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 Preface
This book is designed to help nurses learn how to teach. Whether they are teaching nursing staff
or students in an academic setting, nurses who are in the educator role need a theory base from
which to work. They also must develop an understanding of educational issues and innovations
like high-technology simulations and distance education. They especially need to develop a wide
repertoire of teaching strategies.
In my 35 years of experience as an educator and my 10 years of teaching a teaching strate-
gies course to graduate students, I have developed a keen appreciation of the commonalties of
teaching across settings. In my graduate classes, some students are employed in staff develop-
ment, some are preparing to be advanced practice nurses, some are functioning as clinical pre-
ceptors, and some aim toward a future in academia. Yet they can all give examples of how the
concepts in this book are applied in their work settings.
The book is divided into three sections. Part 1, Teaching and Learning, focuses on
understanding the learning process and the many variables that affect learning. It includes
Chapter 1, which focuses on good teaching. Research on evidence of good teaching and the
principles for good practice in teaching are highlighted. Chapter 2 is about learning theo-
ries and concepts with application to academic and staff development nursing. Chapter 3,
written by Dr. Kem Louie, discusses multicultural aspects of learning and the challenges
involved in teaching students with disabilities. Chapter 4 explicates how to plan and con-
duct classes, regardless of the setting of those classes. It includes writing objectives and
outcomes, selecting content and teaching methods, planning assignments, and conducting
the class.
Part 2, Teaching Strategies, covers advantages and disadvantages, purposes and uses
of the methods, and research on the strategies that are discussed. Chapter 5 includes the tra-
ditional teaching strategies of lecture, discussion, questioning, and audiovisual technology.
Chapter 6 highlights activity-based teaching strategies, with emphasis on collaborative learn-
ing, simulations, games, case studies, problem-based learning, and self-learning modules.
Chapter 7 is about computer-mediated teaching strategies including virtual reality. Chapter 8
explains the varied forms of distance education and how it is expanding in all settings today.
Chapter 9 discusses how to teach psychomotor skills. Chapter 10, authored by Dr. Terry
Valiga, Dr. Helen Gordon, and Ms. Beth Phillips, focuses on promoting critical thinking
and includes evaluating and measuring critical thinking. Chapter 11 sets forth principles and
­practices of clinical teaching, including precepting. Chapter 12 is about assessing and evalu-
ating learning, how to develop test questions, and how to use item analyses. Finally, Part 3,
Chapter 13, Becoming a Faculty Member, is somewhat of a recruitment tool to encourage
graduate students to consider the faculty role. It incorporates the main aspects of faculty life
and how to prepare for it.
Each chapter includes three features that are useful as teaching strategies in themselves.
They are as follows:
• A Case Study—The case applies the information in the chapter and gives the students an
opportunity to actively manipulate some of the chapter content. Students will learn the
information better if they can apply it to a real-life situation. The case studies can be used
as group exercises or can first be completed by individual learners and then discussed in
class.

vii
viii Preface

• Critical Thinking Exercises—Key concepts in the chapters are the focus of these ­exercises.
Learners are asked to consider the validity of assumptions, reflect on issues, rethink points
of view, apply information in new contexts, and make reasoned judgments. The exercises
serve as a model of the types of questions that nurse educators should be asking learners to
deal with.
• Ideas for Further Research—The research suggestions are designed primarily for gradu-
ate students. The research ideas can be used as trigger points for graduate research in the
form of Masters Theses and projects. Faculty may also find that some of the ideas stimu-
late their own desire to conduct research on these worthy topics.
Too often, new educators teach as they were taught without questioning their methods or ra-
tionale. It is my hope that after studying this text, the new (or renewed) nurse educator will
teach with a sound understanding of basic learning theory and an excitement about the many
approaches she or he can use to achieve desired learning outcomes.
Sandra DeYoung
 Acknowledgments
Many people have contributed their expertise to the writing and publication of this book. I am in-
debted to the contributed-chapter authors, Professors Kem Louie, Theresa Valiga, Helen Gordon,
and Beth Phillips, for sharing their expertise with me and the learners who will study this book.
All of them are master teachers with much to share. Special thanks go to Donna Potacco for giv-
ing her input on the Distance Education chapter.
The reviewers who spent time reading drafts and making suggestions for improvement of
the text are also experts whose efforts are much appreciated.
Finally, I extend my thanks to the editorial team at Pearson Health Science for helping us
to create a book that I hope will be a helpful resource to all readers.
Sandra DeYoung

