CHAPTER

Modern Physics
CATHODE RAYS
• Generated in a discharge tube in which a high
vaccum is maintained.
• They are electrons accelerated by high red (7.6×10-7 m) violet (3.6×10 m)
-7

potential difference(10 to 15 kV)

• K.E. of C.R. particle accelerated by a p.d. V
4 -4 -12
3×10 m 3m 3×10 m 3×10 m

1 p2
is eV = mv 2 = infrared Ultra violet Gamma rays
2 2m
• Can be deflected by Electric & magnetic fields. Radio waves

X-rays
Micro waves
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM (e.g. radar)
Visible light

Ordered arrangement of the big family of electro magnetic 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020
waves (EMW) either in ascending order of frequencies or
decending order of wave lengths. Frequency (Hz)
Speed of E.M.W. in vacuum : c = 3 × 108 m/s = nl

PLANK'S QUANTUM THEORY

A beam of EMW is a stream of discrete packets of energy called PHOTONS; each photon having a frequency n
and energy = E=hn where h = planck's constant = 6.63 × 10-34 J-s.
• According to Planck the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
hc 12400Å é hc o ù
E= = ( eV ) êQ = 12400(A - eV) ú
l l ë e û
E hc h 1
• Effective mass of photon m = 2 = 2 = i.e. m µ
c c l cl l
So mass of violet light photon is greater than the mass of red light photon. (Q lR > lV)
E hn h
• Linear momentum of photon p = = =
c c l
INTENSITY OF LIGHT FORCE EXERTED ON When a beam of light is
PERFECTLY REFLECTING incident at angle q on
E P SURFACE
I= = ...(i) perfectly reflector surface
At A
Here æ 2h ö 2P
P = Power of source,
\ F =nç ÷ = c and inc
è l ø ph id e n
A = Area, oto t
n 2IA cos2 q
t = Time taken F 2P 2I é Pù q
F=
Pressure= = = Q=
I q
E = Energy incident in t time = Nhn A cA c êë A úû c te
d c
N = no. of photon incident in t time e fle to n
r ho
FORCE EXERTED ON p
N(hn) n(hn) PERFECTLY ABSORBING
Intensity I = = ...(ii)
At A SURFACE When a beam of light is
é N ù
êQ n = t = no. of photon per sec.ú P æ Pl ö incident at angle q on
ë û F= çQ n = ÷ perfectly absorbing surface
From equation (i) and (ii), c è hc ø

P n(hn) P Pl and
= Þn= = IA cos2 q
A A hn hc F=
F P I c
= 5 × 1024 J–1 m–1 × P× l Pressure= = =
A Ac c
 PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

The phenomenon of the emission of electrons, when metals are exposed to light
(of a certain minimum frequency) is called photo electric effect.

RESULTS
• Can be explained only on the basis of the quantum theory (concept of photon)
• Electrons are emitted if the incident light has frequency n ³ n0 (threshold frequency). Emission of electrons is
independent of intensity . The wave length corresponding to n0 is called threshold wave length l0.
• n0 is different for different metals.
• Number of electrons emitted per second depends on the intensity of the incident light.

Einsteins Photo Electric Equation Stopping Potential Or Cut Off Potential

Photon energy = KEmax of electron + work function The minimum value of the retarding potential to prevent
hn = KEmax + f electron emission is eVcut off = (KE)max
f = Work function = energy needed by the electron in Note: The number of photons incident on a surface
freeing itself from the atoms of the metal f = h n0 per unit time per unit area is called photon flux.

GRAPHS FOR
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Photo current
I2 V0
Metal 1 Metal 2
I1

I2 > I1 Stopping
potential Slope = h/e
n = constant

n
v0 Potential ® –f 0/e n0 n¢0 Frequency
(Stopping
potential) –f '0/e n¢0 > n 0

Photo current
Photo current

n2 > n1

n2
n1
I
Intensity
Potential
Graph between (Kmax) and frequency WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
(K)max = hn – f0
Comparing with equation, Y = mx – c Beams of electrons and other forms of matter
slope = m = tanq = h (same for all metals) exhibit wave properties including interference and
(f0) > (f0) diffraction with a de Broglie wave length given by
B A

Kmax h
l= (wave length of a praticle).
a lA B p
fA et al
M et
M
• De Broglie wavelength associated with
moving particles
q q
fB
n If a particle of mass m moving with velocity v.

