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RESEARCH METHODS IN
THE HEALTH SCIENCES

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RESEARCH METHODS IN
THE HEALTH SCIENCES
Deborah Zelizer, Kathleen McGoldrick, and Deborah Firestone
First Edition

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Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher
John Remington, Senior Field Acquisitions Editor
Michelle Piehl, Senior Project Editor
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Stephanie Kohl, Licensing Coordinator
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Copyright © 2018 by Deborah Zelizer, Kathleen McGoldrick and Deborah Firestone. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the writ-
ten permission of Cognella, Inc. For inquiries regarding permissions, translations, foreign rights,
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ment at rights@cognella.com.
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Cover image copyright © 2017 iStockphoto LP/Filograph.
Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN: 978-1-5165-1866-1 (pbk) / 978-1-5165-1867-8 (br)

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For our students.
Your commitment to making the world a better place as the next generation of clinical and
non-clinical healthcare providers is a constant source of inspiration.

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BRIEF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................................................. x iii
INTRODUCTION�� xv
CHAPTER 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing

and Planning Research. . ............................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2 Ethical Issues When Conducting Research.......................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Role of Literature in the Research Process:

Reviewing, Writing, and Critiquing the Scholarly Article. . ...................................... 43
CHAPTER 4 Developing the Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement,

and Research Questions.. ....................................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 5 Selecting Methods to Increase Rigor: Planning a Study

with Validity and Reliability or Trustworthiness............................................................. 91
CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Designs......................................................................... 125
CHAPTER 7 Understanding Quantitative Research: Experimental/

Quasi-Experimental Designs. . ........................................................................................................ 139
CHAPTER 8 Understanding Quantitative Research:

Non-Experimental Designs.. ............................................................................................................. 161
CHAPTER 9 Understanding Quantitative Research:

Survey Research. . ....................................................................................................................................... 187
CHAPTER 10 Understanding Mixed Methods Research:

Mixed Methods Designs.. ................................................................................................................ 209
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................................................................ 223
INDEX ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 229
vii

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DETAILED CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................................................. x iii
INTRODUCTION. . ...................................................................................................................................................................... x v
VARK................................................................................................................................................................................................ x v i
References................................................................................................................................................................................... x v iii
CHAPTER 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing

and Planning Research. . ............................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter Goals:.. ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives:. . ....................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Health Science—Defined.. ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Scientific Method and Evidence-Based Practice—Defined............................................................................... 2
Research—Defined........................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Different Types of Research................................................................................................................................................... 8
Paradigms and Methodology................................................................................................................................................. 9
Deductive Versus Inductive Reasoning. . ....................................................................................................................... 13
Methods and Methodology.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts............................................................................................................................... 17
Study Practice.................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions..................................................................................................................................... 18
Study Activities................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
References.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 2 Ethical Issues When Conducting Research.......................................................................... 25

Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Learning Objectives:. . ................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Ethical Research—Defined.................................................................................................................................................. 25
Early Research Practices and the Creation of Research Standards.......................................................... 25
Common Rule.. .............................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Institutional Review Boards................................................................................................................................................. 31
Composition of the Institutional Review Board..................................................................................................... 33
Research with Human Beings Requires Informed Consent........................................................................... 33
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts.............................................................................................................................. 36
ix

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x | Detailed Contents
Study Practice................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions.................................................................................................................................... 37
Study Activities............................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Case Study 1. . .................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Case Study 2..................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Role of Literature in the Research Process:

Reviewing, Writing, and Critiquing the Scholarly Article. . ...................................... 43
Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Systematic Review of the Literature—Defined. . ................................................................................................... 4 4
Conducting the Systematic Review of the Literature........................................................................................ 45
Literature Review—Defined.. ............................................................................................................................................... 53
Writing the Literature Review........................................................................................................................................... 54
Critiquing a Journal Article—Defined......................................................................................................................... 56
Quantitative Research Articles. . ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Qualitative Research Articles............................................................................................................................................. 65
Mixed Methods Research Articles. . ................................................................................................................................. 68
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts............................................................................................................................. 69
Study Practice................................................................................................................................................................................ 69
References.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER 4 Developing the Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement,

and Research Questions.. ....................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
The Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement, and Research
Questions—Defined.. ................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Problem Statement.................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Purpose Statement.. ................................................................................................................................................................... 76
The Research Question........................................................................................................................................................... 78
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts.............................................................................................................................. 84
Study Practice................................................................................................................................................................................. 85
References.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 89

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Detailed Contents | xi
CHAPTER 5 Selecting Methods to Increase Rigor: Planning a Study with Validity

and Reliability or Trustworthiness.. .............................................................................................. 91
Chapter Goals:.. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Learning Objectives:. . .................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Validity and Reliability—Defined..................................................................................................................................... 91
Trustworthiness—Defined.................................................................................................................................................. 94
Methods: Sampling................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Methods: Data Collection.. ................................................................................................................................................. 105
Methods: Data Analysis....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts............................................................................................................................ 115
Study Practice............................................................................................................................................................................... 118
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions.................................................................................................................................. 119
Study Activities............................................................................................................................................................................. 121
References........................................................................................................................................................................................ 123
CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Designs......................................................................... 125

Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Learning Objectives:. . ................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 125
Qualitative Research Designs—Defined.................................................................................................................. 126
Study Practice.............................................................................................................................................................................. 13 4
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions................................................................................................................................. 13 4
References........................................................................................................................................................................................ 137
CHAPTER 7 Understanding Quantitative Research: Experimental/

Quasi-Experimental Designs. . ........................................................................................................ 139
Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 139
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 139
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs—Defined. . ...................................................................... 139
Experimental Research. . ..................................................................................................................................................... 140
Experimental Research Designs.................................................................................................................................... 143
Quasi-Experimental Research Designs.. ................................................................................................................... 148
Methods.. ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 152
Study Practice............................................................................................................................................................................... 155
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions.................................................................................................................................. 155
References....................................................................................................................................................................................... 159

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xii | Detailed Contents
CHAPTER 8 Understanding Quantitative Research: Non-Experimental Designs........... 161

Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................. 161
Learning Objectives:. . ................................................................................................................................................................. 161
Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................... 161
Non-Experimental Research—Defined..................................................................................................................... 161
Non-Experimental Research Designs........................................................................................................................ 162
Methods: Non-Experimental Research. . ................................................................................................................... 176
Threats to Validity in Non-Experimental Research......................................................................................... 179
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts........................................................................................................................... 180
Study Practice.............................................................................................................................................................................. 182
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions................................................................................................................................. 182
Study Activities............................................................................................................................................................................ 185
References....................................................................................................................................................................................... 186
CHAPTER 9 Understanding Quantitative Research: Survey Research..................................... 187

Chapter Goals:.. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 187
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 187
Survey Research—Defined. . .............................................................................................................................................. 187
Writing Questions for a Survey Instrument. . ........................................................................................................ 190
Methods: Survey Research.. .............................................................................................................................................. 200
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts.......................................................................................................................... 203
Study Practice............................................................................................................................................................................. 204
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions................................................................................................................................ 204
Study Activities........................................................................................................................................................................... 206
References...................................................................................................................................................................................... 207
CHAPTER 10 Understanding Mixed Methods Research: Mixed Methods Designs...... 209

Chapter Goals:.. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 209
Learning Objectives:. . ............................................................................................................................................................... 209
Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Mixed Methods Research—Defined........................................................................................................................... 210
Mixed Methods Research—Designs............................................................................................................................ 211
Mixed Methods Research—Purpose Statement and Research Questions....................................... 214
Mixed Methods Research—Selecting the Qualitative and Quantitative
Designs and Methods. . .......................................................................................................................................................... 214
Mixed Methods Research: Strengths and Challenges.. ................................................................................... 216
Summary of Main Ideas and Concepts........................................................................................................................... 217
Study Practice.............................................................................................................................................................................. 217
Practice Multiple-Choice Questions Combined with Study Activities........................................................... 218
References...................................................................................................................................................................................... 220
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................................................................ 223
INDEX ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 229

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to extend our gratitude to our colleague, Sharon Cuff, her support and feed-
back of the initial versions of our chapters was invaluable.
We would like to extend our gratitude to the following Health Science students for
providing the authors with substantive and detailed feedback throughout the editing and
revising process while working on the preliminary edition of the text book.
Angela Halloran
Victoria Logan
Theodora Panagos
Francesca Prainito
Michael Rizzo
Jackey Wu
With an extra special thank you to Francesca Prainito for spearheading the students’
review of the book.
xiii

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INTRODUCTION
The authors of this text are faculty who teach a required 200-level research methods course
in an undergraduate major, the Bachelor of Science in Health Science, in the School of Health
Technology and Management, at Stony Brook University. We have taught this course for
several years and during this time have reviewed numerous books, but we have not found
one that is written at the appropriate undergraduate level and adequately provides a com-
prehensive review of the designs and methods most frequently utilized in health science
research. As such, the creation of this text is informed by our experience teaching research
methods to over a thousand health science students.
The uniqueness of this textbook is twofold: its purpose/scope and structure. It is writ-
ten for clinical and non-clinical health science/health professions students. The purpose/
scope of this textbook is not to prepare students to conduct original research; rather it is
to develop a broad working knowledge of research processes across methodologies. Some
professional accrediting bodies (e.g., dosimetry) have required, and others are beginning
to discuss requiring, research methods in the curriculum. As such, it is our intention that
this text will be useful to other two-year and four-year colleges that offer professional allied
health degree programs. Feedback from our clinical students revealed that this working
knowledge prepared them to understand physicians and staff at rotation sites where research
was conducted. Our non-clinical students, who were admitted to masters’ and doctoral level
health career programs, shared that this introductory course prepared them to be successful
in graduate-level research courses or evidence-based practice courses.
This brings us to our second point, structure. This text blends broad content (at the under-
graduate level) with tips and exercises to help students with multiple learning styles effectively
engage with the material. Simply put, health professions students need to engage with course
material beyond memorization and the rote recitation of facts and utilize more complex think-
ing levels and skills (e.g., application of knowledge to novel situations, synthesis of material).
To that end, each chapter includes field-tested tips on how to study effectively based on stu-
dents’ learning style(s) and self-directed learning activities students can use to help develop
higher-order thinking skills. Anecdotally, we have had numerous students express gratitude
that the explicitly embedded learning style–based study tips in our research course yielded
more effective study skills that were transferable to other courses. Below are two examples that
are representative of the feedback we have received from our students on course evaluations:
• The [VARK] evaluations she did at the beginning, it really helped me learn about how to
study better. I learned how I best learn and study … made me excited to learn.
• I found it most valuable that [the professors] introduced how people learn differently. I
was able to identify my learning method and truly thrive in this class by configuring my
notes and strategies in studying.
xv

