PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

DIPLOMA CLASS
The impact of modern food manufacturing methods is evident in today's food supply. Food quality can
be maintained or even improved, and food safety can be enhanced. Sensitive nutrients can be preserved,
important vitamins and minerals can be added, toxins and anti-nutrients (substances such as phytates
that limit bioavailability of nutrients) can be removed, and foods can be designed to optimize health
and reduce the risk of disease. Waste and product loss can be reduced, and distribution around the world
can be facilitated to allow seasonal availability of many foods. Modern food manufacturing also often
improves the quality of life for individuals with specific health conditions, offering modified foods to
meet their needs (for example, sugar-free foods sweetened with an alternative sweetener for people with
diabetes).
The basic function of food is to keep us alive and healthy. It is important to understand the composition
of foods and changes that occur when foods are grown, harvested, stored, prepared, processed and eaten,
so that foods can fulfill their basic function.

Define the following Terms

Food -
Preservation
Perishable foods
Semi-perishable foods
Shelf stable foods,
Shelf-life
Cool storage
Topic 2: Principles Of Food Processing And Preservation
Preservation
It’s the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down spoilage, loss of quality
edibility and nutritional value thus allowing longer storage.
It usually involves preventing the growth of Bacteria, yeast, fungi and other micro organisms as
well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity.

The aims of Preservation

While preventing decay, preservation also aims to retain as many of the qualities of the fresh food as
possible e.g.: -
 Flavour
 Texture
 Colour
 Appearance
 Nutritional value
Preservation also aims to prevent micro-organisms from contaminating the food once it is preserved,
by sealing it from the outside air
Objectives/Reasons /roles of food preservation
1. To eliminate any potential micro biology harm to the consumer.
2. T o add variety to the diet by making foods available out of season
3. To produce new products out of the food e.g. in fermentation also in the germ making
4. Maintain nutritional value of the food production of safe food products.
5. Maintain the quality of food and increase the shelf life
Principles of food preservation
1. Controlling of micro organisms
This can be done in the following ways:
 Keeping microorganisms out of the food (asepsis)
 Removing microorganisms from the food e.g. through Ultra-filtration,reverse osmosis
 Killing microorganisms and the spores-pasteurization,sterilization,irradiation
 Delay microbial growth-refrigeration,dehydration,chemical preservatives
2. Controlling self decomposition.
This can be done by
 Inactivating endogenous enzymes e.g. in blanching,refrigeration
3. Preventing or delaying chemical reactions of the food –addition of antioxidants to fats,drying
4. Controlling insects, rodents, birds, and other physical cause of food spoilage
Foods are divided into 3 categories in food preservation
I. Perishable foods
II. Semi-perishable foods
III. Non-perishable
 Perishable foods e.g tomatoes,mangoes,papaya,peaches,plums.
characteristics
 High degree of moisture content
 Deteriorates quickly after harvesting
 Highly susceptible to spoilage
Semi-perishable foods
Characteristics
 Less moisture content e.g. pumpkin, beans, apples,
 Contain natural inhibitors to spoilage e.g. roots, vegetables, eggs
 They also receive mild preservation treatment which creates great tolerance to environmental
conditions during distributions and handling e.g. Pasteurized milk and lightly smoked fish

Non-perishable foods
Characteristics
 Very low moisture content
 Not easily susceptible to spoilage of micro-organisms and enzymes e.g. cereals, nuts, pulses.
Food is preserved to prevent natural and microbial decay, by modifying the conditions that favour
enzyme activity and growth of micro-organisms.
In the past, food was preserved to provide a store of food during winter, when there was no source of
food.
Methods of preservation can be broadly classified into (3)
1. Physical methods e.g. pasteurization ,sterilizaton, control of water content ,radiation etc
2. Chemical methods e.g. salting ,curing, smoking and use of preservatives
3. Biological methods e.g. fermentation
Methods of preservation
Food decay can be slowed by:
1. Heating to destroy micro-organisms and enzyme activity.
2. Removal of moisture to inhibit microbial growth.
3. Removal of air to prevent further entry of micro-organisms.
4. Reduction of temperature to inhibit microbial and enzymatic activity.
5. Irradiation-cold process uses ionizing radiations to kill microorganisms
6. Addition of a chemical preservative to destroy or inhibit microbial and enzymatic activity
7. Preservation using salt, curing and smoking
1. Heat Preservation
Thermal processing is defined as the combination of temperature and time to eliminate a desired number
of microorganisms from a food product. High temperature preservation is based on the principle that
microorganisms and enzymes have optimum conditions, which if altered, inhibits their activities. It is
also aimed at breaking the bonds in different food substances and making the nutrients available to the
body.
Most bacteria, yeasts, moulds, and enzymes are destroyed by heating at 100°C. However, some bacteria
and bacterial spores are resistant to such temperatures. Higher temperatures are required to destroy
them. Some bacterial toxins are resistant to heat, so that a food that is already contaminated with the
may not be made safe to eat by heat treatment.
The objective and intensity of a heat treatment is determined, to a large extent by:
 The nature of the food
 The microorganisms that proliferate on it,
 The degree of contamination-microbial load
 The heat resistance of the microorganisms and their spores,
 Heat transfer characteristics of the food,
 The condition of storage of the food as well as the pH (degree of acidity or alkalinity) of the
food.
The main methods of heat treatment are:
a) Sterilization
b) Pasteurization
c) Canning and Bottling
d) Blanching

a) Sterilization
At the beginning of the 19th century, a Frenchman, Nicolas Appert, discovered that if food were
heated in a sealed container at a high temperature, it would remain edible and free from decay for some
time, unless the seal was broken.
This is total destruction of life in the food item. However, this cannot be achieved without destruction
of the nutrients in the food which makes the food of no value. Prolonged heating will destroy harmful
micro-organisms, which are naturally present in the food, and the food will only start to decay when
new organisms contaminate it.
Sterilization cannot be used for food items but can only be applied as commercial sterilization, which
means the same as pasteurization. Heat and chemicals can be used to achieve sterilization.
Today, sterilization is a commonly used form of heat preservation. Since Appert's early attempts, the
process has been much improved, and the flavour and colour of sterilized foods are not as greatly
impaired as they used to be. In particular, the ultra-heat treatment of milk, which is now common, gives
a much better product than the original sterilization process.
Sterilization is designed to destroy all viable microorganisms in foods. When foods are thermally
processed, they are referred to as being commercially sterile i.e. the food material is free of
microorganism and their spores under normal storage conditions. The most heat resistant
microorganism, Bacillus stearo thermophillus is used as the indicator organism in sterilization
operations. The presence or otherwise of this organism is a measure of the efficiency of the heat
treatment given to a food item.
Uses of Heat Sterilization
Milk
Effects on Nutritive Value
The heat-sensitive vitamins thiamin and vitamin C (ascorbic acid) are destroyed to a large extent.
Commercial Sterility
In aseptic processing the thermal process is based on achieving commercial sterility i.e. no more than 1
non-sterile package for every 10,000 processed packages. The aseptic process uses the HTST method
in which foods are heated at a high temperature for a short period of time. The time and temperature
conditions depend on several factors, such as size, shape and type of food. The HTST method results
in a higher retention of quality characteristics, such as vitamins, odour, flavour and texture, while
achieving the same level of sterility as the traditional canning process in which food is heated at a lower
temperature for a longer period of time.
b) Pasteurization
Another French scientist, Louis Pasteur, later discovered that less severe heat treatment than that used
in sterilization could be effective in destroying pathogenic and souring microbes, without adversely
affecting the appearance or flavor of a product.
Pasteurization is the application of heat to a food product to destroy pathogenic microorganisms,
inactivate spoilage-causing enzymes and reduce/destroy spoilage microorganisms. Pasteurization
kills part but not all the microorganisms present and usually involves the application of
temperatures below 100°C. The heating may be by means of steam, hot water, dry heat, or electric
currents and the products are cooled promptly after the heat treatment.
Pasteurization is used to:
 Eliminate a specific pathogen or pathogens associated with a product as with milk, bulk liquid
egg, ice cream mix, cream etc.
 Eliminate a large proportion of potential spoilage organisms as in beers, fruit juices, pickles and
sauces
 Kill competing organisms allowing a desired fermentation by starter cultures as in cheese
making
 Extend further shelf-life by using other preservative methods like aseptic packaging and cooling
 Avoid the rigorous heat treatments that might harm the physico-chemical organoleptic and
nutritional quality of the product.
Pasteurization may be achieved by either employing the high-temperature-short-time (HTST)
method or low-temperature-long-time (LTLT) method. The time and temperature combinations
employed in these two methods of pasteurization for different foods are as follows. The minimal heat
treatment applied to market milk is 62.8°C for 30 minutes in LTLT method and 71.7°C for 15 seconds
in HTST method. These treatments are sufficient to destroy the most heat-resistant non-sporeforming
pathogenic organisms- Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetti, which are generally
associated with milk.
Liquid foods such as milk, fruit juices, beers, wines and liquid eggs are pasteurised using plate-type
heat exchangers. Wine and fruit juices are normally de-aerated prior to pasteurisation in order to
remove oxygen and minimise oxidative deterioration of the products.
After the pasteurisation process is completed, the product is packaged under aseptic conditions to
prevent recontamination of the product
c) Canning and Bottling
Today canning is one of the most widely used methods of preservation. A huge variety of foods are
canned and bottled, providing a safe and convenient method of preserving food. Both methods rely on
heat sterilization to destroy microbes and enzymes and scaling to prevent contamination during storage.

