Composite Materials 1st Edition -

eBook PDF
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/composite-materials-ebook-pdf/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Advances in Engineered Cementitious Composite

Materials, Structures, and Numerical Modeling 1st
Edition- eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/advances-in-engineered-
cementitious-composite-materials-structures-and-numerical-
modeling-ebook-pdf/

Concrete Composite Columns: Behavior and Design 1st

edition- eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/concrete-composite-columns-
behavior-and-design-ebook-pdf/

Composite Solutions for Ballistics 1st Edition Yasir

Nawab - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/composite-solutions-for-
ballistics-ebook-pdf/

Critical Materials (Materials Today) 1st edition -

eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/critical-materials-materials-
today-ebook-pdf/
Applied Analysis of Composite Media: Analytical and
Computational Approaches 1st Edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/applied-analysis-of-composite-
media-analytical-and-computational-approaches-ebook-pdf/

Oil Palm Biomass for Composite Panels: Fundamentals,

Processing, and Applications 1st edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/oil-palm-biomass-for-composite-
panels-fundamentals-processing-and-applications-ebook-pdf/

Analysis of Composite Laminates: Theories and Their

Applications 1st Edition Dinghe Li - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/analysis-of-composite-laminates-
theories-and-their-applications-ebook-pdf/

Materials Kinetics 1st edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/materials-kinetics-ebook-pdf/

Damage Modeling of Composite Structures: Strength,

Fracture, and Finite Element Analysis 1st Edition
Pengfei Liu - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/damage-modeling-of-composite-
structures-strength-fracture-and-finite-element-analysis-ebook-
pdf/
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
Manufacturing, Properties,
and Applications

Edited by

IT-MENG LOW
YU DONG
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-820512-9

For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Gwen Jones
Editorial Project Manager: Rafael G. Trombaco
Production Project Manager: Surya Narayanan Jayachandran
Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert

Typeset by SPi Global, India

 Contributors
Hazizan Md Akil School of Materials and
Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering
Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Abdullah Alhuthali Department of Physics,
Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
Volker Altst€adt Department of Polymer
Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,
Germany
Mohammad I.M. Alzeer Fibre and Particle
Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu,
Oulu, Finland
Suna Avcıoglu Yıldız Technical University,
Faculty of Chemistry and Metallurgy,
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey
Erik Valentine Bachtiar Fraunhofer Institute for
Wood Research Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut,
Braunschweig, Germany
Neeraj Kumar Bhoi Mechanical Engineering
Department, PDPM Indian Institute of
Information Technology, Design and
Manufacturing, Jabalpur, MP, India
Merve Buldu Sabancı University, Faculty of
Engineering and Natural Sciences, Materials
Science and Nano Engineering; Sabancı
University, Nanotechnology Research and
Application Centre (SUNUM), Istanbul,
Turkey
Minh Phung Dang Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Thanh-Phong Dao Division of Computational
Mechatronics, Institute for Computational
Science; Faculty of Electrical & Electronics
ix
Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University,
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Martin Demleitner Department of Polymer
Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,
Germany
Yu Dong School of Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, WA,
Australia
Jayantha Epaarachchi School of Mechanical and
Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Health
Engineering and Sciences; Centre for Future
Materials, Institute for Advanced
Engineering and Space Sciences, University of
Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD,
Australia
Kunkun Fu School of Aerospace Engineering
and Applied Mechanics, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
Qiuni Fu Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€
at Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany
Ali Nemati Giv Department of Organic and
Wood-Based Construction Materials,
Technische Universit€
at Braunschweig,
Braunschweig, Germany
Kheng Lim Goh Composite Materials and
Mechanics Group, Newcastle Research and
Innovation Institute Singapore, Newcastle
University in Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
aublein Department of Polymer
Markus H€
Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,
Germany
Abdellah Henni Laboratory of Dynamic
Interactions and Reactivity of Systems, Kasdi
Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
x Contributors
Madhubhashitha Herath School of Mechanical
and Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Health
Engineering and Sciences; Centre for Future
Materials, Institute for Advanced Engineering
and Space Sciences, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
Silu Huang Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€at Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany
Qian Jiang School of Textile Science and
Engineering; Ministry of Education Key
Laboratory for Advanced Textile Composite
Materials, Tiangong University, Tianjin,
People’s Republic of China
Bharat Jindal (Bhushan) School of Civil
Engineering, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi
University, Katra, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Pang Hee Juon Composite Materials
and Mechanics Group, Newcastle Research
and Innovation Institute Singapore,
Newcastle University in Singapore, Singapore,
Singapore
Amina Karar Laboratory of Dynamic
Interactions and Reactivity of Systems, Kasdi
Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
Bohumil Kasal Department of Organic and
Wood-Based Construction Materials,
Technische Universit€at Braunschweig;
Fraunhofer Institute for Wood Research,
Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut, Braunschweig,
Germany
Cengiz Kaya Yıldız Technical University,
Faculty of Chemistry and Metallurgy,
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey
Figen Kaya Yıldız Technical University, Faculty
of Chemistry and Metallurgy, Department of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Istanbul, Turkey
Samaneh Salkhi Khasraghi Department of
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Hieu Giang Le Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Yang Li College of Mechanical Engineering,
Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang,
PR China
It-Meng Low Department of Applied Physics,
Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
Kenneth J.D. MacKenzie MacDiarmid Institute
for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology,
Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington,
New Zealand
Duc Nam Nguyen Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Industrial University
of Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Tan Thang Nguyen Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City Industry and
Trade College, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Nurul Zahirah Noor Azman School of Physics,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, Penang,
Malaysia
Wendy Triadji Nugroho School of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
ohler Fraunhofer Institute for
Christoph P€
Wood Research Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut,
Braunschweig, Germany
Alokesh Pramanik School of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
Saurabh Pratap Mechanical Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Varanasi (IIT-BHU), UP, India
Maizan Ramli Ramzun School of Physics,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, Penang,
Malaysia
Fatin Nur Amirah Mohd Sabri School of
Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering,
Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang,
Malaysia
Hamid Saeedipour The Aerospace Hub;
School of Engineering, Republic Polytechnic,
Singapore, Singapore
Faiz Uddin Ahmed Shaikh School of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
 Contributors
Sanjay Sharma Department of Civil
Engineering, NITTTR, Chandigarh, India
Akbar Shojaei Department of Chemical and
Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran
Harpreet Singh Mechanical Engineering
Department, PDPM Indian Institute of
Information Technology, Design and
Manufacturing, Jabalpur, MP, India
Min Sun College of Mechanical Engineering,
Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang;
Key Laboratory of Special Purpose Equipment
and Advanced Processing Technology,
Ministry of Education and Zhejiang Province,
Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou,
PR China
Youhong Tang Institute for NanoScale Science
and Technology, College of Science and
Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide,
SA, Australia
Bo Wang Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€at Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany
Liwei Wu School of Textile Science and
Engineering; Ministry of Education Key
Laboratory for Advanced Textile Composite
Materials, Tiangong University, Tianjin,
People’s Republic of China; Institute for
NanoScale Science and Technology, College of
Science and Engineering, Flinders University,
Adelaide, SA, Australia
xi
X. Xu Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, Jingdezhen,
Jiangxi, China
Libo Yan Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€
at Braunschweig; Fraunhofer Institute
for Wood Research, Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut,
Braunschweig, Germany
Bin Yang School of Aerospace Engineering and
Applied Mechanics, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
Muhammad Razlan Zakaria Faculty of
Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti
Malaysia Perlis, Perlis, Malaysia
Qunfeng Zeng Key Laboratory of Education
Ministry for Modern Design and Rotor-Bearing
System, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an;
College of Materials Science and Engineering,
Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing, China
Djamal Zerrouki Laboratory of Dynamic
Interactions and Reactivity of Systems, Kasdi
Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
Zheng Zhang College of Mechanical
Engineering, Zhejiang University of
Technology, Zhejiang; Key Laboratory of
Special Purpose Equipment and Advanced
Processing Technology, Ministry of Education
and Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of
Technology, Hangzhou, PR China
Huixin Zhu School of Aerospace Engineering
and Applied Mechanics, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
 Preface
In contrast to monolithic materials such as
metals, polymers or ceramics, a composite
material consists of two or more physically
and/or chemically distinct phases, well tai-
lored or uniformly distributed for secondary
phase as fillers/reinforcements within a ma-
trix. As a result, a composite material usually
has unique characteristics that are not usually
depicted by any of its constituents in isolation.
Composite materials have been well devel-
oped in order to meet the challenges of
high-performing material properties when
targeting engineering and structural applica-
tions. The mechanical properties of a compos-
ite material are mainly dictated by the type,
size, morphology, and content of the rein-
forcements, as well as the nature of the matrix.
For instance, in a fibre–reinforced composite,
its properties are dependent upon the fibre
content, length of individual fibres, fibre ori-
entation and strength fibre-matrix interfacial
bonding and fibre distribution.
The ability of composite materials to ab-
sorb stresses and dissipate strain energy is
vastly superior to that of monolithic mate-
rials, and thus they offer engineers many
mechanical, thermal, chemical and damage-
tolerance advantages with limited draw-
backs such as brittleness. A material that
can absorb mechanical vibration, and yet re-
main stiff and lightweight, is sought after for
a wide range of applications which include
automobile and aircraft engine components,
rocket engine nozzles, aircraft brakes, indus-
trial robots, and low-density armour.
Since time immemorial, composite mate-
rials have been central to the evolution and
xiii
survival of human civilisation. The use and
development of composite materials has
been a core part of mankind’s technology
since the Egyptian builders used crushed
limestone, clay, water, and lime to fabricate
ancient concrete (aka geopolymer) for the
construction of gigantic pyramids more than
5 thousand years ago. Later, the ancient
Chinese used straw to reinforce mud bricks
for the construction of the Great Wall to de-
fend against the barbarians about 3 thousand
years ago. A similar process to the building
of the Egyptian pyramids but with modified
ingredients (i.e. lime and glutinous rice) was
used by the Chinese to construct their Great
Wall. The “sticky rice” mortar sealed the
bricks tightly so that they were waterproof,
thus preventing the growth of weeds that
might cause cracking. These historical struc-
tures have survived because of improved
strength, toughness and durability afforded
by the composite materials used in the con-
struction. Similarly, the Mongols in the 12th
century made the most advanced weapons
with archery bows that were smaller but
more powerful than those of their enemies.
These bows were made of composites struc-
tures by combining cattle tendons, horn,
bamboo, and silk which bonded with natural
pine resin. The tendons were placed on the
tension side of the bow, the bamboo was
used as a core, and sheets of horn were lam-
inated to the compression side of the bow.
The entire structure was tightly wrapped
with silk using the rosin adhesive to achieve
high strength and impressive material
performance.
xiv Preface
Since then, advances in the technology,
design and development of composite mate-
rials have been breadth-taking. Hitherto,
these materials are routinely used in a wide
range of applications which include thermal
protection systems for space vehicles, rocket
engine nozzles, automobile and aircraft en-
gine components, aircraft brakes, industrial
robots, and low-density armour. The advent
of additive manufacturing has also enabled
the precision manufacturing of these mate-
rials by 3-D printing. The imminent disrup-
tive capability and impact of 3-D printing
in materials design and manufacturing is
now unavoidable. Recently, a fully 3D-
printed house has gone on sale and this tech-
nology is destined to radically shake up
building costs and the housing industry,
thus greatly improving the housing afford-
ability on a large scale.
This book consists of 23 chapters and pre-
sents a comprehensive review of current sta-
tus and future directions, latest sophisticated
technologies and innovative work, chal-
lenges and opportunities encountered for
composite materials. The chapters present
latest advances and comprehensive coverage
of material types, design, fabrication, model-
ling, properties and applications from con-
ventional composite materials to advanced
composites such as nanocomposites, self-
healing and smart composites.
Chapter 1 offers the guiding information
regarding newly developed strategies for
synthesising aluminium metal-matrix com-
posites with major focus on their material
processing and mechanical properties.
Chapter 2 investigates the effects of different
nanomaterial additives, ie., nano-SiO2, nano-
clay, nano-Al2O3, carbon nanotubes, and
nano-TiO2 on the properties of geopolymer
paste, mortar and concrete obtained from
different industrial by-products. Chapter 3
reviews the recent advances of carbon fibre
(CF)-carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced
composite materials in their potential struc-
tures, resulting material properties as well
as a wide range of typical applications. On
the other hand, Chapter 4 provides a holistic
review by focusing on 3-D printed composite
materials based on polymers, ceramics and
metals as the matrices.
Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive re-
view of natural fibre reinforced geopolymer
composites in terms of their synthesis, struc-
tures and properties. Chapter 6 describes the
mechanisms of forming interphase between
reinforcements and matrices according to
adhesion theory in order to correlate the mi-
crostructure of interphase with resulting me-
chanical properties of composite materials.
Chapter 7 reviews the durability of synthetic
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites
induced by chemical, physical, and mechan-
ical properties such as temperature, mois-
ture, alkalinity and acidity, ultraviolet
radiation, as well as their combinations with
mechanical loading in time. Chapter 8 ad-
dresses different retrofitting methods that
are used to strengthen, rehabilitate and
repair existing structures using different
composite materials as well as future per-
spectives for further developments. The fab-
rication of vinyl-ester resin matrix
composites reinforced with recycled cellu-
lose fibre (RCF) via a soaking method is de-
scribed in Chapter 9.
A comparison on the effects of RCF,
Cloisite 30B nanoclays and halloysite
nanotubes (HNTs) on physical and mechan-
ical properties of these composites is also
presented. Chapter 10 covers the fracture
mechanics of short carbon and glass fibres
reinforced composites induced by moisture.
Chapter 11 presents mechanical properties of
recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
fibre-reinforced fly ash geopolymer and fly
ash-slag-blended geopolymer composites.
Chapter 12 reveals a comprehensive review
on the investigation of thermal damage in
 Preface
carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)
composites such as colour change, as well
as mechanical effect at various temperature
levels for the different heat exposure dura-
tions. The concepts and technologies in rela-
tion to self-sensing and self-healing in
polymer composites, research strategies for
their technique-based links as well as
widespread applications is introduced in
Chapter 13.
Chapter 14 highlights the recent progress
in lightning strike damage prediction models
and protection techniques for carbon fibre
reinforced composites (CFRCs) in aerospace
applications. Chapter 15 provides a detailed
overview of flame retardant additive used
for fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) in vari-
ous fields from aircrafts, railway, automo-
biles, civil engineering to electronics along
with their corresponding flame retardant
mechanisms in a range of nanoscaled, micro-
scopic and macroscopic levels. Chapter 16 of-
fers an explicit review on recent work in
reconfiguration mechanism, fabrication and
design of multistable composite structures
with the major applications taking place in
morphing structures, bioinspired structures
and soft robotics grippers. Chapter 17 sum-
marises typical strategies and methods
utilised for the design and fabrication of
highly intelligent composite materials for
the applications of sensors and actuators.
Chapter 18 covers γ-Fe2O3@SiO2 and
Ag doping γ-Fe2O3@SiO2 nanocomposites
prepared by the sol-gel method and nano-
composite coatings deposited on the steel
substrate in order to characterise their high
temperature superlubricity behaviours. The
current trends in developing novel X-ray
shielding materials was investigated in
Chapter 19 where the authors investigated
the feasibility of these materials for use in
xv
X-ray shielding applications with the consid-
eration of safety requirement in medical
X-ray imaging facilities. In a similar work,
Chapter 20 focuses on the synthesis of nu-
clear grade nano boron carbide (B4C) pow-
ders along with their reinforcement role in
polymer composites particularly targeting
radiation shielding application.
Chapter 21 highlights smart structural ap-
plications of shape memory polymer com-
posites (SMPCs) which are intended for use
in the realm of aerospace and space engineer-
ing. Chapter 22 provides a comprehensive
report on the history of development, archi-
tecture, and processing techniques of 3D
four-step braiding preforms and composite
materials. Finally, the major challenges and
requirements for improving supercapacitor
applications directly benefiting from the
biomass advantages obtained from nanocom-
posites are elucidated in Chapter 23.
Each of these chapters has been written by
experienced and established researchers of
many years working in the respective
specialised fields. All the chapters have been
subjected to a rigorous process of peer
review to warrant the high quality of
published work in this book. As the editors
of this book, we are also indebted to Gwen
Jones, Rafael Trombaco, Sheela Bernardine
Josy from Elsevier for their dedicated team
work to make this book come true. Finally,
we would welcome any constructive feed-
back on this edited book from materials
researchers, industrial scientists and engi-
neers with expertise in composite materials.
It-Meng Low
Yu Dong
12 March 2021
 C H A P T E R