Contributing Authors
Chapter 3 Teaching to Diversity
Authored by: Kem Louie, Ph.D., R.N., FAAN
Professor of Nursing
William Paterson University, Wayne,
NJ 07470
Chapter 10 co-authored by:
Helen A. Gordon, DNP, CNM, CNE
Assistant Professor
Duke University School of Nursing
Durham, NC 27710

Chapter 10 Promoting and Assessing and

Critical Thinking
Authored by: Theresa M. “Terry” Beth C. Phillips, MSN, RN, CNE
Valiga, EdD, RN, CNE, ANEF, FAAN Assistant Professor
Professor & Director, Duke University School of Nursing
Institute for Educational Excellence Durham, NC 27710
Duke University School of Nursing
Durham, NC 27710

Reviewers
Marie Ahrens, DN, BSN, MSN Carol Gaskamp, PhD, RN
Clinical Assistant Professor Associate Professor
The University of Tulsa University of Texas at Austin School
Tulsa, OK of Nursing
Austin, TX
Wanda Bonnel, RN, PhD, GNP-BC, ANEF
Associate Professor Lynne Lewallen, PhD, RN, CNE, ANEF
University of Kansas School of Nursing Associate Professor
Kansas City, KS University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Greensboro, NC
Amy Brauner, MN, RN, CNE
Clinical Assistant Professor
Boise State University
Boise, ID

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix
Contributing Authors ix
Reviewers ix

Part 1 Teaching and Learning

Chapter 1 Good Teaching 1
Hallmarks of Good Teaching 1
Effective Teaching in Nursing 2
Effective Teaching Identified by Nonnursing Studies 5
Teacher Style 5
Seven Principles of Good Practice
in Undergraduate Education 7
Nurses as Teachers 8

Chapter 2 Learning Theory 11

Learning Theories 11
Behaviorist Theories 11
Cognitive Learning Theories 12
A Model of Adult Learning 20
Types of Learning 21
Rule Learning 22
Problem Solving 22
Learning Styles 24
Learning Style Models 24
Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning 25
Gregorc Cognitive Styles Model 26
Field Independence/Dependence Model 27
Matching Learning Styles to Instruction 28
How Useful Is Learning Style Theory? 28

Chapter 3 Teaching to Diversity 33

Learning About Culture 34
Promoting Cultural Knowledge 34
A Cultural Competence Model 34

xi
xii Contents

The Culture of Teachers and Learners 37

Assessing the Culturally Diverse Learner 37
Teaching Strategies 39
Learning Styles 39
Teaching/Learning Process 40
Cultural Issues in Computer-Based Learning 40
Communication Issues 42
Cross-Cultural Communication with Nursing Students 42
Cross-Cultural Communication and Staff
Development Education 44
Students with Disabilities 44

Chapter 4 Planning and Conducting Classes 51

The Planning Sequence 51
Developing a Course Outline or Syllabus 52
Formulating Objectives or Outcomes 52
Selecting Content 57
Organizing Content 57
Selecting Teaching Methods 58
Factors Affecting Choice of Method 58
Effectiveness of Teaching Methods 59
Choosing a Textbook 60
Using a Textbook 61
Planning Assignments 62
Nursing Care Plans 63
Concept Maps 63
Conducting the Class 65
The First Class 65
Subsequent Classes 66

Part 2 Teaching Strategies

Chapter 5 Traditional Teaching Strategies 69

Lecturing 69
Purposes of Lecturing 69
Advantages of the Lecture Method 70
Disadvantages of the Lecture Method 71
Lecture Frameworks 72
Delivering the Lecture 74
 Contents xiii

Providing Lecture Notes 76

Lecture Variations 77
Discussion 77
Purposes and Advantages of Discussion 78
Disadvantages of the Discussion Method 78
Discussion Techniques 79
Questioning 81
Functions of Questioning 81
Levels of Questions 82
Types of Questions 84
Questioning Techniques 84
Stimulating Learners to Ask Questions 85
Using Audiovisuals 86
Selecting Media 86
Types of Traditional Audiovisuals 87
The Interactive Lecture 90

Chapter 6 Activity-Based Teaching Strategies 94

Cooperative Learning 94
Forming Cooperative Learning Groups 94
Advantages of Cooperative Learning 95
Grading in Cooperative Learning 96
Research on Cooperative Learning 96
Problem-Based Learning 97
Simulations 100
Purpose and Uses of Simulations 101
Role of the Educator 102
Simulation Exercises 103
Simulation Games 105
Role-Playing 107
Case Studies 108
Self-Learning Modules 111
Components of Self-Learning Modules 112
Developing a Module 113
Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Learning Modules 115
Research on Effectiveness of Self-Learning Modules 116
xiv Contents

