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KENT ROACH BENJAMIN L. BERGER
EMMA CUNLIFFE ASAD G. KIYANI
Criminal Law and Procedure

Cases and Materials
TWELFTH EDITION
Copyright © 2020 Emond Montgomery Publications
07/18/2020 - tp-237ec822-c8af-11ea-8510-024 (temp temp) - Criminal Law

and Procedure

and Procedure
P R E FAC E TO T H E T W ELFTH E DITION
This book has its origins in ML Friedland’s innovative teaching materials, Cases and Materials
on Criminal Law and Procedure, first published in 1967.
This edition retains the basic structure of previous editions. Following the pattern started
with the tenth edition, we continue to include fuller extracts of leading cases than appeared
in previous editions, while maintaining a manageable size for the volume as a whole. We have
also continued to include more secondary and contextual readings, giving students access to
scholarly and policy literature on the criminal law while enriching the text’s attention to issues
of Indigenous justice, racial and ethnic bias, gender in the criminal law, and other matters of
deep social importance to the criminal justice system.
The years have, in our view, confirmed the wisdom of Professor Friedland’s original decision
to teach criminal law in its broader procedural, theoretical, social, and institutional context. For
this reason, Part One of the book continues to contain, in addition to introductory chapters on
the sources of and limits on the criminal law, chapters on police powers and the trial process.
The first chapter on the sources of criminal law has been thoroughly revised to provide new
material on Indigenous law as well as on statutory interpretation. The chapter on police pow-
ers has been completely updated to examine issues of discriminatory profiling and arbitrary
detention in light of the Supreme Court’s decision in R v Le, 2019 SCC 34. Chapter 4 on the
trial process has been revised to reflect important and controversial changes to jury selection.
It also contains new contextual material on the critical issue of bail, as well as material on legal
ethics and professional responsibility, including prosecutorial discretion. We are well aware
that the chapters on police powers and the trial process are no substitute for a full course on
criminal procedure, but we have designed these chapters to introduce considerations of social
context and ethics, which are emphasized throughout the book.
In Part Two, we examine the fundamental principles of criminal liability. The first two chap-
ters of this part now examine conduct, or actus reus, followed by fault, or mens rea. Chapter 7
examines absolute and strict liability and provides new contextual material. Chapter 8 com-
pletes the part with an examination of the principle that ignorance of the law is not an excuse
and the limited exceptions to this principle.
Part Three on extensions of criminal liability remains an important feature of the book, explor-
ing accomplice, organizational, and inchoate liability. This includes an update to Chapter 11,
which addresses corporate criminal liability primarily by examining the choice to implement
ss 22.1 and 22.2 of the Criminal Code and the debates about how best to approach corporate
liability. Again, we appreciate that some instructors might wish to leave these topics to the end
of the course.
We continue to find it useful to study the complex and dynamic laws of sexual assault and
homicide on their own. These make up Part Four, which we call “the special part,” on sexual
assault and homicide. We have thoroughly revised and restructured this part to reflect the fun-
damental importance of R v Barton, 2019 SCC 33, while also providing important contextual
material from the recent National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and
Girls.
Part Five deals with defences, starting with the limited defence of provocation. This defence
raises the issue of how the law values strong emotions, such as rage, but not necessarily other
(arguably more praiseworthy) emotions, such as compassion. Mental disorder and automatism
continue to be examined together in one chapter because of their frequent interaction. Both
the chapters on intoxication and self-defence now contain more contextual material. The final
chapters in this part address duress and necessity.

and Procedure
Preface to the Twelfth Edition
Part Six consists of a completely revised chapter on sentencing and punishment. As before,
it pays particular attention to constitutional limits on sentencing and the system’s attempts to
respond to Indigenous overrepresentation within the criminal legal system. It now contains
new contextual material on the experience of imprisonment, drawing in part on the work of
the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
We are indebted to Marty Friedland’s pioneering work in criminal law and procedure, and
to the faith that he put in us to continue these materials.
We are grateful for the significant contributions that Justice James Stribopoulos made to
previous editions. We understand his decision to focus on his judicial duties and wish him the
very best.
We are thrilled to welcome Professor Asad Kiyani of the University of Victoria to the editorial
team. He has made excellent contributions to this edition, and we look forward to working
with him on many future editions.
We owe a debt of thanks to a number of instructors who have used the book and offered
many helpful and generous suggestions. In this regard, would especially like to thank Profes-
sors Gerry Ferguson, Benjamin Goold, Lisa Kelly, and Lisa Kerr.
We are grateful to all at Emond Publishing for their hard work and commitment to this
project, and in particular we thank Danann Hawes for coordinating and directing the project;
Kelly Dickson and Darren Smith for their support and guidance as managing editors; Natalie
Berchem for her excellent work as production editor; and Michelle Waitzman, Tara Agnerian,
and Rebecca Russell for their work copy editing, typesetting, and proofreading this edition. We
have also been ably assisted by an outstanding set of students at Osgoode Hall Law School
who have worked closely with us in reviewing and editing this book; thank you to PhD student
Kenneth Grad and JD students Bryan Birtles, Alison Imrie, Meghan Rand, and Ramna Safeer
for their excellent work.
Finally, we respectfully and affectionately acknowledge the extent to which we walk in the
footsteps of “Marty”, aka ML Friedland CC, QC, the first editor of these materials, whose ori-
ginal vision of this book as one that would explore the criminal process in all of its facets still
very much guides us in our work.
KR
BLB
EC
AGK
June 2020
vi