1
Futuristic synthesis strategies for
aluminum-based metal-matrix
composites
Neeraj Kumar Bhoia, Harpreet Singha, and Saurabh Pratapb
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design
and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, MP, India bMechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology Varanasi (IIT-BHU), UP, India

1.1 Introduction

Aluminum-based metal-matrix composites (Al-MMCs), with excellent specific strength,

and thermal and damping properties, are not industrially viable due to poor control of dis-
persion of reinforcement in the matrix and inability to tailor matrix-reinforcement interface
which dictates their properties. Particles, short and long fibers, 2D sheets, nanorods, etc., are
used for reinforcing Al. The reinforcing elements such as Al2O3, AlN, CeO2, CNT, MWCNT,
SWCNT, GNP, Gr, TiN, TiB2, TiC, Si3N4, ZrO2, ZrB2, and WS2 are widely used in Al compos-
ites for tailoring the properties as per requirements [1–4]. The Al-MMCs are used to develop
components for automobile, defense, and aerospace industries with improved mechanical
properties in the range of UTS: 290–310 MPa, YS: 170–210 MPa, and percentage elongation
of 7%–8% in the gravity/semisolid cast. The intermetallic compounds (i.e., reinforcing mate-
rials) present within the proposed composite (Al-MMCs) exhibit high hardness, low thermal
expansion coefficient, reasonably high elastic modulus, and higher corrosion resistance [5, 6].
The chapter describes controlled approaches (conventional and newly developed techniques)
for the development of Al-MMCs and different strategies to overcome the abovementioned
problem for boundaries.
Numerous manufacturing processes have been used to fabricate Al-MMCs, which include
the solid, liquid, and semisolid processing methods. The major drawbacks of the conventional
processing method are improper mixing of reinforcement and lesser bonding strength at the

Composite Materials 3 Copyright # 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820512-9.00006-X
4 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

interface of the matrix and reinforcement particles. However, several developments and re-
search are being carried out for homogeneous particle distribution, improved diffusions, and
refined grain structure to achieve superior material properties. Traditionally, materials are
manufactured through casting and powder metallurgy techniques to meet the demand of dif-
ferent sectors. However, advanced MMC materials with a potential for specific applications
require unique characteristics. The casting process is generally described by (a) heating and
melting of the matrix material, (b) pouring of the preheated reinforcing elements into the mol-
ten matrix and method for the uniform mixing of the reinforcement in the matrix and at the
final stage, and (c) the pouring of molten state for the final cast product. On a similar note, the
powder metallurgy techniques for the generation of functional part consist of three different
stages: (a) blending and mixing of powder materials, (b) cold compaction of the blended pow-
der material with desired shape and size, and (c) for mechanical stability sintering of the
compacted part to achieve strong metallurgical bonding in the matrix and reinforcement
phase. The adaptability of powder metallurgy techniques in different manufacturing indus-
tries is such that it is useful for the generation of the component with precision and accurate
geometrical features simultaneously focusing on bulk production. The requirement of sec-
ondary processes such as machining and finishing in case of powder metallurgy is negligible.
These characteristics of the powder metallurgy process aid in formulating a new and ad-
vanced strategy for the development of functional materials. The assistance of advanced
processing techniques such as hybrid microwave and spark plasma with powder metallurgy
is of great interest in current industrial development due to higher degree of uniformity and
sustainability. These advanced processes reduce the overall processing time and energy con-
sumptions with rapid product development.
The newly developed methods and strategy will give a vigilant choice of the alloying el-
ements and reinforcements for the development of metastable and high-performance
Al-MMCs to meet the industrial expectation. The chapter focuses on different innovative
manufacturing strategies (i.e., hybrid microwave processing, friction stir processing,
ultrasonic-assisted methods, disintegrated melt depositions, etc.) and associated characteris-
tics for different applications. The following beneficial outcomes are expected from the newly
developed strategy for the fabrication of Al-MMCs.
• The process must save time and energy.
• It must be effective for a wide range of metallic, nonmetallic, industrial, and agriculture
waste material reinforcements.
• The process must be rapid and flexible.
• The process must be flexible in nature.
• The developed process must be sustainable and feasible.
• The overall process must be economical with minimal damage to the surroundings.

