure of the crude oil system.
• A volumetric undersaturated reservoir with no fluid injection has the
following conditions: m = 0, We=0, Rs=Rsi=Rp
• The general MBE becomes:
N p Bo
N where p  pi  p
 swi cw  c f 
Bo  Boi   Boi   p
 1  swi 
pi  Initial reservoir pressure
p  current reservoir pressure
• Introducing oil compressibility co

1 Bo 1 Bo  Boi
co  
Boi p Boi p

Re arranging : co Boi p  Bo  Boi (*1)

• Recall the volumetric MBE

N p Bo
N  where p  pi  p
 s wi cw  c f 
Bo  Boi   Boi   p
 1  s wi
 

substituti ng equation (*1)
N p Bo N p Bo
N  
 s wi cw  c f   s wi cw  c f 
co Boi p  Boi   p Boi co   p
 1  s wi
 
 
 1  s wi 

• Note that soi =1 – swi
• The MBE above the bubble point pressure becomes:

N p Bo
N 
 s wi cw cf 
Boi co    p
 1  s wi 1  s wi 

N p Bo N p Bo
N  
 co 1  s wi   s wi cw  c f   co soi  cw s wi  c f 
Boi   p Boi   p
 1  s wi   1  s wi 

N p Bo
N 
Boi ce p

• The term in the square bracket is called the effective compressibility

 Examples
1. The following data is available on a volumetric undersaturated oil
reservoir: Pi =4000 psi, Pb = 3000 psi, co =15×10-6 psi-1, cw =3×10-6
psi-1, cf =5×10-6 psi-1, N = 85 MMSTB, Swi = 30%, Boi = 1.40 bbl/STB
Estimate cumulative oil production when the reservoir pressure drops
to 3500 psi. The oil formation volume factor at 3500 psi is 1.414
bbl/STB. Answer: Np = 985,916 STB OR 985.92 MSTB

2. Start from the general MBE show that the volumetric undersaturated
reservoir with no fluid injection is given by: N p Bo
N
State all assumptions Boi ce p
 Reservoir Driving Indices
• In a combination drive reservoir i.e. a reservoir in which all the driving
mechanisms are simultaneously present.

• It is necessary to determine the relative magnitude of each of the driving

mechanisms and its contribution to the production.

• Rearranging the general MBE, we have:

  B    swi cw  c f 
 NmBoi  g  1  NBoi 1  m 

N Bo  Boi   Rsi  Rs Bg   Bgi   
We  W p Bw   1  swi 

 p Winj Bwinj Ginj Bg inj
 
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg   

 N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg    
 
 N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg

   
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg  


N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg

   
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg
1
  
 
 

DDI  SDI  WDI  EDI  WII  GII 1

 B  
 NmBoi  g  1 

N Bo  Boi   Rsi  Rs Bg    Bgi  
Where : DDI 

N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg    Depletion Drive Index SDI  
 
 N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg   

Segregation ( gascap ) Drive Index
 
 

 swi cw  c f 
NBoi 1  m    pi  p 
We  W p Bw   1  swi 
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg     
WDI  Water Drive Index Expansion ( Rock and Liquid ) Drive Index
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg

Winj Bwinj Ginj Bg inj

WII 
 
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg   Injected Water Index GII 
 
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg   Injected gas Index
 Examples
3. A combination drive reservoir contains 10 MMSTB of oil initially in place.
The ratio of the original gas cap volume to the original oil volume is 0.25.
The initial reservoir pressure is 3000 psia at 150◦F. The reservoir
produced 1 MMSTB of oil, 1100 MMscf of gas of 0.8 specific gravity, and
50 000 STB of water by the time the reservoir pressure dropped to 2800
psi. The following PVT data is available:
Calculate:
(a) Cumulative gas-oil ratio scf/stb; (1100 scf/stb)
(b) The cumulative water influx; (411.28 Mbbl)
(c) The cumulative water influx neglecting the rock and fluid expansion
(417.70 Mbbl)
(d) The net water influx; (361.28 Mbbl)
(e) The primary driving indices at 2800 psi.
(DDI = 43.85% SDI = 34.65% WDI = 21.12% EDI = 0.38%)
WATER INFLUX
• Almost all hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded by water-bearing rocks
called aquifers.

• These aquifers may be substantially larger than the oil or gas reservoirs
they adjoin as to appear infinite in size, or they may be so small in size as to
be negligible in their effect on reservoir performance.

• As oil and gas are being produced from the reservoirs there is a subsequent
pressure drop which prompts a response from the aquifer to offset the
pressure decline.

