ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR CH-19

Living Organisms vs. Non-living Things

Living organisms respond to changes in their environment, which helps them survive and
reproduce.
Adapting through Behaviour.
Behaviour is a crucial way organisms adapt to environmental changes, either through
inherited traits or learned experiences.
Understanding Behaviour
Behaviour is how organisms react to stimuli, such as moving towards food or engaging in
complex actions like mating.
Stimuli and Response:
Stimuli are environmental changes detected by sensory cells, leading to responses such as
moving away from danger or seeking food.
Interpreting Signals
Signals from sensory cells are sent to the central nervous system (CNS) for interpretation,
sometimes leading to reflex actions or conscious responses.
Types of Responses
Organisms can respond positively (attracted) e.g. a person becomes happy after hearing a
good news is a positive response, negatively (avoiding) a dog hides when you wants to give
it a bath is a negative response, or ignore e.g. you pay no attention to slight changes in the
room temperature.
Stimuli based on their needs or instincts.
Genetics and Behaviour
Genes influence Behaviour by controlling physiological systems like the nervous system,
affecting responses to stimuli.

Define biological rhythms. How are biological rhythms important to man?

Biological Rhythms
Biological rhythms encompass cyclic physiological patterns of activities in organisms,
responding to periodic environmental changes.
These rhythms are governed by an internal mechanism known as the biological clock, which
regulates physiological activities independently of external stimuli.
Circadian Rhythms
The activity of most organisms is synchronized with the day-night cycle, exhibiting a pattern
of activity over a 24-hour period, known as circadian rhythms.
 Diurnal Animals: Organisms, such as butterflies, birds, and many mammals, are most
active during daylight hours.
 Nocturnal Animals: Species like cockroaches, owls, and bats are active during the night.
 Crepuscular Animals: Some animals, like mosquitoes, display activity during dawn and
dusk.
Circannual Rhythms
Apart from daily rhythms, some animals exhibit annual rhythms, termed as circannual
rhythms.
These rhythms are associated with yearly cycles and include phenomena such as bird
migration, reproductive cycles in various insects, fishes, birds, and mammals, as well as
hibernation patterns in animals.
Significance of Biological Rhythm

1. Sleep-Wake Cycle Regulation: Circadian rhythms help regulate the sleep-wake cycle,
ensuring that humans are awake and alert during the day and can restorative sleep at
night. Disruptions to this rhythm, such as shift work or jet lag, can lead to sleep disorders
and impact overall health.
2. Hormonal Regulation: Many hormones, including cortisol, melatonin, and growth
hormone, are released in a rhythmic pattern. These hormones play essential roles in
metabolism, immune function, stress response, and growth.
3. Body Temperature Regulation: Circadian rhythms influence body temperature, with
core body temperature typically peaking in the late afternoon and reaching its lowest
point during the early morning hours. This temperature variation helps regulate various
physiological processes.
4. Cognitive Function: Biological rhythms affect cognitive function, including memory,
attention, and decision-making abilities. Disruptions to circadian rhythms can impair
cognitive performance and increase the risk of accidents and errors.
5. Mood and Mental Health: Circadian rhythms also influence mood regulation, with
disruptions contributing to mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder.
Maintaining regular sleep-wake patterns and exposure to natural light can help stabilize
mood.
6. Reproductive Health: Biological rhythms play a role in reproductive health, influencing
menstrual cycles, fertility, and pregnancy. Hormonal fluctuations regulated by circadian
rhythms are essential for reproductive function.
7. Metabolic Health: Circadian rhythms impact metabolism and energy regulation,
affecting processes such as appetite, glucose metabolism, and fat storage. Disruptions to
circadian rhythms, such as irregular eating patterns or nighttime eating, can contribute to
obesity and metabolic disorders.

Animal Behaviour
In the realm of animal Behaviour, two main categories are observed:

Innate Behaviour
Innate Behaviour refers to instinctual patterns of Behaviour that are genetically programmed
within an organism. These Behaviours are not learned but rather inherent and play crucial
roles in an animal's adaptation and survival strategies e.g. a human newborn instinctively
grasps objects placed on his palm.