1.2 Classifications of composite materials

Composite materials are classified according to their physical, thermal, mechanical, and
tribological properties. In a broad category, composite is grouped into three different forms:
(a) metal-matrix composites, (b) ceramic-matrix composites, and (c) polymer-matrix compos-
ites. In the recent year, different metallic and nonmetallic materials have been combined to

I. Manufacturing
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 5
achieve a particular property depending on the specific requirement. The variation in the
configurable structures of these materials requires a dynamic control over the processing cir-
cumstances. The processing strategies play a deterministic role in the outcomes of the devel-
oped composite phase. Variation in the processing temperatures of the hard ceramics and
carbide materials in the matrix plays a deterministic role in the interface behavior and
service life.
In the class of MMCs generally aluminum, titanium, magnesium, and copper are used as
main constituent elements while ceramics, carbon-based elements, and organic and inorganic
elements are used as reinforcing elements. Three different types of reinforcing elements are
used: particulates, short fibers or whiskers, and long fibers. Particulates or particle-reinforced
Al-MMCs with reinforcement range from few microns to nanometer and with a volume frac-
tion of reinforcement range from 0% to 30% [3, 7, 8]. The wide applicability and use of particle
reinforcement are mainly due to easy availability, and ease of manufacturing with a feasible
cost. Short and long fibers show greater potential for high-temperature applications in auto-
mobile industries such as piston materials. The short and long fibers or whiskers in the matrix
form a series of intricate network arrangement with matrix material possessing good inter-
facial characteristics. Thus, the composite phase exhibits improved load-bearing capacity.
Similarly, the reinforcement is coated with hard ceramic content to improve the strength
of the material. The coated part of the reinforcement generates a protective layer for improv-
ing load-bearing capacity [2].

1.3 Description of the process and working principle

The process for the development of Al-MMCs can be broadly classified into three groups:
(i) solid-state processing, (ii) liquid-state processing, and (iii) a combination of solid- and
liquid-state processing (semisolid state mode). Some of the newly developed strategies for
the development of Al-MMCs are discussed here.

1.3.1 Microwave-assisted processes

Microwave-assisted processes are further divided into three different groups based on the
utilization of microwave energy for the development of composite material.

1.3.1.1 Microwave hybrid sintering process

Fig. 1.1 explains the process involved in the microwave hybrid sintering (MHS) approach.
In MHS process, the initial raw material is subjected to blending/mixing using different mill-
ing methods (mechanical milling, high energy ball mill, rotary milling, etc.) for the effective
diffusion and uniform mixing of the reinforcement and matrix phase. The homogeneously
mixed powder sample is cold compacted and further subjected to MHS. The MHS process
consists of different susceptor materials (i.e., powder and bulk form of silicon carbide, carbon
nanotubes, boron nitride, carbon fiber-activated charcoal, graphite powder, etc.). The
susceptor material quickly absorbs microwave radiation and converts it into heat. Further,
the compacted part is subjected to bidirectional heating mode in the MHS process. Here,

I. Manufacturing
FIG. 1.1 Working schematic representation of the powder metallurgy process and microwave-assisted sintering technique.
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 7
the bidirectional heating is related to susceptor heating from outside to inside and microwave
heating from the core of the material to the surface [9, 10]. The schematic representation of the
susceptor heating process is presented in Fig. 1.2. In the case of conventional sintering pro-
cess, the heat flows from the surface of the material to the core. However, microwave heating
occurs due to molecular vibration causing the heat to flow from the core to the surface of the
material. Here, with the use of susceptor, the bidirectional heating capability is utilized for
product development. The diffusion process of the reinforcing elements with the matrix is
provided in Fig. 1.2. In a similar context, Reddy et al. [11] demonstrated that the use of mi-
crowave sintering and hot extrusion process for the development of Al/Al2O3 composite
causes minimal defects in the composite phase with improved properties. A comparison
of obtained density and porosity of the fabricated composite material is provided in
Table 1.1. From Table 1.1 it is evident that the obtained density for the Al/Al2O3 composite
exhibits nearly fully dense microstructure with minimal porosity level. The minimal porosity
in the composite material exhibits higher hardness, tensile strength, and compressive
strength [11]. In a similar exploration, Bhoi et al. [12] explained the behavior and manufactur-
ing capabilities of Al and ZnO nanorods for different functional applications using micro-
wave sintering. A very small fraction of ZnO nanorods in the composite exhibits better
mechanical properties compared to monolithic Al. The effective diffusion of reinforcement
and hybrid sintering techniques shows the unique capabilities for material fabrication [12].

1.3.1.2 Microwave casting

Development of near net shape products with microwave energy offers greater
flexibility, e.g., production of a large number of products with complex shape. In general,
the microwave casting setup consists of susceptor material, pouring basin, sprue, and insu-
lating medium. The insulation protects unwanted heat loss and damage to the applicator unit.
Fig. 1.3 exhibits a schematic representation of an in situ microwave casting process. In the
initial stage of the exposure, the microwave energy is absorbed by pouring basin (i.e., typi-
cally microwave-susceptible material) and the material is conventionally heated by slowly
raising the temperature. The thin native layer of oxide formed in the Al alloy limits the melt-
ing of the material during the conventional heating process. However, the oxide layer is trans-
parent to the incident microwave radiation which allows the interaction of bulk material with
microwaves [9, 12]. Also, the earlier published results suggest that the oxide layer helps in
improving the microwave absorption due to its good dielectric loss factor [13]. After a certain
amount of microwave interaction and beyond critical temperature the bulk metallic material
starts to melt with the disintegration of the formed oxide layer. The final regime is the self-
pouring zone of the molten metal where the oxide layer separates, and material flow occurs
through the sprue. Singh et al. [14] reported the possibility of the casting utilizing household
microwave oven for nickel (Ni) and silicon carbide (SiC) powder material. In the microwave
casting process, the powder charcoal material is used as the susceptor material. The achieved
material exhibits good material properties with uniformly distributed reinforcement phase
[14]. In a similar context, in situ microwave casting (MWC) was successfully carried out
for Al-Zn-Mg alloy (Al-7039) material. The MWC process was carried out with the help of
a microwave applicator of 1400 W at an operating frequency of 2.45 GHz. A detailed sketch
of the process illustrating the possible mechanism during the MWC is shown in Fig. 1.4.
The bulk metallic material reflects the microwave energy at room temperature. The use of

I. Manufacturing
FIG. 1.2 Schematic representation of the different heating mode and evolution in the grain structure of the material. The increase in the temperature
causes improved diffusion between the reinforcement and the matrix material.
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 9
TABLE 1.1 Density and porosity measurements of pure Al and Al-Al2O3 composites.
Reinforcement Density properties
3
Material Wt.% Vol.% Theoretical density (g/cm ) Measured density (g/cm3) Porosity (%)
Pure Al 0 0 2.7 2.68 0.74
Al-5 vol.%Al2O3 6.54 5 2.76 2.72 1.45
Al-10 vol.%Al2O3 12.87 10 2.82 2.75 2.48
Al-15 vol.%Al2O3 19.00 15 2.88 2.78 3.47
Data taken from M. Penchal Reddy, F. Ubaid, R.A. Shakoor, V.M. Gururaj Parande, A.M.A. Mohamed, Effect of reinforcement concentration on
the properties of hot extruded Al-Al2O3 composites synthesized through microwave sintering process, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 696 (2017) 60–69.
https://doi.org/1098765432 with kind permission from Elsevier.

susceptor medium around the metallic part helps in achieving the critical temperature of
within a very short period. Once, the critical temperature is achieved within the material,
it starts to melt with the interaction of microwave radiations. The pouring in the mold mate-
rial is further achieved from the molten state of the bulk part [15].

1.3.1.3 Microwave hot pressing

Microwave-assisted pressing utilizes the heating capability of the microwave radiation
along with the compaction of the powder material. The nonuniformity in the relative density
and grain coarsening during the conventional pressing and sintering limits the mechanical
and tribological properties. As described in Section 1.3.1.1, microwave hybrid sintering im-
proves the performance of the material by refining the grain structure and improving diffu-
sion at the particle-particle interface. In the case of microwave hot pressing, minimal porosity
and uniform grain structure can be achieved in a short time compared to pressureless
sintering techniques [16, 17]. During microwave hot pressing the powder material is pressed
and exposed to microwave radiation. The schematic representation of a microwave hot press-
ing arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.3. The setup consists of susceptor material and press ar-
rangement for the development of a composite material. The susceptor material is used for
coupling and external heating in the microwave radiation. A comparative assessment of
the sintering temperature and compaction pressure shows that microwave hot pressing re-
quires 10 times less pressure for maintaining uniform and dense microstructure. Under sim-
ilar manufacturing conditions, microwave hot pressing exhibits better relative density and
mechanical properties compared to conventional hot pressing. In a study Al/4 wt% Al2O3
exhibited 90 and 175 GPa whereas conventional hot press material exhibited 80 and
135 GPa elastic modulus and micro-Vickers hardness, respectively. The application of pres-
sure helps in achieving reduced grain size compared to pressureless microwave sintering
approach [16].