Modern cans are made of steel that is coated in a very thin layer of tin, and often brushed to prevent
corrosion. The cans are first filled with food, then air is removed, and the cans are sealed.
They are sterilized under pressure for a carefully calculated length of time, and then removed and
cooled. Most cans are cooled by water. They are then labeled and packed. Many sizes and shapes of
cans are produced and some cans have aluminum ends for easy opening. Aluminum cans are expensive
to produce, but they are used for some canned drinks. They have a ring-pull so are opened without a
can opener. All cans now carry a date stamp to show when they should be used by.
Uses of Canning
Cans are used for the following products:
- Fruit - Soups -Coffee nuts
- Pates - Fish -Sausage
- Milk - Pet foods -Vegetables
- Desserts -Meat
Complete meals (stews, curries, etc) meat pies and puddings sponge puddings pasta and pulses in sauce
alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages
Using Canned Foods
Store in a cool, dry place, and rotate the stock so that old cans are used first. Do not buy rusty or 'blown'
cans. Rust can weaken the metal and may create a small hole where bacteria can enter and contaminate
the food. Blown cans indicate that bacteria are present, as they produce gas, which distends the can.
Dented tins should also be avoided as they may have tiny punctures in the metal, or damaged seams.
Once opened, canned food should be treated as fresh food and it will deteriorate.
Leftovers should be removed from the can and put in a covered container in a cool place.

Canning procedure
1. The raw product is inspected and all undesirable material is removed via cleaning.
 2. Blanching -food may be blanched to remove surface materials and to reduce bulk,also sets the
colour and softens tissues.
3. Food is placed in the container using hands or machines. Machines are faster but foods that
break easily are placed by hand. Weak brine is added to vegetables and a syrup is added to fruits
or just water.
4. Exhausting. This is removing air from the container. This is done so that the pressure inside
the can after it has been heated will be at the atmospheric pressure. Exhausting is also done to
prevent discolouration of some products and undesirable oxidative effects.
5. Sealing the cans
6. Sealed containers are subjected to temperatures designed to destroy the most heat
resistant organisms.
7. Cooling the cans to 380F (100oF) to remove heat energy
8. Packing and storing the containers at appropriate temperatures.
Methods used in canning of foods;
 Raw- pack or cold pack method- this is where food is packed raw or uncooked into the container
with the sealing of container filled with boiling liquid e.g. berries
 Hot-pack method- food is heated to 77oc in syrup, water steam or extracted juice before packaging
e.g. meat
Canning at home can be accomplished by four methods
 A bath of boiling water in which the containers are immersed
 A steamer in which the containers are exposed to flowing steam
 Keeping cans in ovens
 Using pressure cookers.
Except the use of pressure cookers for the heat treatment of acid foods, other processes are not sufficient
to prevent microbial spoilage.
Factors/points necessary before deciding any time-temperature combination in sterilization to ensure
correct process for safety and stability of the food include;
 Knowledge of raw material microbiology.
 An understanding of the product chemistry and its effects on microbial heat resistance.
 An understanding of the product recipe, e.g. preserve and size of particles.
 Packaging issues- type of pack, single or multi-component, potential for leakage, etc.
 Correct microbial type and system to use for process validation.

Process of Canning fruits and Vegetables

A typical canning process includes the following steps:
 Receiving, cleaning, grading and inspecting of raw commodity
 Blanching to inactivate enzymes
 Placing the container with added brine or syrup and deaeration of the product
 Heating in a retort under 1.05kg/cm2 pressure, using steam of metal cans or pressured water for
glass containers
 Partial cooling under pressure in the retort
 Additional cooling by water sprays or in a cooling tank
 Labeling, racking and distributing

Advantages of high temperature preservation methods

 Heat may be used either for processing, converting of foods to other forms or simply as a means
or preserving the food.
 Cooking makes food palatable and tender and also destroys a large proportion of
microorganisms and natural enzymes.
 Cooked foods can be stored for several days provided they are protected from recontamination.
 Cooking also destroys the toxin formed by Clostridium botulinum during a ten minute exposure
of the food to moist heat at 100 degree C.
 It ensures food safety by killing of microorganisms
 Diseases prevented by pasteurization can include tuberculosis, brucellosis, diphtheria; it also
kills the harmful bacteria Salmonella, and Escherichia coli, among others.
Disadvantages of high temperature preservation methods
 Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because it adversely affects the taste and
quality of the product.
 Heat treatment, due to erroneous sterilization parameters will not inactivate all spores in the
food product leading to under-sterilization.
 Faulty sealing or faults of the containers becauserecontamination of the food product.
  Thermal processes can cause degradation of their sensory quality of food making it have a very
soft texture, jelly and fat separation, discoloration and undesirable heat treatment taste.
 Loss of nutritional value (destruction of vitamins and protein components).

Bottling
The principles and methods of preservation for bottling food are similar to those used for canning food.
The glass used must be free from minute cracks, which could allow bacteria to enter, and should be heat
proof and strong enough to cope with transport and retail handling. Glass is heavy and prone to
breakage, so bottling is not used as much as canning.

d) Blanching
Blanching refers to brief immersion of fruits, vegetables, etc in boiling water or steam. It is a thermal
process used mostly for vegetable tissues prior to freezing, drying, or canning.
Blanching is carried out at temperatures close to 100°C (212°F) for two to five minutes in either a
water bath or a steam chamber. Because steam blanchers use a minimal amount of water, extra care
must be taken to ensure that the product is uniformly exposed to the steam. Steam blanching leafy
vegetables is especially difficult because they tend to clump together. The effectiveness of the blanching
treatment is usually determined by measuring the residual activity of an enzyme called peroxidase and
catalase responsible for many browning reactions in many fruits and vegetables. Although it is
commonly used for plant materials, blanching has been proposed for fish in order to kill cold-adapted
bacteria on their outer surface.
1. is the process in which food, usually a vegetable or fruit, is scalded in boiling water, removed after
a brief, timed interval, and finally plunged into iced water or placed under cold running water to
halt the cooking process. It is a high temperature preservation method that is used to treat foods that
are to be frozen, dried or canned.
The process has three stages: preheating, blanching, and cooling. The most common blanching methods
for vegetables/fruits are hot water and steam, while cooling is either done using cold water or cool air

Foods Commonly Blanched and their length of Time;

 Food item Time in Time in Food item Time in Time in
boiling water steam (min) boiling steam
(min) water (min)