• This response comes in the form of water influx, commonly called water
encroachment.
• This water encroachment is attributed to:
i. The expansion of the water in the aquifer
ii. Compressibility of the aquifer rock
iii. Artesian flow where the water-bearing formation outcrop is located structurally
higher than the pay zone

Classification of Aquifer
• Reservoir-aquifer systems are commonly classified based on:
i. Degree of pressure maintenance
ii. Outer boundary conditions
iii. Flow regimes
iv. Flow geometries
 Degree of Pressure Maintenance
• Based on the degree of reservoir pressure maintenance provided by the
aquifer, the natural water drive is often qualitatively described as:
i. Active water drive
ii. Partial water drive
iii. Limited water drive

• The term active water drive refers to the water encroachment mechanism
in which the rate of water influx equals the reservoir’s total production
rate.
ew = QoBo + Q gBg + QwBw **1
where
• ew = water influx rate, bbl/day
• Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
• Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
• Qg = free gas flow rate, scf/day
• Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
• Qw = water flow rate, STB/day
• Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB

• Expressing equation (**1) in terms of cumulative production, gives:

 dN p dN p dW p
 GOR  Rs 
dWe
ew   Bo Bg  Bw ** 2
dt dt dt dt

We = cumulative water influx, bbl t = time, days

Np = cumulative oil production, STB GOR = current gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
Rs = current gas solubility, scf/STB Bg = gas FVF, bbl/scf
Wp = cumulative water production, STB
dNp/dt = daily oil flow rate Qo, STB/day
dWp/dt = daily water flow rate Qw, STB/day
dWe/dt = daily water influx rate ew, bbl/day
(GOR − Rs)dNp/dt = daily free gas flow rate, scf/day
 Example
4. Calculate the water influx rate ew in a reservoir whose pressure is
stabilized at 3000 psi.
• Given: initial reservoir pressure = 3500 psi;dNp/dt = 32,000 STB/day
• Bo = 1.4 bbl/STB, GOR = 900 scf/STB, Rs = 700 scf/STB
• Bg = 0.00082 bbl/scf dWp/dt = 0 Bw = 1.0 bbl/STB

Solution
ew = 50,048 bbl/day
 Outer boundary conditions
• The aquifer can be classified as infinite or finite (bounded).
• Geologically all formations are finite but may act as infinite if the changes in the
pressure at the oil-water contact are not “felt” at the aquifer boundary.

Flow Regimes
• Three flow regimes influence the rate of water influx into the reservoir.
• These flow regimes are Steady state, Semisteady (pseudosteady) state and
Unsteady-state

Flow Geometries
• Reservoir-aquifer systems can be classified based on flow geometry such as
Edge-water drive, Bottom-water drive, and Linear-water drive
 Water Influx Models
• Several models have been developed for estimating water influx that are based
on assumptions that describe the characteristics of the aquifer.
• The mathematical water influx models that are commonly used in the petroleum
industry include:
i. Pot aquifer
ii. Schilthuis’ steady-state
iii. Hurst’s modified steady-state
iv. The Van Everdingen-Hurst unsteady-state (Edge-water drive, Bottom-water
drive)
v. The Carter-Tracy unsteady-state
vi. Fetkovich’s method (Radial aquifer, Linear aquifer)
 The Pot Aquifer Model
• This is the simplest model used to estimate the water influx into a gas or oil
reservoir. It is based on the basic definition of compressibility.

• A drop in the reservoir pressure, due to the production of fluids, causes the
aquifer water to expand and flow into the reservoir.

• The compressibility equation gives: ΔV = c V Δ p

• Applying the compressibility equation to the aquifer gives:

• Water influx = (aquifer compressibility) (initial volume of water)(pressure drop)
• Mathematically gives:

 
We  cw  c f Wi f  pi  p  ** 3


f  ** 4
360

Wi   a e
 
  r 2  r 2 h 
 ** 5
 5.615 
• We = cumulative water influx, bbl
• cw = aquifer water compressibility, psi−1
• cf = aquifer rock compressibility, psi−1
• Wi = initial volume of water in the aquifer, bbl
• pi = initial reservoir pressure, psi
• p = current reservoir pressure (pressure at oil-water contact), psi
• ra = radius of the aquifer, ft
• re = radius of the reservoir, ft
• h = thickness of the aquifer, ft
• φ = porosity of the aquifer
• f = fractional encroachment angle
• Θ = encroachment angle
 Example
• Calculate the cumulative water influx that results from a pressure drop of
200 psi at the oil-water contact with an encroachment angle of 80°. The
reservoir-aquifer system is characterized by the following properties:

Solution
We = 48,689 bbl
 END OF CLASS

GOOD SUCCESS IN YOUR EXAMINATION

IN
JESUS CHRIST NAME