I. Manufacturing
FIG. 1.3 Working schematic representation of the microwave casting and microwave hot pressing arrangements.
 Microwave exposure
(2.45 GHz) Conventional heating (CH)
Reflected MW
Microwave hybrid heating
Absorbed MW
MW Microwave
No MW
energy CH up to
In-situ Bulk absorption T =Tc Melting
Cast
casting metal/ In-situ pouring In-situ cast
Solidification
set up Alloy T<Tc T>Tc

Heat transfer by
MW energy conduction
absorption
Pouring basin

Microwave exposure Self pouring and solidification

FIG. 1.4 Schematic illustration of the in situ microwave casting process. Adapted from R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, On mechanism of in-situ microwave casting
of aluminium alloy 7039 and cast microstructure. Mater. Des. 112 (2016) 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.09.041 with kind permission from Elsevier.
12 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

1.3.2 Spark plasma sintering process

Spark plasma sintering (SPS) consists of mechanically and electrically assembled special
arrangements for the development of small components. In the case of SPS specially arranged
electrically conductive die and punch system is utilized for the sintering of the desired ma-
terial under a constrained environment. A typical arrangement for the SPS process is shown
in Fig. 1.5. During processing with SPS compaction, pressure in the range of 50–300 kN and
electrical current in the range of 1–10 kA are applied over the die punch as per the desirability.
Very fast heating rate, low processing time, and uniform densification at comparatively low
temperature are achieved through SPS process. By increasing the compaction pressure, small
powder agglomeration can be largely rectified allowing homogeneous densification and
grain growth [18, 19]. The processing of different reinforcement and Al has been explored
by the several researchers utilizing SPS and different secondary characterization methods
such as hot extrusion, accumulative roll bending, etc. [20–22]. On a similar exploration, Chen
et al. [20] reported the SPS processing and hot extrusion of multiwalled carbon nanotube
(MWCNT) with Al as matrix phase. The dispersed phase of MWCNT, formation of secondary
phases during the processing and nearly fully dense microstructure of the developed material
can be widely utilized for different functional applications in aerospace and automotive com-
ponents [20]. Strong interfacial bonding, uniform and fully dense microstructure, and effec-
tive diffusion in case of SPS lead to greater and higher structural integrity and improved
material property.

1.3.3 Friction stir processing

In the case of friction stir processing (FSP) with the help of external tooling arrangement
intense localized plastic deformation is done on the exposed work material. The tool may be
consumable and nonconsumable depending on the applications. The intense plastic deforma-
tion over the exposed surface generates uniform and dense microstructure resulting in better

FIG. 1.5 Working schematic representation

of a FAST/SPS apparatus. Adapted from O.
Guillon J. Gonzalez-Julian, B. Dargatz, T.
Kessel, G. Schierning, J. R€
athel, et al. Field-assisted
sintering technology/spark plasma sintering: Mecha-
nisms, materials, and technology developments,
Adv. Eng. Mater. 16 (2014) 830–849. https://doi.
org/10.1002/adem.201300409. Open access article
published on advanced engineering material (Wiley
Publication) permission not required.

I. Manufacturing
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 13
FIG. 1.6 Schematic drawing of the fric-
Torque Mz
tion stir processing process and a tool [32].
Axial force Fz Taken from M.S. Węglowski, Friction stir
processing—state of the art, Arch. Civil Mech.
Shoulder
Rotating direction Eng. 18 (1) (2018) 114–129. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.acme.2017.06.002 with kind permission
e from Elsevier.
sid Pin
ci ng
van F y
Ad ad rce
Be se
fo ide Side force Fx
ver gs
Tra eatin
ng tr
elli Re
Tav ction line
dire ter
Ce

material properties. A schematic representation of the FSP and a tool arrangement is provided
in Fig. 1.6. During FSP a rotating tool is attached to the work surface and made traverse in a
specified direction. The main processing parameters that affect FSP are as follows:
• Traveling and rotational speed of the tool material.
• Depth of penetration and tilting angle of the tool material.
• Attaching elements and different modifying agent on the surface.
• Geometrical arrangements and tool dimensions.
FSP is now widely used for the development of surface composite due to unique charac-
teristics and performance over the conventionally processed material. For the development of
surface composites and wear resistance property, Al and its alloy materials utilizes soft
tooling and different alloying elements [23]. As FSP works on the principle of intense plastic
deformation on the exposed zone this method is well suited for the refinement of grain struc-
ture for different nonheat-treatable allot materials. Yazdipour et al. [24] beautifully explained
the grain refining mechanism and microstructural model for Al5083 assuming initially as
coarse grain model. They suggested that cooling rate and tool rotation during processing play
a deterministic role in the development of different grain and subgrain boundaries [24].

1.3.4 Disintegrated melt deposition

Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD) combines two different conventional techniques (stir
casting and spray forming) for the development of different compositional elements. The
processing techniques involve the mixing of the matrix and reinforcement materials in a cru-
cible above supercritical temperature and deposit onto a metallic surface in the slurry form. In
this process, higher temperature and low velocity are utilized to deposit into the bulk mate-
rial. The schematic representation of the DMD process is provided in Fig. 1.7. The setup con-
sists of resistance furnace, crucible, and stirrer unit. The molten and mixed slurry from the
crucible is poured into the metallic surface in the constrained environment. To avoid contam-
ination and oxidization in the slurry during pouring, an inert and protective environment is
used. Other supporting units such as nozzle and the temperature controller are used for the

I. Manufacturing
14 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

Motor

Thermocouple

CrucibleLid

Stirrer Argon

Resistance Furnace Gas

Graphite Crucible

Pouring Nozzle
750 °C 154cm
Molten
Slurry
Ar Ar

Argon-filled
Chamber

Deposited Ingot

Substrate
60 cm
FIG. 1.7 Schematic diagram of Disintegrated Melt Deposition setup (dimensions are approximate and not drawn
to scale). Adapted from M. Gupta, W.L.E. Wong, Magnesium-based nanocomposites: Lightweight materials of the future, Mater.
Charact. 105 (2015) 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2015.04.015 with kind permission from Elsevier.

smooth processing of composite material [25, 26]. The main process parameters affecting
DMD are as follows:
1. Stirring time of the matrix and reinforcement material
2. Impingement velocity of the substrate material
3. Distance between the nozzle and substrate material
4. Processing environment

1.3.5 Ultrasonic-assisted casting

Ultrasonic-assisted casting (UAC) is modified from the existing conventional casting pro-
cess. In the case of UAC ultrasonic vibration is utilized for the improvement in the reinforce-
ment distribution and dispersion over the matrix material. The schematic representation of
the UAC is provided in Fig. 1.8. The main functional unit in the UAC consists of transducer

I. Manufacturing
 1.4 Mechanical properties and industrial scalability of Al-MMCs 15

FIG. 1.8 Working schematic representation of the Ultrasonic-assisted casting process. Adapted from C. Lin, S. Wu, S.
L€
u, P. An, L. Wan, Microstructure and mechanical properties of rheo-diecast hypereutectic Al-Si alloy with 2%Fe assisted with
ultrasonic vibration process, J. Alloys Compd. 568 (2013) 42–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.03.089 with kind per-
mission from Elsevier.

and ultrasonic generator in addition to conventional casting. Recently, using ultrasonic vibra-
tion and die casting, Zhong et al. [27] reported the fabrication and properties of Al-20Si-2Fe-
2Cu. The iron phase of the alloy is effectively refined using ultrasonic vibrations during
processing. The conventional casting method is useful for the development of large and de-
sired products for different functional applications. However, the component developed dur-
ing conventional process has a sustainable amount of porosity and defects. The ultrasonic
vibration during the process not only refines the microstructure but also helps in improving
the material response for the proper diffusion and formation of new intermetallic
compound [27].

1.4 Mechanical properties and industrial scalability of Al-MMCs

The traditional manufacturing process has shown potential capabilities to mass manufac-
ture industrial components with certain limits in the product quality such as poor wettability,
poor interfacial strength, and uneven reinforcement distribution with matrix material. In the
recent year, particulate Al-MMCs have proven excellent application in the field of the aero-
space, automotive, and defense sectors. The general requirement for these sectors is the
strength range up to 500 MPa in terms of ultimate tensile strength and elongation up to
6%. For instance, disc brake rotor systems in the automotive vehicles are the integral and im-
portant part for the speed control. So, the brake rotor should be strong enough to withstand
the higher amount of load as well as the frictional heat generated during braking applications.
The heat dissipation capacity of the material should be optimum and well designed to bear

I. Manufacturing
16 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

the desired loading and speed in a fast and reliable manner. Conventional cast iron is used till
date as a brake material. The density of the cast iron is comparatively higher leading to more
fuel consumption. Here, the utilization of high strength-to-weight ratio Al-MMCs offers a
promising and reliable material for the brake material. The high strength-to-weight ratio,
good wear resistance, and thermally stable materials have drawn large attention to look
for Al-MMCs for brake drums, disc brake, brake calipers, engine block, connecting rods,
and oil pumps [28].
Ex situ developed Al-SiC composite materials offer great potential for use as brake drum
material due to their excellent mechanical properties and friction behavior. Large thermal ex-
pansion coefficient and low strength at higher temperature limit the application of Al-SiC
composites for stated applications. Similar results have been described in the published lit-
erature for the Al-MMCs. A study available in the literature shows that various organic and
inorganic compounds, and industrial and agriculture wastes are used in the form of micro-
and nano-reinforcements in Al and its alloy materials [2, 6, 7]. The Hall-Petch relation for ma-
terial strengthening suggests that nano-size reinforcement in the matrix imparts very high
strength by restricting the dislocation movement. A combination of different strengthening
mechanisms will determine the role and amount of the reinforcement required for material
performance. In order to explore the strengthening mechanism, simple microstructure anal-
ysis of the Al matrix and Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe observed through transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) is provided in Fig. 1.9. Here the precipitation hardening is observed through the TEM
images of the matrix and composite material. Fig. 1.9 shows plate-shaped families observed
on [001] and [011] zone axis direction of the Al matrix. The variation in characteristics such as
dimensions, shape, and orientations are mainly due to the formation of precipitate θ0 -Al2-Cu.
A comparison of hot isostatic pressing (HIP) with SPS shows that SPS demonstrated better
yield strength for different temperature zone. The variation in the 0.2 yield stress of the Al
and Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe material is shown in Fig. 1.10. At higher temperature zone comparable
results were observed for HIP and SPS processing. The formation of precipitate during
HIP and SPS, and uniform distribution of the reinforcing elements in the matrix lead to
the better strength of the composite [29]. On a similar note, particle size variations, volume
fraction, and strengthening mechanism are well explained by Sanaty-Zadeh [30] for
Al-MMCs. Fig. 1.11 demonstrates the contributions of strengthening mechanism to
reinforcing particles of different size. From Fig. 1.11 it is evident that the size of reinforcing
particle plays a vital role in the determination of the contributions of strengthening mecha-
nism. The nano-metric particle size contributes more compared to micro-reinforcing particle
in the matrix [30]. Different strengthening mechanisms that are contributing factors in the
composite material are as follows:
1. Hall-Petch strengthening
2. Orowan strengthening
3. Solid solution strengthening
4. Dislocation strengthening
A combination of the above-stated mechanisms and strengthening mechanisms determine
the overall performance of the composite along with processing circumstances and variations
in operating conditions [2]. In the literature, different combinations of mechanisms were
given to mitigate the responsible factor for the property evolutions. However, optimizing

I. Manufacturing
 1.4 Mechanical properties and industrial scalability of Al-MMCs 17

FIG. 1.9 Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe composite deformed at 293 K. Bright field TEM images highlighting the presence of
θ’-Al2Cu precipitate in the Al matrix, aligned on (a) [001] zone axis and (b) [011] zone axis [29]. Adapted from Joseph
Aurelie, Gauthier-Brunet Veronique, Joulain Anne, Bonneville Joel, Dubois Sylvain, Monchoux Jean-Philippe PF, Mechanical
properties of Al_ω-Al-Cu-Fe composites synthesized by the SPS technique, Mater. Charact. (2018) 644–652 with kind permission
from Elsevier.