Orientation Behaviour, often referred to as Taxis (plural: taxes), is a type

of innate Behavioural response exhibited by organisms in reaction to a stimulus.
Taxis can be either positive or negative, depending on whether the organism moves toward
(positive taxis) or away from (negative taxis) the stimulus.

Types of Taxis:
1. Chemotaxis:
Positive Chemotaxis: Movement toward a chemical stimulus.
Example: Bacteria moving towards a higher concentration of nutrients.
Negative Chemotaxis: Movement away from a chemical stimulus.
Example: Fish avoiding polluted water by swimming away from areas with high chemical
concentrations.
2. Phototaxis:
Positive Phototaxis: Movement toward a light source.
Example: Moths being attracted to light sources during the night.
Negative Phototaxis: Movement away from a light source.
Example: Earthworms burrowing deeper into the soil to avoid exposure to light.
3. Thigmotaxis:
Positive Thigmotaxis: Movement toward physical contact or a surface.
Example: Cockroaches seeking shelter in tight spaces.
Negative Thigmotaxis: Movement away from physical contact or a surface.
Example: A caterpillar moving away from rough or abrasive surfaces.
4. Rheotaxis:
Positive Rheotaxis: Movement in response to water current.
Example: Salmon swimming upstream to spawn.
Negative Rheotaxis: Movement away from water current.
Example: Small aquatic organisms being carried downstream to avoid strong currents.
5. Magnetotaxis:
Positive Magnetotaxis: Movement toward a magnetic field.
Example: Some bacteria orient themselves along the Earth's magnetic field lines.
Negative Magnetotaxis: Movement away from a magnetic field.
Example: Certain organisms avoiding areas with strong magnetic disturbances, such as those
caused by power lines.
6. Aerotaxis:
Positive Aerotaxis: Movement toward a specific concentration of gases.
Example: Bacteria moving toward areas with higher oxygen levels.
Negative Aerotaxis: Movement away from a specific concentration of gases.
Example: Certain insects avoiding areas with high carbon dioxide concentrations, like around
decaying matter.
Kinesis: Simple Non-Orientation Behaviour in Woodlice
Introduction: Kinesis is a type of non-directional movement in response to a stimulus.
Unlike taxis, which involve directed movement towards or away from a stimulus, kinesis
involves a random change in activity or speed in response to a stimulus. Woodlice, also
known as pill bugs or sow bugs, exhibit kinesis in their Behaviour, particularly in response to
environmental factors such as humidity and light.
1. Stimulus: The stimuli that trigger kinesis in woodlice can vary, but commonly include
changes in environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature, light intensity, or
chemical cues.
2. Humidity: Woodlice are highly sensitive to changes in humidity levels. When exposed to
dry conditions, they will increase their activity level, moving more rapidly and erratically.
Conversely, in high humidity, their activity may decrease, and they may seek shelter or
reduce their movement.
3. Light: Light also influences the Behaviour of woodlice. In response to sudden changes in
light intensity, such as exposure to bright light, woodlice may exhibit increased activity,
moving more randomly. Conversely, in darkness or low light conditions, they may reduce
their activity and seek shelter.
4. Temperature: While woodlice are ectothermic and their body temperature is influenced
by their environment, extreme temperatures can still affect their Behaviour. In response to
extreme cold or heat, woodlice may increase their activity levels as they seek out more
suitable environmental conditions.
5. Chemical Cues: Woodlice can also respond to chemical cues in their environment, such as
the presence of predators or food sources. While not as well studied as responses to physical
stimuli, changes in chemical cues can also trigger kinesis in woodlice.
Example: Consider a scenario where a woodlouse is foraging on the forest floor. Suddenly, a
shaft of sunlight penetrates the canopy, illuminating the area where the woodlouse is present.
In response to the sudden increase in light intensity, the woodlouse begins to exhibit kinesis.
It moves more erratically and rapidly, perhaps seeking shelter under nearby leaf litter or
debris to avoid desiccation.
Non-Orientation Behaviour:
In these behaviour animals do not show movement toward particular directions in response to
stimuli.
These are more complex behaviour than orientation.
These include, reflexes, instincts and motivations etc.
What is reflex? Give three examples of reflexes in vertebrates.
A reflex is an involuntary, nearly instantaneous movement or response to a stimulus. These
responses are typically automatic and do not require conscious thought. Reflexes help
organisms react quickly to potential threats or changes in their environment.
Examples of reflexes in vertebrates include:
1. Knee-jerk reflex: When a doctor taps the patellar tendon just below the kneecap with a
reflex hammer, the quadriceps muscle group stretches, leading to a reflexive contraction
of the quadriceps and a quick extension of the lower leg. This reflex helps maintain
posture and balance.
2. Withdrawal reflex: If you accidentally touch a hot object, such as a stove, sensory
neurons in your skin quickly send signals to your spinal cord. In response, motor neurons
transmit signals back to muscles, causing you to withdraw hand from the hot surface. This
reflex helps prevent tissue damage from heat.
3. Blink reflex: When something approaches eyes suddenly, like an insect flying toward
face, sensory neurons in cornea or surrounding tissues detect the threat. Signals are
rapidly sent to your brainstem, triggering a reflexive contraction of the muscles around
eyes, causing you to blink involuntarily. This reflex helps protect eyes from potential
harm.
Instinctive behaviour
An instinctive behaviour that becomes a fixed pattern is often referred to as an "instinctive
fixed action pattern" or simply a "fixed action pattern" (FAP).