Kinetic energy of the particle

Graph between stopping potential (V 0 )
and frequency (n) 1 p2
E= mv 2 =
2 2m
V0
A
al

momentum of particle p = mv = 2mE the

et
M

B
al

wave length associated with the particles is

et
M

q q
n
(f0)A Frequency
(f0)B e
h h h
l= = =
e p mv 2mE

De Broglie wavelength associated with the

æ hö æ f0 ö charged particles :-
Q eV0 = hn – f0 ; V0 = çè ÷ø n - çè ÷ø
e e
• For an Electron
h
slope = m = tanq = (same for all metals) 12.27 ´ 10-10 12.27
e le = m= Å so l µ 1
V V V
Quantum efficiency
Quantum efficiency = • For Proton

No. of electron emitted per second n

= e 0.286 ´ 10-10 0.286
Total no. of photon incident per second n ph lp = m == Å
V V

ne
x= • For Deuteron
n ph
0.202
ld = Å
x V
If quantum efficiency is x% then n e = n
100 ph
Here nph = (5 × 1024 J–1 m–1) Pl • For a Particles
Photoelectric current
0.101 o
Ch arge Q \ la = A
I= = = ne e = 1.6 ´ 10-19 n e V
Time t
 ATOMIC MODELS
(a) Thomson model : (Plum pudding model) (c) Bohr atomic model : Bohr adopted Rutherford
model of the atom & added some arbitrary
• Most of the mass and all the positive charge of an
conditions. These conditions are known as his
atom is uniformly distributed over the full size of atom
postulates
(10-10 m).
• The electron in a stable orbit does not radiate energy.
• Electrons are studded in this uniform distribution .

• A stable orbit is that in which the angular momentum

• Failed to explain the large angle scattering a -
of the electron about nucleus is an integral (n)
particle scattered by thin foils of matter.

h h
(b) Rutherford model : ( Nuclear Model) multiple of i.e. mvr = n ; n=1, 2, 3, ..(n ¹ 0).
2p 2p

• The most of the mass and all the positive charge is

concentrated within a size of 10-14m inside the atom. • The electron can absorb or radiate energy only if

This concentration is called the atomic nucleus. the electron jumps from a lower to a higher orbit or
falls from a higher to a lower orbit.
• The electron revolves around the nucleus under electric

interaction between them in circular orbits. • The energy emitted or absorbed is a light photon of
frequency n and of energy. E = hn
• An accelerating charge radiates the nucleus spiralling

inward and finally fall into the nucleus, which does

not happen in an atom. This could not be explained
by this model.
 FOR HYDROGEN ATOM SPECTRAL SERIES
(Z = atomic no.= 1) • Lyman Series : (Landing orbit n = 1) .
h é1
• Ln = angular momentum in the n th orbit = n 1 ù
2p Ultraviolet region n = R ê 2 - 2 ú ; n2 > 1
ë1 n2 û
• rn = radius of nth circular orbit
• Balmer Series: (Landing orbit n = 2)
= (0.529 Å) n2 Þ rnµ n2.
é ù
• En = Energy of the electron in the n th orbit Visible region n = R ê 12 - 12 ú ; n2 > 2
ë2 n2 û
- 13.6 eV 1 • Paschan Series : (Landing orbit n = 3)
= 2 Þ En µ 2 .
n n
é1 1 ù
Note : Total energy of the electron in an atom is In the near infrared region n = R ê 2 - 2 ú ; n2 > 3
negative, indicating that it is bound. ë3 n2 û
• Brackett Series : (Landing orbit n = 4)
13.6 eV
Binding Energy (BE)n = -E n = In the mid infrared region
n2
é1 1 ù
• En – En = Energy emitted when an electron n = Rê 2 - 2 ú; n > 4
2 1
ë4 n2 û 2
jumps from n2th orbit to n1th orbit (n2 > n1).
• Pfund Series : (Landing orbit n = 5)
é 1 1 ù
DE = (13.6 eV) ê n 2 - n 2 ú é ù
ë 1 2 û In far infrared region n = R ê 1 - 1 ú ; n2 > 5
2 2
ë5 n2 û
DE = hn; n = frequency of spectral line emitted .
In all these series n 2 = n1 + 1 is the a line
1 = n1 + 2 is the b line
= wave no. [ no. of waves in unit length (1m)]
l =n1+3 is the g line...etc.
é 1 1 ù where n1 = Landing orbit
=Rê 2
- 2ú
Total emission spectral lines
n
ë 1 n 2 û