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xvi | Introduction
Additionally, we had a group of senior-year students from different learning styles vol-
unteer to review the textbook (see the acknowledgment page); they provided substantive
improvement feedback for the first edition of this book. All stated without exception:
• I really like this textbook I wish I had this when I took the class.
• This textbook would have made research methods so much easier to understand.
VARK
This text will utilize Dr. Neil Fleming’s VARK model to conceptualize how people learn. Dr.
Fleming (1995) categorized four learning styles/modes: visual (V); aural (A); read/write (R);
and kinesthetic (K). His example of what a student’s class notes would look like illustrates
the differences between each. A visual (V) student’s notes might look more like a colorful art
project than typical formatted class notes; the lecture notes of a student with a preference
for reading and writing (R) might resemble a verbatim transcript of the lecture that includes
word and letter patterns (mnemonics) of important concepts. The aural (A) student’s notes are
dismal; the student is so engrossed in listening to the professor that they forget to take notes,
while the kinesthetic (K) student’s notes feature the real examples and stories the professor
has told to illustrate points (Fleming, 1995, pp. 308–313). Dr. Fleming has an on-line test that
will help students identify their learning style: http://vark-learn.com/the-vark-questionnaire/
Dr. Fleming’s website [http://vark-learn.com/] includes a more detailed review of each
learning style and numerous mode-specific suggestions on how to study. A summary of the
characteristics of each learning mode is found in Table I.1 (Fleming, 2017).
TABLE I.1 Characteristics of the VARK Learning Styles
Characteristics of the learning styles/modes
Learning = image based (e.g., material has pictures, graphs, tables, charts).
V Studying = needs to use symbolic tools, such as arrows, color-coding, flowcharts, graphs, models, mind maps, and
hierarchies to represent course material.
Learning = verbally based (e.g., listening to lecturer and small/large group discussion).
Studying = needs to hear the course material to understand the course material; should ask to borrow an R stu-
A
dent’s notes, should read out loud to self while studying privately and join a study group to talk out the concepts or
teach someone the concepts.
Learning = textual based (e.g., books, handouts, notes, lists).

R Studying = needs repetition in reading and rewriting notes to learn, requires supplemental reading material, prefers
attending professor’s office hours to joining a study group.
Learning = tactile, sensory based (e.g., lab activities, role-play, case studies).
K Studying = needs practical applications and interaction with material, needs to move while studying, especially
while reading.
Adapted from R. Whittemore and G. D’Eramo Melkus, “Designing a research study,” The Diabetes Educator, vol. 34, no. 2, p. 202.
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications.

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Introduction | xvii
While VARK technically is not a learning style theory, it does include assessment of other
factors that influence learning (e.g., motivation; social, physical, and environmental elements).
There are hundreds of research studies on the applicability of VARK in a variety of student
populations. Research conducted in the United States and internationally with health science/
health professions students has documented that a significant number are multimodal, mean-
ing the students have two or more predominant learning styles (Balasubramaniam & Indhu,
2016; Gebru, Nasrabadi, Nigussie, & Kahsay, 2016; James, D’Amore, & Thomas, 2011; Lujan
& Dicarlo, 2005; Mon, Fatini, Ye, Barakat, Jen, & Lin, 2014; Prithishkumar & Michael, 2014;
Meehan-Andrews, 2009). Practically, this means that students must utilize each mode-specific
strategy to learn. The research also suggests that simple awareness of learning styles, without
embedding learning style–specific teaching strategies, has not yielded enhanced student learn-
ing outcomes (Liew, Sidhu, & Barua, 2015), while embedded teaching strategies intentionally
developed across learning styles (Alkhasawneh, Mrayyan, Docherty, Alashram, & Yousef, 2008;
Fleming, 1995; Meehan-Andrews, 2009) or coaching on study methods matched to learning
style(s) (Kumar & Chacko, 2012), was associated with increased student learning outcomes.
Learning preference studies conducted with health care patients have also found that
a significant number of patients are multimodal learners. For example, in additional to
auditory methods, “incorporating kinesthetic methods of learning, such as role plays and
problem-solving case scenarios, into standardized asthma education curricula may be bene-
ficial to patients and families in terms of understanding and using their regimen” (Dinakar,
Adams, Brimer, & Silva, 2005, p. 683). A randomized controlled study demonstrated that
patients’ retention of diabetes education increased significantly when educational materials
were targeted to both health literacy levels and learning style preferences (Koonce, Giuse,
Kusnoor, Hurley, & Fei, 2015). Another randomized control study found a statistically sig-
nificant improvement in self-care behaviors in patients’ living with type 2 diabetes when
the patient education was targeted specifically to learning style (Moghadam, Araghi, Bazzi,
Voshani, & Moonaghi, 2017).
Additionally, it has become more common on intake forms to ask patients how they
would like to receive information on a diagnosis or receive patient education. For example,
patients are asked to list their preference(s) with regard to how they would prefer their
physician communicate with them.
Would they prefer the physician:
• draw a diagram;
• verbally explain it to them;
• provide handouts and brochures to read; or
• use a model that they can touch?
Once the physician, nurse practitioner, or physician assistant explains the diagnosis or
treatment plan, it is often other members of the health care team who are called upon to
reinforce the information with the patient or the patient’s family, underscoring the impor-
tance of exposing students to the concept of learning styles.
It is our goal that the activities found at the end of each chapter will supplement instruc-
tors’ in-class teaching and activities and provide students with ample (self-directed and
learning style–specific) exercises to foster a deep connection to the material.

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xviii | Introduction
REFERENCES
Alkhasawneh, I. M., Mrayyan, M. T., Docherty, C., Alashram, S., & Yousef, H. Y. (2008). Problem-based
learning (PBL): Assessing students’ learning preferences using VARK. Nurse Education Today, 28,
572–579. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2007.09.012
Balasubramaniam, G., & Indhu, K. (2016). A study of learning style preferences among first year
undergraduate medical students using VARK model. Education in Medicine Journal, 8(4), 15–21.
doi:10.5959/eimj.v8i4.440
Dinakar, C., Adams, C., Brimer, A., & Silva, M. D. (2005). Learning preferences of caregivers of asth-
matic children. Journal of Asthma, 42, 683–687. doi:10.1080/02770900500265157
Fleming, N. D. (1995). I’m different; not dumb. Modes of presentation (VARK) in the tertiary classroom. In
A. Zelmer (Ed.), Research and development in higher education, proceedings of the 1995 Annual
Conference of the Higher Education and Research Development Society of Australasia (HERDSA),
Volume 18 (pp. 308–313).
Fleming, N. D. (2017). VARK: A guide to learning styles. Retrieved from http://vark-learn.com/
Gebru, A. A., Nasrabadi, A. N., Nigussie, A. W., & Kahsay, W. G. (2016). Assessment of postgraduate
international students’ learning preferences at Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran,
Iran. Journal of Medical & Allied Sciences, 6(1), 14–22. doi:10.5455/jmas.210557
James, S., D’Amore, A., & Thomas, T. (2011). Learning preferences of first year nursing and midwifery
students: Utilizing VARK. Nurse Education Today, 31(4), 417–423. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2010.08.008
Koonce, T. Y., Giuse, N. B., Kusnoor, S. V., Hurley, S., & Fei, Y. (2015). A personalized approach to
deliver health care information to diabetic patients in community care clinics. Journal of the Medical
Library Association, 103(3), 123–130. doi:10.3163/1536-5050.103.3.004
Kumar, L. R., & Chacko, T. V. (2012). Using appreciative inquiry to help students identify strategies
to overcome handicaps of their learning styles. Education for Health: Change in Learning & Practice,
25(3), 160–164. doi:10.4103/1357-6283.109794
Liew, S., Sidhu, J., & Barua, A. (2015). The relationship between learning preferences (styles and
approaches) and learning outcomes among pre-clinical undergraduate medical students. BMC
Medical Education, 15(44), 1–7. doi:10.1186/s12909-015-0327-0
Lujan, H. L., & Dicarlo, S. E. (2005). First year medical students prefer multiple learning styles.
Advances in Physiology Education, 30, 13–16.
Meehan-Andrews, T. A. (2009). Teaching mode efficiency and learning preferences of first year nursing
students. Nurse Education Today, 29, 24–32. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2008.06.007
Moghadam. S., Araghi, F. H., Bazzi, A., Voshani, H. B., & Moonaghi, H. K. (2017). Examining the
effects of training according to learning styles on self-care among patients with Type 2 Diabetes.
Evidence Based Care Journal, 6(4), 47–56. doi:10.22038/ebcj.2016.19599.1462
Mon, A. A., Fatini, A., Ye, C. W., Barakat, M. A., Jen, P. L., & Lin, T. K. (2014). Learning style pref-
erences among pre-clinical medical students. Journal of Medical & Allied Sciences, 4(1), 22–27.
Prithishkumar, I. J., & Michael, S. A. (2014). Understanding your student: Using the VARK model.
Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, 60(2), 183–186. doi:10.4103/0022-3859.13233

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GENERATING NEW KNOWLEDGE:
CONCEPTUALIZING AND
PLANNING RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
1
CHAPTER GOALS:
It is important for students studying in the field of health science or a
related health care profession field to have a basic understanding of the
THE GOALS OF THIS CHAPTER ARE:
research process. Research is the driving force behind improving patient
care and advancing health care knowledge and practice. The purpose • To provide working definitions of the
of this chapter is not to prepare students to conduct original research; terms research, systematic investiga-
rather it is to develop a broad working knowledge of research processes tion, scientific merit, paradigm, research
across methodologies. methodology, and research methods.
The word research is used in a variety of ways in higher education. • To introduce foundational research
For example, a professor requires students to write a research paper; the concepts and practice that will
students work with a research librarian to optimize search terms, or the be explored in greater detail in
students use their phones to research the hours the library is open. Simi- subsequent chapters.
larly, the term health science is used in numerous contexts; for example, a
health science professional, a health science major, or the health science
building. Therefore, an operational definition of how both terms will be
used within this book is required. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
BY THE COMPLETION OF THIS CHAPTER,

