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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Robert W. Messler, Jr., Ph.D., is a recipient of numerous awards for teaching materials, welding, joining,
and design at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He practiced engineering for 16 years in industry, and
then for 7 years he served as Technical Director of RPI’s world-renowned Center for Manufacturing
Productivity. Dr. Messler has authored five other technical books and is a fellow of both ASM
International and the American Welding Society.
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTER 1 Engineers as Problem Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER 2 Problem-Solving Skills versus Process versus Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
ix
x Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Preface
Inhabitants of our planet have been faced with problems that need to be overcome since they first
walked erect . . . and, perhaps, before. Even many of our fellow creatures are faced with problems that
have to be overcome, from building a nest, den, or lair, to finding and securing food, to fording streams,
crossing swampy ground, or surviving storms. But human beings have distinguished themselves as
problem solvers from time immemorial. From the “architects” (actually, engineers) who designed and
built the Great Pyramids at Giza to the myriad of engineers of many disciplines who allowed a man to
plant an American flag on the Moon before returning safely to Earth, mind-boggling problems—that
most of these people would have referred to as “challenges,” as opposed to problems, in their optimistic
outlook—had to be overcome by a combination of ingenuity, creativity, agility, and versatility.
While a formal education in the sciences, mathematics, and basics of engineering (statics, dynamics,
fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, kinetics, heat transfer, electronics, etc.), followed by discipline-
specific required and elective courses, is necessary for a young person to become an engineer, this is
not sufficient. To become a real engineer, one needs to “marinate” in engineering by working with and
among other engineers, technicians, and skilled crafts- and tradespersons, learning the techniques of
problem-solving that were probably not explicitly taught, if they were even mentioned, in engineering
school. It is knowledge of these techniques that allows one to both solve a problem and, in the
longer haul, approach problem-solving with confidence. Knowing what to do to solve a problem is
empowering, while solving the problem is often only momentarily fulfilling.
It is the premise of this book, which the author derived from more than 25 years as an “engineer
who teaches,” that simply being given innumerable problems within courses to solve in a variety of
subject areas may not enlighten the student with recognition of the technique that was employed to allow
success. After all, it is a stark reality that an engineering student’s first objective is to survive engineering
school. His or her second objective—despite what professional educators and parents, alike, desire—is
learning for the long haul. Even more significant may be that faculty in modern engineering schools
or colleges build careers on the success of their research and fulfill an essential need by teaching what
they know best. What they know best is, of course, their area of specialization, on which their research
is based. Fewer and fewer of those who enter an academic career in engineering do so from a former
position as a practicing engineer. Rather, more and more, they do so either directly from graduate school
or through a carefully structured set of experiences as researchers (e.g., graduate research assistants,
postdocs, tenure-track/tenured faculty). Thus, the reality is, fewer and fewer of those charged with
teaching engineering actually practiced engineering; that is, they never “marinated” in engineering.
Not surprisingly, therefore, fewer and fewer are explicitly aware of the variety of techniques by which
real-world problems can be solved—beyond mathematical approaches based largely on “plug-and-chug”
manipulations of equations using given values to arrive at a closed-ended solution.
This book is intended to end this situation—to attempt to shortcut the process of gaining the self-
confidence that comes with having a diverse set of powerful tools and techniques by which problems
can be approached and solved. By putting more than 50 tried-and-true techniques in writing, organized
into mathematical approaches, physical/mechanical approaches, visual/graphic approaches, and abstract/
conceptual approaches, and by illustrative examples of how each technique can be used, the young
engineer-to-be or young engineer new to practice is made patently aware of how to solve problems.
To keep what could easily become tedium from closing off one’s mind, if not making one close the
xi
xii Preface
book, the writing style is kept as comfortable and conversational as possible. But readability doesn’t
sacrifice technical accuracy or sophistication. Throughout the book, the author has interspersed what he
hopes are enlightening and fun historical contexts and anecdotes. Likewise, each chapter contains figures
that attempt to be visually striking as much as enlightening and tables that either summarize or support
key concepts.
