CHAPTER – VI

GEOCHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION

The geochemistry of the river sediments has been receiving much attention of
geoscientists as it reflects the source, natural processes and human activities in the
watershed, and the synthesis of major and trace element distribution in these
sediments contribute to a better understanding of these processes (Zhang et al; 2001).
Geochemical studies of clastic sediments are found quite useful in identifying source
rock(s) and its weathering, climatic variability, tectonic instability and transportation
of terrestrial detritus in the basin. The chemical composition of clastic sediments
preserves records of geological processes. Therefore, the geochemical analyses of the
clastic sediments are used for understanding the evolution of continental crust
through geological time (McLennan and Taylor, 1991; Crook, 1974; Schwab, 1975;
Dickinson and Suczek,1979; Bhatia, 1983). Abundance of trace elements, in
particular those of Y, Sc, Th, Hf, Co, Cr and REE and their ratios are useful indicator
of geological processes and controls on the formation of sedimentary rocks as they are
true proxies of the geological past including provenance and tectonic setting (Cullers
et al; 1979, 1987; Cullers, 1988; Bhatia and Taylor ,1981; Taylor and
McLennan,1985; Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Cullers and Stone, 1991; McLennan et
al.,1983). An important discovery to date is that the REE pattern of post Archean and
Archean sedimentary rocks are significantly different. The former is characterized by
a significant negative Eu anomaly and the later has commonly less fractionated
pattern with none or small negative Eu anomaly (Nance and Taylor, 1977; Naqvi and
Hussian, 1982). These studies have clearly indicated that the composition of the
exposed Archean crust was more mafic (less enriched in incompatible elements, low
Eu anomalies) in nature with little felsic component .

Sampling

Systematic sampling of sediments from various locations was done along

number of traverses across Ganga and Yamuna River plain in ~ 80 km wide tract
between Anoopshar to Kacchla along Ganga river and from Palwal to Mathura along
Yamuna river. It was tried to collect the samples in such a way that they reflect
secular and lateral variations. The main sediment sample collection sites have been
river bed, natural levees and flood plains. To account for vertical variations top,
middle and lower horizons of sediment strata were sampled depending upon
thickness of the deposits, textural and structural variability etc. The soil samples were
collected from a depth range 1 to 2 m, to avoid, humus, pesticide, fertilizer and water
saturation effects. Sample collection site and their locations are listed in Table 9.

Table 9. Locations of analyzed samples collected from Anoopshahr to Kacchla

stretch of Ganaga river plain and Palwal to Mathura stretch of Yamuna river .

Sample No
Location Location
Latitude-Longitude
No. Name
Top Middle Bottom

Ganga Plain

1 Anoopshahr Lat. 28036/- Long.78026/ A1, A3 A5,A8 A2

2 Narora Lat. 28020/- Long. 78038/ N1 N3, N5 N6

3 Rajghat Lat. 28013/- Long.78045/ - R4 R5,R6

4 Kacchla Lat. 27096/- Long. 78089/ K6 K8 K7

Yamuna Plain

5 Palwal Lat. 28º 9/- Long. 77º 20/ P23,P25 - P33

6 Mahavan Lat. 27043/- Long. 77071/ - - M1

7 Shergarh Lat. 27080/- Long. 77060/ Sg2 - Sg4,Sg5

8 Virindavan Lat. 27º 43/- Long. 77º71/ V4 - V3, V8

Sample Screening

Prior to geochemical analysis, detailed petrographic studies were carried out

from thin sections to determine the suitability of samples for geochemical study. After
careful thin section examination, altogether twenty five representative samples have

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been selected for geochemical analysis. Amongst sediment samples, fifteen are from
Ganga tract and nine samples belong to the Yamuna tract.

Analytical Technique

The samples were powdered to –200 mesh using the TEMA swing mill for
maintaining the homogeneity and representative ness of the sample. The major
elements of such selected samples were analyzed by XRF system (AXIOS model of
PAN analytical, Netherlands) at National Institute of Oceanography (N.I.O.), Goa.
The powders of the samples were heated overnight in the oven at 1100C. These
samples were stored in desiccators till they were mixed with the flux. The flux used
for making the bead is the A1000 of MERCK. Composition of A1000 flux is Lithium
Tetra Borate with 0.07% of lithium bromide. Flux to sample ratio is 1:10 (1 sample to
10 flux). The sample and flux was mixed thoroughly and then put in the platinum
crucible and was melted in two stages with temperature going to ~11800C. The red
hot melt was poured in the platinum casting dish to make a bead. This bead was then
analyzed. The XRF has been calibrated with about 20 international standards procured
from the USGS, Geological Survey of Japan and CNRS, France and China.

The concentrations of trace elements including rare earth elements were

determined by an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer at Geochemistry
laboratory, National Geophysical Research Institute (N.G.R.I.), Hyderabad. ICP-Mass
Spectrometer, Model ELAN DRC II (Perkin-Elmer Sciex Instrument, US) was used.
The instrument is equipped with the state-of-the-art features such as Dynamic
Reaction Cell (DRC) and other technical advancements leading to extremely low
background, better sensitivity and precision. The detection limit for most of the
elements is in pg/ml (ppt) and fg/ml (ppq) level. The system was optimized for
maximum intensity (~40,000 counts/sec) across the mass range 1 mg/ml solution of
Mg, Ba, Ce, Pb and U. 0.1 gm of sample was taken in a Teflon beaker to which 7 ml.
of HF (48%), 3ml of Conc. HNO3 and 1ml of perchloric acid were added. This
mixture was digested by keeping the beaker over hot plate. After confirming complete
digestion, 10 ml of HNO3 of 1:1 concentration was added and was kept on hot plate
till a clear solution was obtained. When the solution cooled down, volume was made
to 100 ml. with double distilled water after adding 10 ml of 1 ppm Rhodium solution
as an internal standard (Balaram et al., 1996).

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 Some of the standards have been analyzed along with samples to monitor the
quality of the data. The accuracy as determined from the standards is better than 8%
RSD for major elements and 5%RSD for trace element. Similarly the precision for
major elements is better than 5%RSD and for trace elements it is better than 1%RSD
in general.

Ganga River
Major elements

Major elements are used to classify the rock type, determination of

paleoweathering, paleoclimate and source rock composition. All the data of major
elements concentration in Ganga sediments and their ratios are presented in Table 10.

SiO2 content in bottom layer of sediments (BLS) and top layer of sediments
(TLS) show small range of variation (64.814 to 80.842, avg. 72.32) and (76.597 to
81.553, avg. 64.9) respectively while it shows large range of variation in middle layer
sediments (MLS) (64.9 to 77.149, avg.72.71). In all the samples, SiO2 is strongly to
moderately negatively correlated with other oxides (Table 11 a, c) except Na2O in
MLS wherein it shows strong positive correlation with Na2O (Table 11 b). This
variable degree of correlation for SiO2 with other major oxides reflects a decrease in
unstable components (e.g. feldspar and labile rock fragments) with an increasing
mineralogical maturity. Al2O3 behaves more or less in similar manner to that of SiO2.
Highest variation in the Al2O3 content is observed in MLS (7.862 to 11.125 wt%, avg.
9.70 wt%) and BLS (7.78 to 12.539 wt%, avg.10.19 wt%). There is small variation in
Al2O3 concentration in TLS. In all the samples, Al2O3 content is moderately to
strongly correlated with other major oxides (Table 11a, b, c., Figure 25) except Na2O
in MLS only wherein it shows negative correlation with Na2O. The good to strong
positive correlation between Al2O3 and other oxides excluding SiO2 in these
sediments indicates clay mineral control on the major element composition of the
Ganga sediments. Relationship of Na2O with SiO2 or Al2O3 contents in MLS indicates
absence or small amount of Na feldspar bearing component in the source terrain.

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 Table 10. Major and trace element abundances and selected element ratios of Ganga sediments (Oxides in wt%, trace elements in ppm).

Anoopshahr Narora Kacchla Anoopshahr Rajghat Narora Kacchla Anoopshahr Rajgaht Narora Kacchla
Elements A1 A3 N1 K6 A5 A8 R4 N3 N5 K8 A2 R5 R6 N6 K7
TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM
SiO2 81.465 81.553 76.597 78.715 64.9 73.986 69.988 77.149 76.154 74.105 80.842 72.043 64.814 67.772 76.104

Al2O3 7.784 8.031 9.131 8.327 11.83 10.361 11.125 7.862 8.918 8.119 8.273 10.466 12.539 11.899 7.789

TiO2 0.31 0.278 0.517 0.432 0.606 0.492 0.589 0.339 0.404 0.446 0.296 0.56 0.657 0.61 0.311

Fe2O3 2.181 2.065 2.992 2.678 4.449 3.622 4.11 2.178 2.71 2.618 2.161 3.711 4.844 4.541 2.157

MnO 0.043 0.028 0.051 0.063 0.048 0.042 0.053 0.038 0.037 0.06 0.029 0.048 0.06 0.054 0.039

MgO 1.03 0.93 1.55 1.16 3.33 1.81 2.38 1.00 1.35 1.17 0.98 2.07 2.89 2.53 0.95

CaO 1.631 1.236 2.446 1.968 3.735 1.972 2.803 1.632 1.938 2.122 1.298 2.574 3.116 2.722 1.558

Na2O 1.468 1.471 1.625 1.493 1.404 1.461 1.479 1.537 1.543 1.527 1.495 1.502 1.437 1.474 1.541

K2O 1.647 1.945 2.09 1.797 2.979 2.634 2.749 1.849 2.159 1.809 2.017 2.501 3.106 2.98 1.777

P2O5 0.079 0.064 0.145 0.126 0.115 0.1 0.132 0.087 0.099 0.14 0.075 0.148 0.131 0.126 0.092

SUM 97.642 97.604 97.148 96.755 93.391 96.475 95.405 93.666 95.307 92.112 97.464 95.621 93.591 94.711 92.322

K2O/Na2O 1.12 1.32 1.29 1.20 2.12 1.80 1.86 1.20 1.40 1.18 1.35 1.67 2.16 2.02 1.15