Chapter 7 Computer-Mediated Teaching and Learning 124

Computer Technology and Learning 124
Computer-Assisted Instruction 125
Drill and Practice 126
Tutorials 126
Computerized Testing 127
Games 127
Simulations 127
Multimedia Presentations 127
Student Response Systems 128
Evaluating Software 128
CAI for Nursing Students and Nursing Staff 130
Evidence Base for Effectiveness of CAI 130
Computer–Managed Instruction 131
Using the Computer as a Tool 131
The Internet 133
E-mail and Text Messaging 133
Chat Rooms 133
Webcasting 133
Podcasting 134
Wikis 134
Facebook 135
Twitter 135
World Wide Web 136
World Wide Web Searches 136
Evaluating World Wide Web Sites 136
Virtual Reality 137
Virtual Communities 138

Chapter 8 Distance Education 144

Historical Models of Distance Education 144
Theoretical Basis of Distance Education 145
Advantages and Disadvantages of Distance Education 145
Clinical Education in Distance Education 146
Interactive Television Classes 146
Uses of Interactive Television 147
Distance Education via the Internet 147
 Contents xv

Synchronous Versus Asynchronous Classes 147

Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Courses 147
Development of Online Courses 148
Uses of Online Education 154
Evidence Base for Online Courses 155

Chapter 9 Teaching Psychomotor Skills 160

History of Teaching Psychomotor Skills 160
Learning Psychomotor Skills 162
Phases of Skill Learning 162
Attention 163
Feedback 164
Practice 165
Whole Versus Part Learning 167
Approaches to Teaching Skills 168
Independent Learning Versus Teacher Instruction 168
Demonstrations 169
Simulations 170
Assessment of Psychomotor Skill Learning 170
Which Skills Should Be Taught? 171

Chapter 10 Promoting and Assessing Critical Thinking 175

Defining Critical Thinking 176
Distinguishing Critical Thinking from Other Concepts 180
Facilitating Nursing Students’ Critical Thinking Abilities 181
Discussion 182
Asking Effective Questions 183
Text Interaction 183
Problem-Based Learning 184
Concept Mapping 185
Narrative Pedagogy 185
Other Strategies 186
Creating a Positive Learning Environment to Promote Critical
Thinking 188
Inhibiting Nursing Students’ Critical Thinking Abilities 189
Assessing Critical Thinking 191
Conclusion 193
xvi Contents

Chapter 11 Clinical Teaching 200

Purpose of Learning in Clinical Agencies 200
Misuse of the Clinical Laboratory and What
to Do About It 202
Models of Clinical Teaching 203
More on Preceptorships 205
Preparation for Clinical Instruction 207
Conducting a Clinical Laboratory Session 208
Preconferences 208
The Practice Session 209
Postconferences 213
Evaluating Learner Progress 214
Choices to Be Made Regarding Evaluation 214
Behaviors to Be Evaluated 217
Sources of Evaluation Data 217
Conferences Between Educator and Learner 218
Clinical Evaluation Tools 218

Chapter 12 Assessing and Evaluating Learning 224

Classroom Assessment 224
One-Minute Paper 225
Muddiest Point 225
Directed Paraphrasing 226
Application Cards 226
Background Knowledge Probe 226
Misconception/Preconception Check 227
Self-Confidence Surveys 227
Evaluation of Learning 228
Multiple-Choice Questions 230
True-False Questions 234
Matching Questions 234
Essay-Type Questions 235
Test Item Analysis 237
Item Difficulty 237
Item Discrimination 237
Assessment by Portfolio 239
 Contents xvii

Part 3 The Professional Educator

Chapter 13 Becoming a Faculty Member 243

Finding the Right Educational Setting 243
The Appointment Process 244
Reappointment, Tenure, and Promotion 246
Peer Evaluations 246
Student Evaluations 246
Tenure 247
Faculty Mentors 248
Teaching Assignments and Academic Freedom 248
Maintaining Clinical Expertise 249
Curriculum Development 249
Student Advisement 250
Program Assessment 250
Committee Work 250
Accreditation 251
Faculty Development 251
Legal Aspects of Teaching 252
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 252
Due Process 252
Dealing with Unsuccessful Students 253
Dealing with Academic Dishonesty 253
Why People Become Faculty Members 255
Index 259
This page intentionally left blank
▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
1
Good Teaching