Most important, it is the author’s sincere hope that readers will find this a joy-filled journey, as much
as or more than simply another important technical book. Get ready to see the myriad of timeless and
time-tested techniques used by our proud forbearers in engineering, and enjoy the journey.
1
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition, 2006, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.
2
Maslow subsequently extended his ideas to include his observations of humans’ innate curiosity, which, especially apropos to the
subject of this book, brings with it a need to be strong problem solvers.
3
Viktor Emil Frankl, the Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, added a sixth level to Maslow’s hierarchy, i.e., “Self-
Transcendence,” in which people seek to go beyond their prior form or state.
4
Orang-utans literally means “person” (orang) of the “forest” (hutan) in the native language of Borneo, where these great apes are
found.
3
4 Introduction
Self-actualization
(Achieving individual potential)
Esteem
(self-esteem and esteem from others)
Belonging
(Love, affection, being a part of groups)
Safety
(Shelter, removal from danger)
Physiological
(Health, food, sleep)
■ Beavers cutting and moving trees to create bridges across boggy areas and streams—to increase their
mobility, extend their range, and attend to their needs for love, affection, and belonging by improving
chances to find a suitable mate (Level 3).
■ Ants building bridges using their own bodies to enable other ants to cross an obstacle (see YouTube.
com, “Ants Engineering—Building Bridge Within No Time”)—to increase their mobility and extend
their range (Levels 1 and 3). Remarkable video, more remarkable problem-solving, as one watches
the first ants to encounter the obstacle assessing the problem and a solution!
Of course, most of us are aware how clever common tree squirrels are at problem-solving when it
comes to getting food from hanging bird feeders, even “squirrel-proof ” ones, by causing them to spill
seeds onto the ground by shaking or even spinning the feeder.5 Recent studies have also proven that
Aesop’s fable “The Crow and the Pitcher,” in which a crow drops pebbles into a pitcher half filled with
water to raise the level to allow him to drink, has a real basis in fact. Rooks (relatives of crows) have
been observed dropping small rocks into water to raise the level to allow a worm floating on the surface
to be caught.6
Clever as our animal friends are, they don’t come close to solving the number, diversity, and
complexity of problems that we humans have solved and continue to solve since our appearance on this
planet. In fact, there are people who are specially trained to solve problems for the benefit of others.
They are known as engineers. According to the dictionary,7 engineers, as a plural noun, are defined
thus: “[Engineers] apply scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design,
construction, and operation of efficient and economical structures, equipment, and systems.” As a verb,
to engineer means “to plan, manage, or put through by skillful acts or contrivance,” the latter term
meaning to “devise with cleverness or ingenuity.” By this last definition, some of our animal friends are
definitely Nature’s engineers. But we human engineers truly excel at problem-solving.
No one could begin to list, no less describe, the innumerable problems solved by engineers over the
ages, and this book is not intended to see what problems engineers have solved; rather, it is intended
to compile and describe what techniques engineers use in problem-solving. But we can probably agree
that problem-solving for engineers falls into one of two broad categories: Problem-solving of necessity
5
Search YouTube.com under “Squirrels get to bird feeder . . .” to see real animal ingenuity at work!
6
Check out www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090806121754.htm.
7
Ibid., Footnote 1.