I. Manufacturing
18 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

FIG. 1.10 Stress as a function of tem- 500

perature for Al and Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe
composites synthesized by SPS and
HIP techniques [29]. Adapted from Joseph 400
Aurelie, Gauthier-Brunet Veronique, Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe (HIP - 823K)
Joulain Anne, Bonneville Joel, Dubois

σ0.2% (MPa)
300 Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe (SPS - 823K)
Sylvain, Monchoux Jean-Philippe PF, Me-
chanical properties of Al_ω-Al-Cu-Fe com-
posites synthesized by the SPS technique, 200
Mater. Charact. (2018) 644–652 with kind
permission from Elsevier.
100

0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature (K)

120 Hall-Petch Strengthening 30 nm

Orowan Strengthening 30 nm
Thermal mismatch strengthening 30 nm
Strengthening mechanism contributor (MPa)

Load bearing effect 30 nm

100
Hall-Petch Strengthening 1 μm
Orowan Strengthening 1 μm
Thermal mismatch strengthening 1 μm
Load bearing effict 1 μm
80

60

40

20

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Volume fraction of particles (%)
FIG. 1.11 Contributions of strengthening mechanism as a function of volume fraction to particles of size 10 nm and
1 nm [30]. Adapted from A. Sanaty-Zadeh, Comparison between current models for the strength of particulate-reinforced metal
matrix nanocomposites with emphasis on consideration of Hall-Petch effect, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 531 (2012) 112–118. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.msea.2011.10.043 with kind permission from Elsevier.

I. Manufacturing
 1.5 Futuristic development and applications 19
the processing conditions along with different reinforcement percentage have a limited
amount of work.

1.5 Futuristic development and applications

Depending on various advantages and possibilities, process scalability is required for the
proper utilization of the newly developed strategies. Each of the described strategies has its
advantages and limitations for the fabrication of different components. The choice of produc-
tion process depends on many factors such as production time, overall cost, level of accuracy,
quality demand, and their functional properties. Solid-state processing methods have unique
advantages of producing near net shape product with minimal secondary processing. The
solid-state processing offers better control over the shape and size of matrix and reinforce-
ment phase during preprocessing, thereby significantly lowering processing temperature
and having better flexibility. Similarly, liquid-state processing offers promising results for
the development of large component. However, the controlling of solidification rate, particle
agglomeration/clustering, casting, and pouring defects in the cast components are major lim-
itations for net shape manufacturing processes. Newly developed strategies and plans such as
ultrasonic-assisted casting, disintegrated melt depositions, and microwave casting process
are expected to overcome such problems. The newly developed processes have unique capa-
bilities of enhanced diffusion and uniform-reinforcement distributions in the composite
phase. Comparative assessments of the developed strategies are presented in Table 1.2 to

TABLE 1.2 Details of the different fabrication processes, affecting process parameters
with applications.
Fabrication Major process
method parameters Application area Remarks
Microwave • Die-electric Tool inserts, clutch plates, precision • Rapid and fast process with
sintering property of gears suitable for a large variety of ease in manufacturing
process materials product development • Low investment cost
• Heating mode • Environment-friendly
and process
microwave • Energy and time-efficient
power process
• Size of the • Not feasible for complex and
metallic large products
materials
Microwave • The Different product in aerospace, • Rapid and fast process
casting penetration automotive, defense, electronics • The complex structure and
process depth of the application processing mechanism for
material material pouring
• Processing • The green and clean approach
circumstances • No hazardous or emission to
the environment
• At the developing stage for
the industrial applicability

Continued

I. Manufacturing
20 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

TABLE 1.2 Details of the different fabrication processes, affecting process parameters
with applications—cont’d
Fabrication Major process
method parameters Application area Remarks
Microwave Small size components in different • Fast and accurate methods for
hot pressing sectors. Best suitable for tool inserts small size component
development development
• Green and sustainable
process
• No emission to the
environment, uniform
product quality with minimal
defects
• At the developing stage
Spark plasma • Compaction Small size components in different • Enhanced material properties
sintering pressure and sectors. Best suitable for tool inserts with shorter processing time
(SPS) applied development. For hard ceramics and • Higher densification at a
technique current refractory materials, SPS is a reliable and lower temperature
• Processing rapid method for product development • High investment cost
environment • Complex working
mechanism
Disintegrate • Processing Suitable for development of surface • Fewer defects
melt temperature composites, small size product • Chances of hazardous gas
deposition • Impingement development with lesser complexity emission due to higher
(DMD) velocity temperature and reduced
• Processing environment
environment • High investment cost
• Complex working
mechanism
Friction stir • Work and tool Development of surface composites for a • Easy for the generation of
processing material variety of working environment for the dispersed surface composites
(FSP) • Filler naval, aerospace, automotive component • Less complexity in the
materials manufacturing unit fabrication process is easy to
operate and use
• Developing stage for
industrial product
development
Ultrasonic- • Ultrasonic Components for different structural • The large product can be
assisted vibrations applications easily manufactured
processing • Processing • Improved material properties
(USP) temperature and uniform-reinforcement
distributions
• Complex working
mechanism
• High investment cost

I. Manufacturing
 1.6 Summary and future prospects 21

FIG. 1.12 A comparison of AMC properties vs four relevant metals and composite materials [30]. Adapted from N.
Bailey, Aluminium matrix composites, Reinf. Plast. 63 (2019) 310–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repl.2019.01.004 with kind
permission from Elsevier.

identify the processing parameters and outcomes of the process. Table 1.2 provides details
about the developed fabrication methods and their applications. A comparative assessment
of the different metallic material and their functional properties used for the aerospace com-
ponent manufacturing is given in the form of radar graph in Fig. 1.12. Al-MMCs have gained
tremendous attention in terms of strength-to-weight ratio, stiffness, more control over wear
and thermal resistance, and comparable compressive and rapture strength with that of other
aerospace materials [31].

1.6 Summary and future prospects

Owing to the higher specific strength, good modulus value, higher corrosion resistance,
and lightweight, Al-MMC has diverse applications in the service industry. The combinations
of ceramics and carbides in the form of particulate, flakes, and fibers enhance the properties of

I. Manufacturing
22 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

Al in MMCs. Based on the description on advanced strategies for the fabrication of Al-MMCs,
the process offers exceptional outcomes and potentiality. However, the process scalability for
continuous product development and fabrication of large parts requires attentive and fo-
cused research. A combination of two different manufacturing processes such as microwave
casting and stir processing, and spark plasma sintering and induction heating process for
quality product development can be effectively utilized. The optimization of processing pa-
rameters to improve the quality and net shape product development is a latent area for the
research. Computational assessments of the manufacturing process with density functional
theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics simulation (MD) are the best tools for gaining insights
into the process parameters. Their effects on the material response at the submicron and mo-
lecular levels for interfacial properties, particle agglomerations, and different defects can be
assessed with the effect of temperature and pressure. The combined approach of computa-
tional tools and the newly developed strategy will complement the industrial applications
and help to accelerate the industrial applicability and progress of Al-MMCs.

References
[1] V.B. Niste, M. Ratoi, H. Tanaka, F. Xu, Y. Zhu, J. Sugimura, Self-lubricating Al-WS2 composites for efficient and
greener tribological parts. Sci. Rep. 7 (2017) 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15297-6.
[2] N.K. Bhoi, H. Singh, S. Pratap, Developments in the aluminum metal matrix composites reinforced by micro/
nano particles—a review. J. Compos. Mater. 54 (2020) 813–833, https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998319865307.
[3] R. Casati, M. Vedani, Metal matrix composites reinforced by nano-particles—a review. Metals (Basel) 4 (2014)
65–83, https://doi.org/10.3390/met4010065.
[4] N.K. Bhoi, H. Singh, S. Pratap, Synthesis and characterization of alumina nanoparticles : a case study. J. Inst. Eng.
India Ser. C 101 (2019) 407–413, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40032-019-00542-w.
[5] B. Dang, X. Zhang, Y.Z. Chen, C.X. Chen, H.T. Wang, F. Liu, Breaking through the strength-ductility trade-off
dilemma in an Al-Si-based casting alloy. Sci. Rep. 6 (2016) 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30874.
[6] S.L. Pramod, S.R. Bakshi, B.S. Murty, Aluminum-based cast in situ composites: a review. J. Mater. Eng. Perform.
24 (2015) 2185–2207, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-015-1424-2.
[7] S.R. Bakshi, D. Lahiri, A. Agarwal, Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites—a review. Int. Mater.
Rev. 55 (2010) 41–64, https://doi.org/10.1179/095066009X12572530170543.
[8] H. Singh, P.K. Jain, N. Bhoi, S. Pratap, Experimental study pertaining to microwave sintering (MWS) of Al-metal
matrix composite—a review. Mater. Sci. Forum 928 (2018) 150–155, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.
net/MSF.928.150.
[9] N.K. Bhoi, H. Singh, S. Pratap, P.K. Jain, Microwave material processing: a clean, green, and sustainable ap-
proach. in: Sustainable Engineering Products and Manufacturing Technologies, 1st ed., Academic Press,
Elsevier, 2019, , pp. 3–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816564-5.00001-3.
[10] N.K. Bhoi, H. Singh, S. Pratap, A study on microwave susceptor material for hybrid heating. J. Phys. Conf. Ser.
1240 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1240/1/012097.
[11] M. Penchal Reddy, F. Ubaid, R.A. Shakoor, V.M. Gururaj Parande, A.M.A. Mohamed, Manoj Gupta, Effect of
reinforcement concentration on the properties of hot extruded Al-Al2O3 composites synthesized through micro-
wave sintering process. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 696 (2017) 60–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.04.064.
[12] N.K. Bhoi, H. Singh, S. Pratap, Synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide reinforced aluminum metal matrix
composite produced by microwave sintering. J. Compos. Mater. (2020), https://doi.org/
10.1177/0021998320918646.
[13] R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, A review of research trends in microwave processing of metal-based materials and
opportunities in microwave metal casting. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 41 (2016) 217–255, https://doi.org/
10.1080/10408436.2016.1142421.
[14] S. Singh, D. Gupta, V. Jain, Novel microwave composite casting process: theory, feasibility and characterization.
Mater. Des. 111 (2016) 51–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.08.071.