K2O/Al2O3 0.21 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.23

SiO2/Al2O3 10.47 10.15 8.39 9.45 5.49 7.14 6.29 9.81 8.54 9.13 9.77 6.88 5.17 5.70 9.77

Fe2O3/K2O 1.32 1.06 1.43 1.49 1.49 1.38 1.50 1.18 1.26 1.45 1.07 1.48 1.56 1.52 1.21

CIA 52.08 54.25 49.32 51.07 48.98 53.96 51.43 51.19 51.50 49.36 54.16 51.50 52.40 52.89 51.65

PIA 52.73 55.94 49.10 51.40 48.60 55.63 51.98 51.61 52.05 49.17 55.82 52.04 53.34 54.05 52.22

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CIW 59.13 63.25 56.19 57.98 56.52 63.37 59.64 58.86 59.53 56.04 63.19 59.41 60.96 61.74 59.20

Sc 6.6 6.351 8.159 9.7 11.765 7.69 9.47 7.057 9.085 5.856 7.608 10.034 17.016 11.753 4.545

V 36.051 34.657 53.78 63.212 77.145 49.826 63.996 42.257 56.701 36.793 46.612 73.05 119.448 78.522 25.785

Cr 146.808 136.636 150.021 191.839 148.883 81.743 155.687 179.403 167.708 137.843 160.919 185.831 229.458 181.773 116.327

Co 9.379 10.353 12.262 11.062 22.171 9.097 14.579 11.264 12.983 7.686 12.521 17.776 25.166 17.524 4.824

Ni 124.133 118.521 131.728 51.838 127.948 59.67 132.337 144.886 107.448 30.138 145.546 127.73 154.394 134.171 24.837

Cu 62.277 56.721 77.835 100.927 74.768 50.832 96.555 88.692 73.441 65.465 98.973 162.139 106.407 92.015 58.495

Zn 222.045 201.89 333.8 681.817 139.809 98.005 723.005 328.359 246.458 657.481 246.236 350.682 579.331 156.528 381.23

Ga 9.049 10.97 12.09 13.64 16.767 11.918 14.44 10.764 13.853 8.303 12.255 16.426 24.996 17.02 5.839

Rb 88.817 116.401 120.177 135.783 173.9 133.152 142.364 108.774 147.407 84.68 120.982 165.923 256.956 181.333 61.157

Sr 269.018 235.66 726.867 214.245 150.754 106.231 494.757 299.105 172.776 128.739 188.173 479.42 772.905 126.664 91.828

Y 18.091 14.25 27.159 43.089 24.385 25 31.398 17.568 21.923 28.053 32.742 45.339 39.703 23.07 18.083

Zr 8.163 10.5 10.246 6.348 13.051 12.558 11.905 10.094 13.408 4.1 11.88 11.575 18.566 10.811 3.747

Nb 3.59 5.7 8.414 8.042 10.606 7.454 9.375 5.327 8.752 5.6 5.736 10.774 17.3 11.914 3.185

Ta 0.346 0.757 0.746 0.735 1.041 0.458 0.817 0.559 0.821 0.432 0.486 1.025 1.779 1.259 0.111

Cs 5.237 6.89 6.866 8.278 10.676 8.205 8.494 7.249 8.496 5.381 6.745 9.932 15.373 11.436 3.647

Ba 750.124 776.273 1120.04 695.56 952.669 771.983 1093.84 911.879 820.85 512.323 766.437 1095.42 1602.158 1090.19 372.273

La 23.465 26.019 53.528 85.874 45.091 36.646 65.516 42.52 37.194 45.015 75.02 97.403 73.648 46.318 26.588

Ce 50.308 85.274 125.11 253.127 107.877 155.693 194.282 93.032 79.106 118.454 509.156 231.635 159.365 104.259 60.532

Pr 4.906 5.397 11.212 17.35 9.394 7.618 13.484 8.603 7.678 9.007 15.263 21.016 15.18 9.556 5.509

Nd 19.639 21.135 44.1 68.42 37.66 30.647 54.112 33.332 30.491 35.756 61.275 86.551 59.821 38.069 21.955

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 Sm 3.959 4.198 8.684 12.97 7.569 5.889 9.979 5.959 6.01 6.835 10.805 15.92 11.822 7.549 4.575

Eu 0.845 0.835 1.455 1.969 1.384 1.062 1.699 1.137 1.192 1.074 1.611 2.343 2.156 1.316 0.681

Gd 3.022 3.206 6.619 10.619 5.785 5.043 7.923 4.302 4.513 5.63 9.212 12.184 8.783 5.699 3.54

Tb 0.505 0.449 0.985 1.549 0.888 0.718 1.135 0.627 0.735 0.884 1.226 1.764 1.404 0.871 0.592

Dy 2.903 2.227 4.855 7.992 4.378 3.671 5.591 3.118 3.916 4.802 5.977 8.297 6.967 4.233 3.187

Ho 0.602 0.401 0.865 1.494 0.773 0.666 1.01 0.572 0.745 0.938 1.057 1.459 1.278 0.762 0.597

Er 1.818 1.164 2.451 4.414 2.119 1.864 2.794 1.682 2.116 2.746 2.891 3.969 3.549 2.196 1.748

Tm 0.264 0.141 0.318 0.59 0.275 0.246 0.345 0.219 0.293 0.373 0.347 0.465 0.461 0.283 0.238

Yb 1.574 0.849 1.815 3.591 1.586 1.43 2.005 1.3 1.75 2.26 1.98 2.454 2.747 1.651 1.526

Lu 0.233 0.122 0.265 0.545 0.227 0.204 0.284 0.191 0.25 0.341 0.289 0.346 0.413 0.244 0.218

Hf 0.227 0.307 0.287 0.254 0.408 0.335 0.37 0.315 0.423 0.139 0.347 0.361 0.554 0.338 0.113

Pb 34.762 50.471 44.47 159.826 37.643 32.906 135.489 42.579 42.39 49.455 129.034 103.054 66.84 43.607 36.224

Th 24.104 9.474 15.474 25.338 15.687 9.272 16.103 13.343 13.518 12.963 10.455 17.551 25.611 16.346 8.955

U 13.658 8.383 24.626 7.533 4.849 2.7 16.218 9.025 4.9 6.4 4.666 15.927 28.048 3.259 3.847

La/Sc 3.56 4.10 6.56 8.85 3.83 4.77 6.92 6.03 4.09 7.69 9.86 9.71 4.33 3.94 5.85

Th/Sc 3.65 1.49 1.90 2.61 1.33 1.21 1.70 1.89 1.49 2.21 1.37 1.75 1.51 1.39 1.97

Cr/Th 6.09 14.42 9.70 7.57 9.49 8.82 9.67 13.45 12.41 10.63 15.39 10.59 8.96 11.12 12.99

Zr/Sc 1.24 1.65 1.26 0.65 1.11 1.63 1.26 1.43 1.48 0.70 1.56 1.15 1.09 0.92 0.82

Th/U 1.76 1.13 0.63 3.36 3.24 3.43 0.99 1.48 2.76 2.03 2.24 1.10 0.91 5.02 2.33

Eu/Eu* 0.75 0.70 0.59 0.51 0.64 0.60 0.58 0.69 0.70 0.53 0.49 0.51 0.65 0.61 0.52

Gd/Yb)n 1.59 3.12 3.02 2.45 3.02 2.92 3.27 2.74 2.13 2.06 3.85 4.11 2.64 2.86 1.92

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 (La/Sm)N 3.83 4.00 3.98 4.27 3.85 4.02 4.24 4.61 4.00 4.25 4.48 3.95 4.02 3.96 3.75

(La/Yb)N 10.69 21.98 21.15 17.15 20.39 18.38 23.44 23.46 15.25 14.29 27.18 28.47 19.23 20.12 12.50

∑REE 114.04 151.42 262.26 470.50 225.01 251.40 360.16 196.59 175.99 234.12 696.11 485.81 347.59 223.01 131.49

LREE 102.28 142.02 242.63 437.74 207.59 236.49 337.37 183.45 160.48 215.07 671.52 452.53 319.84 205.75 119.16

HREE 10.69 8.44 17.91 30.25 15.80 13.64 20.80 11.82 14.07 17.63 22.69 30.59 25.19 15.70 11.43

LREE/HREE 9.57 16.83 13.55 14.47 13.14 17.34 16.22 15.52 11.41 12.20 29.60 14.79 12.70 13.11 10.43

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 Table 11a. Correlation coefficients among chemical parameters for the top layer sediments of Ganga River.

SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 CIA Sc V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Th U Ba Cs Y Zr Nb Ta La Sm Yb
SiO2 1.00

Al2O3 -0.96 1.00

TiO2 -0.99 0.92 1.00

Fe2O3 -0.99 0.92 0.99 1.00

MnO -0.67 0.43 0.74 0.75 1.00

MgO -0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.53 1.00

CaO -0.95 0.86 0.98 0.97 0.74 0.96 1.00

Na2O -0.91 0.97 0.88 0.87 0.34 0.97 0.87 1.00

K2O -0.63 0.82 0.54 0.54 -0.10 0.63 0.43 0.77 1.00

P2O5 -0.98 0.87 0.99 0.99 0.82 0.91 0.97 0.81 0.46 1.00

CIA 0.91 -0.79 -0.94 -0.94 -0.77 -0.92 -0.99 -0.82 -0.31 -0.94 1.00

Sc -0.70 0.50 0.74 0.75 0.93 0.49 0.66 0.34 0.11 0.81 -0.65 1.00

V -0.80 0.62 0.82 0.83 0.92 0.60 0.74 0.46 0.23 0.88 -0.72 0.99 1.00

Cr -0.39 0.14 0.45 0.47 0.89 0.15 0.39 -0.03 -0.24 0.55 -0.41 0.93 0.87 1.00

Co -0.94 0.97 0.89 0.89 0.45 0.86 0.79 0.89 0.84 0.85 -0.71 0.59 0.70 0.25 1.00

Ni 0.11 0.11 -0.15 -0.17 -0.66 0.17 -0.05 0.32 0.31 -0.26 0.05 -0.78 -0.69 -0.93 -0.06 1.00

Rb -0.57 0.52 0.54 0.55 0.50 0.31 0.35 0.29 0.50 0.57 -0.26 0.78 0.79 0.65 0.70 -0.67 1.00

Sr -0.79 0.89 0.76 0.75 0.17 0.92 0.79 0.97 0.73 0.68 -0.75 0.13 0.26 -0.23 0.77 0.52 0.08 1.00

Th -0.08 -0.21 0.19 0.19 0.75 0.02 0.29 -0.21 -0.72 0.29 -0.39 0.52 0.45 0.70 -0.24 -0.55 -0.08 -0.27 1.00

U -0.67 0.75 0.66 0.64 0.13 0.86 0.75 0.89 0.55 0.58 -0.73 0.00 0.12 -0.32 0.59 0.63 -0.17 0.97 -0.15 1.00

Ba -0.73 0.86 0.68 0.67 0.04 0.87 0.70 0.95 0.79 0.59 -0.65 0.03 0.16 -0.34 0.75 0.59 0.06 0.99 -0.41 0.94 1.00

Cs -0.48 0.40 0.45 0.47 0.52 0.19 0.26 0.16 0.37 0.50 -0.19 0.79 0.78 0.72 0.59 -0.77 0.99 -0.07 0.01 -0.30 -0.08 1.00

Y -0.61 0.39 0.66 0.67 0.94 0.39 0.59 0.22 -0.02 0.74 -0.59 0.99 0.96 0.97 0.48 -0.84 0.73 0.01 0.61 -0.10 -0.09 0.77 1.00

Zr 0.00 0.29 -0.09 -0.10 -0.74 0.17 -0.11 0.39 0.69 -0.21 0.18 -0.64 -0.54 -0.87 0.23 0.83 -0.21 0.51 -0.91 0.48 0.63 -0.33 -0.74 1.00

Nb -0.88 0.85 0.84 0.85 0.60 0.71 0.71 0.69 0.70 0.84 -0.63 0.79 0.85 0.52 0.94 -0.39 0.89 0.51 -0.09 0.30 0.48 0.82 0.70 -0.04 1.00

Ta -0.50 0.60 0.42 0.43 0.10 0.32 0.22 0.41 0.79 0.40 -0.10 0.43 0.48 0.22 0.75 -0.28 0.88 0.25 -0.53 -0.01 0.30 0.83 0.35 0.26 0.82 1.00

La -0.67 0.47 0.69 0.71 0.89 0.43 0.59 0.29 0.14 0.76 -0.57 0.99 0.98 0.93 0.59 -0.81 0.84 0.07 0.46 -0.08 -0.02 0.85 0.99 -0.63 0.80 0.51 1.00

Sm -0.70 0.51 0.73 0.74 0.90 0.47 0.63 0.34 0.16 0.79 -0.61 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.62 -0.79 0.83 0.12 0.46 -0.03 0.03 0.84 0.98 -0.60 0.82 0.51 1.00 1.00

Yb -0.47 0.21 0.53 0.55 0.94 0.25 0.49 0.06 -0.22 0.63 -0.51 0.94 0.89 0.99 0.30 -0.88 0.61 -0.14 0.74 -0.21 -0.25 0.67 0.98 -0.86 0.54 0.18 0.93 0.92 1.00

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 Table 11b. Correlation coefficients among chemical parameters for the middle layer sediments of Ganga River.
SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 CIA Sc V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Th U Ba Cs Y Zr Nb Ta La Sm Yb
SiO2 1.00

Al2O3 -0.88 1.00

TiO2 -0.92 0.94 1.00

Fe2O3 -0.90 0.99 0.97 1.00

MnO -0.42 0.15 0.49 0.28 1.00

MgO -0.97 0.95 0.92 0.95 0.22 1.00

CaO -0.99 0.84 0.89 0.86 0.39 0.96 1.00

Na2O 0.90 -0.91 -0.86 -0.91 -0.19 -0.93 -0.84 1.00

K2O -0.83 0.99 0.89 0.97 0.05 0.93 0.79 -0.90 1.00

P2O5 -0.45 0.23 0.55 0.34 0.97 0.27 0.43 -0.17 0.12 1.00

CIA 0.46 0.01 -0.19 -0.05 -0.52 -0.28 -0.53 0.12 0.10 -0.49 1.00

Sc -0.79 0.83 0.69 0.78 -0.15 0.88 0.83 -0.71 0.83 -0.03 -0.23 1.00

V -0.83 0.88 0.77 0.84 -0.06 0.92 0.86 -0.76 0.88 0.06 -0.21 0.99 1.00

Cr 0.10 -0.31 -0.30 -0.35 -0.16 -0.14 0.01 0.42 -0.34 -0.10 -0.53 0.16 0.09 1.00

Co -0.82 0.73 0.63 0.69 -0.07 0.86 0.87 -0.69 0.71 0.00 -0.46 0.95 0.93 0.31 1.00

Ni -0.22 0.27 0.09 0.18 -0.47 0.33 0.28 -0.14 0.29 -0.42 -0.09 0.59 0.54 0.67 0.64 1.00

Rb -0.66 0.82 0.62 0.75 -0.33 0.81 0.69 -0.68 0.85 -0.19 0.01 0.96 0.95 0.02 0.85 0.54 1.00

Sr -0.09 0.17 0.20 0.16 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.05 0.15 0.19 0.48 0.15 0.62 0.07 1.00

Th -0.56 0.33 0.43 0.34 0.30 0.49 0.64 -0.18 0.26 0.39 -0.69 0.58 0.58 0.72 0.70 0.62 0.38 0.60 1.00

U -0.12 0.12 0.23 0.14 0.33 0.08 0.12 0.13 0.07 0.38 -0.10 0.06 0.11 0.47 0.09 0.48 -0.07 0.97 0.64 1.00

Ba -0.41 0.59 0.42 0.52 -0.31 0.55 0.43 -0.38 0.61 -0.22 0.12 0.69 0.70 0.35 0.65 0.89 0.68 0.73 0.57 0.58 1.00

Cs -0.69 0.82 0.61 0.74 -0.35 0.83 0.71 -0.74 0.85 -0.25 -0.02 0.96 0.94 0.02 0.89 0.59 0.98 0.06 0.37 -0.08 0.70 1.00

-
Y -0.48 0.48 0.72 0.57 0.80 0.39 0.43 -0.32 0.41 0.88 -0.09 0.10 0.22 -0.34 0.01
0.35
0.03 0.31 0.25 0.44 0.02 -0.05 1.00

Zr -0.27 0.60 0.30 0.49 -0.67 0.50 0.29 -0.42 0.67 -0.54 0.42 0.75 0.72 -0.01 0.58 0.60 0.88 0.15 0.10 -0.06 0.72 0.86 -0.21 1.00

Nb -0.78 0.88 0.79 0.84 -0.02 0.87 0.81 -0.69 0.87 0.15 -0.13 0.95 0.97 0.01 0.84 0.40 0.94 0.15 0.52 0.08 0.61 0.89 0.34 0.71 1.00

Ta -0.70 0.66 0.57 0.61 -0.11 0.76 0.78 -0.51 0.65 0.03 -0.41 0.95 0.93 0.43 0.95 0.66 0.87 0.25 0.76 0.18 0.67 0.85 0.06 0.63 0.89 1.00

La -0.44 0.40 0.56 0.45 0.56 0.37 0.43 -0.18 0.33 0.62 -0.22 0.24 0.32 0.27 0.26 0.35 0.09 0.86 0.69 0.93 0.55 0.07 0.69 -0.06 0.31 0.30 1.00

Sm -0.62 0.59 0.74 0.64 0.58 0.57 0.61 -0.37 0.52 0.67 -0.25 0.43 0.51 0.17 0.42 0.32 0.28 0.75 0.72 0.81 0.57 0.25 0.77 0.07 0.52 0.46 0.97 1.00

-
Yb -0.13 -0.06 0.26 0.04 0.83 -0.04 0.16 0.19 -0.16 0.91 -0.44 -0.19 -0.12 0.05 -0.19
0.48
-0.32 0.14 0.33 0.34 -0.37 -0.43 0.76 -0.59 0.01 -0.05 0.48 0.49 1.00

126
 Table 11c. Correlation coefficients among chemical parameters for the bottom layer sediments of Ganga River
SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 CIA Sc V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Th U Ba Cs Y Zr Nb Ta La Sm Yb
SiO2 1.00

