CH-17 NERVOUS COORDINATION

Why receptors are called transducers?

Receptors are often referred to as transducers because they convert one form of energy into
another. In the context of sensory physiology, receptors are specialized cells or structures that
respond to specific stimuli from the environment and convert these stimuli into electrical
signals that can be interpreted by the nervous system.
For example, in vision, photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye transduce light energy into
electrical signals that can be processed by the brain. Similarly, in hearing, mechanoreceptors
in the inner ear convert mechanical vibrations (sound waves) into electrical signals that the
brain can interpret as sound.
The term "transducer" emphasizes the function of receptors as devices that transform one form
of energy (such as light, sound, pressure, or chemicals) into another form (electrical signals)
that can be transmitted and processed by the nervous system. This conversion process is
essential for the brain to perceive and respond to stimuli from the external environment.
Why neurolemma is polarized?
The neurolemma, also known as the neurolemma or Schwann cell sheath, is a specialized
membrane that surrounds peripheral nerve fibers. It plays a crucial role in the regeneration of
damaged nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system. The polarization of the neurolemma is
primarily due to its function in nerve impulse conduction and regeneration.
1. Role in Nerve Impulse Conduction: Nerve impulses, or action potentials, travel along nerve
fibers through a process called depolarization and repolarization. The neurolemma, being a
specialized extension of Schwann cells, helps in the insulation and maintenance of the nerve
fiber. Its polarization facilitates the propagation of nerve impulses by ensuring the efficient
transmission of electrical signals along the axon.
2. Regeneration of Nerve Fibers: Following injury to a peripheral nerve, the neurolemma plays
a crucial role in the regeneration process. When a nerve fiber is damaged, Schwann cells,
including those forming the neurolemma, undergo a series of changes to facilitate nerve
regeneration. The polarization of the neurolemma aids in guiding the regenerating axon to its
original target. The neurolemma forms a tunnel-like structure called Bands of Bunger, which
provides physical support and guidance for regenerating axons, assisting them in reaching their
target tissues or organs.

What do you mean by threshold potential?

The threshold potential, also known as the threshold voltage, is a critical level of membrane
potential that must be reached in order to initiate an action potential in a neuron or muscle cell.
In neurons, the threshold potential is typically around -55 to -50 millivolts (mV) relative to the
inside of the cell compared to the outside. When the membrane potential reaches this threshold
level, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels in the cell membrane. This
causes an influx of sodium ions into the cell, depolarizing the membrane further and generating
an action potential.

In muscle cells, the threshold potential is also a critical level that must be reached to initiate
contraction. When the membrane potential of a muscle cell reaches this threshold, it triggers
the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to muscle contraction.

Why impulse move faster in myelinated neurons?

In myelinated neurons, the myelin sheath acts as an insulating layer around the axon, allowing
for faster propagation of action potentials. The impulse moves faster in myelinated neurons
due to a process called saltatory conduction.

Saltatory conduction occurs because the myelin sheath covers the axon in segments, leaving
small gaps called nodes of Ranvier between the myelin segments. These nodes contain a high
concentration of voltage-gated sodium channels, which are critical for the initiation and
propagation of action potentials.

When an action potential is generated at one node of Ranvier, it quickly depolarizes the
membrane, causing sodium ions to rush into the axon. Because the myelin sheath insulates the
axon, this depolarization cannot occur beneath the myelin. Instead, the action potential "jumps"
from one node of Ranvier to the next, where the membrane is not insulated. This rapid
propagation of the action potential from node to node significantly increases the speed at which
the impulse travels along the axon.

In contrast, in unmyelinated neurons, the action potential must propagate continuously along
the entire length of the axon membrane, which is a slower process compared to saltatory
conduction in myelinated neurons. Therefore, myelination enhances the speed of nerve
impulses by allowing them to skip along the axon rather than traveling continuously.

Why interneurons are called associated neurons?

Interneurons are often referred to as "associated neurons" because they play a crucial role in
connecting sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system (CNS). These neurons
facilitate communication between different parts of the CNS, integrating and processing
sensory information and generating appropriate motor responses.

The term "associated neurons" emphasizes their function in associating or connecting various
neural pathways. Unlike sensory neurons that carry information from sensory organs to the
CNS, or motor neurons that transmit signals from the CNS to muscles or glands, interneurons
operate within the CNS itself. They receive input from sensory neurons, process this
information, and then relay signals to motor neurons, coordinating appropriate responses.

This intermediary role makes interneurons essential for complex neurological functions such
as perception, cognition, and motor control. They enable the integration of sensory input with
motor output, allowing organisms to respond appropriately to their environment and carry out
coordinated movements.