Learners can easily identify their best teachers and worst teachers. After all, we have been stu-
dents, or at least informal learners, for years. As consumers, we have learned to identify the dif-
ferences between effective and ineffective teaching. We may even be able to distinguish some
of the factors that make up those differences. Yet if these same learners become teachers them-
selves, they may not find it so easy to follow in the footsteps of their good role models. Different
skills are required for subjectively evaluating a teacher than for being a good teacher, just as
different skills are needed to be a theater critic than to be a good actor.
The effective teacher does not become so just by imitating former good teachers, although
following a good role model can be helpful. The process also involves knowledge of educa-
tional theory and research, a willingness to learn new roles and teaching methods, and the abil-
ity to reflect on one’s own performance. Some people have inherent qualities that increase the
likelihood of their being good teachers, and they can improve on their natural abilities to make
themselves excellent teachers (Helm, 2006). Those less well endowed with natural talent can
still become good teachers if they have the desire to succeed, given the proper education and
support. If it were not possible for weak teachers to become better and good teachers to become
excellent, education courses and texts such as this would be a waste of time.

Hallmarks of Good Teaching

Considerable research has been devoted to the question of what constitutes good teaching. While
some research has involved asking faculty about good teaching practices, most studies have
asked students their opinions by means of surveys, focus groups, or individual interviews. Such
research provides useful insights into the components of good teaching. Following first is a dis-
cussion of behaviors that both nursing students and faculty from all types of nursing programs
generally agree contribute to effective teaching in nursing, especially clinical teaching. Second
will be a discussion of effective teaching in more general terms.

1
2 Part 1 • Teaching and Learning

Effective Teaching in Nursing

Five major categories appear in most of the literature on teaching effectiveness in nursing: pro-
fessional competence, interpersonal relationships, teaching skill, personal characteristics, and
evaluation practices (Gignac-Caille & Oermann, 2001). These desired teacher/clinical instructor
characteristics have shown remarkable consistency over time, from Jacobson in 1966 to the most
recent research that follows. They also are consistent across AD, BSN, and graduate programs.

Professional Competence The teacher who enjoys nursing shows genuine interest in
p­ atients, has substantial clinical experience, and displays confidence in his or her professional
abilities is rated high. The teacher who can excite student interest in nursing and can demon-
strate clinical skills with expertise is also valued (Benor & Leviyof, 1997; Bergman & Gaitskill,
1990; Elcigil & Sari, 2008; Hanson & Stenvig, 2008; Kotzabassaki et al., 1997; Nehring, 1990;
­Pettigrew, Dienger, & King, 2011; Tang, Chou, & Chiang, 2005).
Professional competence includes several aspects. The teacher who aims at excellence
­develops a thorough knowledge of subject matter and polishes skills throughout his or her
­career. He or she maintains and expands this knowledge through reading, research, clinical prac-
tice, and continuing education. Learners need to know that they can trust the clinical expertise of
the teacher, that information given is accurate, and that skills are being demonstrated correctly.
Part of building trust is for the teacher to admit to errors and weaknesses in practice, if any. A
teacher who portrays excellent clinical skills, judgment, and honesty becomes a positive role
model for learners.

Interpersonal Relationships with Students An effective teacher is skillful in inter-

personal relationships. This skill is demonstrated by having good communication skills, taking
a personal interest in learners, being sensitive to their feelings and problems, conveying respect
for them, alleviating their anxieties, being accessible for conferences, being fair, permitting
learners to express differing points of view, creating an atmosphere in which they feel free to
ask questions, and conveying a sense of warmth (Berg & Lindseth, 2004; Cook, 2005; Elcigil &
Sari, 2008; Fairbrother, 1996; Hanson & Stenvig, 2008; Li, 1997; Mogan & Knox, 1987;
Nehring, 1990; Pettigrew et al., 2011; Tang et al., 2005).
Novice teachers in academia sometimes express misgivings about getting too involved
with students. They are afraid that they will not be able to maintain a professional distance
that will be necessary when it comes time to evaluate the student, or they feel that it is not
their role to consider students’ personal problems, because they are not trained to be counselors.
Some teachers believe that showing concern for and interest in students leads to lack of disci-
pline in the classroom, with students taking advantage of their relationship with the teacher.
There is no evidence that this belief is accurate; in fact, there is considerable evidence that good
student-teacher relationships enhance learning and lead to high retention in school (Baker &
Griffin, 2010). Studies indicate that students actually learn more in classrooms and clinical
­settings where teachers are student oriented and empathic (Cook, 2005; Rogers, 1969). With
experience, teachers learn how to balance the professional role with showing sincere concern
for students’ welfare. The relationship is not unlike the one nurses develop with patients, where
professional boundaries must be drawn, but an interpersonal relationship is a requisite to helping
the patient. Viewing students as worthwhile individuals who have something to offer the nursing
profession helps to keep relationships with them in perspective. It is also helpful to remember
the old adage, “Today’s student is tomorrow’s colleague.”
 Chapter 1 • Good Teaching 3