Al2O3 -0.94 1.00

TiO2 -0.95 0.98 1.00

Fe2O3 -0.96 1.00 0.99 1.00

MnO -1.00 0.93 0.95 0.95 1.00

MgO -0.96 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.95 1.00

CaO -0.97 0.96 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 1.00

Na2O 0.72 -0.87 -0.77 -0.82 -0.69 -0.84 -0.75 1.00

K2O -0.91 1.00 0.96 0.99 0.90 0.98 0.94 -0.89 1.00

P2O5 -0.79 0.78 0.89 0.81 0.83 0.82 0.89 -0.44 0.73 1.00

CIA 0.37 -0.11 -0.29 -0.19 -0.43 -0.20 -0.36 -0.29 -0.02 -0.60 1.00

Sc -0.85 0.94 0.88 0.91 0.83 0.93 0.88 -0.96 0.94 0.63 0.03 1.00

V -0.86 0.94 0.91 0.92 0.85 0.94 0.91 -0.94 0.94 0.69 -0.04 1.00 1.00

Cr -0.74 0.89 0.85 0.86 0.74 0.88 0.84 -0.94 0.89 0.65 0.07 0.97 0.98 1.00

Co -0.77 0.91 0.88 0.88 0.76 0.90 0.86 -0.94 0.92 0.69 0.05 0.97 0.98 1.00 1.00

Ni -0.35 0.64 0.56 0.58 0.33 0.59 0.49 -0.83 0.68 0.34 0.52 0.74 0.73 0.84 0.83 1.00

Rb -0.82 0.94 0.89 0.91 0.81 0.93 0.88 -0.96 0.94 0.67 0.04 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.79 1.00

Sr -0.61 0.64 0.66 0.62 0.63 0.67 0.70 -0.71 0.61 0.60 -0.25 0.81 0.84 0.84 0.82 0.53 0.81 1.00

Th -0.87 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.87 0.93 0.92 -0.87 0.89 0.75 -0.20 0.97 0.98 0.95 0.95 0.63 0.97 0.90 1.00

U -0.63 0.63 0.65 0.62 0.65 0.66 0.70 -0.68 0.59 0.59 -0.30 0.79 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.46 0.79 0.99 0.89 1.00

Ba -0.80 0.92 0.89 0.89 0.79 0.91 0.88 -0.94 0.92 0.69 0.01 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 0.80 1.00 0.84 0.97 0.82 1.00

Cs -0.86 0.96 0.92 0.94 0.85 0.95 0.91 -0.95 0.96 0.70 0.01 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.76 1.00 0.78 0.96 0.76 0.99 1.00

Y -0.23 0.40 0.45 0.37 0.27 0.42 0.44 -0.47 0.38 0.56 -0.09 0.53 0.59 0.70 0.69 0.66 0.60 0.80 0.62 0.74 0.66 0.56 1.00

Zr -0.56 0.75 0.67 0.70 0.55 0.73 0.66 -0.94 0.77 0.43 0.27 0.91 0.91 0.96 0.94 0.88 0.93 0.83 0.86 0.79 0.94 0.90 0.71 1.00

Nb -0.89 0.97 0.94 0.95 0.88 0.97 0.94 -0.92 0.96 0.74 -0.09 0.99 1.00 0.97 0.98 0.71 0.99 0.81 0.98 0.79 0.99 1.00 0.56 0.87 1.00

Ta -0.88 0.98 0.94 0.96 0.87 0.97 0.93 -0.93 0.97 0.73 -0.03 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.98 0.74 0.99 0.77 0.96 0.75 0.98 1.00 0.54 0.87 1.00 1.00

La -0.07 0.30 0.34 0.26 0.10 0.30 0.30 -0.40 0.30 0.45 0.07 0.42 0.47 0.62 0.60 0.72 0.50 0.63 0.47 0.56 0.56 0.46 0.97 0.65 0.44 0.43 1.00

Sm -0.16 0.36 0.42 0.33 0.20 0.37 0.39 -0.39 0.35 0.56 -0.06 0.45 0.51 0.64 0.63 0.67 0.53 0.67 0.52 0.61 0.60 0.49 0.98 0.63 0.49 0.48 0.99 1.00

Yb -0.46 0.56 0.57 0.53 0.48 0.58 0.60 -0.66 0.53 0.56 -0.14 0.74 0.78 0.83 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.97 0.82 0.94 0.81 0.72 0.92 0.85 0.74 0.70 0.80 0.82 1.00

127
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 25. Al2O3 versus major oxides covariation diagram of Ganga sediments
indicating clay minerals control on their concentration.

128
Trace elements

Trace element concentration in sediments result from the influence of

provenance, (Rollinson, 1993). Due to remarkably high concentrations of trace
elements in clay rich sediment, most of geochemical studies and interpretation thereon
have been adduced from these lithologies ( Andre et al;1986 ; Bhatia and Taylor,
1981). REE, Th and Sc and to lesser extent Cr and Co are most useful elements
among the least soluble trace elements. These elements are transported exclusively in
terrigenous component of the sediments and therefore, reflect the chemistry of their
source (Rollinson , 1993; McLennan et al; 1980). Data of the concentration of trace
elements and their ratios of studied Ganga sediments are given in (Table 10) and their
description in the following paragraph

Large Lithophile Elements

Rb, Ba, Sr, Th, U are lithophile elements which are associated with the clay
minerals, and thus their concentration are attributed to the parent rocks. However,
their primary abundances may be modified by secondary processes or may be
reduced by increased SiO2 content during to the sediment maturity (quartz dilution
effect).

In general BLS show highest range of variation in the concentrations of Rb,

Sr, Ba, Th and U in comparison to MLS & TLS. Rb content in BLS ranges from
61.157 to 256.956 ppm (avg. 157.27ppm), Sr content in BLS ranges from 91.828 to
772.905 ppm (avg.331.80 ppm), Ba content in BLS ranges from 372.273 to 1602.158
ppm (avg.985.30 ppm), Th and U contents of the BLS range from 8.955 to 25.611
ppm (avg. 15.78 ppm) and 3.259 to 28.048 ppm ( avg.11.15 ppm) respectively. Rb
content in TLS and MLS varies from 88.817 to 135.783 ppm ( avg.115.29 ppm) and
84.68 to 173.9 ppm ( avg.131.71 ppm) respectively. Sr concentration is higher in
TLS i.e. 214.245 to 726.867 ppm ( avg. 361.45 ppm) than MLS 106.231 to 494.757
ppm (avg. 225.39 ppm). Th content varies from 9.474 to 25.338 ppm ( avg.18.60
ppm) and from 9.272 to 16.103 ppm (avg.13.48 ppm) in TLS and MLS
respectively. U abundance behaves similar to Th varying from 7.533 to 24.626 ppm
(avg.13.55ppm) in TLS and 2.7 to 16.218 ppm ( avg.7.35 ppm) in MLS. There is a
good positive correlation between K2O and Rb, Sr, Ba, Th and U in TLS and BLS

129
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig 26. Bivariant K2O versus Rb, Sr, Ba and Th diagram indicating role of clay
minerals for their concentration in Ganga sediments.

130
indicating that clay minerals (e.g. illite, muscovite) primarily controlled the
abundances of these trace elements (McLennan et al., 1983).(Table 11a & 11c, Figure
26). Strong positive correlation between Ba and Sr in the sediments of all layers
indicates possible control of feldspar and mica for their abundance. (Table 11a, b, c)

Transitional Trace elements (TTE)

The transitional trace elements like Cr, Co, Ni, V and Sc behave similarly
during magmatic processes and get mutually fractionated.

TTE abundances in TLS, MLS and BLS in Gangetic plain are highly variable.
Sc and Ni show limited range of variation in MLS & TLS. Sc varies from 6.6 to 9.70
ppm (avg.7.70 ppm) in TLS, from 5.856 to 11.765 ppm (avg. 8.49 ppm) in MLS. Ni
content ranges from 51.838 to 131.728 ppm, (avg.106.56 ppm) in TLS and from
30.138 to 144.886 ppm (avg.100.40 ppm) in MLS.

V content varies from 34.657 to 63.212 ppm (avg. 46.93 ppm) in TLS and
from 36.79 to 77.145 ppm (avg.54.45 ppm) in MLS. Cr content varies from 136.636
to 191.839 ppm (avg.156.33 ppm) in TLS and from 81.74 to 179.403 ppm
(avg.145.21 ppm) in MLS. Co ranges from 9.37 to12.262 ppm (avg. 10.76 ppm) in
TLS and from 7.686 to 22.171 ppm (avg. 12.96 ppm) in MLS. Contrary to limited
range of TTE in MLS & BLS, there are large variations in the contents of TTE in
BLS, e.g. Sc 4.55 to 17.02 ppm (avg. 10.19 ppm), V 25.79 to 119.45 ppm (avg. 68.68
ppm), Cr 116.33 to 229.46 ppm (avg. 174.86 ppm), Co 4.82 to 25.17 ppm (avg. 15.56
ppm) and Ni 24.84 to 154.39 ppm (avg.117.34 ppm). Cr, Co, Ni, Sc and V are plotted
against Al2O3 (Figure 27). Ni and Cr in TLS and MLS are poorly correlated with the
Al2O3 (Table 11a, c,) (Figure. 27) suggesting that they are not associated with the
phyllosilicate whereas Ni and Cr in BLS show strong positive correlation with Al2O3
indicating role and control of phyllosilicate which get concentrated during weathering
processes. Poor correlation of Ni and Cr with Al2O3 in TLS and MLS indicates that
some other factors presumably anthropogenic source(s) played role in the distribution
of these elements. Sc, V and Co content of BLS and MLS show good correlation with
the MgO while TLS show moderately positive correlation with the MgO (Table
11a,b,c) (Figure 28 a,b,e). The good correlation between Sc and MgO, V and MgO
and Co and MgO of TLS, MLS and BLS suggest presence of some mafic material in

131
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 27 : Bivariant Al2O3 versus transitional element diagram of

Ganga sediments.

132
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 28. Covariation diagram between MgO and transitional elements of

Ganga sediments.

133
the source area. Ni and Cr content of the BLS are strongly correlated with the MgO
while Ni and Cr content of TLS and MLS are poorly correlated with the MgO (Table
11a, b, c) (Figure 28 c, d). Positive correlation of Ni and Cr contents of BLS with
MgO again indicates some mafic material in the source terrain.