What do you mean by saltatory conduction?

Saltatory conduction is a process by which nerve impulses propagate along myelinated nerve
fibers. Myelin is a fatty substance that insulates and wraps around the axons of neurons,
forming a sheath. This myelin sheath is not continuous but instead has small gaps called nodes
of Ranvier at regular intervals along the axon.

During saltatory conduction, the nerve impulse "jumps" or "leaps" from one node of Ranvier
to the next, rather than traveling continuously along the entire length of the axon. This jumping
occurs because the myelin sheath insulates the axon, preventing the flow of ions across the
membrane except at the nodes of Ranvier where the myelin is absent. At these nodes, ion
channels are concentrated, allowing for the rapid depolarization and propagation of the nerve
impulse.

Saltatory conduction is much faster and more energy-efficient compared to continuous

conduction along unmyelinated axons, as the nerve impulse does not have to travel along the
entire length of the axon membrane. This increase in speed and efficiency is crucial for the
rapid transmission of nerve signals in the nervous system.

Differentiate between following:

a) Electrical and chemical synapse

b) CNS and PNS
c) Excitatory neurotransmitters and Inhibitory neurotransmitters
d) Parasympathetic nervous system and Sympathetic nervous system

a) Electrical and chemical synapse

Feature Electrical Synapse Chemical Synapse
Type of Transmission via
signaling Direct transmission of electrical signals neurotransmitters
Transmission
Speed Very fast (instantaneous) Relatively slower (milliseconds)
Gap Junctions Present Absent
Synaptic Cleft Absent (narrow gap) Present (wider gap)
Signal
Amplification No amplification Signal amplification occurs
Bidirectional Yes Typically unidirectional
Energy
Consumption Low High
Typically found in some types of smooth
and cardiac muscle cells, also some Predominantly found between
Types of Cells neurons neurons in the nervous system

b) CNS and PNS

Feature Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Location Brain and spinal cord Outside the brain and spinal cord
Components Brain and spinal cord Nerves, ganglia, and receptors
Integration and processing of Transmission of information between
Function information CNS and rest of body
Protected by bone (skull, Less protected, more susceptible to
Protection vertebrae) and meninges injury
Primarily uses neurotransmitters Utilizes neurotransmitters like
Neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, etc. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.
Role in Reflexes Involved in processing reflexes Carries out reflex actions
Feature Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Transmits sensory information to the
Motor and Integrates sensory input and CNS and carries motor commands to
Sensory initiates motor responses effectors
Includes interneurons, motor Comprises sensory neurons, motor
Types of Neurons neurons, and sensory neurons neurons, and autonomic neurons
Nerve fibers can be long, extending
Nerve fibers are relatively short from the CNS to various parts of the
Size of Nerves and bundled within the CNS body
Autonomic Involved in autonomic functions Involved in autonomic functions such as
Functions such as breathing, heartbeat, etc. digestion, regulation of heart rate, etc.
Disease and Disorders include Alzheimer's, Disorders include Guillain-Barré
Disorders Parkinson's, etc. syndrome, peripheral neuropathy, etc.
Maintains a strict barrier
Blood-Brain regulating substances entering Less restrictive barrier, allowing more
Barrier the brain substances to enter
Regeneration Limited regeneration capacity Greater potential for regeneration

c) Excitatory neurotransmitters and Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter Type Function
Excitatory
Glutamate Excitatory Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
Acetylcholine (ACh) Excitatory Involved in muscle movement and cognitive function
Dopamine Excitatory Involved in reward, motivation, and pleasure
Norepinephrine Excitatory Involved in arousal and stress response
Serotonin Excitatory Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep
Inhibitory
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Inhibitory Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
Glycine Inhibitory Inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord
Dopamine Inhibitory Can also act as an inhibitory neurotransmitter
Serotonin Inhibitory Can also act as an inhibitory neurotransmitter

It's important to note that neurotransmitter systems are complex and their functions can vary
depending on the specific brain region and receptor types involved. Additionally, some
neurotransmitters can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending on the receptor
they bind to and the context of the neural circuitry.

d) Parasympathetic nervous system and Sympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System
Aspect (PNS) (SNS)
Brainstem (cranial nerves) and sacral Thoracic and lumbar regions (T1-
Origin of nerves region (S2-S4) L2)
 Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System
Aspect (PNS) (SNS)
Preganglionic fiber
length Long Short
Near spinal cord (paravertebral
Location of ganglia Near or within target organs chain)
Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh) and
released Acetylcholine (ACh) norepinephrine (NE)
Effects on heart rate Decreases Increases
Effects on pupil dilation Constricts Dilates
Effects on digestion Stimulates Inhibits
Constricts (except in skeletal
Effects on blood vessels Dilates muscles)
"Fight or flight"
response Not directly involved Major component
Effects on salivation Increases Decreases
Effects on bladder Contracts Relaxes
Effects on adrenaline Stimulates adrenal medulla to
release No significant role release adrenaline