Beans green 2 3 Broccolli 3 5

Small

Cabbages 1.5 2.5 Carrots 5 8

Small 1.5 2.5
Diced, sliced, strips

Cauliflower 3 5 Celery 3 -

Egg plant 4 6 Pumpkins Cook -

Sweet potatoes Cook - Soya bean green 5 -

Corn on cob 7 10 Corn whole kernel 4 6

Small ears 9 13 from cob
Medium ears 11 16
Large ears

Mushrooms - 9 Peas edible pods 2-3 4-5

Whole - 9 Peas green 1.5-2.5 3-5
Buttons - 9 Potatoes irish (new) 3-5 5-8
Slices 3 5
Peppers halves

Steps of blanching;
i. Set a large pot of water to boil.
ii. Once it is boiling, immerse the vegetable or fruit in the boiling water and return the pot to a boil.
iii. Once the water is boiling again, begin timing for the length of blanching recommended, usually
just a couple of minutes.
iv. At the end of that time, remove the food items from the boiling water and plunge them into an
ice water bath.
v. As soon as they're cool, drain them and set them aside either to use in a recipe or to process for
canning or freezing
 Purposes of blanching;
 Helps in removing the peel e.g. In tomatoes
 Inactivating enzymes that oxidize vitamin C e.g. lipoxygenase, polyphenoloxidase,
chlorophyllase, catalase and peroxidase
 The removal of gases in tissues spaces prior to freezing
 Wilting of tissues for proper filing of cans
 The inactivation of enzymes that bring about discoloration of foods such as apples, pears,
potatoes and plantains.
 Removal pesticide residues and decreasing microbial load.
 Catalase and peroxidase are commonly used to determine blanching success.

Drawbacks to the blanching process includes

 leaching of water-soluble and heat sensitive nutrients.
 N/B; If blanching is omitted, off-flavours, vitamin losses and colour changes will occur in frozen
foods.
 The times and temperatures used are not sufficient to effectively destroy all microorganisms.

Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/z9nPkfvHNgvS8xbBxbB6

This brief heat treatment in blanching is designed to accomplish the following:

 Inactivation of most of the plant enzymes which otherwise might cause toughness, change in
colour, mustiness, loss in flavour, softening and loss in nutritive value
 Colour retention
  Reduction (as large as 99 percent) in the numbers of microorganisms on the food
 Enhancement of the green colour of vegetables such as peas, broccoli, and spinach
 Wilting of leafy vegetables such as spinach, making them pack better
 Displacement of air entrapped in the tissue.
 Denaturation of enzymes present in the food.

2. Removal of Moisture (Drying)

Drying is the removal of water or another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. To
be considered "dried", the final product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet (e.g. paper),
particles (e.g., cereal grains or corn flakes) or powder (e.g. salt, milk powder).
Food dehydration is heat removal of water from food under controlled conditions that cause minimum
or ideally no other changes in the food properties.
The main technological objectives of food dehydration are:
 Preservation by virtue of water activity depression,
 Mass and volume reduction, and
 Transformation of foods to more convenient products.
Drying involves internal transport of water to the surface and evaporation and removal of water
from the surface.
Factors affecting drying/dehydration rates
1. Surface area; the larger the surface area the more the efficient is the heat transfer. Small pieces
are preferred.
2. The higher the temperature difference between heating medium and food the greater will be
the heat transfer. When the heating medium is air, the hotter the air the higher the water holding
capacity hence the more efficient water vapour will be transfer from food.
3. Air velocity; high velocity air will soak away water vapour from the drying food surface hence
preventing the moisture from creating saturating atmosphere.
4. Humidity; the drier the air the more rapid the drying due to higher water holding capacity of
air at any given temperature. Each food has its own environmental relative humidity at which
the food either loses moisture to atmosphere or picks up moisture from it. Below this
atmospheric humidity level food can be further dried but above it food gains moisture.
 5. Atmospheric pressure; the low the pressure the low the boiling point of water and the higher
the dehydration rate. Low drying temperatures and low drying time that can be achieved by use
of vacuum are important in case of heat sensitive foods.
6. Evaporation of water; as water evaporates from the surface, it cools the surface thus e.g. in
spray drier the incoming air may be at 200oC and exit air is at 100oC but food particle while
drying may be not higher than 70oC. As the moisture content of particles decreases, the
evaporation rate slows down and particles increase in temperature.

During dehydration, temperature, relative humidity, and airflow (air-movement) are all controlled.
Atmospheric dehydrators and vacuum dehydrators are used to dry foods.
The advantages of the vacuum dehydrator are:
 Less oxidation (due to the removal of free oxygen),
 Operation at lower temperatures,
 Rapid diffusion from cells.
Principles of moisture removal;
 Surround the food with warm air which has the capacity for holding more moisture than does cool
air.
 Circulating air which constantly brings fresh supply of air into contact with the food should be used
 Heating in a vacuum increases water loss at very low temperature thus better retaining the natural
characteristics of food.
 Dicing the food into small pieces exposes more surface to the action of heat or air.
 Dye-dip as in the case of prunes to make the skin more permeable to water.
 Treat food with fumes of sulphur to;
 Inactivate enzymes,
 Destroy microorganisms and
 Cause darkening of the colour and thus preserve it
 Affect the cell membrane in a way that accelerates the movement of water from the interior to
the surface of the food.
 Increase palatability and conserve ascorbic acid and some vitamin A.
• Benefits of dehydration and drying;
 Drying results in reduction in weight making dried foods easy to transport and to store.
 Dehydration results in reduction of the cost of handling, packaging, transportation and storage.
 It also increases convenience, versatility and storage stability.
 It helps preserve foods by reducing the available moisture level that microbes cannot grow and
enzymatic activity is controlled.
 Dehydration is used commercially to produce many foods e.g.
 dried milk,
 eggs,
 coffee,
 tea,
 fruit drinks,
 dessert mixes and
 traditionally dried fruits and vegetables,
 meats and fish.
 Limitation of dehydration of food include;
 High processing costs
 Effects on texture and flavour quality
 Rehydration difficulty
 Development of enzymatic browning.
 Treatment of food prior to drying;
 Selection and sorting for size, maturity and soundness
 Washing especially of fruits and vegetables
 Peeling of fruits and vegetables
 subdivision into halves, slices, shreds and cubes
 Alkali dipping for some fruits e.g. prunes, grapes and raisins or hot lye or sodium carbonate.
 Blanching of vegetables and some fruits e.g. apricots and peaches
 Sulphuring (using burnt sulphur dioxide) of light coloured fruits and certain vegetables.

Some methods of drying and the principles of drying

The following are different methods of drying and their principles of drying;
1) Sun drying;
The principle of drying here is that the sun evaporates water from food to the surrounding air.
It consists of an open surface on which wet food product is spread in a thin layer (usually 1 – 5 cm
thick) and dried by energy from sun. The method is used for grains, nuts, spices, legumes such as peas
and beans, some fruit and vegetables, and some meats.

The advantages of sun drying are

 Low equipment cost
 No fuel cost
Disadvantages of sun drying
 Loss of sugar from the food
 No control over the temperature, humidity, and air flow,
 No control over the weather
 There could be some contamination of food from the atmosphere

2) Solar dryer; the dryer consist of an insulated cabinet and facing transparent wall to allow direct
radiation of the product spread on the perforated tray/sheet. The air movement through the product
is by natural convection. A device can be added to turn the product at regular intervals.
Disadvantages
 It requires large surface area
 It is labour intensive
 Inability to control drying process
 Potential food loss
 Potential food contamination
3) Hot air drying; stream of hot air in a closed environment supplies the heat by convection and
carries away the evaporation
4) Fluidized bench drying (hot air drying); bed e.g. with porous bends air comes from below,
suspend the foods as it dries. It’s a special case of hot air drying the beds of particular foods are
aerated by hot aired for better heat and mass transfer.
5) Spray drying; It is a method of producing a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by rapidly drying
with a hot gas. The dry powder is often free-flowing. Air is the heated drying medium. It is the
preferred method of drying of many thermally-sensitive foods such as dry flavorings.
 All spray dryers use some type of atomizer or spray nozzle to disperse the liquid or slurry into a
controlled drop size spray. The most common of these are rotary disk and single-fluid high pressure
swirl nozzles
The most common type of spray dryers are called single effect, which has a single source of drying
air at the top of the chamber at the same direction as the sprayed liquid (co-current). In this
method the liquid such as milk or eggs are dried to a fine powder in the sprayer where it is sprayed
into a hot air stream for almost instant drying. It is then collected at the bottom of the dryer. (see fig.
below).