HEALTH SCIENCE—DEFINED THE STUDENT WILL BE ABLE TO:
The terms health science professionals, health care professionals, and health • Define at least 30 terms related to
care providers have been used both interchangeably and distinctly to the research process;
describe health professionals who fall under the term allied health pro-
• Compare basic and applied/
fessionals. According to the Association of Schools of Allied Health
clinical research;
Professions (ASAHP), allied health professions are non-nurse and
non-physician health care providers that constitute over 60 percent of • Differentiate among
the health care workforce. The association states that this workforce is research methodologies;
required to (ASAHP, 2016, para. 1): • Identify the philosophical assump-
tions among the four research
use scientific principles and evidence-based practice for the diagnosis, evalua- paradigms; and
tion and treatment of acute and chronic diseases; promote disease prevention • Select the research methods
and wellness for optimum health and apply administration and management best suited to a study’s purpose
skills to support health care systems in a variety of settings. and methodology.
According to the ASAHP (2016, para. 4), there are over 200 allied
health careers. These include but are not limited to:

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2 | Research Methods in the Health Sciences
health administration personnel;

audiologists, speech language pathologists;
physical therapists, occupational therapists;
respiratory therapists;
diagnostic medical personnel (medical laboratory scientists, cytogenetic technol-
ogists, diagnostic molecular scientists, histotechnologists, and pathologists’
assistants);
imaging specialists (radiographers, nuclear medicine technologists, etc.);
specialists in cancer diagnosis and treatment (medical physicists, medical dosimetrists,
and radiation therapists);
nutritionists and dietitians;
physician assistants;
dental personnel (dental hygienists and dental assistants);
emergency medical personnel (EMTs, paramedics);
exercise science professionals (athletic trainers, exercise physiologists, kinesiotherapists);
health information technologists;
health educators (asthma educators, diabetes educators);
counselors (genetic counselors, mental health counselors, family therapists);
pharmacy personnel (pharmacy technicians and assistants); and
other healthcare providers and support personnel, such as medical assistants.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE—DEFINED

There are two terms within the ASAHP definition that warrant further exploration: sci-
entific principles and evidence-based practice (EBP). Scientific principle is a global term
used to describe the utilization of scientific procedures; this term is closely related to an
important concept in this book: the scientific method. Scientific method, as defined by
Merriam-Webster’s (2017) medical dictionary, is the “principles and procedures for the
systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the recognition and formulation of a prob-
lem, the collection of data through observation and experiment, and the formulation
and testing of hypotheses.” The concept of the scientific method will be revisited later
in this chapter.
SIDE BOX 1.1 Important terms are bolded and italicized the first time they appear, so you may keep a
list of these terms to study.
The definition of some terms/concepts will be expanded upon in subsequent chapters.
Sackett, Rosenberg, Gray, Haynes, and Richardson (1996, p. 71) define the term
evidence-based medicine (EBM) as the highest level of care a physician can provide patients.
They conceptualized EBM as the

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Chapter 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing and Planning Research | 3
conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the
care of individual patients … integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external
clinical evidence from systematic research. By individual clinical expertise we mean the proficiency
and judgment that individual clinicians acquire through clinical experience and clinical practice.
In more recent years a new term, EBP, has evolved from EBM. Evidence-based practice
includes a wider scope of health care professionals and includes patients as partners in health
care delivery, as evidenced by Samonte and Vallente’s (2016, para. 1) definition.
Evidence-based practice is the
amalgamation of research evidence, experience and expertise, and patient preferences in the pro-
cess of clinical patient care. Clinicians bring collected experience, while patients describe personal
values and past encounters. These two aspects are combined with clinically relevant research that
has been proven with comprehensive methodology to develop the most optimal outcome in the
patient’s care process and overall quality of life. EBP can be incorporated into various fields such
as medicine, nursing, psychology, and allied health.
In both definitions, the authors make clear distinctions between EBM/systematic research
and EBP/research evidence. Systematic research and research evidence are different ways
of saying the same thing: all health care professionals (allied health professionals, nurses,
and physicians) make individualized patient treatment/care decisions rooted in the results
of research studies. Inherent in the definitions of EBM/EBP is the health care professional’s
ability to understand the research process so they are able to read, evaluate, interpret, and
synthesize the results of research studies.
For the purpose of this book, the definition of health science will be used as an umbrella
term to include any health care field where professionals use the scientific method, research
results, and EBM/EBP in the delivery of health care services. Therefore, the research examples
in this book will span numerous fields in health science and will examine research conducted
for the purpose of “diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of acute and chronic diseases, disease
prevention, health promotion, patient and health professions education … [or] best practices in
the application of healthcare administration and management skills” (ASAHP, 2016, para. 1).
RESEARCH—DEFINED
The Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP), which is located in the Department of Health
and Human Services (HHS), defines research as “a systematic investigation, including research
development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowl-
edge” (OHRP, 2008, p. 2). Utilizing this definition, the term research transforms from describing
simple fact finding to describing a systematic process designed to generate new knowledge.
With this distinction made, it becomes clear that the purpose of research is not to increase
an individual’s knowledge of a topic; rather its purpose is to increase knowledge for every-
one in the field of health science. The OHRP definition also uses the word generalizable to
modify the word knowledge. This will be discussed later in the chapter; for now, simply put,
research = generation of new knowledge. The combination of the terms research and health
science implies that the pursuit of new knowledge will be health related and might involve

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clients/patients. This necessitates another definition, the definition of human subjects. The
OHRP (2008) regulations define human subjects (also known as research participants or
simply as participants) as “a living individual about whom an investigator (whether profes-
sional or student) conducting research obtains (1) data through intervention or interaction
with the individual, or (2) identifiable private information” (p. 2). Regulations regarding
conducting research with participants will be more fully explored in Chapter 2.
What Constitutes New Knowledge?

When a researcher has an idea for a research study, the researcher must determine if the idea
is indeed research by asking: If this idea is systematically defined and studied, does it have the
potential to generate new knowledge? The researcher answers this question by reviewing the
scientific literature; this process is called conducting a systematic review of the literature.
This is such a vital concept in the determination of whether an idea will meet the definition
of research and a critical component in the development of the research study that there is
an entire chapter (Chapter 3) devoted to this concept/action step of research.
For now, consider the examples below to understand the steps and thought processes
researchers undertake to determine whether an idea meets the definition of research.
Idea: A researcher is walking through the parking lot and someone blows smoke in their
face. They start to gag and their eyes water. From this experience the researcher
has an idea for a research study: What are the effects of exhaled smoke from an
individual smoking a cigarette on the health of others exposed to that smoke? The
researcher thinks this could be a very important study.
Literature review: The researcher conducts a review of the scientific literature by going
to the library and searching for scientific articles (previous research studies) related
to cigarette smoke and health. While reading the journal articles, it is realized that
this potential research question has already been answered. The exhaled smoke from
a cigarette has already been studied; it is labeled secondhand smoke. Secondhand
smoke has been determined to have negative health consequences to those exposed
to it. This research topic has progressed beyond secondhand smoke to the study of
the negative health impact of third-hand smoke (the toxic chemicals that are left
behind when the secondhand smoke dissipates).
Decision: Subsequent to the systematic review of the literature, the researcher realizes
that they have increased their personal knowledge, but that conducting this research
study will not add new knowledge to the health science scientific community. Thus,
the idea fails as a potential research topic. It will not generate new knowledge; it is
not research and would not be appropriate for a research study.
Implied in the example above, new knowledge builds on previous knowledge; answer-
ing one research question often leads the researcher to new unanswered questions. Thus,
research is iterative; it can be seen as an ever-expanding cycle of answered questions that
lead to emerging unanswered questions. Hundreds of questions must be asked and answered
to develop an expansive and detailed understanding of a research topic. For example, the
2014 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ (USDHHS) Surgeon General’s Report:

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The Health Consequences of Smoking synthesized 50 years of scientific research on the topic.
The number of questions that need to be asked and answered is indeed expansive in the
pursuit of new knowledge. Below are only a few summary examples of how the answer of
one group of questions leads to the generation of another avenue of inquiry.
• What are the health implications of smoking cigarettes on the lungs?

■■ Hundreds of studies building upon the findings of one another lead to the
knowledge that people who smoke are “15 to 30 times more likely to get
lung cancer or die from lung cancer than people who do not smoke” (Cen-
ters for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018, para. 2).
■■ New knowledge has been generated, but this answer leads to other unan-
swered research questions, like …
• What are the health implications, if any, of cigarette smoking on other organs in
the human body?
■■ Decades of research studies demonstrated that “smoking leads to disease
and disability and harms nearly every organ of the body … diseases caused
by smoking, including such common diseases as diabetes mellitus, rheu-
matoid arthritis, and colorectal cancer” (USDHHS, 2014, p. 7).
ɝɝ New knowledge has been generated, but this answer leads to other
unanswered research questions, like …
• To what extent is the smoke expelled from someone’s cigarette harmful to
human health?
■■ Numerous iterations of research were conducted to answer this question.
Exposure to “secondhand tobacco smoke has been causally linked to
cancer, respiratory, and cardiovascular diseases, and to adverse effects on
the health of infants and children” (USDHHS, 2014, p. 7).
• How effective are tobacco control policies in reducing smoking rates?
■■ Various policies were enacted and subsequently researched to answer
this question. The evidence “is sufficient to conclude that mass media
campaigns, comprehensive community programs, and comprehensive
statewide tobacco control programs prevent initiation of tobacco use and
reduce the prevalence of tobacco use among youth and adults” (USDHHS,
2014, p. 12).
• How effective are smoking cessation interventions?
■■ A multitude of interventions were researched to identify the most effec-
tive cessation strategies across diverse populations. This cumulative
evidence revealed that “tobacco cessation treatments are effective across
a wide population of smokers, including those with significant mental and
physical comorbidity” (USDHHS, 2014, p. 12).

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Over the past 50 years the research has and continues to explore the health consequences
of cigarette smoking. As illustrated in the examples above, research has expanded into areas
of inquiry on other tobacco products/nicotine delivery methods, exploring the impact of
tobacco control policies, and behavioral interventions to reducing tobacco use. Hopefully,
the point has clearly been made, research is iterative. Rigorous research not only answers
questions that generate new knowledge, but simultaneously generates new unanswered
questions to open new avenues of inquiry that can be systematically investigated.
What Are the Components of a Systematic Investigation?