I. Manufacturing
 References 23
[15] R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, On mechanism of in-situ microwave casting of aluminium alloy 7039 and cast micro-
structure. Mater. Des. 112 (2016) 97–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.09.041.
[16] R. Abedinzadeh, S.M. Safavi, F. Karimzadeh, A study of pressureless microwave sintering, microwave-assisted
hot press sintering and conventional hot pressing on properties of aluminium/alumina nanocomposite. J. Mech.
Sci. Technol. 30 (2016) 1967–1972, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-016-0402-4.
[17] R. Abedinzadeh, Study on the densification behavior of aluminum powders using microwave hot pressing pro-
cess. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 97 (2018) 1913–1929, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-1867-3.
[18] N. Saheb, Z. Iqbal, A. Khalil, A.S. Hakeem, N. Al Aqeeli, T. Laoui, et al., Spark plasma sintering of metals and
metal matrix nanocomposites: a review. J. Nanomater. 2012 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/983470.
[19] O. Guillon, J. Gonzalez-Julian, B. Dargatz, T. Kessel, G. Schierning, J. R€athel, et al., Field-assisted sintering tech-
nology/spark plasma sintering: mechanisms, materials, and technology developments. Adv. Eng. Mater.
16 (2014) 830–849, https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201300409.
[20] B. Chen, H. Imai, J. Umeda, M. Takahashi, K. Kondoh, Effect of spark-plasma-sintering conditions on tensile
properties of aluminum matrix composites reinforced with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). JOM
69 (2017) 669–675, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-017-2263-4.
[21] M. Leparoux, L. Kollo, H. Kwon, K. Kallip, N.K. Babu, K. Alogab, et al., Solid state processing of aluminum ma-
trix composites reinforced with nanoparticulate materials. Adv. Eng. Mater. 1800401 (2018) 1–18, https://doi.
org/10.1002/adem.201800401.
[22] P. Cavaliere, B. Sadeghi, A. Shabani, Carbon nanotube reinforced aluminum matrix composites produced by
spark plasma sintering. J. Mater. Sci. 52 (2017) 8618–8629, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1086-6.
[23] C.-H. Jeon, Y.-H. Jeong, J.-J. Seo, H.N. Tien, S.-T. Hong, Y.-J. Yum, et al., Material properties of graphene/alu-
minum metal matrix composites fabricated by friction stir processing. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 15 (2014)
1235–1239, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12541-014-0462-2.
[24] A. Yazdipour, M.A. Shafiei, K. Dehghani, Modeling the microstructural evolution and effect of cooling rate on
the nanograins formed during the friction stir processing of Al5083. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 527 (2009) 192–197,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2009.08.040.
[25] M. Gupta, W.L.E. Wong, Magnesium-based nanocomposites: lightweight materials of the future. Mater Charact
105 (2015) 30–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2015.04.015.
[26] L.M. Tham, M. Gupta, L. Cheng, Influence of processing parameters on the near-net shape synthesis of
aluminium-based metal matrix composites. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 89–90 (1999) 128–134, https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0924-0136(99)00002-3.
[27] C. Lin, S. Wu, S. L€
u, P. An, L. Wan, Microstructure and mechanical properties of rheo-diecast hypereutectic Al-Si
alloy with 2%Fe assisted with ultrasonic vibration process. J. Alloys Compd. 568 (2013) 42–48, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.03.089.
[28] D.P. Myriounis, S.T. Hasan, T.E. Matikas, Microdeformation behaviour of Al-SiC metal matrix composites.
Compos. Interfaces 15 (2008) 495–514, https://doi.org/10.1163/156855408784655292.
[29] J. Aurelie, G.-B. Veronique, J. Anne, B. Joel, D. Sylvain, P.F. Monchoux Jean-Philippe, Mechanical properties of
Al_ω-Al-Cu-Fe composites synthesized by the SPS technique, Mater Charact (2018) 644–652.
[30] A. Sanaty-Zadeh, Comparison between current models for the strength of particulate-reinforced metal matrix
nanocomposites with emphasis on consideration of Hall-Petch effect. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 531 (2012) 112–118,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2011.10.043.
[31] N. Bailey, Aluminium matrix composites. Reinf. Plast. 63 (2019) 310–313, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
repl.2019.01.004.
[32] M.S. Węglowski, Friction stir processing—state of the art. Arch. Civil Mech. Eng. 18 (1) (2018) 114–129, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2017.06.002.

I. Manufacturing
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Skylark of
Valeron
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Skylark of Valeron

Author: E. E. Smith

Illustrator: Elliott Dold

Release date: July 25, 2022 [eBook #68609]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Street & Smith Publications, Inc,

1934

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net.

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

SKYLARK OF VALERON ***
The SKYLARK of VALERON
 by EDWARD E. SMITH, Ph.D.

Illustrated by Elliot Dold

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Astounding Stories August, September, October,
November, December 1934, January, February 1935.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
 PROLOGUE
"Mother-r-r!" A sturdy, auburn-haired urchin of twelve—Richard
Ballinger Seaton the fourteen hundred and seventy-first—turned to
the queenly young matron who was his mother as the viewing area
before them went blank. "You said that as soon as I was old enough
you would let me see the rest of the 'Exploits of Seaton One.' Now
grandfather's the chief of the Galactic Council, and I'm twelve, and I'm
old enough."
"Perhaps you are, son." Into the beautiful eyes of the young woman
came that indefinable, indescribable something; the knowledge that
her oldest was no longer a baby. "Tell me the story as it is run for the
holiday, and I shall see."
"Richard Ballinger Seaton the First was a Ph. D. in chemistry," the
boy began. "He lived in the city of Washington, in what was then the
United States of America. He was born—"
"Never mind dates and such things, sonny. It would take too long to
give all the details. I just want to make sure that you really understand
the story—conditions were so different then from what they are now."
"Well, Seaton One discovered Rovolon, which he called 'X' metal at
first. He found out that it would turn copper into energy, and he and
Martin Reynolds Crane One built the very first space ship that was
ever known. But the World Steel Corporation wanted all the Rovolon
that Seaton had found; so Dr. DuQuesne, a chemist of theirs, and a
kind of a spy named Perkins, tried to steal it away from him. They got
a little of it, but it exploded some copper and killed a lot of people.
"When Seaton heard about the explosion he found out that some of
his Rovolon was gone, and they hired some detectives and had an
awful time. A lot more people were killed, and a Japanese assistant
of Crane's, named Shiro, was almost killed, too. Then they went to
work and invented a lot of new instruments, such as a compass that
pointed at any one thing forever; and attractors and repellers and
rays and screens and explosives and lots of things that are good yet.
"This DuQuesne tried for a long time to get the Rovolon and couldn't,
so they built a space ship from Seaton's plans that they stole, and he
carried off Dorothy Vaneman and Margaret Spencer, the girls that
Seaton One and Crane One were going to marry—and they did marry
them, afterward, too. Well, Dorothy kicked Perkins in the stomach,
and the space ship ran away and kept on going until it got caught by
the attraction of the Dark Mass that the First of Energy has always
had so much trouble with, and while they were falling toward it that
Perkins went crazy and tried to kill Margaret, but DuQuesne killed him
instead, and then Seaton One caught up with them and rescued them
and—"
"Just a minute, son; there is no great hurry. How did Seaton One get
way out there?"
"Well, they had their big new space ship, the Skylark of Space, all
built by then, and Seaton One had an object-compass set on
DuQuesne, because he'd been watching him a long time since he'd
been making lots of trouble for him. So Seaton One and Crane One
followed the object-compass and found them and rescued them all
but Perkins, because he was dead already.
"They had an awful time getting away from the Dark Mass, but they
did it, but they were about out of copper, so they had to hunt up a
planet that had some. They landed on one that dinosaurs and things
like that lived on, and got a lot more Rovolon, but didn't find any
copper, so they hunted up more planets. One had poison gas instead
of air, and another had people that were pure intellectuals, so that
they had bodies whenever they wanted to, but not all the time. They
pretty nearly dematerialized Seaton One and all the rest of them, and
we're awfully glad they didn't.
"Well, anyway, they got away, but they had an awful time, and after a
while they saw the green suns of the Central System. There's lots of
copper there, you know; so much that Grandfather Seaton wouldn't
let me swim in the ocean last year when we were there because it
was copper solution and it would have made me sick. They went to
Osnome first, one of the inside worlds, and landed in a country
named Mardonale.
"They were bad people and wanted to kill Seaton One and steal his
ship, and they had already captured Dunark, the Kofedix or crown
prince of the other nation, Kondal. Then Dunark helped Seaton One
get away, and they all went home with Dunark. But the Skylark was
pretty nearly ruined in the battle they had getting away from
Mardonale, so Seaton One and Dunark built it over out of arenak,
which was much better than the funny, soft steel they used to use in
the old days. Of course, arenak doesn't amount to much beside the
inoson we have now, but even Seaton One didn't know anything
about inoson then.
"Then they got married. Seaton married Dorothy, and they're our
great-great—fourteen hundred and seventy times—grandparents.
Crane married Margaret, and they're awfully famous, too. And Shiro
is, too, especially in Asiatica. Well, anyway, after they got married
they had a fight with a monster Karlon, and were just going to start
back here for Tellus when the whole Mardonalian fleet attacked
Kondal. The Skylark Two beat them all, and DuQuesne helped, too,
and then of course Dunark's father was Karfedix or emperor of the
whole planet of Osnome, and he made Seaton One the overlord.
Then they came back home. Seaton One and Crane One didn't know
just what to do with DuQuesne, but he jumped out of Skylark Two in a
parachute and got away.