CHAPTER 1 ■ Engineers as Problem Solvers 5
Figure 1–2 A wild gorilla using a dead stick (top image, to her left) as a stabilizer while using her other,
free hand to gather aquatic herbs. (Source: Originally by T. Breuer, M. Ndounoku-Hockemba,
and V. Fishlock, in “First Observations of Tool Use in Wild Gorillas,” PLoS Biol [Journal of
the Public Library of Science] 3(11):e380, 2005; WikiMedia Commons from an image search,
used freely under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 license.)
and necessary problem-solving. The former involves solving problems that must be solved on their
own account—as ends in themselves—the most obvious examples being problem situations that are
life-threatening (e.g., preventing life-destroying flooding along rivers using dikes or protecting ships
and sailors from life-threatening rock outcroppings using lighthouses). The latter involve solving the
many and varied problems that arise in the course of voluntarily undertaking each and every design or
construction project (e.g., stabilizing the soil for the foundation of a large civil structure or lifting heavy
structural elements into place) or operating equipment, a process, or a system (e.g., achieving desired
control for safety, efficiency, and economy). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are an interesting
case in point.
Created in various versions in the first and second centuries BC, most notably by Antipater of Sidon
and an observer identified as Philon of Byzantium, the original list was more a guidebook of “must see”
sites for Hellenic tourists than any attempt to catalog great works of engineering located around the
Mediterranean Sea.8 Table 1–1 lists the Seven Ancient Wonders and some basic information on each,
while Figure 1–5 shows an artist’s concepts of the seven. A strong argument could be made that only the
Lighthouse at Alexandria was probably a solution to a problem (for navigators to the greatest city of the
time), that is, involved problem-solving of necessity. The others—while each a marvel of engineering at
any time, no less during ancient times—were more an appeal to one of Maslow’s two highest-level needs
for self-esteem and self-actualization. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, on the other hand, was surely
created out of the need for King Nebuchadnezzar to express his love for his wife, Amytis of Media,
fulfilling a Level 3 relationship need.
8
For the ancient Greeks, the region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea was their known world (i.e., the Hellenic world). They
probably didn’t venture far beyond this area.
CHAPTER 1 ■ Engineers as Problem Solvers 7
Figure 1–5 Depictions of the seven wonders of the ancient world by sixteenth-century Dutch artist
Marten van Heemskerck: (top, left to right) Great Pyramid, Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
Temple of Artemus, and Colossus of Rhodes; (bottom, left to right) Mausoleum of
Halicarnassus, Statue of Zeus at Olympus, and Lighthouse at Alexandria. (Source: WikiMedia
Commons from image search, originally contributed by mark22 on 7 May 2007; used freely
under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 license, but also within public domain.)
Two ancient accomplishments of engineering merit special attention here as examples of problem-
solving of necessity versus necessary problem-solving: the Tunnel of Samos (also known as the Tunnel
of Eupalinos) and the Great Pyramid of Giza, respectively.
Unquestionably, one of the greatest engineering achievements of ancient times is a water tunnel
measuring 1036 m (4000 ft) in length, excavated through a mountain (Mount Kastro/Castro) on the
Greek island of Samos in the sixth century BC. It was built of necessity to move fresh water from a
natural source on one side of the island to a thriving city situated at the edge of a safe and busy harbor
on the opposite side of the island—with the mountain separating the two sites. The marvel is that it was
dug through solid limestone by two separate teams advancing in a straight line from opposite ends, using
only hammers and chisels and picks (Figure 1–6).9 The prodigious feat of manual labor is surpassed only
by the mind-boggling intellectual feat of determining the direction of the tunnel so that the two digging
parties met under the middle of the mountain. How this was done no one knows for sure, because no
written records exist. But, at the time the tunnel was dug, the Greeks had no magnetic compass, no
surveying instruments, no topographical maps, nor even much written mathematics at their disposal.
There have been some convincing explanations for how the tunnel was created, the oldest being
one based on a theoretical method devised by Hero of Alexandria five centuries after the tunnel was
completed. It called for a series of right-angled traverses around the mountain, beginning at one entrance
of the proposed tunnel and ending at the other, maintaining a constant elevation. By measuring the net
distance traveled in each of two perpendicular directions, the lengths of the two legs of a right triangle
would be determined, with the hypotenuse of the triangle being the proposed path of the tunnel. By
laying out smaller similar right triangles (see Chapter 8) at each entrance, markers could be used by
each digging crew to determine the direction of tunneling. But how did the ancient Samosians keep their
orthogonal straight-line segments at a constant elevation?