Key;
1 and 2 hot air
3 Liquid to be dried
4 hot air and droplets of liquid
5 powder and hot air
6 powder product
7 hot air exhausted.
N/B; A fine powder is produced in the single effect spray drier, but it can have poor flow and produce a lot
of dust. To overcome the dust and poor flow of the powder, a new generation of spray dryers called multiple
effect spray dryers have been produced. Instead of drying the liquid in one stage, drying is done through
two steps: the first at the top (as per single effect) and the second with an integrated static bed at the bottom
of the chamber.
The bed provides a humid environment which causes smaller particles to clump, producing more uniform
particle sizes, usually within the range of 100 to 300 µm. These powders are free-flowing due to the larger
particle size. Spray drying is suitable for fruit juice concentrates and vacuum dehydration processes are
useful for low moisture / high sugar fruits like peaches, pears and apricots.
Spray dryers are more commonly used since they do less heat damage and produce more soluble
products.
N/B- Improper control of certain factors may result in “case hardening” in foods due to more rapid
evaporation of moisture from the surface than diffusion from the interior with a resulting hard, horny,
impenetrable surface film that hinders further drying.
The following factors thus needs to be controlled;
 Temperature which varies based on the food
 Relative humidity of the air
 The velocity of the air
 The duration of drying.
6) To retain quality during storage, dried foods have to be stored in moisture proof containers,
preferably with inert gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide or be packaged in laminates consisting
of aluminum foil paper and a film of polyethylene which can also be
it’s a specifically case of hot air drying. Principle; Flowing foods are sprayed into a stream of hot
air and the resulting dry powder is separated mechanically.
They are used to dry solutions, pastes or slurries. The food product is not carried on a tray or support,
but is dispersed as small droplets which are suspended in the drying air.

Advantages
 Very short drying times
 Large portion of flavour, colour and nutritive value of the food is retained
7) Vacuum drying; is removal of water vapour by creation of a vacuum. Heat must be supplied by
conduction or radiation. Not dry air.
8) Roller drum drying;
is a method used for drying out liquids from raw materials with a drying drum.
Pureed raw ingredients are dried at relatively low temperatures over rotating, high-capacity drums that
produce sheets of drum-dried product. The product is milled to a finished flake or powder form.
Modern drum drying techniques results in dried ingredients which reconstitute immediately and retain
much of their original flavor, color and nutritional value.
In drum drying, the heated surface is the envelope of a rotating horizontal metal cylinder. The cylinder
is heated by steam condensing inside, at a pressure in the range of 200–500 kPa, bringing the
temperature of the cylinder wall to 120–155°C. The wet material is applied on the drum surface as a
relatively thin layer. The dried product is removed from the drum with the help of a blade (Figure
below).
Drum Dryer;

 The advantages of drum drying include;

• The ability of drum dryers to dry viscous foods which cannot be easily dried with other methods.
Drum dryers can be clean and hygienic and easy to operate and maintain. Drum drying is extensively
used in the production of; pre-cooked starches, breakfast cereals, baby foods, instant mashed potatoes,
soup mixtures and and low-grade milk powder to make them cold-water-soluble.
Principle; the liquid or paste foods are applied on surface of hot stainless steel rollers. Dry matter is
scrapped off the rotating roll at the end of the revolution.
Freeze drying; this is a method that involves freezing and then removal of moisture by sublimation of
the ice under vacuum. Food is preliminary prepared as for the other drying methods and then it is frozen,
placed in a vacuum with a small amount of heat applied.
The ice in the frozen food under reduced pressure of the vacuum changes directly to water vapour and
is carried away by circulating heated air, thus reducing the moisture content of the food.
The heat needed for sublimation is supplied by radiation or conduction. Freeze dried products are
similar in size and shape to original fresh products. This method better preserves fresh flavours, textures
and nutrients. It prevents loss of volatile constituents and tends to prevent chemical, enzymatic and
microbial action. Freeze drying is used to preserve foods such as fruit powders, meat and poultry as
well as beverages such as coffee and tea. It is done as batch or continuous freeze drying.
Principle; water is removed by sublimation from frozen foods under high vacuum. Heats must be
supplied by conduction or radiation. Water is removed at low temperature (6 – 10 o) by sublimation
rather than evaporation.
The process is used for drying and preserving a number of food products, including meats, vegetables,
fruits, and instant coffee products.

Advantages
 The structural rigidity of the product is maintained during the sublimation process
 Retains original characteristics of the product, including:
o color
o form
o size
o taste
o texture
o nutrients
 Reconstitutes to original state when placed in water
 Shelf stable at room temperature - cold storage not required
 The weight of the freeze-dried products is reduced by 70 to 90 percent, with no change in volume
 The product is light weight and easy to handle
 Shipping costs are reduced because of the light weight and lack of refrigeration
 Low water activity virtually eliminates microbiological concerns
 Offers highest quality in a dry product compared to other drying methods
 Virtually any type of food or ingredient, whether solid or liquid, can be freeze-dried

Disadvantage
 The main disadvantage of freeze-dried foods is that they are quite expensive due to the
specialized equipment needed for this process.
 Freeze-dried foods also take up almost as much space as fresh foods
 Many people do not know how to use freeze-dried foods to prepare meals at home
 Mostly frozen foods are high in sodium and fats compared to its original nature
9. Belt drying/‘foam-mat drying’;
 This is the dehydration method that involves the application of food on a heated surface that is a metal
belt conveyor heated by contact or radiation by hot elements installed on both sides. Because of the
high viscocity of the feed material, mass transfer is important right from the start of the process through
first foaming the concentrates so as to place on the belt as a porous mat. Some of the tomato powders
available in commerce are made by foam-mat drying of tomato paste, it is also used for drying
concentrated juices.
Belt drying can also be carried-out under vacuum.
Fig of a belt dryer;

Changes that occur in dried and dehydrated foods;