Define the following terms:

a) Endorphin
Endorphins are natural chemicals produced by the body that act as neurotransmitters in the
brain. They are often referred to as "feel-good" hormones because they are associated with
feelings of pleasure and pain relief. Endorphins are released in response to various stimuli such
as stress, pain, exercise, laughter, and even eating spicy foods. They bind to receptors in the
brain to block pain signals and produce feelings of euphoria or well-being. Additionally,
endorphins are involved in regulating mood, appetite, and the body's response to stress.

b) Pacinian corpuscles
Pacinian corpuscles, also known as lamellar corpuscles or Vater-Pacini corpuscles, are
specialized sensory receptors found in the skin and various internal organs of vertebrates,
including humans. They are encapsulated structures composed of layers of connective tissue
and specialized cells called lamellated or Pacinian corpuscle cells.

These corpuscles are sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as pressure and vibration. When
pressure or vibration is applied to the surrounding tissue, it deforms the layers of the
corpuscle, stimulating the nerve endings within. This stimulation generates nerve impulses
that are transmitted to the central nervous system, providing information about the intensity
and frequency of the mechanical stimulus.

Pacinian corpuscles play a crucial role in the sense of touch and proprioception (the sense of
body position and movement). They are particularly abundant in areas of the skin that are
sensitive to pressure, such as the fingertips, palms, and soles of the feet. Additionally, they
are present in various internal organs, where they contribute to the perception of mechanical
stimuli within the body.

c) Nociceptor

Nociceptors are specialized sensory receptors primarily responsible for detecting potentially
harmful stimuli, such as tissue damage or intense pressure, and transmitting signals indicating
pain to the central nervous system (CNS). These receptors are found throughout the body,
particularly in the skin, connective tissues, and internal organs. When activated by noxious
stimuli, nociceptors generate electrical impulses that travel along nerve fibers to the spinal
cord and brain, where the sensation of pain is processed and interpreted. Nociceptors play a
crucial role in the body's defense mechanism by alerting the individual to potential threats
and promoting protective behaviors.

d) Reflex arc

A reflex arc is a neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. It typically consists of a
sensory receptor, a sensory neuron, an interneuron (in some cases), a motor neuron, and an
effector organ (such as a muscle or gland). When a stimulus is detected by the sensory
receptor, it generates nerve impulses that travel along the sensory neuron to the central
nervous system (CNS), where integration may occur in the interneuron. The CNS then sends
signals via the motor neuron to the effector organ, causing a rapid and involuntary response.
Reflex arcs are important for rapid, automatic responses to stimuli, helping organisms to react
quickly to potentially harmful situations without conscious thought. Examples of reflex
actions include the knee-jerk reflex and the withdrawal reflex.

e) Stroke

A stroke is a medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is
interrupted or severely reduced, depriving brain tissue of oxygen and nutrients. This can
cause brain cells to die within minutes. Strokes can result in various symptoms, including
sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm, or leg, typically on one side of the body;
confusion; trouble speaking or understanding speech; difficulty walking; dizziness; loss of
balance or coordination; and severe headache with no known cause. Strokes can be caused by
a blocked artery (ischemic stroke) or the leaking or bursting of a blood vessel (hemorrhagic
stroke). Immediate medical attention is crucial to minimize brain damage and potential long-
term disability.

f) Meningitis
Meningitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the protective membranes
covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. This inflammation is typically
caused by an infection, commonly by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, although non-
infectious causes such as certain medications, autoimmune diseases, or cancer can also lead
to meningitis.
The symptoms of meningitis can vary depending on the cause but often include severe
headache, fever, stiff neck, sensitivity to light, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and in severe
cases, seizures or coma. Meningitis can be a medical emergency, particularly bacterial
meningitis, which requires prompt diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics to prevent serious
complications such as brain damage, hearing loss, or death.
Diagnosis of meningitis usually involves a combination of clinical evaluation, laboratory tests
(such as blood cultures, cerebrospinal fluid analysis via a lumbar puncture), and imaging
studies (such as CT scan or MRI). Treatment varies depending on the cause but often
involves antibiotics or antiviral medications for infectious causes, along with supportive care
to manage symptoms.