To generate new knowledge, the OHRP definition also states that the researcher must use
systematic investigation. Systematic investigation is comprised of numerous components
that will be covered in greater detail throughout this book. In this chapter, the focus is
on introducing the terms, concepts, and components of a systematic investigation. A sys-
tematic investigation includes utilizing approved and predefined sets of procedures, also
referred to as design and methods, to conduct a research study. The design of the study is
the framework, or roadmap, of how the study will be conducted; this framework includes
the procedures (methods) used to conduct the study.
Whittemore and D’Eramo Melkus (2008) described research as a five-stage process:
Conceptual, design, empirical, analytic, and dissemination. Table 1.1 is an adaption of
these five stages, including the action steps a researcher undertakes during each stage of
the research process.
TABLE 1.1 Research Stages and Corresponding Action Steps
Stages Action Steps
Conceptual (Thinking) Having an idea (research problem), systematically reviewing the literature to verify the problem
has the potential to generate new knowledge, writing a problem statement, a research purpose
statement, and research question(s)
Design (Planning) Selecting the best research design and research methods (sampling, data collection, data analy-
sis) that align with research question(s), submitting the research study proposal for IRB review
Empirical (Doing) Obtaining IRB approval to conduct the study, recruiting/selecting the sample, obtaining informed
consent from participants, collecting the data
Analytic (Analyzing) Utilizing the best analysis strategies to yield meaningful results from data (answering the
research questions and simultaneously uncovering new avenues of inquiry)
Dissemination (Sharing) Writing a journal article to share results/finding (new knowledge) with the scientific community
Adapted from “Designing a Research Study,” Diabetes Educator, Vol. 34, no. 2
Methods
As previously stated, every research study utilizes research design and methods. A com-
prehensive review of research designs can be found in Chapters 6–10. In this chapter, the

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focus will be on defining the three research methods. Every research study employs three
research methods: sampling, data collection, and data analysis.
Definition of methods:
1. Sampling is the way a researcher recruits or selects individuals from a population

to be participants in the study.
2. Data Collection is the type of data that will be collected and the procedures/ pro-
cesses a researcher uses to collect data.
3. Data Analysis is how the researcher performs the analysis on the data that has
been collected.
SIDE BOX 1.2 Examples of each method, as well as introductory information on the alignment of
methods with methodology, are provided in the Methods and Methodology section of this chapter.
Scientific Merit
A research study must be conducted by a qualified researcher, meaning that the researcher
must have expertise in the research topic area and have the skills to extensively plan and
implement the research study. The ultimate purpose of conducting research is to dissemi-
nate the results/finding (new knowledge) to the larger scientific community. The scientific
merit of a study is the combination of the terms research and systematic investigation.
First, the researcher must ensure that the proposed research study meets the definition of
research. Second, the researcher must ensure that the proposed research study has been
constructed in such a way that once the study has been concluded, new knowledge can be
gleaned from the results of the study.
All research studies are judged for scientific merit. During the conceptualization stage
the researcher reviews all the previous research studies done on a specific topic to identify
and create the problem statement, which leads to the development of a research purpose
statement and research question(s). These three in combination outline, define, and direct
the study construction. These terms will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 4. Once the
researcher has conceptualized the proposed study, the next step is the design or planning
process. This involves selecting the best approved and predefined sets of procedures (design
and methods: sampling, data collection, data analysis) used to conduct the study.
Said another way, the study must clearly and concisely identify a problem that is worthy
of being investigated and will generate new knowledge (problem statement), have a clear
purpose of what the study will accomplish in relation to the problem (purpose statement),
and have questions that when answered have the potential to generate new knowledge
(research questions). The questions must be investigated by a qualified researcher in a
manner (design and methods) that will make it possible to adequately answer the questions.
Remember, it is the unbiased answers to the research questions that increase/generate
new knowledge.

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Review of Scientific Merit

All proposed research studies must be submitted to the scrutiny of an impartial Institutional
Review Board (IRB). The primary purpose of the IRB review is to ensure that in a research-
er’s zeal for new knowledge, human subjects are being treated ethically. If the researcher
is part of a university, typically there is an IRB on campus; if, however, the researcher is
not affiliated with an organization that has established an IRB, then the researcher must
pay a private IRB company for the review. This is such an important concept and practice
that there is an entire chapter (Chapter 2) devoted to ethical research, the protection of
human subjects, and the role of the IRB in that protection. Included in the IRB’s review of
the proposed research study is the determination of the study’s scientific merit. This review
includes an assessment of the researcher’s qualifications (knowledge, expertise, and skills),
design of the research study, and implementation plan. One IRB company (Solutions IRB,
2017, para. 9) offers the following questions to assist researchers in the planning phase of
their research study. (Note: Some questions have been altered for brevity).
1. Are the procedures consistent with sound research design?

2. Is the study design appropriate given the hypothesis being tested? […]
3. Is the study designed in a manner likely to answer the research questions?
4. Are the research questions aligned with the proposed data collection and analysis?
5. Does the study have the potential to contribute to the field or add to the existing
body of knowledge?
6. Will the knowledge to be gained [be] sufficiently important to justify the risks involved?
7. Are the risks minimized and benefits optimized to the extent possible?
8. Does the proposed sample contain [enough] participants […] to result in reliable
[and] replicable [results]?
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH

Although different types of research (basic and applied/clinical) are conducted for different pur-
poses (exploratory, descriptive, evaluative, and explanatory), all are evaluated for scientific merit.
One type of research is not superior to the other; each simply has different goals and purposes.
The two types of research are basic and applied/clinical. Basic research is a type of
research that seeks to enhance overall knowledge about the “physical, biological, psycholog-
ical, or social world or to shed light on historical, cultural, or aesthetic phenomena” (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2013, p. 27). Applied research is a type of research that seeks to study issues
that have “immediate relevance to current practices, procedures, and policies” (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2013, p. 27). For the purpose of this book, applied and clinical research will share
a definition with the only distinction being the setting. Clinical research is applied research
conducted in the health care arena with the primary focus of finding practical solutions to
improve patient care/clinical outcomes.
For example, a basic research study would explore how the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) replicates in a human cell. This type of study is vital to creating an understanding
of the life cycle of HIV, despite the fact it has no direct application to real-world practice.

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Clinical research, often building on basic research studies, yields a practical, real-world out-
come. For example, is drug X better than drug Y at reducing circulating virus in people living
with HIV? The outcome of this study would have direct applicability to improving patient
care. Physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants could use the results of this
study (EBM/EBP) to determine which drug to prescribe to their patients living with HIV.
There are several global purposes a research study can have; the purpose of the study
is directly linked to how a researcher will construct the research question. Chapter 4 will
provide guidance on the wording of research question development and examples of research
questions written for each purpose; for now, a simple definition of each will be sufficient
(Lanier, Ford, Reid, & Strickland, 2014).
• Exploratory: Explore or investigate to determine scope of issue or to understand

a problem that has not been clearly defined.
• Descriptive: Describe the problem (who, what, where, and when; how many?)
• Evaluative: How well is this working?
• Explanatory: Determine a cause-and-effect relationship.
Simply stated, for a study, regardless of type or purpose, to have scientific merit, the
totality of the proposed research study (problem statement, purpose statement, research
questions, design, and methods) must be in alignment so it is possible to generate new
knowledge. There will be more detailed information on this throughout the book; scientific
merit is a concept that is woven through every chapter.
How Does One Choose the Correct Research Type,

Purpose, Research Design, and Methods?
The answer is simple: a researcher chooses the type, purpose, design, and methods that
can best answer the proposed research question(s). Prior to a discussion about research
questions, an exploration of a researcher’s philosophical thought processes is warranted.
Researchers can have varying philosophical assumptions about the world. These assump-
tions are foundational to how a researcher will plan and implement the research study.
This segment of the chapter discusses these varying philosophical assumptions and links
assumptions to research practices.
PARADIGMS AND METHODOLOGY
SIDE BOX 1.3 As you read, reflect on which paradigm and associated research methodology most
closely expresses how you see the world. For example:
Was one of your favorite courses a literature class that required the analysis of symbolism to reveal the
underlying truths about the human condition? If yes, you most likely will be drawn to Qualitative research.
Conversely, was your favorite class a chemistry lab where you conducted tightly regulated experiments
that had one correct outcome? If yes, you most likely will be drawn to Quantitative research.
If you are thinking, “I have no favorite; I’d use analysis of symbolism or a lab experiment based on the
purpose of the project,” then you are mostly likely drawn to Mixed Methods research.

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A researcher’s background and position will affect what they choose to investigate, the angle of
investigation, the methods judged most adequate for this purpose, the findings considered most
appropriate, and the framing and communication of conclusions (Malterud, 2001, pp. 483–484).
The quote from Malterud (2001) suggests that how a researcher sees the world informs
the type of research ideas and resulting research questions a researcher will have. These
basic assumptions or the worldview a researcher operates under are conceptualized as
research paradigms.
Guba (1990) suggests that the determination of one’s paradigm can be found in how one
answers the following three questions (p. 18):
1. Ontological: What is the nature of the “knowable”? Or, what is the nature of “reality”?
2. Epistemological: What is the relationship between the knower (the inquirer) and
the known (or knowable)?
3. Methodological: How should the inquirer go about finding out knowledge?
The answers to questions about truth/reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology),

and the actions taken in the pursuit of new knowledge (methodology) shed light on the
researcher’s paradigm. The researcher’s paradigm is linked to the research methodology a
researcher will employ. Methodology, in combination with the type of research question, will
delineate the appropriate research design, sampling method(s), data collection method(s),
and data analysis method(s) utilized in the systematic investigation.
There are other research paradigms; however, for the purpose of this book, only posi-
tivism, post-positivism, constructivism, and pragmatism will be explored. A summary of
the answers to the questions Guba (1990) posed is presented by paradigm in the following
chart. Source material used to create Table 1.2 is an amalgamation of several authors’ inter-
pretation of the paradigms (Creswell, 2009; Guba, 1990, pp. 18–27; Guba & Lincoln, 1994;
Mack, n.d.; Reichardt & Rallis, 1994; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009, pp. 4–15).
The positivism and post-positivism paradigms are very similar: both use a quantitative
methodology to conduct research. The differences between the two are subtle. The positivist
researcher seeks to prove the existence of relationships that are rooted in the immutable
physical laws of nature. The post-positivist researcher entertains the possibility that units of
measurement are fallible and that it might not be possible to control for all variables; there-
fore, they hesitate to say (like the positivist) that they have absolutely, undeniably proved
something. Rather, the post-positivist researcher sees truth as constructs open to retesting
and revision if enough scientific evidence is found. The post-positivist paradigm is the one
that governs most health science quantitative research. This stance is very different from
the constructivist researcher, whose beliefs espouse that accounts of an event can be equally
true or false; the researcher does not need to find one truth but the whole truth gleaned from
participants’ experiences. These health science researchers value inductive explorations,
believing the most significant evidence cannot be quantified in numerical representations.
Constructivists find meaning in the analysis of their participants’ perspectives, which leads
to rich, comprehensive, and detailed stories of the central phenomenon (Creswell, 2009).
Finally, the hallmark of the pragmatist researcher is to do what works, rejecting the need to