and Procedure
AC K N OW LE DGMEN T S
A book of this nature borrows heavily from other published material. We have attempted to request
permission from, and to acknowledge in the text, all sources of such material. We wish to make spe-
cific references here to the authors, publishers, journals, and institutions that have generously given
permission to reproduce in this text works already in print. If we have inadvertently overlooked an
acknowledgment or failed to secure a permission, we offer our sincere apologies and undertake to
rectify the omission in the next edition.
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada ME Turpel, “On the Question of Adapting
the Canadian Criminal Justice System for Aboriginal Peoples: Don’t Fence Me In” in Aboriginal
Peoples and The Justice System: Report of the National Round Table on Aboriginal Justice
Issues (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1993). Reprinted with permission of
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada.
Canadian Bar Review Alan Mewett, “The Criminal Law, 1867-1967” (1967) 45 Can Bar Rev. Reprinted
with the permission of the Canadian Bar Review.
Canada Law Book T Archibald, K Jull, and K Roach, “The Changed Face of Corporate Criminal Lia-
bility” (2004) 48 Crim LQ. Reproduced by permission of Canada Law Book, a division of Thomson
Reuters Canada Limited.
Canadian Journal of Law and Society Efrat Arbel, “Rethinking the ‘Crisis’ of Indigenous Mass Im-
prisonment” (2019) 34 Cambridge University Press.
Carswell C Boyle, D Chunn, I Grant, “The Law of Homicide (Toronto: Carswell, 1999). Reprinted by
permission of Carswell, a division of Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd.
Carswell ML Friedland, “Criminal Justice and the Division of Power in Canada” in A Century of
Criminal Justice (Toronto: Carswell, 1984). Reprinted by permission of Carswell, a division of
Thomson Reuters Canada Ltd.
Carswell Martha Shaffer, “Coerced into Crime: Battered Women and the Defence of Duress” (1999)
4 Can Crim L Rev. Reproduced by permission of Carswell, a division of Thomson Reuters Canada
Limited.
Department of Justice Recodifying Criminal Law Report 31, Law Reform Commission of Canada
1987. Reproduced with the permission of the Department of Justice Canada, 2015.
Department of Justice Special Committee on Pornography and Prostitution (The Fraser Commit-
tee). Law Reform Commission of Canada, 1985. Reproduced with the permission of the Depart-
ment of Justice Canada, 2015.
Hart Publishing Benjamin L Berger, “Mental Disorder and the Instability of Blame in Criminal Law”
in Francois Tanguay-Renaud and James Stribopoulos, eds, Rethinking Criminal Law Theory: New
Canadian Perspectives on the Philosophy of Domestic, Transnational, and International Criminal
Law (Oregon and Portland: Hart Publishing, 2012). Reprinted with the permission of Hart Publish-
ing, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
House of Commons The Challenge of Change: A Study of Canada’s Criminal Prostitution Laws.
Report of the Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights. House of Commons (December
2006). Reprinted with permission.
Immediate Media Company HLA Hart, “Immorality and Treason,” The Listener, July 30, 1959.
Reprinted by permission of Immediate Media Company.
Pages vii-viii constitute an extension of the copyright page.
vii

and Procedure
Acknowledgments
Irwin Law David Layton and Michael Proulx, Ethics and Criminal Law, 2nd ed (Irwin Law: 2015).
Reprinted with permission.
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Sanford Kadish “The Criminal Law and the Luck of the
Draw” (1994) 84 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Reprinted by special permission of
Northwestern University School of Law.
Law Society of Ontario “Defending a Criminal Case” (1969). Copyright 1969, The Law Society of
Ontario. Reproduced with permission of the Law Society of Ontario.
McGill Law Journal Benjamin L Berger, “Emotions and the Veil of Voluntarism: The Loss of Judg-
ment in Canadian Criminal Defences” (2006) 51 McGill LJ. Reprinted with the permission of
Benjamin L Berger.
McGill-Queens University Press Kent Roach, Canadian Justice, Indigenous Injustice: The Case of
Gerald Stanley and Colten Boushie (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2019). Reprinted
with permission of the publisher.
Michigan Law Review WJ Stuntz, “The Pathological Politics of Criminal Law” (2001) 100 Michigan
Law Review. Reprinted with the permission of the estate of William Stuntz.
National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls “Deeper Dive: Crimin-
alizing and Incarcerating Indigenous Women” in Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report
of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (2019).
Oxford University Press G Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (Little Brown: 1978). Reprinted by
permission of Oxford University Press.
Province of Manitoba Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba (1991). Reprinted with
the permission of the Province of Manitoba.
Senate of Canada Honorable Rob Nicholson, Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada
addressing amendments to the Criminal Code before the Standing Senate Committee on Legal
and Constitutional Affairs on May 12, 2012. Reprinted with the permission of the Senate of
Canada.
Springer Publishing Company Dr Lenore Walker, The Battered Woman Syndrome (1984). Repro-
duced with permission of Springer Publishing Company, Incorporated in the format Book via
Copyright Clearance Center.
Supreme Court Law Review Gerry Ferguson, “The Intoxication Defence: Constitutionally Impaired
and in Need of Rehabilitation” (2012, 57 Supreme Court Law Review (2d) 111 at 135-37. Reprinted
with the permission of Gerry Ferguson.
The British Academy Sir Patrick Devlin “The Enforcement of Morals” (Maccabaean Lecture in Juris-
prudence of the British Academy, 18 March 1959), Proceedings of the British Academy volume
XLV © The British Academy 1960. Reprinted with permission.
UBC Law Review Isabel Grant “The Syndromization of Women’s Experience” (1991) 25 UBC L Rev.
Reprinted with permission of the UBC Law Review Society.
UBC Press Elizabeth A Sheehy, Defending Battered Women on Trial: Lessons from the Transcripts
(Vancouver: UBC Press, 2014). Reprinted with permission of the Publisher. © University of British
Columbia Press 2014. All rights reserved with the Publisher.
University of Toronto Press Lisa Kerr, “How the Prison Is a Black Box in Punishment Theory” (2019)
69 University of Toronto Law Journal. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
University of Toronto Press Melanie Randall, “Sexual Assault Law, Credibility and ‘Ideal Victims’:
Consent, Resistance and Victim Blaming” (2010) 22 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
University of Toronto Press Kent Roach, Due Process and Victims’ Rights: The New Law and Politics
of Criminal Justice (Toronto: U of T Press, 1999). Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
University of Toronto Press Kent Roach, “Mind the Gap: Canada’s Different Criminal and Consti-
tutional Standards of Fault” (2011) 61 UTLJ. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
viii