Fixed action patterns are innate behaviour that are relatively invariant, meaning they're
stereotyped and largely unaffected by experience. They are typically triggered by specific
stimuli, known as releasers or sign stimuli, and once initiated, they unfold in a predictable
sequence. These behaviour are often critical for survival and reproduction in many animal
species.

Migration of Salmon Fish:

Salmon migration is a fascinating example of instinctual Behaviour in the animal kingdom.

There are several key aspects to their migratory Behaviour:
 1. Reproductive Instinct: Salmon migrate primarily for reproductive purposes. They
return from the ocean to the freshwater streams and rivers where they were born to
spawn. This homing instinct is particularly remarkable, as it often involves navigating
hundreds or even thousands of miles back to their natal streams.
2. Smoltification: Young salmon, known as smolts, undergo physiological changes
called smoltification before migrating to the ocean. During this process, they adapt to
the increased salinity of seawater, preparing them for the transition from freshwater to
saltwater environments.
3. Feeding in the Ocean: After migrating to the ocean, salmon spend several years
feeding and growing in marine environments. This feeding phase is crucial for their
survival and growth before they return to freshwater to spawn.
4. Return Migration: When it's time to spawn, adult salmon navigate back to their natal
streams using a combination of olfactory cues, geomagnetic orientation, and possibly
celestial navigation. The exact mechanisms by which salmon find their way back to
their spawning grounds are still not fully understood but are thought to involve a
combination of sensory abilities.
5. Physiological Changes: Upon returning to freshwater, salmon undergo additional
physiological changes, such as changes in coloration and body shape, as they prepare
for spawning.
6. Spawning and Death: Once they reach their spawning grounds, salmon spawn and
then typically die shortly afterward. This cycle of migration, spawning, and death
provides essential nutrients to the freshwater ecosystems, benefiting both the
environment and other organisms.

Nest building by Birds:

The tailorbird is renowned for its remarkable nest-building abilities, exhibiting intricate
and precise Behaviours that are largely instinctual:

1. Material Selection: Tailorbirds typically use plant fibers, leaves, grass, and spider silk to
construct their nests. They select appropriate materials based on availability and suitability
for constructing a sturdy nest.
2. Weaving: Tailorbirds are known for their unique method of sewing leaves together to form a
pouch-like nest. They use their sharp beaks to pierce holes in the edges of leaves and then use
plant fibers or spider silk to stitch the leaves together in a tailored fashion, hence the name
"tailorbird."
3. Structural Design: Tailorbirds construct their nests in such a way as to provide stability and
protection for their eggs and chicks. They carefully weave and stitch the leaves to create a
strong, cup-shaped structure that can withstand environmental elements.
4. Location Selection: Tailorbirds choose the location of their nests wisely, often preferring
dense foliage or bushes that provide concealment and protection from predators. They may
also select locations with ample food sources nearby to facilitate feeding their young.
5. Instinctual Knowledge: Much of the tailorbird's nest-building Behaviour is innate, passed
down through generations genetically. While young tailorbirds may observe their parents
during the nest-building process, their ability to construct nests with precision largely comes
from instinct rather than learning.
6. Repetitive Behaviour: Tailorbirds exhibit repetitive actions during nest construction,
following a sequence of steps that are characteristic of their species. This repetitive
 Behaviour streamlines the nest-building process and ensures consistency in the final
structure.
7. Adaptability: While the basic technique of leaf-stitching remains consistent across tailorbird
species, there may be variations in nest design and material usage based on environmental
factors and habitat availability. Tailorbirds demonstrate adaptability in their nest-building
Behaviour to suit different ecological conditions.

Building of spiders orb web

The construction of a spider's orb web is a fascinating process that involves precision, skill,
and instinct. A general overview of how spiders build their orb webs:

1. Selection of Location: Spiders typically choose a suitable location to build their

webs, often in areas with abundant prey such as insects. Factors like wind patterns,
sunlight exposure, and structural support are considered.
2. Silk Production: Spiders produce silk from specialized glands located at the rear of
their abdomen. The silk is initially in liquid form but quickly hardens upon exposure
to air. Different types of silk serve various purposes in web-building, including
structural support, capturing prey, and wrapping prey for consumption.
3. Framework Construction: The spider starts by releasing a bridge line or a dragline
silk thread from its spinnerets to another surface. This initial thread serves as an
anchor point. Then, the spider constructs a Y-shaped framework using non-sticky silk
to outline the basic shape of the web.
4. Spiral Construction: Next, the spider begins to create the sticky spiral threads. It
moves in a spiral pattern from the center of the web outward, depositing sticky
droplets of silk at regular intervals. The spider avoids getting caught in its own web
by using non-sticky threads as it moves.
5. Stabilimenta (optional): Some species of spiders incorporate stabilimenta into their
webs. These are additional silk structures that reinforce or decorate the web.
Stabilimenta may serve various functions, including making the web more visible to
birds to avoid accidental damage.
6. Waiting for Prey: Once the web is complete, the spider typically waits patiently at
the center or nearby, often hidden or camouflaged, for prey to become ensnared in the
sticky silk.
7. Feeding: When prey is caught in the web, the spider detects the vibrations and rushes
to immobilize it further with silk. It then injects venom to subdue or kill the prey
before wrapping it in silk for later consumption.
8. Maintenance and Recycling: Spiders periodically rebuild or repair their webs due to
damage, weather conditions, or prey capture. They may consume and recycle old silk
to conserve energy and resources.

The courtship Behaviour of stickleback fish

The courtship Behaviour of stickleback fish, particularly the three-spined stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculeatus), is a fascinating subject studied by ethologists and biologists.
Sticklebacks are known for their complex mating rituals, which involve a series of displays
and interactions between males and females. Here are some key aspects of stickleback
courtship Behaviour:
1. Nest Building: Male sticklebacks typically build nests using plant materials, algae, and other
debris. These nests serve as the focal point for courtship and mating.
2. Territorial Defense: Male sticklebacks establish territories around their nests and defend
them aggressively against other males. This territorial Behaviour is often accompanied by
displays of threat, including erecting the spines on their back.
3. Coloration Changes: During courtship, male sticklebacks often exhibit vibrant coloration,
especially on their underside, to attract females. This coloration is thought to be a visual
signal of their fitness and readiness to mate.
4. Dancing Displays: Male sticklebacks perform elaborate dances around their nests to attract
females. These dances can involve rapid movements, zigzagging, and fin displays, all aimed
at capturing the attention of potential mates.
5. Nuptial Gifts: In some stickleback species, males may offer nuptial gifts to females as part
of their courtship Behaviour. These gifts, often in the form of food items, serve to
demonstrate the male's ability to provide for the female and her offspring.
6. Female Choice: Female sticklebacks are selective when choosing a mate. They may assess
male displays, nest quality, and overall health before deciding to spawn with a particular
male.
7. Spawning: Once a female is sufficiently impressed by a male's courtship displays and nest
quality, she will enter the nest to deposit her eggs. The male then fertilizes the eggs, and both
parents may engage in parental care to protect the nest and offspring.
8. Reproductive Success: Courtship Behaviour in sticklebacks is crucial for reproductive
success. Males that exhibit stronger courtship displays and build better nests are more likely
to attract mates and pass on their genes to the next generation.
Learning Behaviour
Contrary to innate Behaviour, learned Behaviour is acquired through experiences and
interactions with the environment.
Animals can modify their Behaviour based on past experiences, allowing them to adapt to
changing circumstances and environments.
Learning Behaviour enhances an animal's flexibility and ability to thrive in various ecological
niches. Learning behaviour is more prominent in those animals that have a comparatively
long life span and well developed nervous system.