"They hadn't been back on Tellus very long when Dunark came to
visit them, from Osnome, after some salt which they needed to make
arenak, and some more Rovolon. He was going to blow up another
planet of the Central Sun because they were having a war. But
Seaton One didn't have enough Rovolon, so both Skylark Two and
the Kondal started out to go to the 'X' planet after some, and on the
way there they were attacked by a space ship of the Fenachrone,
who were a race of terrible men who were going to conquer the whole
universe. The Fenachrone blew up the Kondal, and pretty nearly
destroyed the Skylark, too, but Seaton One could use zones of force
as well as they could—I don't know much about zones of force
because they're in advanced physics, but they're barriers in the ether
and space ships use them yet because nothing above the fifth level
can get through them—and finally Seaton One cut the Fenachrone
ship all up into little pieces. Then he rescued Dunark, and one of his
wives named Sitar, but one of the bad men got away without being
killed and DuQuesne picked him up—"
"But you haven't said anything about DuQuesne being out there,
sonny."
"Well, he was. He kept on trying to get the Rovolon away from Seaton
One, but couldn't, so he took his own space ship and went to
Osnome. You see, while he was there he had found out something
about the Fenachrone and was going to join them. Well, he got to
Osnome and stole a better space ship than the one he had and
started out to go to the Fenachrone System, but on the way he
passed close to where Skylark Two was fighting the big Fenachrone
ship, which was the flagship Y427W. The chief engineer of the ship
got away, and DuQuesne rescued him, and he showed DuQuesne
how to get to the Fenachrone world, and he installed his own super-
drive on the Violet, which was the name of DuQuesne's ship. But
when they got there something funny happened. A Fenachrone patrol
ship apparently captured the Violet, and they burned up what they
thought were DuQuesne and Loring—this Loring was DuQuesne's
helper—and the engineer reported over the visirecorder everything
that had happened to the flagship, and Seaton and Crane were
listening in on their projector. Now's the funny part. Some of the
visirecorder report was right, but some of it didn't really happen that
way at all, because Dr. DuQuesne knew all the time what was going
—"
"You are getting ahead of the story, sonny. You have heard that part,
of course, but you haven't actually seen the record of it yet."
"Well, anyway, Seaton One found out the Fenachrone's plans by
reading their brains with a mechanical educator, and he made
Dunark's people make peace with the other planet, the one that they
were going to blow up. He knew from some old legends that there
was a race of green men somewhere in the Central System that knew
everything, so he went hunting for them. They went to Dasor first,
where those funny porpoise men live, and a Dasorian named Sacner
Carfon was councilor then. A Sacner Carfon is councilor there yet,
too, and I beat his boy shooting a ray, but he beat me all hollow
swimming, because he's got web feet and hands. The Dasorians told
Seaton One where to go, and that's how they found Norlamin, where
the oldest and wisest men in the whole Galaxy live. Rovol, the First of
Rays, and Drasnik, the First of Psychology, and Caslor, the First of
Mechanism, and lots of the other Firsts of Norlamin helped them build
things.
"Oh, yes; I almost forgot about the way the Norlaminian scientists
learn things. When one of them gets old he makes a record of his
brain on a tape, and when his son takes his place he just transfers all
his knowledge to the son's brain with a mechanical educator, and
then he—the son, I mean—knows everything that every specialist in
that line ever did find out, and he goes on from there. Rovol and
Drasnik and some of the others gave Seaton One and Crane One
copies of their own brains that way, and that's why they knew so
much. And then they built a projector that would take images of
themselves clear across the Galaxy in a couple of seconds on fifth-
order rays, and into the middle of suns and anywhere else they
wanted to be or work, and then they built Skylark Three, a space ship
about five kilometers long. Not so much these days, of course, but
she was the biggest thing in the ether then.
"But by that time the Fenachrone fleet had started out to conquer the
Galaxy, and Seaton One and Crane One and all the other Ones and
the Firsts of Norlamin hunted them up with the projector and blew
them up by exploding their power bars, which were made of copper
instead of uranium, like Three used. And then Dunark blew up the
whole Fenachrone planet, so that they'd never make any more
trouble, but one Fenachrone ship got away and started out for
another Galaxy, 'way out of range of the projector. So Seaton One
chased it and caught it out in space, halfway to the other Galaxy.
They had a terrible battle, but Seaton One blew it up and the picture
stopped, and I want to see some more of the 'Exploits,' mother,
please!"
"Very well told, son—I believe that you are old enough to follow One
and his friends of ancient times. You will have them next year,
anyway, in your history classes, and you might as well see them now;
particularly since it is our own family history as well as that of
civilization." The young woman pressed a contact in the arm of her
chair and spoke:
"Central Library of History, please.... Mrs. R. B. Seaton fourteen
seventy. Please put on reel three of the 'Exploits.' Wave point one
nine four six.... Thank you."

I.
Day after day a spherical space ship of arenak tore through the
illimitable reaches of the interstellar void. She had once been a war
vessel of Osnome; now, rechristened the Violet, she was bearing two
Terrestrials and a Fenachrone—Dr. Marc C. DuQuesne of World
Steel, "Baby Doll" Loring, his versatile and accomplished assistant,
and the squat and monstrous engineer of the flagship Y427W—from
the Green System toward the Solar System of the Fenachrone. The
mid-point of the stupendous flight had long since been passed; the
Violet had long been "braking down" with a negative acceleration of
five times the velocity of light.
Much to the surprise of both DuQuesne and Loring, their prisoner had
not made the slightest move against them. He had thrown all the
strength of his supernaturally powerful body and all the resources of
his gigantic brain into the task of converting the atomic motors of the
Violet into the space-annihilating drive of his own race. This drive,
affecting alike as it does every atom of substance within the radius of
action of the power bar, entirely nullifies the effect of acceleration, so
that the passengers feel no motion whatever, even when the craft is
accelerating at maximum—and that maximum is almost three times
as great as the absolutely unbearable full power of the Skylark of
Space.
The engineer had not shirked a single task, however arduous. And,
once under way, he had nursed those motors along with every artifice
known to his knowing clan; he had performed such prodigies of
adjustment and tuning as to raise by a full two per cent their already
inconceivable maximum acceleration. And this was not all. After the
first moment of rebellion, he did not even once attempt to bring to
bear the almost irresistible hypnotic power of his eyes; the immense,
cold, ruby-lighted projectors of mental energy which, both men knew,
were awful weapons indeed. Nor did he even once protest against
the attractors which were set upon his giant limbs.
Immaterial bands, these, whose slight force could not be felt unless
the captor so willed. But let the prisoner make one false move, and
those tiny beams of force would instantly become copper-driven
tornadoes of pure energy, hurling the luckless body against the wall
of the control room and holding him motionless there, in spite of the
most terrific exertions of his mighty body.
DuQuesne lay at ease in his seat; rather, scarcely touching the seat,
he floated at ease in the air above it. His black brows were drawn
together, his black eyes were hard as he studied frowningly the
Fenachrone engineer. As usual, that worthy was half inside the power
plant, coaxing those mighty motors to do even better than their
prodigious best.
Feeling his companion's eyes upon him, the doctor turned his
inscrutable stare upon Loring, who had been studying his chief even
as DuQuesne had been studying the outlander. Loring's cherubic
countenance was as pinkly innocent as ever, his guileless blue eyes
as calm and untroubled; but DuQuesne, knowing the man as he did,
perceived an almost imperceptible tension and knew that the killer
also was worried.
"What's the matter, Doll?" The saturnine scientist smiled mirthlessly.
"Afraid I'm going to let that ape slip one over on us?"
"Not exactly." Loring's slight tenseness, however, disappeared. "It's
your party, and anything that's all right with you tickles me half to
death. I have known all along you knew that that bird there isn't
working under compulsion. You know as well as I do that nobody
works that way because they're made to. He's working for himself,
not for us, and I had just begun to wonder if you weren't getting a little
late in clamping down on him."
"Not at all—there are good and sufficient reasons for this apparent
delay. I am going to clamp down on him in exactly"—DuQuesne
glanced at his wrist watch—"fourteen minutes. But you're keen—
you've got a brain that really works—maybe I'd better give you the
whole picture."
DuQuesne, approving thoroughly of his iron-nerved, cold-blooded
assistant, voiced again the thought he had expressed once before, a
few hours out from Earth; and Loring answered as he had then, in
almost the same words—words which revealed truly the nature of the
man:
"Just as you like. Usually I don't want to know anything about
anything, because what a man doesn't know he can't be accused of
spilling. Out here, though, maybe I should know enough about things
to act intelligently in case of a jam. But you're the doctor—if you'd
rather keep it under your hat, that's all right with me, too. As I've said
before, it's your party."
"Yes; he certainly is working for himself." DuQuesne scowled blackly.
"Or, rather, he thinks he is. You know I read his mind back there,
while he was unconscious. I didn't get all I wanted to, by any means
—he woke up too soon—but I got a lot more than he thinks I did.
"They have detector zones, 'way out in space, all around their world,
that nothing can get past without being spotted; and patrolling those
zones there are scout ships, carrying armament to stagger the
imagination. I intend to take over one of those patrol ships and by
means of it to capture one of their first-class battleships. As a first
step I'm going to hypnotize that ape and find out absolutely
everything that he knows. When I get done with him, he'll do exactly
what I tell him to, and nothing else."
"Hypnotize him?" Curiosity was awakened in even Loring's incurious
mind at this unexpected development. "I didn't know that was one of
your specialties."
"It wasn't until recently, but the Fenachrone are all past masters, and I
learned about it from his brain. Hypnosis is a wonderful science. The
only drawback is that his mind is a lot stronger than mine. However, I
have in my kit, among other things, a tube of something that will cut
him down to my size."
"Oh, I see—pentabarb." With this hint, Loring's agile mind grasped
instantly the essentials of DuQuesne's plan. "That's why you had to
wait so long, then, to take steps. Pentabarb kills in twenty-four hours,
and he can't help us steal the ship after he's dead."
"Right! One milligram, you know, will make a gibbering idiot out of any
human being; but I imagine that it will take three or four times that
much to soften him down to the point where I can work on him the
way I want to. As I don't know the effects of such heavy dosages,
since he's not really human, and since he must be alive when we go
through their screens, I decided to give him the works exactly six
hours before we are due to hit their outermost detector. That's about
all I can tell you right now; I'll have to work out the details of seizing
the ship after I have studied his brain more thoroughly."