High Field Strength Elements (HFSE)

Zr, Hf, Y and Nb are considered to indicate provenance compositions as they

are immobile to least mobile during sedimentary processes and have low residence
time in the sea water (Holland, 1978; Sugitani et al., 2006), therefore, their
abundances along with REE contents show the composition of source rock. These
elements with small ionic radii and low radius/charge ratio are referred to as high field
strength elements. They are incompatible during igneous processes and thus tend to
be enriched in felsic rocks relative to mafic rocks.

The concentrations of HFSE of analyzed samples show a relatively narrow

range of variation. In TLS, their concentration ranges are as Zr = 6.348 to 10.50 ppm (
avg. 8.81 ppm), Hf = 0.227 to 0.307 ppm (avg.0.27 ppm), Nb = 3.59 to 8.04 ppm
(avg. 6.44 ppm ), Y =14.25 to 43.089 ppm (avg. 25.65 ppm) and Ta = 0.346 to 0.757
ppm (avg. 0.65 ppm). In MLS they are found to vary as Zr = 4.10 to 13.051 ppm
(avg.10.85 ppm), Hf = 0.139 - 0.408 ppm (avg. 0.33), Nb = 5.327 to 10.606 ppm
(avg.7.85 ppm), Y = 17.568 to 31.398 ppm (avg. 24.72 ppm) and Ta = 0.432 to
1.041ppm (avg.0.69 ppm ). Similarly in BLS their range are as Zr = 3.75 to 18.57
ppm (avg.11.32 ppm), Hf = 0.11 – 0.554 ppm (avg.0.34 ppm), Nb = 3.185 to 17.30
ppm (avg. 9.78 ppm), Y = 18.083 - 45.339 ppm (avg.31.79 ppm) and Ta =0.111 to
1.779 ppm (avg. 0.93 ppm). There is a positive correlation between Zr and Hf in all
the sediments (Table 11a, b, c). A positive relation between Zr-Hf commonly suggests
their derivation from felsic rocks whereas mafic ultramafic rocks bear non linear
positive correlation between Zr -Hf. Zr and Nb contents in MLS and BLS show good
correlation with Al2O3 suggesting that they are hosted by clay minerals (Table 11 b, c)
while in TLS the Zr and Nb shows good positive correlation with K2O indicating
significant proportion of K-bearing rocks in the source terrain.

134
Rare Earth Elements

Rare earth elements in the sedimentary rocks are mostly terrigenous and reveal
the source rock composition which in turn reflects REE distribution of the exposed
continental crust (McLennan, 1989). By comparing the concentration of REE of rock
samples of cogenetic suites, it is possible to constrain the role of the sedimentary
processes in the geochemical evolution of the rock sample (Coryell et al., 1963). The
geochemistry of the large river sediments provide insights into the erosional
processes of the study region on a global scale due to the differential mobility of REE
taking place in response to denudation (Stallard and Edmond, 1987; Negrel et al.,
1993). Water rock interaction, especially at low temperature, is unlikely to cause
substantial change in REE distribution in all sediments. Hence the REE’s are
insoluble with extremely low concentrations in dissolved form in river water and are
mainly transported and deposited as detrital materials in the river basins (Henderson,
1984; Sholkovitz, 1995). These chemical properties of REEs make them excellent
natural probes of particle/solution interaction and redox reactions at the earth surfaces.

BLS are more enriched in ∑ REE = 131.49 to 696.11 ppm (avg. 376.80ppm)
than MLS ∑ REE = 175.99 to 360.159 ppm (avg. 240.54 ppm) and TLS ∑ REE =
114.03 to 470.50 ppm (avg. 249.56 ppm). Largest variation is observed in ∑ LREE
contents in BLS = 119.16 to 671.52 ppm (avg. 353.76 ppm) than TLS 102.28 to
437.741 ppm ( avg. 231.17 ppm ) and MLS 160.479 to 337.337 ppm (avg. 223.41
ppm). ∑HREE abundances range from 8.44 to 30.25 ppm (avg. 16.82 ppm) in TLS,
11.82 to 20.80 ppm (avg. 15.63 ppm) in MLS and from 11.43 to 30.59 ppm (avg.
21.12 ppm) in BLS. LREE enrichment is highest in BLS (La/Ybn =12.50 to 28.47,
avg. 21.50) followed by MLS (La/Ybn =14.29 to 23.46, avg.19.20) and TLS (La/Ybn
=10.69 to 21.98, avg.17.76). HREE fractionation magnitude is maximum in BLS
(Gd/Ybn= 1.92 to 4.11 avg. 3.08), minimum in TLS (Gd/Ybn = 1.59 to 3.12 avg.
2.54) and intermediate in MLS (Gd/Ybn=2.06 to 3.27, avg.2.69). Eu sink is minimum
in TLS (Eu/Eu*=0.51 to 0.75, avg. 0.64), maximum in BLS (Eu/Eu*=0.49 to 0.65,
avg. 0.56) and intermediate in MLS (Eu/Eu*=0.53 to 0.70 with an avg. 0.62). Shapes
of Chondrite normalized REE pattern of all the sediments of Ganga are nearly same
(Figure 29) despite their variable ∑REE content. Basic rocks contain low
LREE/HREE ratios and no or small negative Eu anomalies whereas silic rocks usually

135
 Table 12: Correlation coefficients between REEs with selected trace
elements and major oxides.

Ganga Sediments Yamuna Sediments

TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM TOP BOTTOM

Al2O3-REE 0.40 0.59 -0.04 -0.22 0.43

K2O-REE 0.10 0.56 0.02 -0.27 0.42

Al2O3-LREE 0.40 0.58 -0.05 -0.22 0.39

K2O-LREE 0.11 0.50 -0.12 -0.28 0.38

Al2O3-HREE 0.39 0.69 0.40 -0.14 0.88

K2O-HREE 0.00 0.65 0.65 0.02 0.86

TiO2-LREE 0.61 0.66 -0.20 -0.04 0.41

TiO2-HREE 0.65 0.78 0.42 0.04 0.91

Zr-LREE -0.64 -0.10 0.47 -0.07 -0.17

Zr-HREE -0.73 -0.23 0.67 0.00 0.60

Y-LREE 0.97 0.89 0.61 0.99 0.49

Y-HREE 0.99 0.93 0.99 1.00 0.98

Th-LREE 0.43 0.29 0.00 0.75 0.15

Th-HREE 0.59 0.62 0.57 0.80 0.85

Th-(Gd/Yb)n -0.80 0.26 0.51 0.91 -0.12

Th-(La/Sm)n 0.23 0.00 -0.16 -0.13 -0.86

Th-(La/Yb)n -0.79 0.39 0.51 0.92 -0.62

TiO2-(Gd/Yb)n 0.29 0.70 0.09 0.25 0.17

TiO2-(La/Sm)n 0.38 -0.61 -0.30 0.22 -0.87

Zr-Gd/Ybn 0.61 -0.26 0.50 0.19 -0.47

Y-Gd/Ybn -0.01 0.63 0.70 0.98 0.20

P2O5-HREE 0.74 0.98 -0.40 0.51 0.96

P2O5-LREE 0.69 0.83 0.32 0.45 0.56

136
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 29. (Gd/Yb)n versus trace and major elements of Ganga sediments .

137
contain higher LREE/HREE ratios and large negative Eu anomalies (Cullers et al;
1983). Relatively large negative Eu anomaly and high LREE/HREE ratio in all the
Ganga sediment indicate that the original source area was predominantly
differentiated felsic rocks, similar to granite (McLennan, 1993; Mclennan et al., 1993;
Taylor and McLennan, 1985, 1995).

LREE and HREE concentration in either layer samples do not show any
significant correlation with clay mineral constituents like Al2O3 and K2O which
suggests that little control of clay minerals on the abundance of REE. Zr have good
positive correlation with (Gd/Yb)n in BLS indicating possible presence of zircon in
source area as an accessory mineral while TLS and MLS do not show significant
correlation of (Gd/Yb)n with Zr (Table 11a, b) (Figure 30). Furthermore, there is also
no particular correlation between (Gd/Yb)n or (La/Sm)n of either layer samples with
Th which negates role of monazite in characterizing REEs abundances (Table 12 )
(Figure 30). Good positive correlation between Y and (Gd/Yb)n in MLS and BLS
suggest that minor proportion of garnet also controlled the concentration of heavy
REEs of MLS and BLS. (Table 12) (Figure 29).

Comparison of elemental abundance of the sediments of Ganga plain with

average Upper Continental Crust (UCC) and Post Archean Australian Shale
(PAAS)

Major and trace elements of all sediment samples have been normalized with Average
Upper Continental Crust (UCC) and PAAS (Post Archean Australian Shale) values
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985). It is evident from Figure 31a that all the sediments
show variable depletion in Al2O3, CaO, Na2O and K2O while SiO2, TiO2 and MgO
contents closely matched to UCC values. Similarly Sc, V, Co, Rb, Ba and Y
concentrations are nearly close to UCC values. On the other hand Cr, Ni, Th and U
abundances are higher than UCC. On the other hand compared to PAAS, the Ganga
sediments are depleted in Al2O3, TiO2, MgO, K2O, Sc, V, Co, Zr, Nb and Hf (Figure
31b). Whereas contents of CaO, Cr, Ni, Sr, Ba, Th and U are variably enriched
compared to PAAS. Broadly, the Ganga sediments show more or less similar
enrichment or depletion levels in their average REE contents with respect to UCC and
PAAS. However, a close scrutiny of the diagram (Figure 32a) indicates that average

138
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 30. Chondrite normalized REE diagram of Ganga sediments.

(Normalizing values after (Sun and Mc Donough, 1989).

139
 (a)

(b)

Figure 31. Average Upper Continental Crust (UCC) and Post Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) normalized
major and trace elements of Ganga sediments.