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Indeed the passage is so monstrous, that one is almost inclined to
think that it must have crept into the Talmud by mistake; or, at the
least, to expect that it would be followed by reprehension the most
explicit and severe. But no, a little lower down another of these “wise
men” says,—
‫עם הארץ מותר לקרעו כדג‬,
“It is lawful to rend an amhaaretz like a fish;” and, a little above, an
Israelite is forbidden to marry the daughter of such a person, for that
she is no better than a beast. But the whole of the preceding
passage is so characteristic of the spirit of Rabbinism, that it is worth
inserting—
‫ תנו רבנן וכו׳‬,
“Our Rabbies have taught. Let a man sell all that he has, and marry
the daughter of a learned man. If he cannot find the daughter of a
learned man, let him take the daughter of the great men of the time.
If he cannot find the daughter of a great man of the time, let him
marry the daughter of the head of a congregation. If he cannot find
the daughter of the head of a congregation, let him marry the
daughter of an almoner. If he cannot find the daughter of an almoner,
let him marry the daughter of a schoolmaster. But let him not marry
the daughter of the unlearned, for they are an abomination, and their
wives are vermin; and of their daughters it is said, ‘Cursed is he that
lieth with any beast.’” Here, again, one is inclined to suppose that
there is a mistake, or that these words were spoken in jest, though
such a jest would be intolerably profane; but all ground for such
supposition is removed on finding this passage transcribed into the
digest of Jewish law, called the Schulchan Aruch, part 2; in the
Hilchoth P’riah ur’viah, by which transcription it is stamped, with all
the authority of a law. Here, then, the reader is led to think, that an
amhaaretz must mean something more and worse than an
unlearned man—that it ought, perhaps, to be taken in its literal
signification, “people of the land,” and that it may refer to the
idolatrous and wicked Canaanites. But the common usage of the
Talmud forbids a supposition. There is a well-known sentence which
shows that even a High Priest might be an amhaaretz:—
‫ ממזר ת׳׳ח קודם לכהן גדול עם הארץ‬,
“A learned man, though illegitimate, goes before a High Priest, who
is an amhaaretz.” Here the amhaaretz is plainly opposed to him that
is learned. And so, on the page of the Talmud from which we have
quoted above, we find the following words:—
‫עם הארץ אסור לאכול בשר בהמה שנאמר זאת תורת הבהמה והעוף כל העוסק‬
‫בתורה מותר לאכול בשר בהמה ועוף וכל שאינו עוסק בתורה אסור לאכול בשר‬
‫בהמה ועוף ׃‬
“An amhaaretz is forbidden to eat the flesh of a beast, for it is said,
‘This is the law of the beast and the fowl.’ (Levit. xi. 46.) Every one
that laboureth in the law, it is lawful for him to eat the flesh of the
beast and the fowl. But for him who does not labour in the law, it is
forbidden to eat the flesh of the beast and the fowl.” According to this
passage an amhaaretz is one who does not labour in the study of
the law; and it being found on the very same page with the above
most revolting declarations, it plainly shows the proud and haughty
spirit of the authors of the Talmud, and their utter contempt for the
poor, whose circumstances preclude them from the advantages of
study. But, in reading such passages, the question naturally
suggests itself, to which of the two classes does the poor Jewish
population of London belong? There must be at the least hundreds,
if not thousands of poor Jews in this great city who cannot possibly
devote themselves to study. Amongst whom, then, are they to be
classed? Amongst the learned ‫ ?תלמידי חכמימ‬or amongst the
unlearned ‫ ?עמי הארץ‬Are they, their wives, and daughters, as the
Talmud says, to be called an abomination, vermin, and compared to
the beasts? Or can a religion inculcating such sentiments proceed
from that Holy One who is no respecter of persons? See here, ye
children of Abraham, whom the providence of God has placed
amongst the children of poverty, and cut off from the advantage of a
learned education. You are not disciples of the wise, nor the great
men of the time, nor heads of synagogues, nor almoners, nor even
schoolmasters. You are quite shut out from these classes whom your
Talmudical doctors favour so highly. See, then, in the above
passages, what the Talmud says of yourselves, your wives, and
daughters? Can you believe that this is the law of the God of Israel?
Can you think for one moment, that these doctors knew “the old
paths,” “the good way?” If you do we must assure you that we
cannot. We rather find it in that book, which says, “Blessed is the
man that considereth the poor and needy.” (Psalm xli. 1.) And in that
other book, which speaks in the same spirit, and says that “God hath
chosen the foolish things of this world to confound the wise; and the
weak things of this world to confound the things which are mighty,
and base things of the world, and things which are not, to bring to
nought things that are; that no flesh should glory in his presence.” (1
Cor. i. 27, 28.)
No. II.
IMPLICIT FAITH NOT DUE TO THE RABBIES.
It appears from the undisguised acknowledgments of the New