n(n - 1)
Where R = Rydberg's constant, for hydrogen From n1 = n to n2 = 1 state =
2
= 1.097 × 107 m-1
æ ( n - m )( n - m + 1) ö
• For hydrogen like atom/species of atomic From n1 = n to n2 = m state = ç ÷
è 2 ø
number Z :
Excitation potential of atom
Bohr radius 2 n2 Excitation potential for quantum jump from
rnz = n = (0.529 A°) ;
Z Z
E n2 - E n1
n1 ® n2 =
Z 2 electron charge
Enz = (– 13.6) eV
n2 Ionization energy of hydrogen atom
Rz =RZ2 ; Rydberg's constant for element of atomic The energy required to remove an electron from
no. Z. an atom. The energy required to ionize hydrogen
atom is = 0 – ( – 13.6) = 13.6 eV.
Note : If motion of the nucleus is also considered, Ionization Potential
then m is replaced by m. Where m= reduced
Potential difference through which a free electron
mass of electron - nucleus system = mM/
is moved to gain ionization energy
(m+M)
- En
Z2 m =
In this case En = (–13.6 eV) n2 × m electronic charge
e
 X - RAYS
• X–rays are produced by bombarding high
1. For single electron species
speed electrons on a target of high atomic
weight and high melting point. é1 1ù
• Short wavelength (0.1 Å to 10 Å) electromagnetic 2. DE = 13.6Z2 ê 2 - 2 ú eV
ë n1 n2 û

Bohr model
radiation.
• Are produced when a metal anode is bombarded é1 1ù
by very high energy electrons 3. n = RcZ2 ê 2 - 2 ú
• Are not affected by electric and magnetic field. ë n1 n2 û
• They cause photoelectric emission.
1 é1 1ù
Characteristics equation eV = hnm 4. = RZ2 ê 2 - 2 ú
l n
ë 1 n 2 û
e = electron charge;
V= accelerating potential 1. For many electron species
nm = maximum frequency of X – radiation
é1 1ù

Moseley's correction
2. DE = 13.6 (Z–b)2 ê 2 - 2 ú eV
Characteristic Spectrum ë n1 n2 û

Continuous kb ka é1 1ù
Spectrum
3. n = Rc(Z–b)2 ê 2 - 2 ú
I ë n1 n2 û
35000 volt

1 2 é 1 1ù
4. = R ( Z - b) ê 2 - 2 ú
l ë n1 n2 û
lm l

Diffraction of X–ray
• Intensity of X-rays depends on number of electrons
hitting the target . Diffraction of X–ray take place according to Bragg's
• Cut off wavelength or minimum wavelength, law 2d sinq = nl
where V (in volts) is the p.d. applied to the tube
12400
l min @ Å
V
f
• Continuous spectrum due to retardation of q q
electrons . d
Characteristic X-rays
hc hc
For Ka, l = E - E For Kb, l = E - E
K L L M
d = spacing of crystal plane or lattice constant or
Moseley's law for characteristic spectrum distance between adjacent atomic plane
Frequency of characteristic line n = a(Z - b) q = Bragg's angle or glancing angle
Where a, b are constant, for Ka line b = 1 f = Diffracting angle n = 1, 2, 3 .......
Z = atomic number of target For Maximum Wavelength
n = frequency of characteristic spectrum
sin q = 1, n = 1 Þ lmax = 2d
b = screening constant
(for K– series b=1, L series b=7.4), so if l > 2d diffraction is not possible i.e. solution of
Bragg's equation is not possible.
a = proportionality constant
• Binding energy = – [Total Mechanical Energy]
KEY
c
POINTS • Velocity of electron in nth orbit for hydrogen atom @ 137n ; c = speed of light.

• Series limit means minimum wave length of that series.