There are chemical and physical changes that takes place in food when its dried or dehydrated and it
includes;
Chemical changes
 Caramelization of sugars- this is the browning of sugars brought about when sugars are exposed to
dry heat if the drying temperatures are too high
 Enzymatic browning due to the action of enzymes naturally present in foods e.g. ascorbic acid oxidase
phenol oxidase in fruits and vegetables which cause undesirable colour changes when food is cut to
expose the inner contents (if the food is not heat treated prior to drying to inactivate it )
 Non-enzymatic browning (millard reaction) due to the reaction between an aldehyde (carbohydrates
) and amino acids if dehydration is not done rapidly.
 Loss of rehydration-caused by the physical shrinkage, denaturation of proteins, distortion of cells and
capillaries, loss of carbohydrate i.e. sugars and salts during dehydration which makes reabsorption of
water by dried product is less than equal that of the original product. i.e. the product is less hydrophilic.
 There is loss of some volatile flavours and constituents
Physical changes
 Shrinkage –this is a most obvious change in drying- which take place due to removal of water from
food materials. Surface shrinkage occur when the edge and the corners of the food cut into a cube
for example gradually pull in giving the cube a more rounded appearance. Continued dehydration
gradually removes water from the deeper layers and finally from the centre. This causes continuous
shrinkage until the food turns to a concave cube appearance.
 Case hardening- this occurs especially if very high surface temperature are used to dry food
resulting in unbalanced drying process so that a dry skin forms quickly before most of the
moisture has had opportunity to migrate to the surface. This impermeable skin traps much of
the remaining water within the particles and drying rate drops off severely.
 Thermoplasticity; this involves food softening on heating, especially in drying and dehydration
of fruits and vegetable juices which lack structure and are high in sugars and other materials that
soften and melt at the drying temperatures. E.g. if oranges juices and sugar syrup is heated in a
pan after all water has been removed, the solids will be in a thermoplastic condition giving the
impression that they still contain moisture in them, they will stick to the to the pan and it is
difficult to remove on cooling. Thermoplastic solids harden into a crystalline.
Chemical changes during dehydration and drying
a) Browning reaction may be caused by enzymatic oxidation of polyphenols and other susceptible
compounds if the oxidizing enzymes are not deactivated. Blanching of foods can reduce this
browning.
i. Caramelization of sugars and scorching of other materials if temperature is excessive. In
some cases it is desirable.
ii. Mailard browning; due to action of aldehydes group of sugars and amino group of amino
acids. It occurs mostly when the temperature is at the range of 20 -15%.
b) There is some loss of ease in rehydration resulting in not only in shrinkage and distortion of
cells and capillaries but also due to physical changes and chemical changes at colloidal level
c) Heat and salt concentration effects for water removal can partially denature protein which
cannot absorb and bind water. Starch and gums also may be altered to become less hydrophilic.
Sugars and salt escape from damaged cells into the water used to reconstitute dehydrated foods
resulting in loss of turbine. These and other chemical changes making the absorption of the
water by dried product somewhat more of the original product, contribute to altered texture.
d) Dehydration will lead to loss of volatile flavour
Some of the general effects of drying, including dehydration, are enumerated below:
 Nutrients are concentrated through a reduction of water content in the food.
 There is a reduction of water-soluble vitamins such as ascorbic acid, riboflavin, and thiamin.
 Proteins may become somewhat denatured because of high temperature used in drying
2. Removal of Air
The removal of air from canned foods has already been discussed. Some foods can be temporarily
preserved by vacuum packaging and modified atmosphere packaging Cold meats, cheese, sausages,
fish, etc. can be wrapped in an impermeable plastic film, and the air can be removed under a vacuum.
This prevents the entry of micro-organisms until the seal is broken. Such foods are normally stored in
a cool place and may have chemical preservatives added to them so that they keep for longer.
3. Reduction Of Temperature
When the temperature is reduced, the activities of most micro-organisms are slowed down, until they
become dormant (inactive), and growth and multiplication cease. Some types are destroyed at low
temperatures. Once the temperature is raised, growth and multiplication of the micro-organisms that are
not destroyed by low temperatures starts again. Some micro-organisms are resistant to low
temperatures, and can continue to multiply and remain active, although probably at a slower rate.
Low temperature preservation is based on the application of Van’t Hoff equation, which shows that a
decrease of about 100C in temperature of a food item halves the rate of the reactions going on in the
food item.
Vegetables are blanched or heated in preparation for freezing to ensure enzyme inactivity and thus to
avoid degradation of flavor. In the freezing of meats, various methods are used depending on the type
of meat and the cut. Pork is frozen soon after butchering, but beef is hung in a cooler for several days
first to tenderize the meat.

There are three methods of low temperature storage, namely:

a) Cooling: - This involves the removal of a small amount of heat from a food item. It is just a slight
reduction in temperature.
b) Chilling: This involves a more pronounced reduction in temperature but it remains above freezing
temperature.
c) Freezing: -This is a sharp reduction in temperature of a food item such that the food, if in liquid
form will change to a solid state. This condition helps to retard the growth of micro-organisms by
 the cold temperature and by the lack of water, which is unavailable to them when it freezes. This
process can be slow or fast as highlighted below:
NB:
The lower the temperature, the slower the chemical reaction, enzyme action, and microbial growth, and
a low enough temperature will prevent the growth of any microorganism allowing only slow metabolic
activity.
Since food spoilage is usually a result of chemical reactions mediated by microbial and endogenous
enzymes, the life of many foods can be increased by storage at low temperatures.
Storage temperatures are selected depending on the kind of food and the time and conditions of
storage. For example banana keeps best at about 13.3-16.7°C and should not be kept in the
refrigerator. In general there are three distinct low temperature ranges in which foods may be stored
for preservation.
i. Common or Cellar Storage (cooling)
The temperature in this type of storage is not much below that of outside air and is seldom lower than
15°C. Foods such as root crops, potatoes, cabbage, apples etc. are stored at these temperatures for
limited periods. Although chemical reactions in the food carried out by microorganisms and
endogenous enzymes are not prevented, they are slower than at outside temperatures.
ii. Chilling or Cold Storage
Chilling storage of foods employs temperatures near, but above their freezing point typically 0-5°C.
These chill temperatures are achieved either by cooling by ice or mechanical refrigeration i.e.
refrigerators. Most of the perishable foods such as eggs, dairy products, meats, seafood, vegetables, and
fruits are held at these temperatures for a limited time with little change from their original condition.
Chill storage can change both the nature of spoilage and the rate at which it occurs by reducing the
enzymatic and microbial changes in the foods considerably.
Though psychrotrophs grow only relatively slowly, mesophiles cannot grow in chilled foods, thereby
delaying the onset of spoilage. The ability of organisms to grow at low temperatures depends on the
composition and architecture of their plasma membrane. As the temperature is lowered, the plasma
membrane undergoes a phase transition from a liquid crystalline state to a rigid gel in which solute
transport is severely affected. This phase transition is lower in psychrotrophs and psychrophiles due to
the presence of unsaturated and short chain fatty acids in their membrane lipids making them resistant
to low temperatures. In addition, rapid cooling of foods to chilling temperature will exert a cold shock
on mesophiles causing cell death and cell injury due to damage to their membranes and DNA.
Mesophiles that survive cooling can persist in the food in injured state for extended periods and may
recover and resume growth under favourable conditions. Thus chilling will prevent an increase in the
risk from mesophilic pathogens, but will not assure its elimination. Therefore, the use of good
microbiological quality raw materials and hygienic handling are the key requirements for the production
of safe chilled foods
iii. Freezing
The storage of foods in the frozen condition is one of the most successful methods for long term
preservation of food since the product largely resembles the fresh on thawing and retains its nutritive
value. Frozen vegetables, fruits, meat and meat products, fish, cheeses, etc. have captured the frozen
food market.
The temperature used in frozen storage is usually less than -18°C. Under the usual conditions of storage
of frozen foods microbial growth is prevented entirely and the action of microbial and endogenous
enzymes is greatly retarded. Therefore, it is a common practice to inactivate enzymes of vegetables by
scalding or blanching before freezing. Blanching is achieved either by brief immersion of foods into
hot water or the use of steam. While many home freezers are held at -10°C, commercial freezers are
under -18°C. At this temperature, the growth of micro-organisms is almost stopped. Deteriorative
microbial reactions still occur, but over a much longer time.
In addition, deteriorative enzymatic reactions will still take place during frozen storage. Uncooked fruits
and vegetables must be blanched before freezing to prevent these reactions.
During freezing, the water in food forms ice crystals. The rate of this phenomenon has a big impact on
the quality of frozen foods:
Types of Freezing
1. Slow/Sharp freezing: In this method, food packs are placed in the freezer in such a way that

air can circulate between them. The freezer is maintained in the range of - 23oC to - 29oC. Food