and Procedure
A BO U T T H E AUTHOR S
Kent Roach, CM, FRSC is a professor of law at the University of Toronto. He is a former law
clerk to Justice Bertha Wilson of the Supreme Court of Canada and the editor of the Criminal
Law Quarterly. His 14 books include Canadian Justice, Indigenous Injustice (2019); Criminal Law,
7th ed (2018); and Due Process and Victims’ Rights (1999). He represented intervenors in
Golden, Latimer, Gladue, and Ipeelee and was appointed a member of the Order of Canada
for contributions as a scholar and advocate to the protection of human rights.
Dr Benjamin L Berger is a professor and the York Research Chair in Pluralism and Public Law at
Osgoode Hall Law School, York University. He earned his LLM and JSD from Yale University
as a Fulbright Scholar and served as law clerk to the Rt Honourable Beverley McLachlin, former
Chief Justice of Canada. An award-winning scholar and teacher, his research seeks to fore-
ground the experience of living within a culture of liberal legalism, with particular attention to
criminal and constitutional justice, law and religion, sentencing, and the law of evidence.
Dr Emma Cunliffe is a professor in law at the University of British Columbia. Her research
focuses on the operation of racial and gender bias in the criminal legal system, with a particular
interest in the role played by expert witnesses. A Killam Prize–winning teacher and member
of the Women’s Legal Education and Action Fund Legal Program Committee, Dr Cunliffe has
worked on several significant cases involving Indigenous women in the criminal legal system,
including R v Barton.
Dr Asad G Kiyani (LLB [Osgoode], LLM [Distinction] [Cantab], PhD [UBC]) is an assistant profes-
sor in law at the University of Victoria. His research focuses on the application of postcolonial
theory to international and domestic criminal law, legal pluralism, and comparative law.
Dr Kiyani is a recipient of the Antonio Cassese Prize for International Criminal Law Studies, the
Hessel Yntema Prize for Comparative Law, and teaching awards at both the University of Victoria
and the University of Western Ontario.
ix

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and Procedure
S UM M A RY TA BLE O F CON TEN T S
Preface to the Twelfth Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Detailed Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE

Chapter One Foundations for the Study of the Criminal Process . . . . . . . . . 3
I. Overview of the Criminal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
II. The Constitutional Context of Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
III. The Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter Two Limits on Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

I. The Limits of the Criminal Law: Debating the Harm Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
II. Prostitution/Sex Work and the Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
III. Hate Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Chapter Three Police Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

I. Models of the Criminal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
II. Questioning Suspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
III. Entrapment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
IV. Search and Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
V. Detention, Arrest, and Racial Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
VI. Sources of Police Powers and the Ancillary Powers Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Chapter Four The Trial Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

I. The Wrongful Conviction of Donald Marshall Jr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
II. The Role of the Prosecutor and Defence Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
III. Pre-Trial Release and Bail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
IV. The Jury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
V. Quantum and Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
PART TWO PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

Chapter Five Conduct or Actus Reus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
I. Voluntariness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
II. Acts, Omissions, and Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
III. Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
IV. Consequences and Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
V. The Principle of Contemporaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
xi

and Procedure
Summary Table of Contents
Chapter Six Fault or Mens Rea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

I. Legislative Definitions of Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
II. The Choice Between a Subjective and an Objective Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
III. Subjective Standards of Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
IV. Objective Standards of Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
V. Constitutional Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
VI. Mistake of Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Chapter Seven Regulatory Offences and Absolute and Strict Liability . . . . 471
I. The Importance and Context of Regulatory Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
II. The Early Fault Binary: Absolute Liability or Subjective Fault? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
III. The Emergence of Strict Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
IV. Constitutional Considerations for Fault in Regulatory Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Chapter Eight Ignorance of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

I. Mistaken Beliefs About the Law and Particular Fault Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
II. Mistake of Fact and Mistake of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
III. The Defence of Officially Induced Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
IV. A More General Defence of Reasonable Mistake of Law? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
V. Statutory Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
PART THREE EXTENSIONS OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

Chapter Nine Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
I. Modes of Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
II. Aiding and Abetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
III. Common Intention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
IV. Counselling as a Form of Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
V. Accessory After the Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Chapter Ten Inchoate Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

I. Attempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
II. Incitement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
III. Conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
IV. Other Forms of Inchoate Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Chapter Eleven Corporate Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

I. The Old Common Law of Directing Minds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
II. The New Statutory Provisions for Organizational Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
III. The Discourse Against Criminal Prosecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
PART FOUR THE SPECIAL PART: SEXUAL ASSAULT AND HOMICIDE

Chapter Twelve Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
II. An Overview of Sexual Assault and the Role of Myths and Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
III. The Actus Reus of Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
IV. The Mental Element of Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
V. Constitutional Dimensions of Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
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and Procedure
Chapter Thirteen Homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687

I. Manslaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
II. Second-Degree Murder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
III. First-Degree Murder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
IV. Infanticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
PART FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EXCULPATION

Chapter Fourteen Provocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
II. Interpreting and Applying the Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
III. Provocation and Intent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Chapter Fifteen Mental Disorder and Automatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
II. Procedural Elements of the Mental Disorder Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
III. Mental Disorder as a Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
IV. Mental Disorder and Non-Mental Disorder Automatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Chapter Sixteen Intoxication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837

I. The Common Law Defence of Intoxication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
II. Intoxication and Specific Intent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
III. Extreme Intoxication and General Intent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
IV. Involuntary Intoxication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
Chapter Seventeen Self-Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
II. The Codified Self-Defence Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
III. The Role of Subjective and Objective Requirements in Self-Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
IV. Proportionality and Other Aspects of “Reasonableness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
V. Excessive Force and Self-Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
VI. Gendered Violence, “Battered Women,” and Self-Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
VII. Defence of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Chapter Eighteen Duress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

I. The Relationship Between the Common Law and Statutory Defences of Duress . . . . 920
II. Duress and Excluded Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
III. Reform of the Defence of Duress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
Chapter Nineteen Necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947