Distinguish between learning and innate behaviour:

Innate behaviour Learning behaviour

Innate behaviour is inherited come
with the someone's birth
It is reflex action of organism when
exposed to stimulus
It is permanent, cannot be modified
and remains same in the next
generation
It contributes in the survival and
proper functioning of organism
It is more common in those animals
having short life span
In this behaviour animal
requires no time to adapt them
Leg moving upward by newborn baby
is the example of innate behaviour
Learning behaviour is acquired by
knowledge/ experience from society
It is learned or acquired behaviour which is
based on knowledge or experience
It can be modified by the experience and
does not remain same in the next
generation.
It improves the Behavioural traits in an
organism to fit in a given situation
It is more common in those animals having
long life span
In this behaviour animals requires more
time to adapt them
Playing cricket is the example of learning
behaviour
Habituation
Habituation is a form of learning in which an organism decreases or ceases its response to a
stimulus after repeated exposure to it. This process is adaptive because it allows animals to
filter out irrelevant or non-threatening stimuli and focus their attention on more important or
novel ones.
Let's consider an example of habituation in squirrels:
Imagine there's a feeder in a backyard that regularly dispenses nuts for squirrels. Initially,
when the feeder is installed, the squirrels in the area are quite cautious and vigilant around it.
When the feeder dispenses nuts, the squirrels may approach it cautiously, inspecting the
feeder and the area for any potential threats. However, as days go by and the feeder
consistently dispenses nuts without any harm, the squirrels start to become habituated to the
presence of the feeder.
Over time, the squirrels' response to the feeder diminishes. They may no longer exhibit the
same level of caution or vigilance. Instead, they may approach the feeder more readily and
without much hesitation. This change in Behaviour reflects habituation – the squirrels have
learned that the feeder and its operation pose no threat, so they no longer feel the need to
respond as strongly to its presence.

Imprinting:
Imprinting Behaviour, as elucidated by Konrad Lorenz, is a concept in ethology (the study of
animal Behaviour) referring to a rapid, innate learning process through which a newborn or
very young animal establishes a bond with its caregiver. This bond is often very strong and
has lifelong effects. Lorenz's work on imprinting, particularly with ducks and geese, laid the
foundation for our understanding of the critical period in which imprinting occurs and its
significance for social and cognitive development.
Key points about imprinting Behaviour by Konrad Lorenz include:
1. Critical Period: Lorenz observed that imprinting occurs during a specific, limited period
early in an animal's life, often shortly after birth. During this time, the animal is
particularly receptive to forming social attachments with its caregiver or other objects it
encounters.
2. Irreversible: Imprinting is typically irreversible once it occurs. The bond formed during
imprinting is strong and persists throughout the animal's life, influencing its social
Behaviour and interactions.
3. Species Specificity: Imprinting tends to be species-specific. Animals imprint on members
of their own species or objects that resemble them. This specificity ensures that the young
animal forms appropriate social bonds with conspecifics, enhancing its chances of
survival and reproductive success.
4. Maternal Imprinting: Lorenz's experiments with birds, particularly ducks and geese,
demonstrated how young birds imprint on the first moving object they encounter after
hatching, often their mother. This imprinting leads the young birds to follow the object
and learn essential Behaviours from it.
5. Ethological Significance: Lorenz's research on imprinting provided valuable insights into
the social and cognitive development of animals. It also highlighted the importance of
early experiences in shaping Behaviour and the role of instinctual Behaviours in survival
and adaptation.
6. Human Application: While Lorenz's work primarily focused on animal Behaviour, the
concept of imprinting has also been applied to human development. Some researchers
suggest that early experiences, particularly in infancy and early childhood, can have
 profound and lasting effects on individuals' social and emotional development, echoing
the principles of imprinting observed in non-human animals.