is frozen after 3 – 72 hours

2. Quick freezing: In this method, food is frozen in a relatively short time. A freezing time of 30
minutes or less; and usually the freezing of small packages or units of food. Lower temperatures
ranging from 32oCto-40oC are used.
3. De-hydro freezing: This method is mainly applied in fruits and vegetables. The fruits and
vegetables have about half their moisture removed before freezing.
Refrigeration
Refrigerators should be set to below 4°C to control the growth of micro-organisms in foods. This
lowered temperature also reduces the respiration rate of fruits and vegetables, which retards reactions
that promote spoilage. Not all foods benefit from cold temperatures. For example, bananas turn black
and bread goes stale when refrigerated.
Advantages of low temperature preservation
 It increases the shelf life of the food product
 Refrigeration toughens tissues of food therefore meat will be cut easily
 It helps to retain flavor of citrus fruits juices
 Low temperature precipitates waxes from fruits, oils and fruit juice clarification, at low temperatures
small particles comes together
 It increases carbon dioxide solubility in sodas
Disadvantages low temperature storage
 Textural damage- food texture is more sensitive and ice crystals formed interfere with the cell wall.
Small crystals destroy the texture when the food is thawed.
 Concentration effect
 Dissolved solute depresses the freezing point the higher the concentration the lower the freezing
point
Addition of Chemical Preservative and Food Additives
A preservative is defined as any substance which is capable of inhibiting retarding or arresting the
growth of microorganisms of any deterioration of food due to microorganisms or of masking the
evidence of any such deterioration.
Preservatives can be added to food to inhibit the action of enzymes, and either destroy or inactivate
micro-organisms which may contaminate the food. Most chemical preservatives work by surrounding
the microbial cells with a concentrated solution, which draws water out of the cell by osmosis. This
renders the cell inactive. Enzyme activity is also affected by the presence of high concentrations of salt,
acid, sugar, etc.
The use of chemical preservatives in manufactured foods is strictly controlled. A permitted list of such
chemicals is issued, and no other chemical may be used. Stringent safety tests are carried out- on
preservatives, to determine the maximum permitted amounts for use in food. There are many different
chemical preservatives in use. Below are the most commonly used preservatives:
Examples of commonly used chemical preservatives
a) Sodium chloride
This has been used as a food preservative from early times salt stops the growth of microorganisms and
interferes with the action of proteolytic enzymes. Salt also causes food dehydration by drawing out
water from tissue cells.
Salt is employed to control microbial population in foods such as butter, cheese, cabbage, olives,
cucumbers, meats, fish and bread.
b) Sugar
Sugar aids in the preservation of products in which it is used. The high osmotic pressure of sugar creates
conditions that are unfavorable for the growth and reproduction of most species of bacteria yeast and
moulds. The preservative action of moderate strength of sugars can be improved if invertase is used to
increase the concentration of glucose relative to sucrose. Foods in which sugars aid preservation include
syrups and confectionery products; fondant fillings in chocolate, honey, jams, jellies, marmalades,
conserves and fruits such as dates sultanas and currants.
c) Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide has been used in foods for a long as a general preservative. It is used in the treatment
of fruits and vegetables before and after dehydration to extend the storage life of fresh grapes, prevents
the growth of undesirable micro-organism during wine making and in the manufacture of fruit juices.
Sulphur dioxide is also the most useful agent for the prevention of browning reactions in dried fruits
most cut fruits are treated with sulphur dioxide to prevent enzymic browning.
d) Sorbic Acid
Sorbic acid and its sodium and potassium salts inhibit moulds and yeasts in foods such as cheese, baked
products, fruits juices, wines and pickles.
e) Acetic Acid
Acetic Acid in the form of vinegar has been used to preserve pickled vegetables from antiquity. Acetates
of sodium, potassium and calcium are used in bread and other baked goods to prevent roppiness and
the growth of moulds but they do not interfere with yeasts. The acid is also used in foods such as
catchup, mayonnaise and pickles primarily for flavor but these products also benefit from the concurrent
antimicrobial action the antimicrobial activity of acetic acid increases as the PH
f) Propionic Acid
Propionic Acid and sodium and calcium salts exert antimicrobial activity against moulds and some
bacteria. The acid finds extensive use in the bakery field where it not only inhibits moulds effectively
but is also active against the ropy bread organism Bacillus mesentericus. The toxicity of propionic acid
to moulds and certain bacteria is related to the inability of the organisms to metabolize the three carbon
unit.
g) Benzoic Acid
Benzoic acid is widely used as an antimicrobial agent its sodium salt is more soluble in water than the
free acid and hence it is generally used. However, once in the product some of the sodium benzoate is
converted to the acid form. The undissociated acid is the form with antimicrobial activity the acid is
most active against yeasts and bacteria and least active against moulds. It exhibits optimum activity in
the PH ranges 2.5 - 4.0 and thus is well suited for use in acid foods.
h) Other Acids
Some acids are used as preservatives, including:
 Ethnic acid (vinegar)
 Citric acid
 Lactic acid
 Tartaric acid
The acidity of a substance is measured by its pH value on a scale of 1 to 14. Substances that have a P H
value of 1 to 6 are acidic, 1 being the strongest acid and 6 the weakest; those that have a pH value of 7
(Such as water) are neutral; and those that have a pH value of 8 to 14 are alkaline, 8 being the weakest
and 14 the strongest alkali.
Acids that are used for preserving, such as vinegar for pickling, are usually fairly strong (about pH 2-
3), and are therefore suitable for preserving less acid foods. Some foods are naturally acidic, and can
be preserved by other methods. These include:
 Lemon juice pH 2.4
 Apples pH 3.0
 Rhubarb pH3.1
 Pineapple pH 3.7
 Tomatoes pH 4.2
Most bacteria only grow well at pH 7. Yeasts grow well at pH 4-4.5, and some moulds can grow at pH
2, so the strength of an acid used to preserve a food has to be adjusted according to the type of
microorganisms that normally contaminate it.