I. Necessity and Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
II. The Conceptualization of Necessity as an Excuse or Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
III. Applying the Necessity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
IV. Necessity and Codification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
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and Procedure
PART SIX DISPOSITION

Chapter Twenty Sentencing and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
I. The Sentencing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
II. Indigenous Overincarceration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
III. Mandatory Minimum Sentences and the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
IV. Prisons and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
xiv

and Procedure
D E TA I LE D TA BLE O F CON TEN T S
Preface to the Twelfth Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Summary Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE

Chapter One Foundations for the Study of the Criminal Process . . . . . . . . . 3
I. Overview of the Criminal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Legislation and the Limits of the Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Police Powers and the Trial Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Principles of Criminal Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D. Sentencing and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
II. The Constitutional Context of Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A. The Criminal Law and the Division of Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Martin L Friedland, “Criminal Justice and the Division of Power
in Canada” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Switzman v Elbling and AG of Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
R v Morgentaler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Reference re Firearms Act (Can) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
C. Treaties, Aboriginal Rights, and Indigenous Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
R v Ippak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
III. The Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
A. The Idea of a Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
B. History of the Canadian Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Alan W Mewett, “The Criminal Law, 1867-1967” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
C. Exhaustivity and the Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1. Common Law Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Frey v Fedoruk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
R v Jobidon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2. Common Law Defences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Amato v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
D. Interpretation of the Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1. Common Law Principles of Statutory Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
R v Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
R v Paré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2. Constitutional Rules Governing Statutory Interpretation:
Vagueness, Overbreadth, and the Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
R v Heywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v
Canada (AG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
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and Procedure
Detailed Table of Contents
Chapter Two Limits on Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

I. The Limits of the Criminal Law: Debating the Harm Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Patrick Devlin, “The Enforcement of Morals,” Maccabaean Lecture
in Jurisprudence of the British Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
HLA Hart, “Immorality and Treason” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
R v Malmo-Levine; R v Caine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
R v Labaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
II. Prostitution/Sex Work and the Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
The Challenge of Change: A Study of Canada’s Criminal
Prostitution Laws—Report of the Standing Committee on
Justice and Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Canada (AG) v Bedford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
III. Hate Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
R v Keegstra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
R v Zundel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter Three Police Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

I. Models of the Criminal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Kent Roach, Due Process and Victims’ Rights: The New Law and
Politics of Criminal Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
II. Questioning Suspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
A. The Common Law Governing Confessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
B. Confessions and the Right to Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
R v Manninen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
R v Brydges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
R v Sinclair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
C. Confessions and the Right to Silence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
R v Hebert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
R v Singh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
D. Confessions and “Mr Big” Investigative Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
III. Entrapment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
R v Mack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
IV. Search and Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Hunter v Southam Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A. Reasonable Expectation of Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
R v Wong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
R v Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
B. Permissible Departures from Hunter v Southam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
C. The Need for Legal Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
D. Prior Judicial Authorization: The Warrant Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
V. Detention, Arrest, and Racial Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
The Death of John Joseph Harper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
A. Constitutional Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
B. Arrest Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
C. Detention Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
R v Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
R v Le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
R v Mann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
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and Procedure
D. Powers Incident to Arrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Cloutier v Langlois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
R v Golden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
VI. Sources of Police Powers and the Ancillary Powers Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
James Stribopoulos, “Sniffing Out the Ancillary Powers Implications
of the Dog Sniff Cases” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Chapter Four The Trial Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

I. The Wrongful Conviction of Donald Marshall Jr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
A. Marshall’s Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
R v Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
B. Note on the Professional Responsibility of Defence Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
R v Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
C. Note on the Professional Responsibility of Prosecutors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
D. Note on the Professional Responsibility of Judges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
E. The Aftermath of Marshall’s Wrongful Conviction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Royal Commission on the Donald Marshall Jr Prosecution . . . . . . . . . 244
F. Racism, Court Dynamics, and Fact-Finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
R v S (RD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
G. Indigenous People and the Criminal Justice System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Public Inquiry into the Administration of Justice and
Aboriginal People: Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry
of Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Mary Ellen Turpel, “On the Question of Adapting the Canadian
Criminal Justice System for Aboriginal Peoples:
Don’t Fence Me In” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
H. Growing Recognition and Responses to Wrongful Convictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
United States of America v Burns and Rafay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
I. New Institutions to Deal with Wrongful Convictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
II. The Role of the Prosecutor and Defence Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
A. Crown Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Boucher v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
B. Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
R v Stinchcombe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
C. The Power of the Prosecutor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
William Stuntz, “The Pathological Politics of Criminal Law” . . . . . . . . . 280
R v Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
D. Prosecutorial Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
E. The SNC-Lavalin Saga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
F. Plea Bargaining and Guilty Pleas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
G. Defence Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Law Society of Upper Canada, “Defending a Criminal Case” . . . . . . . . 295
III. Pre-Trial Release and Bail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
R v Bray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
R v Pugsley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
R v Pearson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
R v Morales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
R v Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
xvii

and Procedure
IV. The Jury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

A. Requiring Trial by Jury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
B. Selecting the Jury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
1. The Role of Provinces and Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
R v Kokopenace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
2. The Role of the Criminal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
C. Challenges for Cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
R v Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
R v Williams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
D. Jury Unanimity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
V. Quantum and Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
A. Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Woolmington v DPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
R v Oakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
B. Internal Rationality Between Proven and Presumed Facts No Longer Required
Under Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
C. Presumption of Innocence Applies to Defence and to Elements of Offence . . . 334
R v Keegstra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
D. Quantum of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
R v Lifchus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
R v Starr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
PART TWO PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

Chapter Five Conduct or Actus Reus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
I. Voluntariness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
R v Larsonneur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Kilbride v Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
R v Ruzic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
II. Acts, Omissions, and Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
A. Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
B. Omissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
R v Browne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
R v Thornton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
C. Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
III. Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
IV. Consequences and Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
R v Winning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Smithers v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
R v Harbottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
R v Nette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Pagett v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
R v Maybin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
V. The Principle of Contemporaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Fagan v Commissioner of Metropolitan Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
R v Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
R v Forcillo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
xviii

and Procedure
Chapter Six Fault or Mens Rea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