Nursing students are often plagued by lack of self-confidence and by fear of making
mistakes while learning, which leads them to experience high levels of stress. Although some
anxiety contributes to learning, too much anxiety interferes with the ability to learn. Educators
can help learners maintain self-esteem and minimize anxieties by using three basic therapeutic
­approaches of empathic listening, acceptance, and honest communication.
As in all relationships, it is important that teachers listen to learners and try to see the
world through their eyes. This approach requires teachers to respect learners, to care about their
concerns, and to try to understand the world as learners experience it.
The second approach is to accept learners as they are, whether or not you like them. Af-
firming the fact that learners are worthwhile people, even though different from oneself, en-
hances their self-esteem and convinces them that one has faith in their desire and ability to learn.
This faith is often rewarded by the learner’s attempts to live up to the teacher’s expectations.
Honest communication is the third ingredient contributing to healthy relationships with
learners. Learners need to know something about the teacher’s thoughts regarding the topic and
regarding the learner’s abilities and performance. It is disconcerting for learners to be in the dark
about what the teacher is thinking. Openness between educator and students creates a relaxed
atmosphere in which students are able to see the teacher as a role model. Students will also bet-
ter able to handle and accept criticism of their work if the teacher has established an honest and
caring relationship with them.
These basic necessities for establishing good relationships with learners are not unique to
education or to nursing—they are the same components needed for all interpersonal relation-
ships. If students experience them in the teacher-student relationship, they may learn how to
incorporate them into other relationships, especially with their patients.
It is easy to understand why students often rate the interpersonal and social aspects of
teaching as most important in the learning process. They realize that they are more comfortable
with and learn better from teachers who have good interpersonal skills.

Personal Characteristics Qualities such as authenticity, enthusiasm, cheerfulness, self-

control, patience, flexibility, a sense of humor, a ready smile, a good speaking voice, self-
confidence, and a caring attitude are all desirable personal characteristics of teachers (Berg &
Lindseth, 2004; Cranton & Carusetta, 2004; Elcigil & Sari, 2008; Fairbrother, 1996; Hanson
& Stenvig, 2008; Kotzabassaki et al., 1997; Nehring, 1990; Pettigrew et al., 2011; Tang et al.,
2005). Students value these personal qualities because they make learning more interesting, fun,
or pleasant.
Are there any paragons in the field of education who can lay claim to all of these qualities?
Probably not. Maybe over the course of a day or a week an individual can maintain that level of
behavior, but over the long haul everyone crumbles under the pressure of teaching and of life.
This does not mean that teachers should not aim for these high standards of personal behavior;
they should aim for them because they as well as their students will benefit from these efforts.

Teaching Skill Students and colleagues value a teacher who has a thorough knowledge of
the subject matter and can present material in an interesting, clear, and organized manner (Berg
& Lindseth, 2004; Elcigil & Sari, 2008; Fairbrother, 1996; Gignac-Caille & Oermann, 2001;
Hanson & Stenvig, 2008; Kotzabassaki et al., 1997; Mogan & Knox, 1987). Presenting subject
matter in such a way is a skill that can be learned. This topic is addressed in Chapter 5, but de-
serves a few words here. Organization of subject matter requires careful planning to ensure that
material is presented logically.
4 Part 1 • Teaching and Learning