i) Parabens
These are alkyl esters of phydroxybenzoic acid the methyl ethyl propyl and heptyl ester are generally
used these are effective inhibitors of moulds and yeasts but are relatively ineffective against bacteria.
They are active at PH 7 and higher and have little effect on flavor.
Food Additives
These are substances not naturally present in a food but added during its preparation and
remaining in the finished product to preserve flavor, enhance taste and appearance. They include
anything added during the production, processing treatment, packaging, transport and storage of a food.
Guidelines for use of food additives
1. Additives should be used only:
i. To maintain the nutritional quality of food,
ii. To improve appearance of food
iii. To preserve
iv. Minimal amounts allowed
2. An additive is not justified /permitted
i. If it reduces the nutritive value of a food
ii. If it disguises faulty quality or processing and handling that is not allowed
iii. If it deceive the customer or
iv. If the desired effect can be obtained by other manufacturing practices that are
economically and technologically satisfactory.
v. Used in excess
Importance of food additives
 Maintain product consistency e.g. Emulsifier stabilizer anti-caking agents etc.
 To improve or preserve the nutrient value of the food. Many foods and drinks are fortified and
enriched to improve the nutritional status of the population e.g. Vitamins, mineral that may be
low or completely lacking in a food. Maize flour is fortified with folic acid, zinc, and margarine
is fortified with Vitamin A and E.
  Maintain the wholesomeness of a food. Preservatives reduce the spoilage that air, fungi, bacteria
or yeast can cause. They also keep fresh fruits from turning brown when exposed to air.
 Controlling the acidity and alkalinity and provide leavening .Specific additives help to change
the acid base balance of food to obtain that taste color and flavor. Leavening agents that release
acids when they are heated react with baking soda to help biscuits, cakes and other baked
products rise.
 They provide colour and enhance flavor. Additives could be natural (e.g. turmeric) or synthetic.
 To produce easy to prepare convenient foods in a society that is busy and spends less time in
the kitchen than in the past.
 To produce new food products that is of different shapes and colour.
Advantages of food additives
1. They allow our growing urban population to have a variety of foods all year round.
2. They make many possible convenient without the inconvenience of daily shopping.
3. They help to reduce food spoilage and reduce the risk of food poisoning.
4. They help to improve colour and flavor of food thus increasing customer acceptability of the
food product.
Disadvantages of using food additives
1. Some food additives are toxic if a large amount is used e.g. Sodium benzoate.
2. Some food additives may be carcinogenic e.g. Sodium nitrate has showed to cause cancer in
mice and may also cause cancer to human beings. Many food colourings used in the past has
showed to cause cancer.
3. Some additives may have side effects such as allergies and hyperactivity.
Types of food additives
i. Anti-oxidants
They are added to fats and fat containing substances to retard oxidation and thereby prolong their
wholesomeness, palatability and keeping time. It should not contribute to an objectionable odour, flavor
or colour to the fat or food in which it is present.
Antioxidant include: - phenolic compounds, tocopherols etc. Tocopherols act as biological antioxidants
in plant and animal tissue but they are less or rarely used coz they are more expensive than synthetic
antioxidants.
Antioxidants also help to reduce the browning of cut fruits and vegetables (maillard reactions)
These are put into foods for various purposes.
1. To prevent fat rancidity.
2. To prevent destruction of vitamins A. and C.
3. To prevent the browning of food by enzymes.
Some foods contain natural antioxidants, (e.g. vitamin E is an antioxidant), but these are not usually
present in sufficient amounts to be effective.
 Antioxidants are added to the following types of foods:
 Oils and fats
 Baked goods containing fat, e.g. cakes and biscuits
 Apples and pears
 Dried foods such as milk and meat
ii. Acid –modifiers
They are used to control acidity and alkalinity of a food. They are also used to develop acid flavor in
baking powder in sweets, setting off the jam etc. Examples of acids used include: citric, tartaric acid,
malic acid, acetic acid (vinegar), lactic acid from dairy foods, ascorbic acid etc.
iii. Foaming agents
They are used to ensure that bubbles are evenly distributed e.g. Ice cream
iv. Sweeteners
They are substances rather than carbohydrates which have characteristic sweetness e.g. Sorbital found
in fruits. It is approx ½ as sweet as sucrose. It is stable in high temperature therefore used to make
confectionary e.g. Sweets and jam. Saccharine is 300 times sweeter than sucrose. It is popular with the
diet conscious people. It is used in production of soft drinks and diabetic foods. However it has an after
taste. Aspartame – it is a mixture of aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is 200 times sweeter than
sucrose. It is suitable if sweetening soft drinks. However, it is unsuitable for children suffering from a
genetic deficiency called phenylketonuria
v. Thickeners
They are added to processed food products to thicken basically liquids e.g. soups.
vi. Nutritive agents
During the processing of some foods, nutrients are lost and this may be replaced by the manufacturer
by addition of nutrients to enrich or fortify them e.g. Vitamin A and D are added to margarine and
calcium is added to white bread, by law fruit juices have extra Vitamin C added, iodine is added to salt.
vii. Flavor enhancers
They are added to strengthen the flavor of the end product e.g. strawberry, vanilla, monosodium
glutamate (for meat products).
viii. Humectants
They are to food to make them soft and prevent them from going dry e.g. glycerol found in cake mixes.
ix. Colour Additives
The acceptance of food products is determined largely by its appearance; consumers become
accustomed to standardized colours in familiar foods and base their purchasing habits/decisions or past
experiences. In order to improve the colour of foods colorants are added to carbonated beverages, frozen
desserts some dairy and baked products.
x. Flavour additives
Natural food flavors are rarely used because the methods required to obtain the necessary amounts are
expensive. In addition may are not uniform in flavour quality or chemical composition and main
availability is dependent on the season. Suppose that a manufactures wanted to produce bananas ice-
cream, it will take 5 tons of bananas to extract ½ litre of banana oil. Hence if the demand for flavorings
agents in our food supply is to be met, artificial flavorings become a necessity.The flavouring agents
commonly used are Esters C pentylacetate responsible for banana flavour, aldehyde like
benzylaldehyde with cherry flavour.
xi. Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers allows molecule that are mutually antagonistic (water and oil) to mix together. They also
improve the texture, volume and body of baked goods by maintaining an even distribution of
ingredients. One of the most used emulsifiers is lecithin found naturally in milk, eggs and soybeans.
xii. Anti-caking agents
They are added to prevent powders from caking in the packet e.g. calcium silicate added to icing sugar
to stop it going lumpy. Other food additives includes anti-foaming agents e.g. in pineapple juice to
prevent it from frothing too much.
Flour improvers, raising agents, glazing agents are added to give a shine to confectionery.
Legislation of food additives
The use of food and drug administration has a list of food additives that are considered safe. Many have
not been tested but are considered safe by most scientists. Substances are put on the GRAS list
(Generally Recognized As Safe list). Some that are allowed may be harmful but should be on the label.
Prohibitions on food additives controls to use and limits of any food additives are outlined by the food
law.
The primary aims of the legislation controlling are:-
● To protect the health of consumers
● To prevent food fraud
The food safety act prohibits addition to food of any substances that may be injurious to health.
Irradiation
Ionizing radiation can kill micro-organisms; can be used to preserve food. When food is irradiated,
energy passes through it and kills harmful bacteria. The energy is similar to ultraviolet light. It does not
make the food radioactive. Two levels of radiation are used:
Low dose will stop vegetables (e.g. potatoes) sprouting; prevent insect damage to cereals, pulses,
spices, etc.; destroy parasites e.g. tapeworm in pork); delay the ripening of fruits e.g. bananas,
mangoes); and allow longer storage of foods such as shellfish and strawberries.
Medium dose will kill most spoilage, and harmful bacteria, molds, and yeast, and will enhance the
storage of some foods. There is concern that some nutrients may be lost when food is irradiated. Also,
although the food may look fresh, chemical and enzyme changes may continue, so the consumer maybe
buying an inferior product.
This internationally recognized symbol could be used to label irradiated foods-Radura. Regulations to
control the processing, sale, and labeling of irradiated foods are being established in the UK and other
countries.
Irradiation is useful in four areas:
1. Preservation: Irradiation can be used to destroy or inactivate organisms that cause spoilage and
decomposition, thereby extending the shelf life of foods. It is an energy-efficient food preservation
method that has several advantages over traditional canning. The resulting products are closer to the
fresh state in texture, flavor, and color. Using irradiation to preserve foods requires no additional
liquid, nor does it cause the loss of natural juices. Both large and small containers can be used and
food can be irradiated after being packaged or frozen.
2. Sterilization: Foods that are sterilized by irradiation can be stored for years without refrigeration
just like canned (heat sterilized) foods. With irradiation it will be possible to develop new shelf-
stable products. Sterilized food is useful in hospitals for patients with severely impaired immune
 systems, such as some patients with cancer or AIDS. These foods can be used by the military and
for space flights.
3. Control sprouting, ripening, and insect damage: In this role, irradiation offers an alternative to
chemicals for use with potatoes, tropical and citrus fruits, grains, spices, and seasonings. However,
since no residue is left in the food, irradiation does not protect against re-infestation like insect
sprays and fumigants do.
4. Control food borne illness. Irradiation can be used to effectively eliminate those pathogens that
cause food borne illness, such as Salmonella

There are three sources of radiation approved for use on foods

 Gamma rays
 Electron beams
 X-rays
 Ionizing radiations may be used for:
 Sterilization of foods that are hermetically sealed i.e. canning
 Reduction in the size of the spoilage flora in perishable foods
 Elimination of pathogens in foods
 Control of infestation in stored cereals
 Prevention of sprouting of vegetables e.g. potatoes and onions
 Retardation of sprouting of vegetables e.g. potatoes and onions
Food preserved by irradiation
Some foods, such as dairy foods and eggs, cannot be irradiated because it causes changes in flavour or
texture. Fruits, vegetables, grain foods, spices and meats (such as chicken) can be irradiated.
Irradiation causes minimal changes to the chemical composition of the food, however, it can alter the
nutrient content of some foods because it reduces the level of some of the B-group vitamins and
degrades carbohydrate and proteins which results to loss of color, texture and brings about undesirable
odour. Can also leads to loss of natural antioxidants. This loss is similar to those that occur when food
is cooked or preserved in more traditional and accepted ways, such as canning or blanching.
Preservation Using Salt Curing and Smoking
Definitions
i. Pickling; is the process of preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar.
 ii. Curing; are any of various food preservation and flavouring processes, especially of meat or
fish by the addition of a combination of salt, nitrates, nitrite or sugar.
iii. Smoking ;the process of flavouring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from
burning material, most often wood.
iv. Brine; is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions
ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater, or the lower end of solutions used
for brining foods) up to about 26% (a typical saturated solution, depending on temperature).
Generally brine has a salt content greater than 5%.