I. Legislative Definitions of Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Law Reform Commission of Canada, Recodifying Criminal Law . . . . 415
II. The Choice Between a Subjective and an Objective Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
R v ADH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
III. Subjective Standards of Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
R v Buzzanga and Durocher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
R v Tennant and Naccarato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
A. Intention and Motive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
R v Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
R v Hibbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
R v Buzzanga and Durocher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
R v Théroux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
B. Wilful Blindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
R v Briscoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
C. Recklessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Sansregret v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
IV. Objective Standards of Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
R v Creighton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
R v Beatty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
R v Roy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
V. Constitutional Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
R v Finta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Kent Roach, “Mind the Gap: Canada’s Different Criminal and
Constitutional Standards of Fault” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
VI. Mistake of Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Chapter Seven Regulatory Offences and Absolute and Strict Liability . . . . 471
I. The Importance and Context of Regulatory Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
R v Wholesale Travel Group Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
II. The Early Fault Binary: Absolute Liability or Subjective Fault? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Beaver v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
R v Pierce Fisheries Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
III. The Emergence of Strict Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
R v Sault Ste Marie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
IV. Constitutional Considerations for Fault in Regulatory Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Re BC Motor Vehicle Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
R v Wholesale Travel Group Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Chapter Eight Ignorance of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

I. Mistaken Beliefs About the Law and Particular Fault Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
R v Howson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Jones and Pamajewon v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
II. Mistake of Fact and Mistake of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
III. The Defence of Officially Induced Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Lévis (City) v Tétreault; Lévis (City) v 2629-4470 Québec inc . . . . . . . . 514
xix

and Procedure
IV. A More General Defence of Reasonable Mistake of Law? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

La Souveraine, Compagnie d’assurance générale v Autorité des
marchés financiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
V. Statutory Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
PART THREE EXTENSIONS OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

Chapter Nine Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
I. Modes of Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
R v Thatcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
R v Pickton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
II. Aiding and Abetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
A. Defining the Scope of Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
R v Greyeyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
R v Briscoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Dunlop and Sylvester v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
III. Common Intention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
R v Kirkness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
R v Gauthier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
R v Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
IV. Counselling as a Form of Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
R v O’Brien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
V. Accessory After the Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
R v Duong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Chapter Ten Inchoate Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

Sanford H Kadish, “The Criminal Law and the Luck of the Draw” . . . . 570
I. Attempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
A. Actus Reus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
R v Cline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Deutsch v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
B. Mens Rea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
R v Ancio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
R v Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
C. Impossibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
United States of America v Dynar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
II. Incitement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
R v Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
III. Conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
United States of America v Dynar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
IV. Other Forms of Inchoate Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
A. Combining Inchoate Forms of Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
R v Déry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
B. New Statutory Forms of Inchoate Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
R v Legare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
C. Inchoate Liability and Terrorism Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
R v Khawaja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
R v Ansari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
xx

and Procedure
Chapter Eleven Corporate Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

I. The Old Common Law of Directing Minds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
II. The New Statutory Provisions for Organizational Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Todd Archibald, Kenneth Jull & Kent Roach, “The Changed Face of
Corporate Criminal Liability” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
R v Metron Construction Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
III. The Discourse Against Criminal Prosecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Steven Bittle & Laureen Snider, “Law, Regulation and Safety Crime:
Exploring the Boundaries of Criminalizing Powerful
Corporate Actors” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
PART FOUR THE SPECIAL PART: SEXUAL ASSAULT AND HOMICIDE

Chapter Twelve Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Melanie Randall, “Sexual Assault Law, Credibility, and ‘Ideal Victims’:
Consent, Resistance, and Victim Blaming” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
II. An Overview of Sexual Assault and the Role of Myths and Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
R v Ewanchuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
III. The Actus Reus of Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
R v Chase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
IV. The Mental Element of Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
A. Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
B. Wilful Blindness Re Non-Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Sansregret v The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
C. Honest But Mistaken Belief in “Communicated” Consent: Clarifying Mens Rea
and Its Relationship with Mistakes of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
R v Barton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
Jean Teillet, The Northwest Is Our Mother: The Story of
Louis Riel’s People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
V. Constitutional Dimensions of Sexual Assault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
R v Osolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
An Act to amend the Criminal Code (Sexual Assault) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
R v Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
Chapter Thirteen Homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687

I. Manslaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
II. Second-Degree Murder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
A. Section 229(a): Intentional or Reckless Killing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
R v Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
B. Section 229(b): Transferred Intent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
R v Fontaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
C. Section 229(c): Unlawful Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
R v Shand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
D. Constitutional Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
R v Vaillancourt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
R v Martineau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
xxi

and Procedure
Another random document with
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I hear within our house?
The ground shakes, | and the home of Gymir
Around me trembles too.”
The Serving-Maid spake:
15. “One stands without | who has leapt from his

steed,
And lets his horse loose to graze;”
. . . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gerth spake:
16. “Bid the man come in, | and drink good mead
Here within our hall;
Though this I fear, | that there without
My brother’s slayer stands.
[113]
17. “Art thou of the elves | or the offspring of gods,

Or of the wise Wanes?
How camst thou alone | through the leaping flame
Thus to behold our home?”
Skirnir spake:
18. “I am not of the elves, | nor the offspring of

gods,
Nor of the wise Wanes;
Though I came alone | through the leaping flame
Thus to behold thy home.
19. “Eleven apples, | all of gold,

Here will I give thee, Gerth,
To buy thy troth | that Freyr shall be
Deemed to be dearest to you.”
Gerth spake:
20. “I will not take | at any man’s wish

These eleven apples ever;
Nor shall Freyr and I | one dwelling find
So long as we two live.”
Skirnir spake:
21. “Then do I bring thee | the ring that was burned

[114]
Of old with Othin’s son;
From it do eight | of like weight fall
On every ninth night.”
Gerth spake:
22. “The ring I wish not, | though burned it was

Of old with Othin’s son;
In Gymir’s home | is no lack of gold
In the wealth my father wields.”
Skirnir spake:
23. “Seest thou, maiden, | this keen, bright sword