Tom M. Apostol, Emeritus Professor of Mathematics at CalTech, studied the problem for years
and took issue with Hero’s proposal. Professor Apostol’s theory is detailed in a fascinating article,
“The Tunnel of Samos,” and was the subject of one of Dr. Apostol’s wonderful lectures in Project
MATHEMATICS on public-access TV (www.projectmathematics.com). The interested reader is strongly
9
The English Channel Tunnel, like many other modern tunnels, was bored from opposite ends—one end by an English team, the
other by a French team. Their tunnel segments met, but they had much more sophisticated technologies at their disposal.
8 Introduction
Figure 1–6 Map and photograph of the Tunnel of Eupalinos/Tunnel of Samos, excavated through Mount
Kastro from opposite sides in the sixth century BC. (Source: Demeteris Koutsoyiannis,
School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens [hand-drawn map
at top] and WikiMedia Commons from image search [photograph at bottom], originally
contributed by moumonza on 24 November 2007, used freely under Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5 license.)
encouraged to read more about this amazing engineering accomplishment or, better yet, to watch the
amazing series available on DVDs.
However it was done, the Tunnel of Samos stands as testimony to the extraordinary problem-solving
skill of the ancient Samosians—born of necessity for water for survival.
While not born of necessity, but rather of faith and devotion (clearly higher-level needs!), the
Great Pyramid, also known as Khufu’s Pyramid, oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza
Necropolis bordering the Nile River near what is now Cairo, Egypt, in Africa, is probably the greatest
testimony to the problem-solving ability of human beings ever (Figure 1–7)! Believed to have been
constructed over a 20-year period concluding around 2560 BC, it was to serve as the eternal resting
CHAPTER 1 ■ Engineers as Problem Solvers 9
Figure 1–7 Photograph of the Great Pyramids Figure 1–8 A CATIA rendering of the Great
of Giza at the Giza Necropolis near Pyramid of Khufu near the end of its
Cairo, Egypt. (Source: Wikimedia construction over a 20-year period in
Commons; originally contributed by which tens of thousands of workers
Riclib on 17 June 2007, used freely moved a huge stone into place once
under Creative Commons Attribution- every 2 minutes for 10 hours a day
Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.) for 365 days a year. Also shown,
surrounding the pyramid are living
quarters for workers and staging
areas for construction materials.
(Source: Dassault Systemes from the
2011 edition of Khufu Reborn; used
with the kind permission of Dassault
Systemes.)
place for the mummified body of the beloved Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh popularly known as
Cheops. The enormity of the Great Pyramid has posed—and continues to pose—a challenge to anyone
who would attempt to explain how it could have been constructed—an engineering mystery that is
delved into later in this book (see “Closing Thoughts”).
It is estimated that this largest, essentially solid, pyramid consists of more than 2.4 million stone
blocks averaging 2.27 metric tons (2.5 tonnes) each, along with additional blocks lying deep within
the pyramid (where they served special functions) weighing much more. The overall height of the
pyramid, when new, measured 146 m (480.9 ft). To accomplish building the Great Pyramid, one block
would have to have been set in its final resting place every 2 minutes for 20 years . . . 365 days a year,
working 10 hours a day! To add further to the imponderable questions of actual construction, there are
the time and effort involved in cutting that many large stones from a quarry located 12.8 km (8 mi) away,
and transporting them to the specially prepared 5.2-hectare (13-acre) construction site, a very early
example of “just-in-time” manufacturing, in which stones were quarried and transported just before
they were needed at the construction site. Tens of thousands of multiton white limestone facing stones
were quarried more than 100 km (60 mi) away, and also had to be transported. Theories abound, but no
irrefutable solution has been found. (See Figure 1–8.)