Testament, that the doctors and rabbies of the Jews, the Pharisees,
and scribes, were the implacable enemies of Jesus of Nazareth, and
that they were the main instruments in effecting his death. The
modern Jews consider this fact as a sufficient apology for their
rejection of his claims to the Messiahship. They take it for granted
that the great and learned men of that day were also good men, and
that they had valid reasons for their conduct. They think if Jesus of
Nazareth had been the true Messiah, that the Sanhedrin, the great
Jewish council of the time, would have acknowledged him, and
conclude that, as they rejected him, he cannot be the true Messiah.
The New Testament, on the contrary, accounts for their unbelief by
plainly telling us, that they were bad men; and that they were
enemies to the Lord Jesus, because he told them the truth, and
exposed their hypocrisy. Now, which of these two representations
accords with the truth? Were the scribes and Pharisees, those great
advocates of the oral law, ‫תורה שבעל פה‬, good men or bad men? The
readers of our first number will be in some degree qualified to
answer this question. Could those be good men who profanely
talked of the lawfulness of killing an unlearned man, and who
contemptuously compared the wives and daughters of the unlearned
to “vermin and beasts?” If they could talk with levity of “rending like a
fish” an unlearned man, one of their own brethren who had never
done them any harm, what were they likely to do with one who
exposed their wickedness, and boldly told them that they by their
traditions made void the law of God? The very fact, that Jesus of
Nazareth was put to death by such men, is presumptive evidence,
that he was a good man, and that his claims were just. But, however
that be, it is worth while to inquire into the charges, which the New
Testament brings against these learned men, and to see whether
they are substantiated by the memorials of their character and spirit,
which they themselves have left us in their laws. One of the charges
preferred against them is, that they were ambitious men, covetous of
worldly honour, and loving the pre-eminence. “But all their works
they do to be seen of men; they make broad their phylacteries, and
enlarge the borders of their garments. And love the uppermost
rooms at feasts, and the chief seats in the synagogues, and
greetings in the markets, and to be called of men, Rabbi, Rabbi.”
(Matt. xxiii. 5-7.) Now, is this charge true? Does the oral law justify
this assertion, or does it prove, on the contrary, that the enemies of
Jesus were humble, pious men, whose piety serves as a warrant for
the uprightness of their conduct in their treatment of the Lord Jesus?
Let the reader judge from the following laws which these men framed
with respect to themselves. In the first place they claim for
themselves more honour and reverence than is due to a man’s own
parents:—
‫כשם שאדם מצווה בכבוד אביו וביראתו כד הוא חייב בכבוד רבו וביראתו יותר‬
‫מאביו וכו׳ ׃‬
“As a man is commanded to honour and fear his father, so he is
bound to honour and fear his Rabbi more than his father; for his
father has been the means of bringing him into the life of this world,
but his Rabbi, who teaches him wisdom, brings him to the life of the
world to come.” (Hilchoth Talmud Torah, c. 5.) This general rule is
bad enough, but the particulars are still worse. “If a man should see
something that his father has lost, and something that his Rabbi has
lost, he is first to return what his Rabbi has lost, and then to return
that which belongs to his father. If his father and his Rabbi be
oppressed with a load, he is first to help down that of his Rabbi, and
then that of his father. If his father and his Rabbi be in captivity, he is
first to ransom his Rabbi and afterwards his father unless his father
be the disciple of a wise man (i.e., learned), in which case he may
ransom his father first.” How fearful is this doctrine! A man is to see
his father, the author of his existence, the guardian of his infancy,
who has laboured for his support, and watched over him in the hour
of sickness, he is to see this friend, to whom, under God, he owes
everything, pining away in the bitterness of captivity, and yet, when
he has got the means of restoring him to liberty and his family, he is
to leave him still in all his misery, and ransom the Rabbi; where is
this written in the Old Testament? “Honour thy father and thy
mother,” is there the first commandment that follows after our duty to
God, and the first movement of natural affection. But this Rabbinical
doctrine silences the voice of nature, and makes void the law of God.
What is the doctrine of the New Testament here? “If any provide not
for his own, and specially for those of his own house, he hath denied
the faith, and is worse than an infidel.” (1 Tim. v. 8.) The disciples of
the Lord Jesus Christ never claimed for themselves any honour like
this. In the passage just cited, they plainly declare that the first, in the
circle of duties to men, is the duty to our own flesh and blood. And
the only case in which the New Testament permits a deviation from
this rule, is that where the same exception is made in the law of
Moses, when love to parents would interfere with love to God. “If any
man come to me and hate not his father and mother, and wife and
children, and brethren and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he
cannot be my disciple.” (Luke xiv. 26.) Here father and mother, and
kindred, are put in one category with a man’s own life, in order to
show that there is but one case in which the natural ties of blood
may be overlooked, and this is when the service of God requires it.
As it is also written in the law of Moses, “If thy brother, the son of thy
mother, or thy son, or thy daughter, or the wife of thy bosom, or thy
friend who is as thine own soul, entice thee secretly, saying, Let us
go and serve other gods, which thou hast not known, thou nor thy
fathers.... Thou shalt not consent unto him, nor hearken unto him,
neither shall thine eye pity him,” &c. (Deut. xiii. 6-9.) And thus the
tribe of Levi is praised, because “He said unto his father and his
mother, I have not known him; neither did he acknowledge his
brethren, nor know his own children.” (Deut. xxxiii. 9.) But this
Talmudical law is widely different. It has no saving clause to show
that the case specified is an exception to the general rule. It does not
pretend to suppose that the father is a bad man, or an idolater, or an
apostate. It specifies but one exception, and that is, where the father
is “the disciple of a wise man;” otherwise, though he be a good man,
and a pious man, a loving and tender parent, still he is to be
disregarded by his own son, and the Rabbi preferred before him. Is it
possible to doubt that the men who conceived, sanctioned, and
promulgated a law like this, had an eye to their own personal honour
and interest? Is it reasonable to suppose that men who would
sacrifice their own father to the honour of their Rabbi, would be very
tender about the life of one who appeared, like Jesus of Nazareth, as
an opposer of their pretensions? Or can the Jews, with the law and
the prophets in their hands, suppose that these men pointed to “the
old paths,” “the good way?” This is certainly not the doctrine of
Moses. He says:—
‫ארור מקלה אביו ואמו ואמר כל העם אמן ׃‬
“Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother, and all
the people shall say, Amen.” (Deut. xxvii. 16.)
But these men did not stop here. They were not content with being
exalted above father and mother. They did not scruple to assert, that
their honour was as sacred as that of God himself:—
‫ואין לך כבוד גדול מכבוד הרב ולא מורא ממורא הרב אמרו חכמים מורא רבך‬
‫כמורא שמים ׃‬
“Thou must consider no honour greater than the honour of the
Rabbi, and no fear greater than the fear of the Rabbi. The wise men
have said, The fear of thy Rabbi is as the fear of God.”
They endeavour to prove the validity of these extravagant claims by
such passages as Exod. xvi. 8, “Your murmurings are not against us,
but against the Lord.” But they have taken for granted what they can
never prove, and that is, that every Rabbi is invested with the same
office and authority as Moses. But where, in all the law of Moses, is
there any warrant for such an assumption? Moses could with all
propriety say, “Your murmurings are not against us, but against the
Lord,” for he held a special commission from God, and had proved to
the people the reality of his commission by a series of miracles. But
this the Rabbies never pretended to do. In this dearth of evidence
the advocates of tradition flee for refuge to Deut. xvii. 8, &c. “If there
arise a matter too hard for thee in judgment, between blood and
blood, between plea and plea, and between stroke and stroke, being
matters of controversy within thy gates; then shalt thou arise, and get
thee up into the place which the Lord thy God shall choose; and thou
shalt come unto the priests, the Levites, and unto the judge that shall
be in those days, and inquire, and they shall show thee the sentence
of judgment. And thou shalt do according to the sentence, which
they of that place which the Lord shall choose shall shew thee; and
thou shalt observe to do according to all that they inform thee;
according to the sentence of the law which they shall teach thee, and
according to the judgment which they shall tell thee, thou shalt do;
thou shalt not decline from the sentence which they shall show thee
to the right hand nor to the left.” Here, say the traditionists, is a plain
and unequivocal command. No doubt, God here plainly declares
what is to be done in a difficult case. He commands the Israelites to
go to the place which the Lord God chose, that is, to the place where
was found the ark of the covenant; and to inquire, not of the
Rabbies, but of the priests, the Levites, and the judge ‫השופט‬. But this
passage, instead of proving that “the fear of the Rabbi is as the fear
of God,” proves the contrary. It supposes first, that the Rabbies and
learned men may differ in judgment, that there may be a controversy,
and consequently, that one party may be in the wrong. It, therefore,
effectually overthrows Rabbinical infallibility. It shows that these
learned men are, after all, only poor fallible creatures like ourselves,
and that, therefore, we are not to fear them as we would fear God,
nor reverence their dictates, as the Word of God. It shows secondly,
that in a case of difficulty, the Israelites were not to appeal to the
Rabbies, but to the priests ‫כהנים‬, and to the judge ‫שופט‬, and even to
them only in the place which the Lord should choose. There is not
one word said about the Rabbies or the wise men, and, therefore,
this passage completely annihilates all their lofty pretensions. For
centuries the place which the Lord chose has been desolate, and
there has been no priest standing to minister before the Lord. The
Jews have thus lost all possibility of appeal. They have neither
ministering priest nor judge, and the Mosaic law nowhere recognises
the pretensions of the Rabbies. But some Jew may say, that though
this passage does not prove the authority of the Rabbies, it does at
least warrant the Jews in persisting to reject the claims of the Lord
Jesus, for that he was condemned by the priests, and in Jerusalem,
the place which the Lord chose. We confess that this objection is
plausible; but can easily prove that it is nothing more. In order to this,
we ask the Jews, whether the above command to abide by the
sentence of the priests is in every case, and without any exception,
binding? To this question there are two answers possible—Yes and
No. If they say No, then they admit that the priests might sometimes
be in the wrong, and we would, of course, take advantage of this
admission to show that they erred in their judgment on Jesus of
Nazareth. They will then, most probably, say, Yes; the sentence of
the priests, the Levites, and the judges, is in every case binding, and
Israel is commanded not to deviate from it, either to the right hand or
to the left, upon pain of capital punishment. We beg of them then to
turn to the 26th chapter of the Prophet Jeremiah, and to consider the
case there set before them. We there find that Jeremiah had
delivered a message from God, very similar to our Lord’s prediction
of the destruction of Jerusalem. “I will make this house like Shiloh,
and will make this city a curse to all the nations of the earth.” We
find, further, that for this message the priests condemned Jeremiah
to death, just as their successors condemned Jesus of Nazareth.
“Now it came to pass, when Jeremiah had made an end of speaking
all that the Lord had commanded him to speak unto all the people,
that the priests, and the prophets, and all the people took him,
saying, Thou shalt surely die.” We find, further, that this sentence
was pronounced “in the place which the Lord had chosen,” in the
Temple itself. “And all the people were gathered against Jeremiah in
the house of the Lord.” We find, further, that the sentence against
Jeremiah was no rash sudden act, but the deliberate judgment of the
priests. For when the princes of Judah came afterwards to inquire
into the matter, “Then spake the priests and the prophets unto the
princes and to all the people, saying, This man is worthy to die, for
he hath prophesied against this city, as ye have heard with your
ears.” Now, then, we ask again, whether the people of Israel was in
duty bound to abide by this sentence, and not to decline from it,
either to the right hand or to the left? We fearlessly reply, that they
were not bound by this sentence, and that, if they had executed it,
they would have been guilty of murder, as Jeremiah himself
declares: “But know ye for certain, that if ye put me to death, ye shall
surely bring innocent blood upon yourselves, and upon this city, and
upon the inhabitants thereof: for of a truth the Lord hath sent me
unto you to speak all these words in your ears.” We infer, therefore,
that it was possible for the priests, assembled in solemn deliberation
in the house of the Lord, to err in judgment, and to pronounce on
unrighteous sentence. We infer, further, that it was possible for the
priests so far to err, as to condemn to death a true prophet of the
Lord. We infer, further, that in such a case the people was not bound
by this mistaken judgment; but that it was their duty to decline from
it, both to the right hand and to the left. We infer, lastly, that as the
priests might mistake, and unjustly condemn to death a true prophet,
their sentence against Jesus of Nazareth forms no more argument
against the Messiahship of Jesus, than the similar sentence just
considered did against the true prophetic character of Jeremiah; and
that it affords just as little warrant for Jewish unbelief as the former
sentence did for putting Jeremiah to death.
But it may be asked, if the judgment of the priests was not infallible,
and if men were sometimes justifiable in refusing it, what use was
there in the above commandment to apply to them in cases of
difficulty, and to abide by their sentence? The answer to this is very
simple. The priest that stood to minister before the Lord had it in his
power, before the destruction of the first Temple, to inquire of the
Lord and to receive a miraculous answer from God himself, which
answer was, of course, infallible, and universally obligatory, without
the possibility of exception. We find in the Old Testament many
instances in which the Israelites availed themselves of this power, as
in Judges xx. 27, “And the children of Israel inquired of the Lord (for
the ark of the covenant of God was there in those days: and
Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, stood before it in
those days), saving, Shall I yet again go out to battle against the
children of Benjamin my brother, or shall I cease? And the Lord said,
Go up; for to morrow I will deliver them into thine hand.” And in the
history of David’s life, there are several instances of his employment
of this miraculous power, as 1 Sam. xxiii. 4, “Then David inquired of
the Lord yet again. And the Lord answered him and said, Arise, go
down to Keilah; for I will deliver the Philistines into thine hand.” In all
such cases where the priest first inquired of the Lord, his sentence
was, of course, infallible, and the Israelites were bound to abide by it.
But where they did not inquire of the Lord, their sentence was only
that of fallible men, and, therefore, not binding upon the consciences
of the people. Of this sort was their sentence upon Jeremiah. Being
wicked men, they did not choose to ask counsel of the Lord, but
pronounced sentence according to the devices of their own hearts.
In the case of the Lord Jesus Christ the priests could not ask counsel
of the Lord, for in the second Temple the Urim and Thummim, and
the ark of the covenant, were wanting; the miraculous power,
therefore, did not exist, and for this very reason the sentence of the
priests, during the whole period of the second Temple, was only
fallible, like that of other men, and, therefore, not binding, and
consequently of no force as an argument against the Messiahship of
the Lord Jesus Christ. The above passage, therefore, from the 17th
of Deuteronomy, is of no use to the Rabbinical Jews, it does not
prove the infallibility of the priests in the second Temple, and is still
less applicable for sanctioning the traditions of the oral law, and the
extravagant claims of the Rabbies. Having given this passage the
consideration it deserves, we now return to the laws which the
Rabbies have made in favour of themselves, and for their own
honour. We consider that the two passages of the oral law already
quoted, prove that the New Testament gives a fair delineation of their
character. When men, without any warrant from God’s Word, claim
for themselves the same degree of reverence which is due to God, it
must be admitted that they are vainglorious and wicked in no
ordinary degree. But it is possible to descend to particulars:—For
instance, our Lord says, that these men “loved greetings in the
market-places, and to be called of men, Rabbi, Rabbi.” Now one of
the laws, still extant, forbids a man, when speaking of his Rabbi, to
call him by name:—
‫ אסור לו לתלמיד לקרות לרבו בשמו ואפילו שלא בפניו‬,
“It is forbidden to a disciple to call his Rabbi by name, even when he
is not in his presence.” Another law, still extant, prescribes the
formula of greeting or salutation:—