Precisely at the expiration of the fourteen allotted minutes, DuQuesne

tightened the attractor beams, which had never been entirely
released from their prisoner; thus pinning him helplessly, immovably,
against the wall of the control room. He then filled a hypodermic
syringe and moved the mechanical educator nearer the motionless,
although violently struggling, creature. Then, avoiding carefully the
baleful outpourings of those flame-shot volcanoes of hatred that were
the eyes of the Fenachrone, he set the dials of the educator, placed
the headsets, and drove home the needle's hollow point. One
milligram of the diabolical compound was absorbed, without
appreciable lessening of the blazing defiance being hurled along the
educator's wires. One and one half—two milligrams—three—four—
five—
That inhumanly powerful mind at last began to weaken, but it became
entirely quiescent only after the administration of the seventh
milligram of that direly potent drug.
"Just as well that I allowed only six hours." DuQuesne sighed in relief
as he began to explore the labyrinthine intricacies of the frightful brain
now open to his gaze. "I don't see how any possible form of life can
hold together long under seven milligrams of that stuff."
He fell silent and for more than an hour he studied the brain of the
engineer, concentrating upon the several small portions which
contained knowledge of most immediate concern. Then he removed
the headsets.
"His plans were all made," he informed Loring coldly, "and so are
mine, now. Bring out two full outfits of clothing—one of yours and one
of mine. Two guns, belts, and so on. Break out a bale of waste, the
emergency candles, and all that sort of stuff you can find."
DuQuesne turned to the Fenachrone, who stood utterly lax,
inanimate, and stared deep into those now dull and expressionless
eyes.
"You," he directed crisply, "will build at once, as quickly as you can,
two dummies which will look exactly like Loring and myself. They
must be lifelike in every particular, with faces capable of expressing
the emotions of surprise and of anger, and with right arms able to
draw weapons upon signal—my signal. Also upon signal their heads
and bodies will turn, they will leap toward the center of the room, and
they will make certain noises and utter certain words, the records of
which I shall prepare. Go to it!"
"Don't you need to control him through the headsets?" asked Loring
curiously.
"I may have to control him in detail when we come to the really fine
work, later on," DuQuesne replied absently. "This is more or less in
the nature of an experiment, to find out whether I have him thoroughly
under control. During the last act he'll have to do exactly what I shall
have told him to do, without supervision, and I want to be absolutely
certain that he will do it without a slip."
"What's the plan—or maybe it's something that is none of my
business?"
"No; you ought to know it, and I've got time to tell you about it now.
Nothing material can possibly approach the planet of the Fenachrone
without being seen, as it is completely surrounded by never less than
two full-sphere detector screens; and to make assurance doubly sure
our engineer there has installed a mechanism which, at the first touch
of the outer screen, will shoot a warning along at tight communicator
beam, directly into the receiver of the nearest Fenachrone scout ship.
As you already know, the smallest of those scouts can burn this ship
out of the ether in less than a second."
"That's a cheerful picture. You still think we can get away?"
"I'm coming to that. We can't possibly get through the detectors
without being challenged, even if I tear out all his apparatus, so we're
going to use his whole plan, but for our benefit instead of his.
Therefore his present hypnotic state and the dummies. When we
touch that screen you and I are going to be hidden—well hidden. The
dummies will be in sole charge, and our prisoner will be playing the
part I have laid out for him.
"The scout ship that he calls will come up to investigate. They will
bring apparatus and attractors to bear to liberate the prisoner, and the
dummies will try to fight. They will be blown up or burned to cinders
almost instantly, and our little playmate will put on his space suit and
be taken across to the capturing vessel. Once there, he will report to
the commander.
"That officer will think the affair sufficiently serious to report it directly
to headquarters. If he doesn't, this ape here will insist upon reporting
it to general headquarters himself. As soon as that report is in, we,
working through our prisoner here, will proceed to wipe out the crew
of the ship and take it over."
"And do you think he'll really do it?" Loring's guileless face showed
doubt, his tone was faintly skeptical.
"I know he'll do it!" The chemist's voice was hard. "He won't take any
active part—I'm not psychologist enough to know whether I could
drive him that far, even drugged, against an unhypnotizable
subconscious or not—but he'll be carrying something along that will
enable me to do it, easily and safely. But that's about enough of this
chin music—we'd better start doing something."

While Loring brought space clothing and weapons, and rummaged

through the vessel in search of material suitable for the dummies'
fabrication, the Fenachrone engineer worked rapidly at his task. And
not only did he work rapidly, he worked skillfully and artistically as
well. This artistry should not be surprising, for to such a mentality as
must necessarily be possessed by the chief engineer of a first-line
vessel of the Fenachrone, the faithful reproduction of anything
capable of movement was not a question of art—it was merely an
elementary matter of line, form, and mechanism.
Cotton waste was molded into shape, reënforced, and wrapped in
leather under pressure. To the bodies thus formed were attached the
heads, cunningly constructed of masticated fiber, plastic, and wax.
Tiny motors and many small pieces of apparatus were installed, and
the completed effigies were dressed and armed.
DuQuesne's keen eyes studied every detail of the startlingly lifelike,
almost microscopically perfect, replicas of himself and his traveling
companion.
"A good job," he commented briefly.
"Good?" exclaimed Loring. "It's perfect! Why, that dummy would fool
my own wife, if I had one—it almost fools me!"
"At least, they're good enough to pass a more critical test than any
they are apt to get during this coming incident."
Satisfied, DuQuesne turned from his scrutiny of the dummies and
went to the closet in which had been stored the space suit of the
captive. To the inside of its front protector flap he attached a small
and inconspicuous flat-sided case. He then measured carefully, with
a filar micrometer, the apparent diameter of the planet now looming
so large beneath them.
"All right, Doll; our time's getting short. Break out our suits and test
them, will you, while I give the big boy his final instructions?"
Rapidly those commands flowed over the wires of the mechanical
educator, from DuQuesne's hard, keen brain into the now-docile mind
of the captive. The Earthly scientist explained to the Fenachrone,
coldly, precisely, and in minute detail, exactly what he was to do and
exactly what he was to say from the moment of encountering the
detector screens of his native planet until after he had reported to his
superior officers.
Then the two Terrestrials donned their own armor of space and made
their way into an adjoining room, a small armory in which were hung
several similar suits and which was a veritable arsenal of weapons.
"We'll hang ourselves up on a couple of these hooks, like the rest of
the suits," DuQuesne explained. "This is the only part of the
performance that may be even slightly risky, but there is no real
danger that they will spot us. That fellow's message to the scout ship
will tell them that there are only two of us, and we'll be out there with
him, right in plain sight.
"If by any chance they should send a party aboard us they would
probably not bother to search the Violet at all carefully, since they will
already know that we haven't got a thing worthy of attention; and they
would of course suppose us to be empty space suits. Therefore keep
your lens shields down, except perhaps for the merest crack to see
through, and, above all, don't move a millimeter, no matter what
happens."
"But how can you manipulate your controls without moving your
hands?"
"I can't; but my hands will not be in the sleeves, but inside the body of
the suit—shut up! Hold everything—there's the flash!"
The flying vessel had gone through the zone of feeble radiations
which comprised the outer detector screen of the Fenachrone. But
though tenuous, that screen was highly efficient, and at its touch
there burst into frenzied activity the communicator built by the captive
to be actuated by that very impulse. It had been built during the long
flight through space, and its builder had thought that its presence
would be unnoticed and would remain unsuspected by the
Terrestrials.
Now automatically put into action, it laid a beam to the nearest scout
ship of the Fenachrone and into that vessel's receptors it passed the
entire story of the Violet and her occupants. But DuQuesne had not
been caught napping. Reading the engineer's brain and absorbing
knowledge from it, he had installed a relay which would flash to his
eyes an inconspicuous but unmistakable warning of the first touch of
the screen of the enemy. The flash had come—they had penetrated
the outer lines of the monstrous civilization of the dread and dreaded
Fenachrone.
In the armory DuQuesne's hands moved slightly inside his shielding
armor, and out in the control room the dummy that was also, to all
outward seeming, DuQuesne moved and spoke. It tightened the
controls of the attractors, which had never been entirely released
from their prisoner, thus again pinning the Fenachrone helplessly
against the wall.
"Just to be sure you don't try to start anything," it explained coldly, in
DuQuesne's own voice and tone. "You have done well so far, but I'll
run things myself from now on, so that you can't steer us into a trap.
Now tell me exactly how to go about getting one of your vessels. After
we get it I'll see about letting you go."
"Fools, you are too late!" the prisoner roared exultantly. "You would
have been too late, even had you killed me out there in space and
had fled at your utmost acceleration. Did you but know it you are as
dead, even now—our patrol is upon you!"
The dummy that was DuQuesne whirled, snarling, and its automatic
pistol and that of its fellow dummy were leaping out when an awful
acceleration threw them flat upon the floor, a magnetic force snatched