Differentiate habituation and imprinting as reversible and

irreversible behaviour:
Habituation and imprinting are both forms of learning in animals, but they differ in their
mechanisms and reversibility.
1. Habituation:
 Definition: Habituation is a form of non-associative learning where an organism becomes
less responsive to repeated stimuli over time.
 Reversibility: Habituation is generally reversible. If the stimulus stops being presented
for a period, the habituated response can recover, a process known as spontaneous
recovery. For example, if a loud noise repeatedly startles a person, they may habituate to
it and become less startled over time. If the noise stops for a while and then starts again,
the person might startle again initially, but the habituation process may reoccur.
 Examples: Habituation can be seen in various organisms, from simple organisms like sea
slugs to complex ones like humans. For instance, habituation can occur in laboratory
animals like rats being habituated to the presence of a researcher in their cage.
2. Imprinting:
 Definition: Imprinting is a form of learning in which a very young animal fixes its
attention on the first object with which it has visual, auditory, or tactile experience and
thereafter follows that object. This usually occurs during a critical period early in the
animal's development.
 Reversibility: Imprinting is often considered irreversible, especially if it occurs during a
critical period. Once an animal imprints on a certain stimulus, it typically retains that
preference or recognition for the rest of its life. However, in some cases, imprinting may
not be entirely irreversible, especially if the critical period hasn't passed. There might be
instances where the imprinted Behaviour could be modified or overridden through
subsequent learning experiences.
 Examples: Classic examples of imprinting are seen in birds, such as ducklings imprinting
on the first moving object they encounter, often their mother. Konrad Lorenz's studies on
geese demonstrated imprinting, where young geese would imprint on him if he was the
first moving object they saw after hatching.

classic conditioning
Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning, is
a type of associative learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
In other words, it's a process by which an organism learns to associate two stimuli and
anticipate events.
Pavlov's classic experiment on classical conditioning is one of the most famous studies in the
field of psychology. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, conducted this experiment in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The experiment involved conditioning dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the arrival of
food. Pavlov would ring a bell every time he presented food to the dogs. Initially, the dogs
would salivate naturally in response to the sight and smell of the food. However, after several
pairings of the bell (neutral stimulus) with the food (unconditioned stimulus), the dogs began
to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even when no food was present.
In this experiment, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is the food, which naturally triggers a
response of salivation (unconditioned response, UR) from the dogs. The neutral stimulus
(NS) is the bell, which initially does not evoke a salivary response. However, through
repeated pairings with the food, the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a
conditioned response (CR) of salivation from the dogs.

Instrumental conditioning (Trial and Error Learning)

Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, is a type of learning process
through which the strength of a Behaviour is modified by reinforcement or punishment. The
term "instrumental" refers to the fact that the Behaviour is instrumental in obtaining a desired
outcome or avoiding an aversive one.
B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, is best known for his work on operant conditioning
and the development of the "Skinner box" or operant conditioning chamber. This apparatus is
a controlled environment used to study Behaviour and conditioning in animals, particularly
rats and pigeons.
In a typical Skinner box, an animal (such as a rat) is placed inside a chamber with a lever or a
key that it can press, as well as devices for delivering rewards (such as food) or punishments
(such as electric shocks). The animal's Behaviour, such as pressing the lever, can be
reinforced or punished depending on the consequences. Through repeated trials and errors,
the animal learns which Behaviours are rewarded or punished, and it adjusts its Behaviour
accordingly.

Skinner's work laid the foundation for understanding how Behaviours are shaped by their
consequences, and it has applications in various fields such as education, therapy, and animal
training.