 NUCLEAR COLLISIONS RADIOACTIVITY
We can represent a nuclear collision or reaction • Radioactive Decays : Generally, there are three types
by the following notation, which means X (a,b) Y of radioactive decays
(i) a decay (ii) b- and b+ decay (iii) g decay
a + X ®Y+b
( bombarding particle) ( at rest) • a decay: By emitting a particle, the nucleus decreases
it's mass number and move towards stability. Nucleus
We can apply : having A>210 shows a decay.
(i) Conservation of momentum (ii) Conservation • b decay : In beta decay, either a neutron is converted
of charge (iii) Conservation of mass–energy into proton or proton is converted into neutron.
For any nuclear reaction : • g decay : When an a or b decay takes place, the
daughter nucleus is usually in higher energy state, such
a + X ® Y+b
a nucleus comes to ground state by emitting a photon
K1 K2 K3 K 4 or photons.
By mass energy conservation Order of energy of g photon is 100 keV
(i) K1 + K2 + (ma + mx)c2 • Laws of Radioactive Decay : The rate of
disintegration is directly proportional to the number of
= K3 + K4 + (mY + mb)c2 radioactive atoms present at that time i.e., rate of decay
(ii) Energy released in any nuclear reaction or µ number of nuclei.
collision is called Q value of the reaction.
dN
(iii) Q = (K3 + K4) – (K1+K2) Rate of decay = l (number of nuclei) i.e., = -lN
dt
= SKP–SKR=(SmR – SmP)c2 where l is called the decay constant.
(iv) If Q is positive, energy is released and dN
This equation may be expressed in the form = -ldt .
products are more stable in comparison to N
reactants. N
dN
t
æ Nö
(v) If Q is negative, energy is absorbed and ò
N0
N
= -l ò dt Þ ln ç ÷ = -lt
0 è N0 ø
products are less stable in comparison to
reactants. where N0 is the number of parent nuclei at t=0. The
number that survives at time t is therefore
Q = S(B.E.)product – S(B.E.)reactants
2.303 æN ö
Nuclear Fission N=N0e–lt and t = log10 ç 0 ÷
l è Nt ø
In 1938 by Hahn and Strassmann. By attack
of a particle splitting of a heavy nucleus (A > N = N0e–lt where l = decay constant
230) into two or more lighter nuclei. In this
ln 2
process certain mass disappears which is r Half life: t1 / 2 =
l
obtained in the form of energy (enormous
amount) 1
r Average life : tav =
A + p ® excited nucleus ® B + C + Q l
• Within duration t1/2 Þ 50% of N0 decayed and 50%
Nuclear Fusion :
of N0 remains active
It is the phenomenon of fusing two or more
• Within duration tav Þ 63% of N0 decayed and 37%
lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus. of N0 remains active
A + B ® C + Q (Energy) r Activity R = lN = R0e–lt
The product (C) is more stable then reactants r 1Bq = 1 decay/s,
(A and B) and mc < (ma + mb) r 1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq,
and mass defect Dm = [(ma + mb)– mc] amu r 1 rutherford = 106Bq
Energy released is E = Dm 931 MeV N0
r After n half lives Number of nuclei left =
The total binding energy and binding energy 2n
per nucleon C both are more than of A and r Probability of a nucleus for survival of time
B.
N N e -lt
DE = Ec – (Ea + Eb) t= = 0 = e- lt
N0 N0
 Parallel radioactive disintegration Radioactive Disintegration R
Let initial number of nuclei of A is N0 then at any time with Successive Production
number of nuclei of A, B & C are given by a
a l
¾¾¾¾¾¾¾
( a= rate of production ) ® A ¾¾® B
dN A - d
N0 = NA + NB + NC Þ
dt
=
dt
( NB + N C )
dN A
= a - lN A ....(i)
A disintegrates into B and C by emitting a,b particle. dt t

dN B dN C dN A
Now, = -l1 N A and = -l 2 N A when NA is maximum = 0 Þ a - lN A = 0 ,
dt dt dt
B
d a
Þ ( NB + NC ) = - ( l1 + l 2 ) N A l1 a rate of production
dt N A max = =
A l l
l2 By equation (i)
dN A b
Þ = - ( l1 + l 2 ) N A
dt C t t
dN A a
Þ l eff = l1 + l 2 Þ t eff
tt
= 12
ò0 a - lNA ò0 dt, No. of nuclei is NA = 1 - e
= (-l
)
t1 + t 2

w Equivalence of mass and energy w Q-value of a nuclear reaction

E = mc 2 For a + X ¾® Y + b or X (a, b)Y;
Note :- Q = (Ma + MX – MY – Mb)c2
w Radius of the nucleus
1u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg º 931.5 MeV/c2
R = R0A1/3 where R0 = 1.2 fm = 1.2 × 10–15 m
w Binding energy of ZXA w From Bohr Model
BE = Dmc2 = [Zmp + (A–Z)mn – mX]c2 n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3, 4.......K series
= [ZmH + (A–Z)mn – mX]c2 n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5.......L series
n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6.......M series