Table 1–2 lists some dimensions for the Great Pyramid that, with a little reflection, are also
staggering.10
The dimensional accuracy of the lengths of the four sides of the square base is ±0.20 m (±0.67 ft), or
±0.044 percent—and this is the accuracy over sides that are 230.5 m (756 ft) long! The angular accuracy
10
The first to precisely measure the Great Pyramid was W. M. Flinders Petrie, who published his findings in a book (The Pyramids
and Temples of Gizeh) by the Royal Society of London in 1883. The Great Pyramid was professionally surveyed by J. H. Cole
in 1925, with his measurements being published in Determination of the Exact Size and Orientation of the Great Pyramid, by
Government Press, Cairo.
10 Introduction
* Data were selectively taken from measurements recorded by Peter Lemesurier in his 1977 book, The Great Pyramid
Decoded, reprinted by Elements Books Ltd., 1996.
Figure 1–9 The remarkable Pi ratio of the Great Pyramid, in which the base of the Great Pyramid is a
square whose perimeter is equal to the circumference of a circle with a radius equal to the
height of the Great Pyramid.
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casa. Ya le hizo aquello malas tripas. Después salió al campo, y vio a
chotacabras dando brinquitos delante de ella. Todo esto era de muy
mala sombra. Al volver a casa, la niña con un calenturón que se
abrasaba.
Habiéndoles preguntado don Nazario si la visitaba el médico
contestaron que sí. Don Sandalio, el titular del pueblo, había venido
tres veces, y la última dijo que solo Dios, con un milagro, podía salva
a la nena. Trajeron también a una saludadora, que hacía grandes
curas. Púsole un emplasto de rabos de salamanquesas, cogidas a las
doce en punto de la noche... Con esto parecía que la criaturita entraba
en reacción; pero la esperanza que cobraron duró bien poco. La
saludadora, muy desconsolada, les había dicho que el no hacer efecto
los rabos de salamanquesa, consistía en que era el menguante de la
luna. Siendo creciente, cosa segura, segurísima.
Con severidad y casi casi con enojo, las reprendió Nazarín por su
estúpida confianza en tales paparruchas, exhortándolas a no cree
más que en la ciencia, y en Dios por encima de la ciencia y de todas
las cosas. Hicieron ellas ardorosas demostraciones de acatamiento a
buen sacerdote, y llorando y poniéndose de hinojos, le suplicaron que
viese a la niña, y la curara.
—¿Pero, hijas mías, cómo pretendéis que yo la cure? No seáis
locas. El cariño maternal os ciega. Yo no sé curar. Si Dios quiere
quitaros a la niña, Él se sabrá lo que hace. Resignaos. Y si decide
conservárosla, ya lo hará con solo que se lo pidáis vosotras, aunque
no está de más que yo también se lo pida.
Tanto lo instaron a que la viera, que Nazarín pasó tras la cortinilla
Sentose junto al lecho de la criatura, y largo rato la observó en
silencio. Tenía Carmencita el rostro cadavérico, los labios casi negros
los ojos hundidos, ardiente la piel, y todo su cuerpo desmayado, inerte
presagiando ya la inmovilidad del sepulcro. Las dos mujeres, madre y
tía, se echaron a llorar otra vez como Magdalenas, y las vecinas que
allí entraron hicieron lo propio, y en medio de aquel coro de femeni
angustia, Fabiana dijo al sacerdote:
—Pues si Dios quiere hacer un milagro, ¿qué mejor ocasión?
Sabemos que usted, padre, es de pasta de ángeles divinos, y que se
ha puesto ese traje y anda descalzo y pide limosna por parecerse más
a Nuestro Señor Jesucristo, que también iba descalzo, y no comía más
que lo que le daban. Pues yo digo que estos tiempos son como los
otros, y lo que el Señor hacía entonces, ¿por qué no lo hace ahora?
Total, que si usted quiere salvarnos a la niña, nos la salvará, como
este es día. Yo así lo creo, y en sus manos pongo mi suerte, bendito
señor.