Latent Learning:
 Latent learning refers to the type of learning that occurs without any obvious
reinforcement or motivation.
 It was first studied by psychologist Edward Tolman in the 1930s then it was studied by
KL. Lashley through experiments with rats.
 In one of his famous experiments, Tolman placed rats in a maze without any food rewards
or punishments.
 Initially, the rats seemed to wander aimlessly, but over time, they started to navigate the
maze more efficiently, even though there was no explicit reinforcement.
 This suggested that the rats were learning about the maze's layout and developing a
cognitive map of it, even though there was no external reward driving their Behaviour.
 This type of learning became known as latent learning because it remains "latent" or
hidden until there's a reason to demonstrate it, such as when reinforcement is introduced.

Latent learning highlights the idea that organisms can learn from their environment and
acquire knowledge even without immediate reinforcement or explicit instruction. This
concept has important implications for understanding human and animal Behaviour, as it
suggests that learning is not always a direct result of reinforcement but can occur through
observation and exploration as well.
Insight Learning
It is an ability of animal to solve problems through insight rather than just through
trial-and-error learning.

Wolfgang Kohler was a German psychologist who is best known for his experiments on
insight learning in chimpanzees during the early 20th century. The most famous of these
experiments took place on the island of Tenerife in the 1910s, where Köhler studied the
Behaviour of captive chimpanzees.

In one of Kohler's experiments, he placed a banana just out of reach of a chimpanzee named
Sultan, who was placed inside a cage. Along with the banana, Köhler provided Sultan with
several sticks of varying lengths. Sultan initially tried to reach the banana using his hands and
feet, but when he couldn't reach it, he seemed to give up.

After a period of apparent frustration and contemplation, Sultan suddenly grabbed two sticks
and used them as extensions to reach the banana. This Behaviour demonstrated what Köhler
termed "insight," where the solution to the problem seemed to come to Sultan suddenly,
rather than through trial-and-error learning. Köhler interpreted this Behaviour as evidence of
problem-solving through insight rather than through gradual learning.

This experiment and others like it conducted by Köhler contributed significantly to our
understanding of animal cognition, particularly the ability of animals to solve problems
through insight rather than just through trial-and-error learning. These findings challenged the
Behaviourist view dominant at the time, which suggested that all learning could be explained
through reinforcement and conditioning. Instead, Koehler’s work suggested that animals, like
humans, could sometimes demonstrate more complex cognitive processes such as insight.

SOCIAL LEARNING
Social learning in animal Behaviour refers to the acquisition of new Behaviours or
information through observation, imitation, or interaction with other members of the same
species or even different species.
While once believed to be a uniquely human trait, social learning has been observed in a wide
range of animal species, from insects to mammals.

Aggregation and animal societies

Aggregation in animal societies refers to the tendency of individuals to group together in
social units. These aggregations can range from temporary associations to complex and
highly organized societies. Animal societies exhibit various forms of aggregation, each
serving different functions and driven by different ecological and evolutionary pressures.

Hostile and helpful intrspecific interaction

Intraspecific interactions refer to interactions that occur between members of the same
species. These interactions can vary widely in nature, from cooperative and mutually
beneficial interactions to competitive and even hostile interactions e.g. Honeybees. In the
hive there are three different castes i.e. workers, drones and queen. In the hostile interaction,
the workers become old and unable to perform their duties, furthermore than these workers
are killed by other workers. In helpful interaction all castes work together like workers collect
nectar and convert into honey, drones are specific to provide defense mechanisms and
fertilize the eggs and queen lay eggs.