140
REE contents of MLS and TLS show depleted values of Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu
whereas BLS are depleted only in Yb and Lu compared to UCC. Rest of the elements
is variably enriched. Furthermore, compared to PAAS, BLS is more depleted in Tm,
Yb and Lu while other two layer samples show depletion of HREE from Tb to Lu
(Figure 32b). Remaining rare earth elements show enriched concentration. Zr and Hf
depletions can be explained by the lower concentrations of zircon in source rock.
Minor depletion in Al2O3, Na2O, K2O and CaO may be due to the dilution effect of
silica. However, depletion in TiO2, FeO, MgO and Srcould also is due to the
fractionation by fluvial processes leading to preferential removal of fine grained mica
group of minerals from the suspended load than feldspars in addition to quartz
dilution effect.

Inter-layer comparison of REEs of Ganga sediments

Chondrite normalized REE pattern of Ganga sediments are shown in figure 29.
All the sediments have similarly fractionated, parallel to sub parallel chondrite
normalized REE patterns. It is evident from the figure 5 that BLS is most enriched in
(∑LREEs = avg. 353.76 ppm, La/Ybn = avg. 21.50) than MLS (∑LREEs =avg.
223.41 ppm, avg. La/Ybn =19.20) and TLS (∑LREEs = avg. 231.17 ppm, avg.
La/Ybn=avg.17.76) . ∑HREE of the TLS (∑LREEs =avg. 16.82 ppm, avg. Gd/Ybn =
2.54) and MLS (∑LREEs = avg. 15.63 ppm, avg. Gd/Ybn= 2.69) are more
fractionated than BLS (∑LREEs =avg. 21.12, avg. Gd/Ybn = 3.08).

Yamuna River

Major elements

The SiO2 concentration is higher in TLS 57.16 to 84.021 wt% (avg. 70.00 wt
%) than BLS 64.707 to 80.892 wt% (avg. 74.87 wt %). SiO2 in all sediment samples
is strongly to moderately negatively correlated with other major oxides except Na2O
in TLS wherein it shows positive correlation with Na2O (Table 13, 14a, b). Al2O3
content also shows more or less similar trend like that of SiO2. Al2O3 content in TLS
range from 6.69 to16.43 wt% (avg. 11.75 wt% ) and in BLS from 6.951 to 13.522
wt% (avg. 9.49 wt%). In all the sediment samples, Al2O3 is strongly positively
correlated with the other major oxides (Table 14a, b) (Figure 33) except Na2O in TLS
wherein it is negatively correlated with the Al2O3.

141
 (a)

(b)

Figure 32. Average Upper Continental Crust (UCC) and Post Archean
Australian Shale (PAAS) normalized average REE of Ganga.

142
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 33. Al2O3 versus major oxides covariation diagram of Yamuna sediment
indicating clay minerals control on their concentration.

143
 Table 13. Major and trace element abundances and selected element ratios of Yamuna sediments
(oxides in wt%, trace elements in ppm)

Shergarh Virindavan Palwal Shergarh Mahavan Mathura Yamuna Palwal

Elements Sg2 V4 P23 P25 Sg4 Sg5 M1 V3 V8 P33
TOP BOTTOM
SiO2 84.021 57.16 76.23 62.597 79.703 80.892 76.386 78.868 68.668 64.707

Al2O3 6.693 16.434 9.594 14.272 7.332 6.951 8.367 8.642 12.136 13.522

TiO2 0.298 0.837 0.57 0.795 0.383 0.317 0.433 0.522 0.694 0.732

Fe2O3 2.105 6.913 3.541 5.784 2.58 2.213 2.951 3.053 4.774 5.489

MnO 0.03 0.11 0.05 0.09 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.08

MgO 0.642 2.824 1.403 2.373 0.803 0.706 1.429 1.158 1.995 2.31

CaO 0.912 2.325 1.858 2.442 1.078 0.924 3.264 1.706 2.273 2.314

Na2O 1.023 0.968 1.252 1.052 1.086 1.046 1.154 1.282 1.24 1.114

K2O 1.446 3.649 1.97 3.127 1.591 1.549 1.818 1.773 2.635 3.005

P2O5 0.067 0.144 0.143 0.14 0.08 0.071 0.104 0.117 0.126 0.146

SUM 97.236 91.363 96.607 92.669 94.677 94.696 95.953 97.165 94.609 93.414

K2O/Na2O 1.41 3.77 1.57 2.97 1.47 1.48 1.58 1.38 2.13 2.70

K2O/Al2O3 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.22

SiO2/Al2O3 12.55 3.48 7.95 4.39 10.87 11.64 9.13 9.13 5.66 4.79

Fe2O3/K2O 1.46 1.89 1.80 1.85 1.62 1.43 1.62 1.72 1.81 1.83

CIA 57.70 62.72 55.90 59.90 57.28 57.79 46.05 54.79 57.35 59.27

PIA 60.55 68.21 57.85 63.83 59.96 60.80 44.96 56.34 60.07 62.97

144
CIW 66.70 73.85 63.83 69.82 66.18 67.15 51.65 62.39 66.29 69.12

Sc 4.799 13.898 10.499 13.19 5.439 7.085 4.539 7.646 10.764 14.437

V 28.761 95.861 68.042 106.772 39.821 40.918 32.304 43.804 73.076 98.161

Cr 115.266 166.777 95.175 121.69 145.961 64.18 127.708 83.889 116.641 139.865

Co 5.859 19.578 21.959 17.252 9 9.161 8.331 7.791 14.044 18.774

Ni 23.442 134.424 153.169 78.565 45.762 126.942 30.507 57.907 113.513 138.627

Cu 71.354 92.3 195.758 65.932 94.653 55.037 97.074 46.316 57.714 89.304

Zn 454.638 141.966 156.206 138.591 697.58 478.324 521.432 106.161 147.7 279.023

Ga 5.776 17.504 15.248 18.389 7.792 8.795 6.774 9.092 14.096 18.616

Rb 56.615 158.96 125.582 163.171 69.21 73.524 60.579 79.222 128.231 173.318

Sr 129.194 118.836 146.359 89.033 112.652 109.121 108.687 107.61 120.993 139.7

Y 10.796 26.151 78.02 21.499 17.429 14.124 18.767 23.411 22.411 27.49

Zr 6.089 19.891 14.149 24.858 6.279 10.581 4.683 15.431 10.616 17.673

Nb 3.073 11.218 8.913 11.904 4.348 4.459 3.437 6.245 8.22 12.259

Ta 0.223 1.061 1.065 1.285 0.21 0.179 0.231 0.642 0.508 1.239

Cs 2.588 9.773 6.698 10.555 3.143 3.63 2.817 3.842 7.248 10.01

Ba 406.605 995.489 862.622 963.12 523.117 570.31 424.936 716.244 903.988 1076.546

La 17.602 45.566 179.101 52.164 42.984 27.933 45.678 43.124 42.772 39.317

Ce 40.119 99 766.627 99.403 100.21 62.318 188.937 106.21 114.247 131.542

Pr 3.516 9.561 39.555 8.349 8.512 5.697 9.274 8.737 9.094 11.156

Nd 14.039 38.7 165.114 33.527 33.905 22.099 36.817 34.949 36.199 45.118

145
 Sm 2.753 7.751 29.236 6.75 6.088 4.039 6.511 6.616 7.16 8.779

Eu 0.603 1.52 3.91 1.338 1.058 0.816 0.949 1.192 1.329 1.655

Gd 2.044 5.74 22.586 5.109 4.506 3.003 5.47 5.116 5.452 6.751

Tb 0.307 0.886 3.203 0.774 0.657 0.461 0.706 0.786 0.799 1.013

Dy 1.797 4.401 15.374 3.996 3.275 2.416 3.381 3.953 4.074 5.082

Ho 0.37 0.824 2.736 0.747 0.606 0.473 0.622 0.744 0.74 0.929

Er 1.179 2.345 7.39 2.188 1.774 1.429 1.784 2.17 2.108 2.679

Tm 0.165 0.307 0.845 0.297 0.217 0.19 0.213 0.277 0.271 0.349

Yb 1.038 1.806 4.418 1.749 1.362 1.167 1.227 1.607 1.581 2.011

Lu 0.153 0.269 0.606 0.268 0.203 0.184 0.175 0.225 0.228 0.284

Hf 0.187 0.602 0.532 0.88 0.19 0.209 0.146 0.431 0.235 0.585

Pb 39.17 37.415 69.303 33.111 61.895 179.637 134.201 38.06 36.54 66.686

Th 5.575 16.706 21.569 15.246 11.172 6.203 5.935 11.99 14.506 17.746

U 4.294 3.784 4.023 3.659 7.024 4.816 4.507 2.898 3.286 4.318

La/Sc 3.67 3.28 17.06 3.95 7.90 3.94 10.06 5.64 3.97 2.72

Th/Sc 1.16 1.20 2.05 1.16 2.05 0.88 1.31 1.57 1.35 1.23

Cr/Th 20.68 9.98 4.41 7.98 13.06 10.35 21.52 7.00 8.04 7.88

Zr/Sc 1.27 1.43 1.35 1.88 1.15 1.49 1.03 2.02 0.99 1.22

Th/U 1.30 4.41 5.36 4.17 1.59 1.29 1.32 4.14 4.41 4.11

Eu/Eu* 0.78 0.70 0.47 0.70 0.62 0.72 0.49 0.63 0.65 0.66

Gd/Yb)n 1.63 2.63 4.23 2.42 2.74 2.13 3.69 2.63 2.85 2.78

146
(La/Sm)N 4.13 3.80 3.95 4.99 4.56 4.46 4.53 4.21 3.86 2.89

(La/Yb)N 12.16 18.10 29.08 21.39 22.64 17.17 26.70 19.25 19.41 14.02

∑REE 85.69 218.68 1240.70 216.66 205.36 132.23 301.74 215.71 226.05 256.67

LREE 78.03 200.58 1179.63 200.19 191.70 122.09 287.22 199.64 209.47 235.91

HREE 6.90 16.31 56.55 14.86 12.40 9.14 13.40 14.65 15.03 18.81

147
 Table 14a. Correlation coefficient among chemical parameters for the top layer sediments of Yamuna River
SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 CIA Sc V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Th U Ba Cs Y Zr Nb Ta La Sm Yb
SiO2 1.00