Apartando sus manos para que no se las besaran, Nazarín con
reposado y firme acento les dijo:
—Señoras mías, yo soy un triste pecador como vosotras, yo no soy
perfecto, ni a cien mil leguas de la perfección estoy, y si me ven en
este humilde traje, es por gusto de la pobreza, porque creo servir a
Dios de este modo, y todo ello sin jactancia, sin creer que por anda
descalzo valgo más que los que llevan medias y botas, ni figurarme
que por ser pobre, pobrísimo, soy mejor que los que atesoran
riquezas. Yo no sé curar; yo no sé hacer milagros, ni jamás me ha
pasado por la cabeza la idea de que, por mediación mía, los haga e
Señor, único que sabe alterar, cuando le plazca, las leyes que ha dado
a la naturaleza.
—¡Sí puede, sí puede, sí puede! —clamaron a una todas las
mujeres, viejas y jóvenes, que presentes estaban.
—¡Que no puedo digo..., y conseguiréis que me enfade, vamos! No
esperéis nunca que yo me presente ante el mundo revestido de
atribuciones que no tengo, ni que usurpe un papel superior al oscuro y
humilde que me corresponde. Yo no soy nadie, yo no soy santo, n
siquiera bueno...
—Que sí lo es, que sí lo es.
—Ea, no me contradigáis, porque me marcharé de vuestra casa..
Ofendéis gravemente a nuestro Señor Jesucristo suponiendo que este
pobre siervo suyo es capaz de igualarse, no digo a Él, que esto sería
delirio, pero ni tan siquiera a los varones escogidos a quienes dio
facultades de hacer maravillas para edificación de gentiles. No, no
hijas mías. Yo estimo vuestra simplicidad; pero no quiero fomentar en
vuestras almas esperanzas que la realidad desvanecería. Si Dios tiene
dispuesto que muera la niña, es porque la muerte le conviene, como
os conviene a vosotros el consiguiente dolor. Aceptad con ánimo
sereno la voluntad celestial, lo cual no quita que roguéis con fe y amor
que oréis, que pidáis fervorosamente al Señor y a su Santísima Madre
la salud de esta criatura. Y por mi parte, ¿sabéis lo único que puedo
hacer?
—¿Qué, señor, qué?... Pues hágalo pronto.
—Eso mismo; pedir a Dios que devuelva su ser sano y hermoso a
esta inocente niña, y ofrecerle mi salud, mi vida en la forma que quiera
tomarlas; que a cambio del favor que de Él impetramos, me dé a m
todas las calamidades, todos los reveses, todos los achaques y
dolores que pueden afligir a la humanidad sobre la tierra..., que
descargue sobre mí la miseria en su más horrible forma, la ceguera
tristísima, la asquerosa lepra..., todo, todo sea para mí, a cambio de
que devuelva la vida a este tierno y cándido ser, y os conceda a
vosotras el premio de vuestros afanes.
Dijo esto con tan ardoroso entusiasmo y convicción tan honda y
firme, fielmente traducidos por la palabra, que las mujeres
prorrumpieron en gritos, acometidas súbitamente de una exaltación
insana. El entusiasmo del sacerdote se les comunicó como chispa que
cae en montón de pólvora, y allí fue el llorar sin tasa, y el cruzar de
manos convulsivamente, confundiendo los alaridos de la súplica con
los espasmos del dolor. El peregrino, en tanto, silencioso y grave, puso
su mano sobre la frente de la niña, como para apreciar el grado de
calor que la consumía, y dejó transcurrir en esta postura buen espacio
de tiempo, sin parar mientes en las exclamaciones de las desoladas
mujeres. Despidiose de ellas poco después, con promesa de volver, y
preguntando hacia dónde caía la iglesia del pueblo, Ándara se ofreció
a enseñarle, y fueron, y allá se estuvo todo el santo día. La tarasca no
entró en la iglesia.
IV