Agonistic Behaviour
In animal societies, conflicts arise over limited resources like food, mates, or territory.
Agonistic Behaviour resolves these conflicts through aggression, threats, rituals, or combat.
Males often use signals to assert dominance and defend territories, maintaining social order
and hierarchies.
Example:
 Male birds singing loudly to establish territory boundaries.
Territory
Territory is a defined area used by animals for various activities like feeding, mating, or
rearing young. Animals use agonistic Behaviour to defend their territories against intruders,
ensuring exclusive access to resources.
Example:
 A male lion marking its territory with scent glands to ward off other males.
Territorial Behaviour in Gorillas
Gorillas live in social groups called troops and exhibit non-territorial Behaviour. The
dominant male, or silverback, protects the troop and has exclusive breeding rights. Female
rank is determined by troop entry order, while adolescent males may split off to form their
own families.
Example:
 A silverback gorilla intimidating rivals by standing tall and beating its chest.
Territorial Behaviour in Baboons
Baboons live in troops and exhibit territorial Behaviour. Dominant males defend the troop
against threats and decide movement. Vocalization and displays are often enough to deter
intruders.
Example:
 Male baboons displaying aggression with their sharp teeth to assert dominance.
Dominance Hierarchy
Dominance hierarchy determines access to resources within a social group, with higher-
ranking individuals enjoying priority. Aggressive Behaviours establish and maintain these
hierarchies.
Introduction:
Chickens, like many other social animals, establish a pecking order within their flock. This
hierarchical structure plays a crucial role in determining access to resources such as food and
nesting spots. Understanding the dynamics of the pecking order is essential for poultry
farmers and enthusiasts to manage their flocks effectively.

1. What is the Pecking Order?

Definition: The pecking order refers to the social hierarchy established within a group of
chickens.
Natural Behaviour: Chickens instinctively organize themselves into a hierarchy based on
dominance and submission.
Importance: Establishes order within the flock and helps in resource allocation.
2. Formation of the Pecking Order:
Establishment: Begins when chickens are young and continues to develop as they grow.
Dominance Displays: Chickens exhibit various Behaviours such as pecking, posturing, and
vocalizations to assert dominance.
Sorting Out: Through interactions, chickens determine their rank within the flock, with some
individuals emerging as dominant leaders and others as followers.
3. Role in Resource Access:
Food: Dominant chickens often get priority access to food sources, ensuring their nutritional
needs are met first.
Nesting Spots: Higher-ranking chickens typically claim preferred nesting spots, which may
influence egg production and incubation success.
Water: Dominant birds may monopolize water sources, necessitating multiple access points
to prevent bullying and dehydration.
4. Managing the Pecking Order:
Observation: Regular monitoring of flock dynamics helps identify aggressive Behaviours and
potential issues.
Providing Sufficient Resources: Ensuring ample food, water, and nesting areas reduces
competition and minimizes stress.
Space and Enrichment: Sufficient space and enrichment activities like perches and toys can
alleviate boredom and reduce aggression.
5. Challenges and Solutions:
Aggression: Aggressive pecking can lead to injuries and decreased productivity. Separating
aggressive birds or introducing distractions can mitigate conflicts.
Introducing New Birds: Integrating new chickens into an existing flock requires careful
supervision to minimize bullying and establish a new pecking order.

Altruism
Altruism is selfless Behaviour benefiting others at a cost to oneself. It's found in social
animals where individuals sacrifice personal interests for the greater good of the group.
Altruism in Honeybee Society
Introduction to Honeybee Organization: Honeybees are social insects that live together in
colonies. These colonies consist of three main types of bees: the queen, the workers, and the
drones. Each type has specific roles within the colony.
Queen Bee: The queen bee lays both fertilized and unfertilized eggs, from which other bees
develop. Special food called Royal jelly nourishes the larvae of the queen. Sometimes, a new
queen emerges, leading to complex dynamics within the hive.
Worker Bees: Worker bees are sterile females that perform various tasks within the hive.
Despite their inability to reproduce, they contribute significantly to the colony's functions.
They clean and maintain the hive, build combs, gather nectar, care for the queen, and protect
the hive.
Drone Bees: Drones are male bees that develop from unfertilized eggs. Their primary role is
to fertilize the queen during mating flights. However, they die shortly after mating.
Altruistic Behaviour: Despite being sterile, worker bees engage in altruistic Behaviour by
dedicating their lives to serving the colony and its members. They forgo reproduction and
instead focus on tasks that benefit the hive as a whole.
Conclusion: Honeybee society exemplifies altruism, with sterile female workers sacrificing
their reproductive abilities to support the colony's survival and functioning. This cooperative
Behaviour is crucial for the success and organization of honeybee colonies.