Al2O3 -1.00 1.00

TiO2 -0.97 0.97 1.00

Fe2O3 -1.00 1.00 0.97 1.00

MnO -1.00 1.00 0.95 1.00 1.00

MgO -1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00 0.99 1.00

CaO -0.92 0.92 0.98 0.91 0.88 0.93 1.00

Na2O 0.42 -0.41 -0.21 -0.41 -0.49 -0.37 -0.05 1.00

K2O -1.00 1.00 0.96 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.89 -0.47 1.00

P2O5 -0.76 0.76 0.88 0.76 0.70 0.80 0.92 0.27 0.72 1.00

CIA -0.85 0.85 0.70 0.85 0.89 0.82 0.57 -0.82 0.87 0.31 1.00

Sc -0.94 0.94 0.99 0.94 0.91 0.96 0.99 -0.08 0.92 0.93 0.62 1.00

V -0.93 0.93 0.98 0.92 0.89 0.94 0.99 -0.14 0.91 0.87 0.61 0.97 1.00

Cr -0.75 0.75 0.58 0.76 0.81 0.72 0.43 -0.82 0.78 0.23 0.97 0.50 0.45 1.00

Co -0.61 0.62 0.75 0.62 0.55 0.66 0.80 0.44 0.57 0.97 0.14 0.83 0.73 0.10 1.00

Ni -0.47 0.49 0.59 0.50 0.44 0.53 0.62 0.47 0.44 0.86 0.08 0.68 0.52 0.13 0.95 1.00

Rb -0.92 0.92 0.98 0.92 0.88 0.94 1.00 -0.05 0.90 0.93 0.57 0.99 0.99 0.43 0.82 0.65 1.00

Sr 0.60 -0.59 -0.56 -0.58 -0.59 -0.57 -0.55 0.56 -0.61 -0.20 -0.59 -0.47 -0.64 -0.38 0.04 0.31 -0.52 1.00

Th -0.46 0.47 0.63 0.48 0.40 0.52 0.71 0.59 0.42 0.92 -0.03 0.73 0.62 -0.06 0.99 0.95 0.72 0.16 1.00

U 0.92 -0.92 -0.97 -0.91 -0.89 -0.93 -0.98 0.19 -0.90 -0.83 -0.63 -0.95 -1.00 -0.45 -0.67 -0.45 -0.97 0.71 -0.56 1.00

Ba -0.88 0.88 0.96 0.88 0.83 0.90 0.98 0.07 0.85 0.98 0.49 0.99 0.95 0.39 0.90 0.77 0.99 -0.37 0.82 -0.92 1.00

Cs -0.94 0.94 0.99 0.93 0.90 0.95 0.99 -0.15 0.92 0.88 0.63 0.98 1.00 0.48 0.74 0.54 0.99 -0.63 0.63 -0.99 0.96 1.00

Y 0.13 -0.12 0.06 -0.11 -0.19 -0.07 0.18 0.91 -0.17 0.53 -0.56 0.19 0.07 -0.51 0.71 0.78 0.20 0.62 0.82 0.01 0.34 0.07 1.00

Zr -0.89 0.89 0.95 0.88 0.85 0.90 0.97 -0.14 0.87 0.82 0.58 0.93 0.99 0.39 0.66 0.43 0.96 -0.72 0.56 -1.00 0.91 0.99 0.01 1.00

Nb -0.90 0.90 0.98 0.90 0.86 0.92 1.00 -0.01 0.88 0.94 0.53 0.99 0.99 0.39 0.83 0.65 1.00 -0.51 0.74 -0.97 0.99 0.99 0.22 0.96 1.00

Ta -0.77 0.77 0.90 0.77 0.71 0.80 0.96 0.22 0.74 0.96 0.32 0.94 0.94 0.17 0.89 0.70 0.96 -0.41 0.83 -0.91 0.97 0.93 0.40 0.92 0.97 1.00

La 0.15 -0.14 0.05 -0.13 -0.21 -0.09 0.18 0.94 -0.19 0.53 -0.60 0.19 0.08 -0.57 0.70 0.74 0.20 0.57 0.81 -0.01 0.33 0.08 0.99 0.03 0.23 0.42 1.00

Sm 0.16 -0.15 0.03 -0.14 -0.22 -0.10 0.15 0.93 -0.21 0.51 -0.59 0.16 0.04 -0.54 0.68 0.76 0.17 0.62 0.80 0.03 0.31 0.04 1.00 -0.01 0.20 0.38 1.00 1.00

Yb 0.11 -0.10 0.09 -0.09 -0.17 -0.05 0.21 0.92 -0.15 0.56 -0.55 0.22 0.10 -0.52 0.72 0.78 0.23 0.58 0.83 -0.03 0.37 0.10 1.00 0.05 0.25 0.44 1.00 1.00 1.00

148
 Table 14b: Correlation coefficients among chemical parameters for the bottom layer sediments of Yamuna River.
SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 CIA Sc V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Th U Ba Cs Y Zr Nb Ta La Sm Yb
SiO2 1.00

Al2O3 -0.99 1.00

TiO2 -0.94 0.98 1.00

Fe2O3 -0.99 1.00 0.97 1.00

MnO -0.97 0.97 0.97 0.98 1.00

MgO -0.98 0.97 0.95 0.97 0.97 1.00

CaO -0.52 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.56 0.66 1.00

Na2O -0.20 0.31 0.49 0.29 0.35 0.34 0.38 1.00

K2O -0.99 1.00 0.95 1.00 0.96 0.97 0.46 0.22 1.00

P2O5 -0.88 0.92 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.60 0.55 0.89 1.00

CIA -0.28 0.33 0.30 0.34 0.21 0.11 -0.67 -0.21 0.35 0.11 1.00

Sc -0.88 0.91 0.87 0.91 0.81 0.81 0.12 0.12 0.92 0.79 0.63 1.00

V -0.93 0.95 0.89 0.95 0.88 0.86 0.20 0.08 0.96 0.80 0.58 0.98 1.00

Cr -0.49 0.41 0.38 0.45 0.58 0.46 0.41 -0.10 0.42 0.36 -0.08 0.17 0.34 1.00

Co -0.94 0.92 0.83 0.93 0.86 0.86 0.25 -0.06 0.95 0.74 0.52 0.94 0.98 0.42 1.00

Ni -0.55 0.57 0.46 0.55 0.38 0.44 -0.22 -0.24 0.61 0.32 0.73 0.80 0.74 -0.24 0.73 1.00

Rb -0.94 0.95 0.89 0.95 0.88 0.87 0.22 0.09 0.96 0.81 0.56 0.98 1.00 0.33 0.98 0.74 1.00

Sr -0.91 0.89 0.80 0.90 0.85 0.83 0.23 -0.11 0.92 0.74 0.51 0.91 0.96 0.51 0.98 0.66 0.96 1.00

Th -0.80 0.85 0.88 0.87 0.84 0.74 0.07 0.31 0.83 0.80 0.62 0.86 0.89 0.44 0.81 0.47 0.88 0.83 1.00

U 0.36 -0.45 -0.54 -0.41 -0.36 -0.48 -0.41 -0.77 -0.40 -0.61 0.10 -0.40 -0.30 0.45 -0.18 -0.26 -0.32 -0.08 -0.24 1.00

Ba -0.86 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.83 0.81 0.12 0.27 0.91 0.83 0.63 0.98 0.96 0.17 0.90 0.73 0.96 0.87 0.92 -0.46 1.00

Cs -0.94 0.95 0.90 0.95 0.88 0.88 0.24 0.09 0.97 0.81 0.55 0.98 1.00 0.32 0.98 0.75 1.00 0.96 0.86 -0.33 0.96 1.00

Y -0.80 0.86 0.92 0.86 0.87 0.84 0.45 0.53 0.83 0.97 0.21 0.78 0.79 0.38 0.71 0.27 0.80 0.73 0.86 -0.52 0.83 0.79 1.00

Zr -0.50 0.60 0.62 0.58 0.45 0.47 -0.12 0.28 0.57 0.64 0.59 0.81 0.70 -0.22 0.58 0.64 0.71 0.59 0.70 -0.55 0.82 0.70 0.72 1.00

Nb -0.89 0.93 0.90 0.93 0.85 0.84 0.18 0.17 0.93 0.85 0.57 0.99 0.98 0.28 0.94 0.70 0.98 0.93 0.91 -0.37 0.98 0.98 0.86 0.81 1.00

Ta -0.80 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.78 0.79 0.26 0.24 0.83 0.88 0.41 0.89 0.88 0.27 0.82 0.52 0.89 0.85 0.85 -0.41 0.89 0.87 0.93 0.86 0.95 1.00

La -0.22 0.23 0.35 0.25 0.43 0.34 0.61 0.61 0.18 0.43 -0.49 -0.12 -0.02 0.65 -0.04 -0.66 -0.02 0.01 0.25 -0.10 -0.02 -0.03 0.44 -0.23 0.01 0.11 1.00

Sm -0.85 0.87 0.89 0.88 0.93 0.88 0.58 0.39 0.84 0.93 0.09 0.69 0.76 0.67 0.74 0.14 0.77 0.78 0.83 -0.29 0.72 0.76 0.94 0.47 0.79 0.83 0.59 1.00

Yb -0.81 0.87 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.79 0.21 0.32 0.85 0.89 0.48 0.89 0.89 0.37 0.81 0.46 0.89 0.85 0.95 -0.36 0.92 0.88 0.95 0.81 0.95 0.97 0.23 0.88 1.00

149
 The variable degree of correlation for SiO2 with other major oxides in Yamuna
sediments reflects a decrease in unstable components (e.g. feldspar and labile rock
fragments) with an increasing mineralogical maturity. Furthermore, good to strong
positive correlation between Al2O3 and other oxides excluding SiO2 in these
sediments indicates clay mineral control. All the data of major, trace and REE
concentration in Yamuna sediments and their ratios are presented in Table 13.