‫ולא יתן שלום לרבו או יחזיר לו שלום כדרך שנותנים לריעים ומחזירים זה לזה‬
‫אלא שוחה לפניו ואומר לו ביראה וכבוד שלום עליך רבי ׃‬
“Neither is he to salute his Rabbi, nor to return his salutation in the
same manner that salutations are given or returned amongst friends.
On the contrary, he is to bow down before the Rabbi, and to say to
him, with reverence and honour, Peace be unto thee, Rabbi.” The
Rabbinical Jews, who see this, must not mistake us. We do not
consider it in anywise sinful, but decorous, to treat a Rabbi with all
due respect. We should feel no objection ourselves to make a bow to
a Rabbi, and to salute him in the prescribed formula. But we cite
these laws to show that the New Testament gives a fair
representation of the Pharisees: for men, who could gravely sit down
and enter into all these details of the mode in which they were to be
honoured, and then give out these laws as divine, and, besides all
this, call in the civil power to enforce them, must have had no mean
idea of themselves and their own dignity. It must never be forgotten
that these laws are not the mere regulations of a religious
community. When the Rabbies had the power in their own hands,
they enforced them by civil sanctions. They were not satisfied with
excluding despisers of Rabbinical authority from eternal life, they
prosecuted such before the tribunals, and sentenced them to a
pecuniary fine and excommunication, as may be seen from the
following law:—
‫וכל המבזה את החכמימ אין לו חלק לעולם הבא והרי הוא בכלל כי דבר יהוה בזה‬
‫׃ אף על פי שהמבזה את החכמים אן לו חלק לעולם הבא אם באו עדים שבזהו‬
‫ ומנדין אותו בית דין ברבים וקונסין אותו ליטרא זהב בכל‬, ‫אפילו בדברים חייב נדוי‬
‫מקום ונותנין אותו לחכם והמבזה את החכם בדברים אפילו לאחר מיתה מנדין‬
‫ אותו בית דין וכו׳‬,
“Whosoever despises the wise men has no share in the world to
come. But notwithstanding this, if there come witnesses to prove that
he has been guilty of contempt, even in words, his sentence is
excommunication, and the tribunal (house of judgment)
excommunicates him publicly, and everywhere mulct him in a pound
of gold, and give it to the wise man. He that despiseth a wise man in
words, even after his death, is to be excommunicated by the
tribunal,” &c. We now ask the Jews of modern times what they think
of those who made their own personal honour the subject of
legislation, who required the same reverence for their words as the
Word of God, and who dragged up him that refused it before a
tribunal, had him sentenced to pecuniary fine, and excommunication;
and, besides all this, excluded him from the hope of everlasting life?
Had such men any idea of liberty of conscience?
No. III.
RABBINIC INJUSTICE TO WOMEN, SLAVES, AND
GENTILES.
If any of our readers should think that the design of these papers is
to represent the oral law as a system of unmixed evil, we beg to
assure them that they are mistaken. We are fully aware that a
system based on the law and the prophets, must and does contain
much that is good and worthy of admiration. Of this nature is the
general command to all Israelites to study the law, which is as
follows:—“Every man of Israel is bound to study the law. Whether he
be poor or rich, healthy or unhealthy, young or old, yea, though he
live upon alms, and beg from door to door, and though he have a
wife and children, he is bound to set apart a fixed time for the study
of the law, by day and by night, as it is written, ‘Thou shalt meditate
therein by day and by night,’” And again, the maxim, “Every one that
is bound to learn is also bound to teach;” and that, “therefore, a man
is bound to teach his son and his son’s son,” &c., is in accordance
with the plain command of God, and is therefore good. But the
explanation and development of these good principles shows that
the system itself is radically bad, and therefore cannot be from God.
No one will deny that the Rabbies are right in asserting the obligation
resting on every Israelite to study the law: but they are wrong in their
explanation of what the law is. Immediately after the above good
command, the oral law goes on to say, “Every one is bound to divide
the time of his study into three parts: one-third to be devoted to the
written law; one-third to Mishna; and one-third to Gemara:” so that
the written law of God is to have only half as much attention as the
traditions of men. This is bad enough. But the Rabbies do not stop
here. They go on to say, that this third of attention is only required
when a man begins to study, but that when he has made progress,
he is to read the law of God only at times, and to devote himself to
Gemara.
‫בד׳׳א בתחלת תלמודו של אדם אבל כשיגדיל בחכמה ולא יהא צריך לו ללמוד‬
‫תורה שבכתב ולא לעסוק תמיד בתורה שבעל פה יקרא בעתים מזומנים תורה‬
‫שבכתב ודברי השמועה כדי שלא ישכח דבר מדברי דיני תורה ויפנה כל ימיו‬
‫לגמרא ׃‬
“What has been said refers only to the beginning of a man’s learning,
but as soon as a man becomes great in wisdom, and has no need of
learning the written law, or of labouring constantly in the oral law, let
him at fixed times read them, that he may not forget any of the
judgments of the law, but let him devote all his days to Gemara.” It is
to be observed that “oral law” is here taken in a limited sense, as
referring to the expositions of the written law, or, as Rabbi Joseph
Karo[2] explains it, the Mishna; and Gemara signifies the legal
decisions which are inferred by a process of reasoning, and to this
third topic of Jewish theology the Israelites are commanded to give
the chief of their time and attention, rather than to the written Word of
God.
The apparent excellence of the above command to study the law is
thus utterly destroyed by the Rabbinical exposition of what is to be
studied. And if we go on to inquire upon whom this command is
binding, the Rabbinical answer will afford just as little satisfaction.
When the Rabbies say, that “every man of Israel is bound to study
the law,” they mean to limit the study to the men of Israel, and to
exclude the women and slaves. The very first sentence of the
Hilchoth Talmud Torah is
‫ נשים ועבדים וקטנים פטורים מתלמוד תורה‬,
“Women and slaves and children are exempt from the study of the
law.” According to this declaration, women are not obliged to learn.
The following extract will confirm this opinion, and at the same time
show that there is no obligation on fathers to have their daughters
taught.
‫ וכל‬, ‫אשה שלמדה תורה יש לה שכר אבל אינו כשכר האיש מפני שלא נצטוית‬
‫העושה דבר שאינו מצווה עליו לעשותו אין שכרו כשכר המצווה ועושה אלא פחות‬
‫ממנו ואע׳׳פ שיש לה שכר צוו חכמים שלא ילמד אדם את בתו תורה מפני שרוב‬
‫הנשים אין דעתן מכוונת להתלמד אלא הן מוציאות דברי תורה לדבִר י הבאי מפי‬
‫ בד׳׳א‬, ‫ אמרו חכמים כל המלמד את בתו תורה כאלו למדה תיפלות‬, ‫עניות דעתן‬
‫בתורה שבעל פה אבל תורה שבכתב לא ילמד אותה לכתחלה ואם למדה אינו‬
‫כמלמדה תיפלות ׃‬
“A woman who learns the law has a reward, but it is not equal to the
reward which the man has, because she is not commanded to do so:
for no one who does anything which he is not commanded to do,
receives the same reward as he who is commanded to do it, but a
less one. But though the woman has a reward, the wise men have
commanded that no man should teach his daughter the law, for this
reason, that the majority of women have not got a mind fitted for
study, but pervert the words of the law on account of the poverty of
their mind. The wise men have said, Every one that teacheth his
daughter the law is considered as if he taught her transgression.[3]
But this applies only to the oral law. As to the written law, he is not to
teach her systematically; but if he has taught her, he is not to be
considered as having taught her transgression.”
According to this decision, it is absolutely forbidden to teach a
woman the oral law; and the teaching of it is looked upon as the
teaching of transgression ‫תיפלות‬. We cannot forbear asking the
advocates of the oral law, whether it does not here testify against
itself that it is bad. It declares of itself that it is unfit for the perusal
and study of the pure female mind, and that it is as corrupting as the
teaching of transgression. We ask, then, can such a law be divine?
Can it proceed from the God of Israel, who hath said, “Be ye holy, for
I am holy?” What a noble testimony to the superiority of the written
Word, and to the justice of the Lord Jesus Christ’s opposition to the
oral law! The oral law itself says, “He that teacheth his daughter the
oral law, is to be considered as if he taught her transgression. He
that teacheth her the written law, is not to be so considered.” With
such a confession, we fearlessly ask the sons and daughters of
Israel, who then was in the right? Jesus of Nazareth, who opposed it,
or the scribes and Pharisees who defended it?
But “the wise men” also forbid Israelites to teach women the written
law, and declare that women are not bound to learn. For the
prohibition they assign two reasons. First, they say that God has
commanded them to teach only their sons, in proof of which they
refer to Deut. xi. 19, “And ye shall teach them your children.” In the
Hebrew it is ‫“ בניכם‬your sons;” and the rabbies infer ‫ולא את בנותיכם‬,
“and not your daughters.”[4] Secondly, they say, as we have seen
above, “that the majority of women have not got minds fitted for
study,” and in the Talmud[5] this is attempted to be proved from
Scripture. “A wise woman once asked R. Eliezer, How it was that
after the sin of the golden calf, those who were alike in
transgressions did not all die the same death? He replied, A
woman’s wisdom is only for the distaff, as it is written, ‘All the women
that were wise-hearted did spin with their hands.’” (Exod. xxxv. 25.)
We hesitate not to say, that both these reasons are contrary to
Scripture. We do not deny that ‫ בניכם‬signifies sons, but we utterly
deny the conclusion of the Rabbies, that because the masculine
word is used, therefore the women are not included in the command.
There is an abundance of instances in which the masculine word
‫ בנים‬is used for children generally, without any allusion to sex. Take
for example Exod. xxii. 23 (in the English 24), “And my wrath shall
wax hot, and I will kill you with the sword; and your wives shall be
widows, and your children ‫( בניכם‬literally your sons) orphans.” Here
again the masculine word is used, so that if the Rabbinical argument
be valid in the above case, it will be valid here, and consequently the
daughters are excluded from this denunciation, so that the sons
were to be orphans, but not the daughters, which is plainly
impossible. In the same way we can prove that the daughters of
Israel did not wander in the wilderness forty years, for in Numbers
xiv. 33, it is said, “And your children ‫( ובניכם‬literally your sons, and,
therefore, according to Talmudic logic, not your daughters) shall
wander in the wilderness forty years.” The same logic will also prove
that during the three days of miraculous darkness in Egypt, the
women of Israel were left in darkness as well as the Egyptians, for it
is said all the children of Israel (‫ולכל בני ישראל‬, literally the sons of
Israel) had light in their dwellings. And thus also it might be proved
that not one of the ten commandments is binding upon the women,
for the masculine gender is employed throughout. This logic,
therefore, is evidently false; and we conclude, on the contrary, that
as the women are included in all these passages—as they wandered
through the wilderness, and had light in their dwellings—and are
bound to keep the ten commandments as well as the men, so also
they are included in the command, “Ye shall teach them your
children,” and that, therefore, the command of the oral law not to
teach women, is contrary to the Word of God. But we are not
confined to argument, God has plainly commanded that the women
should learn as well as the men. “And Moses commanded them,
saying, At the end of every seven years, in the solemnity of the year
of release in the Feast of Tabernacles, when all Israel is come to
appear before the Lord thy God in the place which he shall choose,
thou shalt read this law before all Israel in their hearing. Gather the
people together, men and women, and children, and thy stranger
that is within thy gates, that they may hear, and that they may learn
‫ולמען ילמדו‬, and fear the Lord your God, and observe to do all the
words of this law.” (Deut. xxxi. 10-12.) Here a most beautiful order is
observed, and required of women as well as men; hearing—learning
—fearing—keeping the words of the law—God wills that that women
should fear him and keep his commandments as well as the men;
and therefore he wills that they should make use of the same means,
that they should hear, and learn all the words of the law. The
traditionists have, therefore, in this case plainly made void the law of
God. God commands women as well as men to learn the law; the
Rabbies say they are exempt from this duty. God commands that the
woman should be taught. It is plain, therefore, that the oral law,
which contradicts the written law, cannot be from God. The
command of God is so plain that it is unnecessary to enter deeply
into the second Rabbinical reason for the prohibition to teach women
the law. It is evident that God did not think that the poverty of their
understanding was any obstacle to their learning his will. Indeed it
has pleased Him to show that He is no respecter of persons with
regard to male or female, more than with regard to rich or poor. He
has not only given them his law, but conferred on women as well as
men the gift of prophecy, so that the names of Deborah, Hannah,
and Huldah, must ever be remembered amongst the inspired
messengers of God. The Rabbies seem to have forgotten that “the
fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,” and that this fear may
be implanted by God just as easily in the heart of a woman as of a
Rabbi. But without inquiring further into their reasons or their
motives, suffice it to say, that the oral law in thus robbing women of
their right and inheritance in the law of God, and in degrading them
to the same category with children and slaves, is opposed to the
plain commands of the written law. But not so the New Testament. It
exactly agrees with the Old in considering woman as a rational and
responsible being, and a candidate for everlasting life. It, therefore,
gives one general rule for the education of children, male and
female. “Ye fathers, provoke not your children to wrath, but bring
them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord.” (Ephes. vi. 4.) It
does indeed prescribe modesty and subjection to the women in the
mode or learning, but in so doing it plainly points out their duty to
become acquainted with the will of God. “Let the woman learn in
silence with all subjection. But I suffer not a woman to teach nor to
usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.” (1 Tim. ii. 11, 12.)
In these and other passages the woman is placed in the position
assigned her in the Old Testament, and not in the very subordinate
rank imposed upon her by the oral law. “Women, and slaves (‫)עבדים‬,
and children, are exempt from the study of the law.” But we think that
this rule is as false with regard to slaves as to women. Here the oral
law says that slaves are not bound to learn. In Hilchoth Avadim, c.
viii. 18, we find that they are not to be taught.
‫אסור לאדם ללמד את עבדו תורה ׃‬
“It is forbidden to a man to teach his slave the law.” But, alas, the
passage of the Word of God which forbids it, is not referred to. It is
only an inference from the passage, “Ye shall teach your sons;” but
is evidently contrary to the whole tenour of the law of Moses. In the
first place, the Israelite who had been sold by the tribunal, or who, on
account of poverty, had sold himself, was still an Israelite, and did
not forfeit, finally, his right to his inheritance in the land; how, then,
could he forfeit his right to the law, which Moses gave as “the
inheritance of the congregation of Jacob?” The law of Moses
expressly provides a day of rest “for the man servant and the maid
servant,” that they may not only have rest for their bodies, but may
have time to learn the will of God, and provide for that eternity to
which they are hastening as well as their masters. Indeed, if
meditation on the Word of God was more necessary for one Israelite
than another, it was for the Hebrew servant. If he had been guilty of
theft, and had been sold by the tribunal, he had special need of
instruction in the law of God to lead him to repentance, and to teach
him his duty for the future. If he had been guilty of no crime, but had
been compelled by poverty to sacrifice his liberty, surely he needed
the consolation which the Word of God can supply, to enable him to
bear his hard lot with patience, and to prevent him from murmuring.
But here the oral law steps in, and actually prohibits his master from
teaching him; and instead of encouraging him in his leisure time to
turn to the Word of God as his refuge and his comfort, it tells him that
he is not bound to study it. Here, again, the New Testament is much
more like the law of Moses, which breathes, all through, a spirit of
the most tender compassion for those in servitude. Moses
commands the Israelites to remember that they had themselves
been bondmen in Egypt. The New Testament reminds Christian
masters that they have a master in heaven. “Ye masters, do the
same things unto them, forbearing threatening: knowing that your
master also is in heaven; neither is there respect of persons with
him.” (Ephes. vi. 9.) It also plainly teaches that the relation which
exists between believing masters and servants is, before God, that
of brethren. “And they that have believing masters, let them not
despise them, because they are brethren; but rather do them service
because they are faithful and beloved, partakers of the benefit.” (1
Tim. vi. 2.) Yea, the New Testament lays down a general principle,
the very opposite of that, that “women, and slaves, and children are
exempt from the study of the law.” It says, “There is neither Jew nor
Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor
female, for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.” (Gal. iii. 28.) It does not
dispense men from their relative duties, nor deprive any of their
legitimate privileges, but teaches that for all, Jew or Greek, bond or
free, male or female, there is but one way of salvation. Very different
is the doctrine of the oral law. We have seen that it makes a grand
distinction between male and female, bond and free, we need not,