That I hold here in my hand?
Thy head from thy neck | shall I straightway hew,
If thou wilt not do my will.”
Gerth spake:
24. “For no man’s sake | will I ever suffer

To be thus moved by might;
But gladly, methinks, | will Gymir seek
To fight if he finds thee here.”
Skirnir spake:
25. “Seest thou, maiden, | this keen, bright sword

That I hold here in my hand? [115]
Before its blade | the old giant bends,—
Thy father is doomed to die.
26. “I strike thee, maid, | with my magic staff,

To tame thee to work my will;
There shalt thou go | where never again
The sons of men shall see thee.
27. “On the eagle’s hill | shalt thou ever sit,
And gaze on the gates of Hel;
More loathsome to thee | than the light-hued
snake
To men, shall thy meat become.
28. “Fearful to see, | if thou comest forth,

Hrimnir will stand and stare,
(Men will marvel at thee;) [116]
More famed shalt thou grow | than the watchman
of the gods!
Peer forth, then, from thy prison.
29. “Rage and longing, | fetters and wrath,

Tears and torment are thine;
Where thou sittest down | my doom is on thee
Of heavy heart
And double dole.
30. “In the giants’ home | shall vile things harm

thee
Each day with evil deeds;
Grief shalt thou get | instead of gladness,
And sorrow to suffer with tears.
31. “With three-headed giants | thou shalt dwell

ever,
Or never know a husband;
(Let longing grip thee, | let wasting waste thee,—)
[117]
Be like to the thistle | that in the loft
Was cast and there was crushed.
32. “I go to the wood, | and to the wet forest,

To win a magic wand;
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
I won a magic wand.
33. “Othin grows angry, | angered is the best of the

gods,
Freyr shall be thy foe,
Most evil maid, | who the magic wrath
Of gods hast got for thyself.
34. “Give heed, frost-rulers, | hear it, giants,

Sons of Suttung,
And gods, ye too,
How I forbid | and how I ban
The meeting of men with the maid,
(The joy of men with the maid.)
[118]
35. “Hrimgrimnir is he, | the giant who shall have

thee
In the depth by the doors of Hel;
To the frost-giants’ halls | each day shalt thou fare,
Crawling and craving in vain,
(Crawling and having no hope.)
36. “Base wretches there | by the root of the tree

Will hold for thee horns of filth;
A fairer drink | shalt thou never find,
Maid, to meet thy wish,
(Maid, to meet my wish.)
37. “I write thee a charm | and three runes

therewith,
Longing and madness and lust;
But what I have writ | I may yet unwrite
If I find a need therefor.”
[119]
Gerth spake:
38. “Find welcome rather, | and with it take

The frost-cup filled with mead;
Though I did not believe | that I should so love
Ever one of the Wanes.”
Skirnir spake:
39. “My tidings all | must I truly learn

Ere homeward hence I ride:
How soon thou wilt | with the mighty son
Of Njorth a meeting make.”
Gerth spake:
40. “Barri there is, | which we both know well,

A forest fair and still;
And nine nights hence | to the son of Njorth
Will Gerth there grant delight.”
Then Skirnir rode home. Freyr stood without, and

spoke to him, and asked for tidings:
41. “Tell me, Skirnir, | ere thou take off the saddle,
Or farest forward a step:
What hast thou done | in the giants’ dwelling
To make glad thee or me?”
[120]
Skirnir spake:
42. “Barri there is, | which we both know well,

A forest fair and still;
And nine nights hence | to the son of Njorth
Will Gerth there grant delight.”
Freyr spake:
43. “Long is one night, | longer are two;
How then shall I bear three?
Often to me | has a month seemed less
Than now half a night of desire.”
[107]
[Contents]
NOTES
[108]
Prose. Freyr: concerning his father, Njorth, and the race of the
Wanes in general, cf. Voluspo, 21 and note. Snorri thus describes
Njorth’s family: “Njorth begat two children in Noatun; the son was
named Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of aspect and
mighty. Freyr is the noblest of the gods; he rules over rain and
sunshine, and therewith the fruitfulness of the earth; it is well to call
upon him for plenty and welfare, for he rules over wealth for
mankind. Freyja is the noblest of the goddesses. When she rides to
the fight, she has one-half of the slain, and Othin has half. When she
goes on a journey, she drives her two cats, and sits in a cart. Love-
songs please her well, and it is good to call on her in love-matters.”
Hlithskjolf: Othin’s watch-tower; cf. Grimnismol, introductory prose.
He said: both manuscripts have “Then Skathi said:” (Skathi was
Njorth’s wife), but Bugge’s emendation, based on Snorri’s version, is
doubtless correct.
1. My son: both manuscripts, and many editors, have “our son,”
which, of course, goes with the introduction of Skathi in the prose. As
the stanza is clearly addressed to Skirnir, the change of pronouns
seems justified. The same confusion occurs in stanza 2, where
Skirnir in the manuscripts is made to speak of Freyr as [109]“your
son” (plural). The plural pronoun in the original involves a metrical
error, which is corrected by the emendation.
4. Elfbeam: the sun, so called because its rays were fatal to elves
and dwarfs; cf. Alvissmol, 35.
6. Gymir: a mountain-giant, husband of Aurbotha, and father of