Large Ion Lithophile Elements

Rb concentrations in TLS range from 56.615 to 163.171 ppm (avg. 126.08

ppm) and in BLS from 60.58 to 173.318 ppm (avg. 97.35 ppm). Maximum variation
in Sr content is observed in TLS range from 89.033 to 146.359 ppm (avg. 120.86
ppm) while in BLS Sr varies from 107.61 to 139.7 ppm (avg.116.46). Ba
concentration in TLS ranges from 406.60 to 995.489 ppm (avg. 806.96 ppm) and
from 424.936 to 1076.546 ppm (avg.702.52 ppm) in BLS. Th content is higher in TLS
(5.57 to 21.569 ppm, avg.14.77 ppm) and lower in BLS (5.93 to 17.74 ppm, avg.
11.26 ppm). U values in TLS show narrow range (3.659 to 4.294 ppm, avg. 3.94 ppm)
while the BLS shows large variation in the range of U content from (2.898 to 7.024
ppm, avg. 4.47 ppm). There is a strong positive correlation between K2O and Rb, Sr,
Ba, Th in BLS indicating K-bearing clay minerals primarily controlled the
abundances of these trace elements (McLennan et al., 1983) (Table 14b) whereas,
TLS do not show significant correlation between K2O and Rb, Sr, Ba, Th. (Table
14a) (Figure 34).

Transitional Trace elements

Sc shows limited range of variation between 13.89 to 4.799 ppm (avg.10.60

ppm) in TLS and 4.539 to 14.437 ppm (avg 8.32 ppm) in BLS. Abundance of V, Cr,
Co and Ni contents are higher in TLS than BLS. In TLS the concentration ranges are
as V (28.76 to 106.772 ppm, avg.74.86 ppm), Cr (95.17 to 166.77 ppm, avg.124.73),
Co (5.859 to 21.959 ppm, avg. 16.16 ppm), Ni (23.44 2 to153.169 ppm, avg.97.40
ppm). Samples of BLS posses values of TTE content as V (32.304 to 98.161 ppm, avg
54.68), Cr (64.18 to 145.961 ppm, avg 113.04), Co (7.79 - 18.774 ppm, avg 11.18
ppm) and Ni (30.507 to 138.627 ppm, avg. 85.54 ppm). All the analyzed TTE of both
layers are plotted against Al2O3 (Figure 35). Ni ,Cr, V and Co contents show

150
 (a) (b)

(c) (e)

Figure 34. Bivariant K2O versus Rb, Sr, Ba and Th diagram indicating role of
clay minerals for their concentration in Yamuna sediments.

151
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 35. Bivariant Al2O3 versus transitional element diagram of Yamuna sediments.

152
moderate to strong positive correlation with the Al2O3 in BLS but such a correlation is
absent in TLS . It suggests that phyillosilicates hosted these elements in BLS.
However, absence of any correlation of TTE with Al2O3 in TLS indicates that
indicates that some other factors presumably anthropogenic source also took part in
modifying the primary concentration of these elements. Ni and Cr content of TLS
shows moderate to strong positive correlation with MgO suggesting presence of some
mafic material in the source terrain (Figure 36).

High field strength elements

All the high field strength elements show enriched abundance in TLS
compared to BLS (Table 13,14). In the samples of TLS, these elements show their
concentrations as Zr = 6.08 to 24.858 ppm (avg.16.25 ppm), Hf = 0.187 – 0.88 ppm
(avg.0.55 ppm) Y =10.796 to 78.02 ppm (avg. 34.12 ppm), Nb = 3.073 to 11.904 ppm
(avg. 8.78 ppm) and Ta = 0.223 to 1.285 ppm (avg.0.91ppm). Similarly their
concentration in BLS are as Zr = 4.683 to 17.673 ppm (avg. 10.88 ppm), Hf = 0.14 –
0.58 ppm (avg.0.30 ppm), Y = 14.124 to 27.49 ppm (avg. 20.61 ppm), Nb = 3.437 to
12.259 ppm, (avg. 6.49 ppm) and Ta = 0.179 to 1.239 ppm (avg.0.50 ppm). Zr, Hf,
Nb and Ta show good positive correlation with the Al2O3 in both layers of sediments
suggesting they are hosted in phyllosilicate (Table 14a, b). Y bears good positive
correlation with the Al2O3 in BLS (Table 14b) suggesting it was in the same mineral
phase like other HFSEs . However its concentration was modified by the contribution
from the mineral phase like garnet particularly in P23 where Y is highest in
concentration i.e. 78.02 with concomitant high contents of HREE, a feature related to
garnet accumulation (Ludden and Gelians, 1982). The probable source of garnet may
be garnetiferous mica schist which is presently exposed in the catchment region.

Rare earth elements

TLS is more enriched in total REE abundance than BLS. Total REE content in
TLS varies from 85.69 to 1240.70 ppm (avg. 440.43 ppm) and in BLS from 132.23 to
301.74 ppm (avg. 222.96 ppm). Samples of TLS also show maximum variation in
∑LREE content ranging between 78.03 to 1179.633 ppm (avg. 414.61ppm) whereas
in BLS ∑LREE content i.e. from 122.09 to 287.22 ppm (avg. 207.67 ppm). LREE
enrichment (La/Yb)n shows large range of variation in the Yamuna sediment

153
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 36.Covariation diagram between MgO and transitional elements of

Yamuna sediments.

154
samples ranging from 12.16 to 29.08, (avg. La/Ybn = 20.08) in TLS and from 14.02 to
26.70 ( avg. La/Ybn = 19.86) in BLS. The magnitude of HREE fractionation varies
narrowly in BLS (Gd/Ybn= 2.13 - 3.69, avg. 2.80) ,but shows relatively wider range
of variation in TLS(Gd/Ybn = 1.63 - 4.23, avg. 2.73). The level of negative Eu
anomaly (Eu/Eu*) is almost identical in both layers (0.66 in TLS and 0.63 in BLS).
Shapes of Chondrite normalized REE pattern of all the sediments of Yamuna are
nearly same (Figure 37) despite their variable ∑REE

Ccntent. (Gd/Yb)n ratio of samples of both layers are plotted against major
oxides like P2O5 and TiO2 and trace elements including Zr, Th and Y in order to
explore the role of various mineral phases which accounted the abundances of these
elements (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al., 1993) in Figure 38. It is
evident from figure 38 that (Gd/Yb)n ratio correlates positively with P2O5, TiO2 and
Th in BLS (Table 14a, b). Whereas The samples of TLS show good positive
correlation of (Gd/Yb)n with P2O5, Th and Y. These relationships indicate that
minerals like apatite, titanite, monazite and to certain extent garnet (particularly in
TLS) controlled the concentration of heavy REE in Yamuna sediments.

Comparison of Yamuna sediments with average Upper Continental Crust (UCC)

and PAAS (Post Archean Australian Shale)
Major and trace element contents of Yamuna sediments are normalized with
the UCC and PAAS values (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and are plotted in the form
of spider diagram (Figure 39a, b). It is evident from Figure 39a, b that SiO2, TiO2 and
MgO contents of all the sediment samples closely match with the UCC while Al2O3,
CaO, Na2O and K2O are variably depleted than UCC. Similarly Sc, V, Rb, Y, Ba and
Th are nearly close to the UCC values. Cr, Co, Ni and U are enriched Na2O, CaO,
K2O, Sr, Zr, Nb and Hf are variably depleted when compared to the UCC.
Furthermore, sediment samples are also normalized with the PAAS (Figure 39 b).
Figure 39 b shows that SiO2, Na2O, Cr, Ba and Th are nearly close to the PAAS.
Al2O3, TiO2, MgO, K2O, Sc, V, Co, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb and Hf are variably depleted than
PAAS. CaO, U and Ni content of all the sediments are enriched compared to PAAS.
Average REE contents of TLS are more enriched (La - Er) and less depleted (Yb - Lu)
than average REEs of BLS as observed from their UCC and PAAS normalized spider
diagrams. (Figure. 40 a, b)

155
 (a)

(b)

Figure 37. Chondrite normalized REE diagram of Yamuna sediments.

(Normalizing values (after Sun and Mc Donough, 1989).

156
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 38. (Gd/Yb)n versus major and trace elements of Yamuna sediments.

157
 (a)

(b)

Figure 39. Average Upper Continental Crust (UCC) and Post Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) normalized major
and trace elements of Yamuna sediments.

158
 (a)

(b)

Figure 40: Average Upper Continental Crust (UCC) and Post Archean
Australian Shale (PAAS) normalized REEs of Yamuna sediments.

159
Interlayer comparison of REEs of Yamuna layer sediments

Chondrite normalized REE pattern of Yamuna sediments are shown in figure

37. All the sediments have similarly fractionated, parallel to sub parallel chondrite
normalized REE patterns. It is evident from this figure that TLS is most enriched in
(∑HREEs = avg. 414.61ppm, avg. La/Ybn = 20.08) than BLS (∑LREEs = avg.
207.67 ppm , avg. La/Ybn = 19.86) . ∑HREEs of the BLS (∑LREEs =avg. 23.66 ppm,
avg. Gd/Ybn = 2.73) are more fractionated than TLS (∑HREEs =avg. 13.19, avg.
Gd/Ybn=2.80)

160