Salting
Salt (sodium chloride) at lower concentrations, contributes to flavour. At higher concentrations it
exhibits an important bacteriostatic action.
Curing and smoking
Curing and smoking are two of the oldest methods of meat preservation. They not only improve the
safety and shelf life of product (e.g. meat products) but also enhance the colour and flavour.
Smoking of meat decreases the available moisture on the surface of meat products, preventing microbial
growth and spoilage. Meat curing, as commonly performed in products such as ham or sausage, involves
the addition of mixtures containing salt, nitrite and other preservatives.
Many curing processes also involve smoking, the process of flavouring, or cooking. The use of food
dehydration was the earliest form of food curing.

Chemical actions of ingredients commonly used Salt

Table salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing.
 Removal of water (decrease moisture) and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich
environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their
growth.
 Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%.
 In addition, salt causes the soluble meat proteins to come to the surface of the meat particles
within sausages.
 These proteins coagulate when the sausage is heated, helping to hold the sausage together.
 Salt slows the oxidation process, effectively preventing the meat from going rancid.
Sugar
The sugar added to meat for the purpose of curing it comes in many forms, including honey, corn syrup
solids, and maple syrup. However, with the exception of bacon, it does not contribute much to the
flavour, but it does alleviate the harsh flavour of the salt. Sugar also contributes to the growth of
beneficial bacteria like Lactobacillus by feeding them.
Nitrates and nitrites
Nitrates and nitrites not only help kill bacteria, but also produce a characteristic flavor and give meat a
pink or red colour.
Nitrates can produce carcinogenic nitrosamines that can be potently inhibited by the use of the
antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing.
Curing
Curing reduces water activity through the addition of chemicals, such as salt, sugars, or acids. There
are two main types of salt-curing used industry: dry salting and pickle-curing.
Dry salting
In dry salting the butchered fish for example, is split along the backbone and buried in salt (called a
wet stack). Brine is drained off until the water content of the flesh is reduced to approximately 50
percent (the typical water content of fresh fish is 75 to 80 percent) and the salt content approaches 25
percent. Or for vegetables dry salt is combined with vegetables in quantities above what you would add
for seasoning purposes.
Advantages and disadvantages
o Salting food is a cheap and effective preservation technique.
o The food may taste too salty if it is not properly prepared.
PICKLING AND CURING

Preservation of food by use of salt i.e. brine, they selectively chose the type of micro-organisms they
will grow as well as the ease of growth.

Pickling refers to preservation of fruits and vegetables.

Curing refer to meat treatment by salting.

Organic acids and C2H5OH are produced when salts are used by micro-organisms in pickling and
curing.
Acid formers are salt tolerance.

They react and produce organic acids as well as alcohols. Thus lowers the PH and this creates a
medium of inhabitant. This controls other micro-organisms.

Little salt are used in flavor in food but not for preservation.

SALT SOURCES

1. Solar sources – evaporation of salt water , salts are washed and concentrated by removing
impurities i.e. sea salt
2. Mined salts – mined from underground just like other minerals called Rock salt

They have contaminants (mostly chemical contaminants)

No organisms that survives here can withstand high osmotic water i.e. Osmophilic organisms.

Functions of salts in food

1. Exert growth retarding effect in some micro-organisms.

2. High amount of water in foods withdraw so as to dissolve the salt water that will be unavailable
for microbial use.
3. High osmotic pressure causes dehydration over adjacent cells. This causes plasmolysis of the
cells.

At saturated level are best for pickling for any temperature i.e. solubility increase high temperature in
some cases osmophilic micro-organisms may cause problems by food spoilage i.e. (purification)
fermentation, oxidation of food by giving organic compounds e.g Alcohols, diacetyles.

TARGETED PRODUCTS IN PICKLING

a) Lactic acid fermentation

Where the micro-organisms that are used in fermentation results in the production of more lactic acid
that any other organic acid (Major acids and lactic acid)

1) Production of sauerkraut (shredded cabbages)

Sauerkraut is a German word meaning shredded cabbage naturally cabbage and has three micro-
organisms
 a) Leuconostic me centroids 1.2%
b) Lactobacillus cucumeris 2.5%
c) Lactobacillus penticacetizans 3.2%

Leuconostic spp. Is temperature sensitive at 23-26 c it does not survive.

During the growth time it produces some acetic, lactic ± alcohol.

Alcohol and acetic will combined to form esters are volatile and forms socrate favours .

Therefore ,leuconostic mesenteroids are important for flavor production.

They stop at an acid level of 1.2% as it is inhibited by the acid it has produced.

Once inhibited he and production is taken over by lactobacillus cucumeris which increase the acid
level to 2.5% above which it is

Lactobacillus penticacetticans takes place the acid production to 3.2%

At this point lactobacillus are not inhibited by the sucrate but it has gotten the required flavour and
there the sucrate is pastarulised to kill the lactobacculus penticacettilians.

Preservation (pickling cucumbers)

Making use of saturated salts will allow some micro-organisms to survive but not others. Cucumbers
are dilute salt solution. This is to allow cucumbers to take salt, saturated solution create osmotic
pressure thereby withdrawing water from cucumber.

At room temperature NACL solution will be saturated at 26%. If it do not do anything the solution
will not be diluted, to avoid this add salt so that any will draw water is used to dissolve salt not
supporting any microbial activity

Cucumbers are yellowish in color before treatment but after sorted they are chalky white and they get
dry although they are in solution. Usually accompany by lactic acid of 0.8-1.5% concentration.

Sometimes you may started with 8-10% add little to 16% to withdraw all the water in cucumbers. 8-
10% at the beginning adding 15 every week. It takes 16 weeks.
By the end of preservation we have 16% NACL and cannot be used, what should be done for eat

Refreshing salt stalk--- it contains salt water, vegetables in the acid produced, and alcohol
produced and esters produced.

USES OF SALT STALK

Stages

I. Draw salt water first

II. Soak your cucumber at 43 degrees to 54 degrees for 10-14 hours use of warm water overnight.
III. Draw the water and repeat steps two and three.
IV. Cook without salts as if it contains some considerable amount of salts

b) Acetic salt fermentation

a) Vinegar production as an acetic acid fermentation

Vinegar has higher percentage of acetic acid i.e. produced from sugar, starch foods by two
fermentation process in the production of vinegar.

The 1st fermentation must be completed before second one starts

The optimum temperature is 23-26 degrees but can go up to 33 degrees. It is important that the
temperature is kept at 40 degrees beyond this the yeast are destroyed.

Its possible for the fermentation to take place naturally for commercial purpose natural weigh is
lower, saccharomyces ellipsoids are used as starter culture to speed up the process

Two ways to ensure that the 1st fermentation is complete

1) By carrying out sugar test- residue sugar test

2) Testing to carbon di oxide –bubbling of CO2 still explains the process is incomplete

2) Oxidation of the produced alcohol

By lactic / acetic bacteria which are aerobic oxygen available on conclusion the alcohol is converted
to acetic acid and water .This is achieved by acetobactor acetic.

Normally a starter is used when acetobactor acetic is not present therefore vinegar is used and is
added (unpasturelised vinegar)
Pure culture can also brought in to speed up the reaction. The rate of conversion depends on

I. Activity of acetobactor acetic

II. The amount of alcohol present
III. Temperatures of the reaction should not be above 30 degrees
IV. The amount of oxygen available / the surface area of oxygen to the vessels per unit of
alcohol available

At the end of second fermentation the vinegar should be stored in highly closed and completely filled
to exclude oxygen

Available oxygen may further oxidize the vinegar further to CO2 and water (ensure it stored in a
closed vessel)

It is an exothermic process, you have cooling coils because failure to cool the whole set up becomes
hot.

BENEFITS OF FERMENTATION

1. Preservation
2. Provides some variety of foods e.g. fermented milk, alcohol, organic acid.
3. Presence of acids reduces food PH(4.5) which inhibits clostridium botulinum.
4. Fermented products still retains the energy value not completely oxidized.
5. Micro-organisms involved are both catabolism (weak components of
complexity to simple units).
6. There are also anabolic i.e. builds up complex molecules from simple ones can
also be called metabolic e.g. The industrial manufacture of vitamin B(
Riboflavin can be built )