Gerth, fairest among women. This is all Snorri tells of him in his
paraphrase of the story.
7. Snorri’s paraphrase of the poem is sufficiently close so that his

addition of another sentence to Freyr’s speech makes it probable
[110]that a stanza has dropped out between 7 and 8. This has been
tentatively reconstructed, thus: “Hither to me | shalt thou bring the
maid, / And home shalt thou lead her here, / If her father wills it |
or wills it not, / And good reward shalt thou get.” Finn Magnusen
detected the probable omission of a stanza here as early as 1821.
8. The sword: Freyr’s gift of his sword to Skirnir eventually proves

fatal, for at the last battle, when Freyr is attacked by Beli, whom he
kills bare-handed, and later when the fire-demon, Surt, slays him in
turn, he is weaponless; cf. Voluspo, 53 and note. Against the giants
grim: the condition of this line makes it seem like an error in copying,
and it is possible that it should be identical with the fourth line of the
next stanza. [111]
10. Some editors reject line 3 as spurious.
12. Line 2 is in neither manuscript, and no gap is indicated. I have

followed Grundtvig’s conjectural emendation.
13. This stanza is almost exactly like many in the first part of [112]the
Hovamol, and may well have been a separate proverb. After this
stanza the scene shifts to the interior of the house.
15. No gap indicated in either manuscript. Bugge and Niedner have

attempted emendations, while Hildebrand suggests that the last two
lines of stanza 14 are spurious, 14, 1–2, and 15 thus forming a
single stanza, which seems doubtful.
16. Brother’s slayer: perhaps the brother is Beli, slain by Freyr; the
only other references are in Voluspo, 53, and in Snorri’s paraphrase
of the Skirnismol, which merely says that Freyr’s gift of his sword to
Skirnir “was the reason why he was weaponless when he met Beli,
and he killed him bare-handed.” Skirnir himself seems never to have
killed anybody. [113]
17. Wise Wanes: cf. Voluspo, 21 and note.
18. The Arnamagnæan Codex omits this stanza.
19. Apples: the apple was the symbol of fruitfulness, and also of
eternal youth. According to Snorri, the goddess Ithun had charge of
the apples which the gods ate whenever they felt themselves
growing old. [114]
21. Ring: the ring Draupnir (“Dropper”) was made by the dwarfs for
Othin, who laid it on Baldr’s pyre when the latter’s corpse was
burned (cf. Voluspo, 32 and note, and Baldrs Draumar). Baldr,
however, sent the ring back to Othin from hell. How Freyr obtained it
is nowhere stated. Andvari’s ring (Andvaranaut) had a similar power
of creating gold; cf. Reginsmol, prose [115]after stanza 4 and note.
Lines 3 and 4 of this stanza, and the first two of stanza 22, are
missing in the Arnamagnæan Codex.
25. The first two lines are abbreviated in both manuscripts.

26. With this stanza, bribes and threats having failed, Skirnir begins
a curse which, by the power of his magic staff, is to fall on Gerth if
she refuses Freyr.
27. Eagle’s hill: the hill at the end of heaven, and consequently
overlooking hell, where the giant Hræsvelg sits “in an eagle’s guise,”
and makes the winds with his wings; cf. Vafthruthnismol, 37, also
Voluspo, 50. The second line is faulty in both manuscripts;
Hildebrand’s emendation corrects the error, but omits an effective
touch; the manuscript line may be rendered “And look and hanker for
hell.” The Arnamagnæan Codex breaks off with the fourth line of this
stanza.
28. Hrimnir: a frost-giant, mentioned elsewhere only in Hyndluljoth,

33. Line 3 is probably spurious. Watchman of the gods: Heimdall; cf.
Voluspo, 46. [116]
29. Three nouns of doubtful meaning, which I have rendered rage,

longing, and heart respectively, make the precise force of this stanza
obscure. Niedner and Sijmons mark the entire stanza as
interpolated, and Jonsson rejects line 5.
30. In Regius and in nearly all the editions the first two lines of this
stanza are followed by lines 3–5 of stanza 35. I have followed
Niedner, Sijmons, and Gering. The two words here translated vile
things are obscure; Gering renders the phrase simply “Kobolde.”
31. The confusion noted as to the preceding stanza, and a metrical

error in the third line, have led to various rearrangements and
emendations; line 3 certainly looks like an interpolation. Three-
headed giants: concerning giants with numerous heads, cf.
Vafthruthnismol, 33, and Hymiskvitha, 8. [117]
32. No gap indicated in the manuscript; Niedner makes the line here
given as 4 the first half of line 3, and fills out the stanza thus: “with
which I will tame you, / Maid, to work my will.” The whole stanza
seems to be either interpolated or out of place; it would fit better after
stanza 25.
33. Jonsson marks this stanza as interpolated. The word translated

most evil is another case of guesswork.
34. Most editors reject line 3 as spurious, and some also reject line
6. Lines 2 and 3 may have been expanded out of a single line
running approximately “Ye gods and Suttung’s sons.” Suttung:
concerning this giant cf. Hovamol, 104 and note. [118]
35. Most editors combine lines 1–2 with stanza 36 (either with the
first two lines thereof or the whole stanza), as lines 3–5 stand in the
manuscript after line 2 of stanza 30. Hrimgrimnir (“The Frost-
Shrouded”): a giant not elsewhere mentioned. Line 5, as a repetition
of line 4, is probably a later addition.
36. For the combination of this stanza with the preceding one, cf.
note on stanza 35. The scribe clearly did not consider that the stanza
began with line 1, as the first word thereof in the manuscript does not
begin with a capital letter and has no period before it. The first word
of line 3, however, is so marked. Line 5 may well be spurious.
37. Again the scribe seems to have been uncertain as to the stanza
divisions. This time the first line is preceded by a period, but begins
with a small letter. Many editors have made line 2 [119]into two half-
lines. A charm: literally, the rune Thurs (þ); the runic letters all had
magic attributes; cf. Sigrdrifumol, 6–7 and notes.
40. Barri: “The Leafy.” [120]
42. Abbreviated to initial letters in the manuscript.
43. The superscription is lacking in Regius. Snorri quotes this one

stanza in his prose paraphrase, Gylfaginning, chapter 37. The two
versions are substantially the same, except that Snorri makes the
first line read, “Long is one night, | long is the second.” [121]
[Contents]
HARBARTHSLJOTH
The Poem of Harbarth
[Contents]
Introductory Note
The Harbarthsljoth is found complete in the Codex Regius, where it
follows the Skirnismol, and from the fourth line of stanza 19 to the
end of the poem in the Arnamagnæan Codex, of which it occupies
the first page and a half.
The poem differs sharply from those which precede it in the Codex
Regius, both in metrical form and in spirit. It is, indeed, the most
nearly formless of all the Eddic poems. The normal metre is the
Malahattr (cf. Introduction, where an example is given). The name of
this verse-form means “in the manner of conversation,” and the
Harbarthsljoth’s verse fully justifies the term. The Atli poems
exemplify the conventional use of Malahattr, but in the Harbarthsljoth
the form is used with extraordinary freedom, and other metrical
forms are frequently employed. A few of the speeches of which the
poem is composed cannot be twisted into any known Old Norse
metre, and appear to be simply prose.
How far this confusion is due to interpolations and faulty