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05/28/2020 - tp-cc6a6970-a120-11ea-be98-024 (temp temp) - Research Methods in the Health

Deborah Zelizer, Kathleen McGoldrick, and Deborah Firestone

05/28/2020 - tp-cc6a6970-a120-11ea-be98-024 (temp temp) - Research Methods in the Health

Cover image copyright © 2017 iStockphoto LP/Filograph.

Printed in the United States of America.

ISBN: 978-1-5165-1866-1 (pbk) / 978-1-5165-1867-8 (br)

05/28/2020 - tp-cc6a6970-a120-11ea-be98-024 (temp temp) - Research Methods in the Health

05/28/2020 - tp-cc6a6970-a120-11ea-be98-024 (temp temp) - Research Methods in the Health

CHAPTER 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing

CHAPTER 2 Ethical Issues When Conducting Research.......................................................................... 25

CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Role of Literature in the Research Process:

CHAPTER 4 Developing the Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement,

CHAPTER 5 Selecting Methods to Increase Rigor: Planning a Study

CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Designs......................................................................... 125

CHAPTER 7 Understanding Quantitative Research: Experimental/

CHAPTER 8 Understanding Quantitative Research:

CHAPTER 9 Understanding Quantitative Research:

CHAPTER 10 Understanding Mixed Methods Research:

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................................................................ 223

INDEX ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 229

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CHAPTER 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing

CHAPTER 2 Ethical Issues When Conducting Research.......................................................................... 25

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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Role of Literature in the Research Process:

CHAPTER 4 Developing the Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement,

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CHAPTER 5 Selecting Methods to Increase Rigor: Planning a Study with Validity

CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Designs......................................................................... 125

CHAPTER 7 Understanding Quantitative Research: Experimental/

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CHAPTER 8 Understanding Quantitative Research: Non-Experimental Designs........... 161

CHAPTER 9 Understanding Quantitative Research: Survey Research..................................... 187

CHAPTER 10 Understanding Mixed Methods Research: Mixed Methods Designs...... 209

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................................................................ 223

INDEX ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 229

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05/28/2020 - tp-cc6a6970-a120-11ea-be98-024 (temp temp) - Research Methods in the Health

TABLE I.1 Characteristics of the VARK Learning Styles

Characteristics of the learning styles/modes

Learning = textual based (e.g., books, handouts, notes, lists).

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05/28/2020 - tp-cc6a6970-a120-11ea-be98-024 (temp temp) - Research Methods in the Health

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BY THE COMPLETION OF THIS CHAPTER,

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health administration personnel;

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE—DEFINED

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CHAPTER 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing

CHAPTER 2 Ethical Issues When Conducting Research.......................................................................... 25

CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Role of Literature in the Research Process:

CHAPTER 4 Developing the Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement,

CHAPTER 5 Selecting Methods to Increase Rigor: Planning a Study

CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Designs......................................................................... 125

CHAPTER 7 Understanding Quantitative Research: Experimental/

CHAPTER 8 Understanding Quantitative Research:

CHAPTER 9 Understanding Quantitative Research:

CHAPTER 10 Understanding Mixed Methods Research:

CHAPTER 1 Generating New Knowledge: Conceptualizing

CHAPTER 2 Ethical Issues When Conducting Research.......................................................................... 25

CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Role of Literature in the Research Process:

CHAPTER 4 Developing the Research Problem Statement, Purpose Statement,

CHAPTER 5 Selecting Methods to Increase Rigor: Planning a Study with Validity

CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Designs......................................................................... 125

CHAPTER 7 Understanding Quantitative Research: Experimental/

CHAPTER 8 Understanding Quantitative Research: Non-Experimental Designs........... 161

CHAPTER 9 Understanding Quantitative Research: Survey Research..................................... 187

CHAPTER 10 Understanding Mixed Methods Research: Mixed Methods Designs...... 209