transmission of the original poem is uncertain. Finnur Jonsson has
attempted a wholesale purification of the poem, but his arbitrary
condemnation of words, lines, and entire stanzas as spurious is quite
unjustified by any positive evidence. I have accepted Mogk’s theory
that the author was “a first-rate psychologist, but a poor poet,” and
have translated the poem as it stands in the manuscripts. I have
preserved the metrical confusion of the original by keeping
throughout so far as possible to the metres found in the poem; if the
rhythm of the translation is often hard to catch, the difficulty is no
less with the original Norse.
The poem is simply a contest of abuse, such as the early Norwegian

and Icelander delighted in, the opposing figures being Thor and
Othin, the latter appearing in the disguise of the ferryman Harbarth.
Such billingsgate lent itself readily to changes, interpolations and
omissions, and it is little wonder that the poem is chaotic. It consists
mainly of boasting and of references, often luckily obscure, to
disreputable events in the life of one or the other of the disputants.
Some editors have sought to read a complex symbolism into it,
particularly by representing [122]it as a contest between the noble or
warrior class (Othin) and the peasant (Thor). But it seems a pity to
take such a vigorous piece of broad farce too seriously.
Verse-form, substance, and certain linguistic peculiarities, notably

the suffixed articles, point to a relatively late date (eleventh century)
for the poem in its present form. Probably it had its origin in the early
days, but its colloquial nature and its vulgarity made it readily
susceptible to changes.
Owing to the chaotic state of the text, and the fact that none of the
editors or commentators have succeeded in improving it much, I
have not in this case attempted to give all the important emendations
and suggestions. The stanza-divisions are largely arbitrary.
[Contents]
Thor was on his way back from a journey in the East,

and came to a sound; on the other side of the sound
was a ferryman with a boat. Thor called out:
1. “Who is the fellow yonder, | on the farther shore
of the sound?”
[123]
The ferryman spake:
2. “What kind of a peasant is yon, | that calls o’er

the bay?”
Thor spake:
3. “Ferry me over the sound; | I will feed thee

therefor in the morning;
A basket I have on my back, | and food therein,
none better;
At leisure I ate, | ere the house I left,
Of herrings and porridge, | so plenty I had.”
The ferryman spake:
4. “Of thy morning feats art thou proud, | but the

future thou knowest not wholly;
Doleful thine home-coming is: | thy mother,
methinks, is dead.”
Thor spake:
5. “Now hast thou said | what to each must seem

The mightiest grief, | that my mother is dead.”
[124]
The ferryman spake:
6. “Three good dwellings, | methinks, thou hast

not;
Barefoot thou standest, | and wearest a beggar’s
dress;
Not even hose dost thou have.”
Thor spake:
7. “Steer thou hither the boat; | the landing here

shall I show thee;
But whose the craft | that thou keepest on the
shore?”
The ferryman spake:
8. “Hildolf is he | who bade me have it,

A hero wise; | his home is at Rathsey’s sound.
He bade me no robbers to steer, | nor stealers of
steeds,
But worthy men, | and those whom well do I know.
Say now thy name, | if over the sound thou wilt
fare.”
Thor spake:
9. “My name indeed shall I tell, | though in danger I

am, [125]
And all my race; | I am Othin’s son,
Meili’s brother, | and Magni’s father,
The strong one of the gods; | with Thor now
speech canst thou get.
And now would I know | what name thou hast.”
The ferryman spake:
10. “Harbarth am I, | and seldom I hide my name.”
Thor spake:
11. “Why shouldst thou hide thy name, | if quarrel

thou hast not?”
Harbarth spake:
12. “And though I had a quarrel, | from such as

thou art
Yet none the less | my life would I guard,
Unless I be doomed to die.”
[126]
Thor spake:
13. “Great trouble, methinks, | would it be to come
to thee,
To wade the waters across, | and wet my middle;
Weakling, well shall I pay | thy mocking words,
If across the sound I come.”
Harbarth spake:
14. “Here shall I stand | and await thee here;

Thou hast found since Hrungnir died | no fiercer
man.”
Thor spake:
15. “Fain art thou to tell | how with Hrungnir I

fought,
The haughty giant, | whose head of stone was
made;
And yet I felled him, | and stretched him before
me.
What, Harbarth, didst thou the while?”
[127]
Harbarth spake:
16. “Five full winters | with Fjolvar was I,

And dwelt in the isle | that is Algrön called;
There could we fight, | and fell the slain,

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Criminal Law and Procedure

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Copyright © 2020 Emond Montgomery Publications

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Copyright © 2020 Emond Montgomery Publications

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Pages vii-viii constitute an extension of the copyright page.

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Copyright © 2020 Emond Montgomery Publications

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Preface to the Twelfth Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE

Chapter Two Limits on Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Chapter Three Police Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Chapter Four The Trial Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

PART TWO PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

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Chapter Six Fault or Mens Rea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Chapter Eight Ignorance of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

PART THREE EXTENSIONS OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

Chapter Ten Inchoate Offences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

Chapter Eleven Corporate Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

PART FOUR THE SPECIAL PART: SEXUAL ASSAULT AND HOMICIDE

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Chapter Thirteen Homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687

PART FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EXCULPATION

Chapter Fifteen Mental Disorder and Automatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

Chapter Sixteen Intoxication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837

Chapter Seventeen Self-Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879

Chapter Eighteen Duress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

Chapter Nineteen Necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947

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PART SIX DISPOSITION

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Preface to the Twelfth Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE

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Chapter Two Limits on Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Chapter Three Police Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

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D. Powers Incident to Arrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Chapter Four The Trial Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231