Teaching subject matter in a stimulating way and inspiring learner interest hinge on sev-
eral factors, including the teacher’s style, personality, enthusiasm for the subject, and use of
a variety of teaching strategies. We have all been subject to teachers who, although brilliant,
organized, and even clear, lack the ability to present the class material in anything but a boring
manner. The content of this book is geared toward helping teachers become more interesting as
well as more effective.
Teaching in the clinical arena brings its own expectations. Students expect the clinical in-
structor to organize the clinical experience effectively, to be familiar with the clinical facility, to
demonstrate psychomotor skills, to ask challenging questions, and to give feedback in a kindly
way. Nursing students also expect the instructor to be available to them when needed. This may
take the form of being there in stressful clinical situations, physically helping students give nurs-
ing care, giving appropriate amounts of supervision, freely answering questions, and acting as
a resource person during clinical learning experiences (Elcigil & Sari, 2008; Fairbrother, 1996;
Hanson & Stenvig, 2008; Kotzabassaki et al., 1997; Pettigrew et al., 2011; Tang et al., 2005).
One of the great stressors for teachers in nursing is trying to be available to students who
need instruction, at the precise time they need it. The reality is that teachers usually have many
other students they are working with, and he or she cannot be in six places at once. At the begin-
ning of instruction, learners should be told what they should do if they need assistance and if the
instructor is not available at the time. The teacher should have a back-up plan for assistance by a
staff nurse, another instructor, or nurse manager who can be on-call when the need arises.

Evaluation Practices Evaluation practices valued by students include clearly communicat-

ing expectations, providing timely feedback on student progress, correcting students tactfully
and in private, being fair in the evaluation process, and giving tests that are pertinent to the sub-
ject matter (Benor & Leviyof, 1997; Bergman & Gaitskill, 1990; Elcigil & Sari, 2008; Gignac-
Caille & Oermann, 2001; Hanson & Stenvig, 2008; Knox & Mogan, 1985; Krichbaum, 1994;
Nehring, 1990).
At the beginning of a teaching-learning relationship, expectations should be clearly ex-
pressed (Sufka & George, 2000). The teacher should let the students know if they are expected
to read assignments before class and what will happen if they do not. If there are expectations
about attendance and being on time, or handing in assignments on time, or what resources may
and may not be used, all of these should be clearly communicated. The issues of whether nurs-
ing students in the clinical laboratory may seek assistance from staff nurses, or whether they
may take coffee breaks, or whether they may consult with other students on care plans and
documentation should all be expressed at the beginning of the learning experience. Criteria for
evaluation of clinical performance should also be made explicit and put in writing or available
on the course Web site.
If learners do not meet a teacher’s expectations, they should be made aware of it as soon
as possible. No learner should progress through an entire class, clinical session, in-service pro-
gram, or semester, to be told at the end that he or she is not doing well. On the other hand, learn-
ers who are doing a superior job should be told so; it is not necessary to search for weaknesses to
write on an evaluation if they do not exist.
Fairness in evaluation is a rather subjective phenomenon. What is fair to me may not seem
so to you. However, complaints of unfairness can be minimized if evaluation is based on pub-
lished criteria and if those criteria are pertinent to the learning objectives. Further information on
evaluation principles may be found in Chapters 11 and 12.
 Chapter 1 • Good Teaching 5

Effective Teaching Identified by Nonnursing Studies

Literature outside of nursing corroborates many of the above characteristics of good teaching
(Bain, 2004; Forrester-Jones, 2003; McKeachie, 2002; Smyth, 2011; White, 2009). Because
nonnursing studies primarily involve classroom rather than clinical teaching, a few other vari-
ables are identified. They include teacher clarity, time on task, and class time being well used
(Cruickshank, 1992; Pascarella, Edison, Nora, Hagedorn, & Braxton, 1996).
Teacher clarity is a quality worth examining. It is defined by Cruickshank (1992) as “a
mosaic of behaviors that teachers use in order to make what is to be learned intelligible, com-
prehensive, and learnable” (p. 312). Researchers have found that the clear teacher is one who
logically organizes instruction, explains what is to be learned, uses simple terms to present new
material, constantly assesses whether students are understanding and can follow the teacher’s
train of thought, uses examples whenever possible, allows students time to think about what is
being taught, and uses repetition and summarization (Civikly, 1992; Cruickshank, 1992). Stu-
dents appreciate clarity, and studies have demonstrated that teacher clarity is positively corre-
lated with student achievement and student attitudes toward a class (Chesebro, 2003; Civikly,
1992; Pascarella et al., 1996). Because it is such an important quality, new teachers should ask
students periodically if they are being clear, and clarity should be an item on any teacher assess-
ment form. Videotaping a teaching session and then watching it afterward can help a teacher
assess his or her own clarity of teaching.
In 2009, college professors who were identified as great teachers were studied. Rosetti and
Fox analyzed written statements from faculty who won Presidential Teaching Awards at a mid-
western university. Many of these professors wrote that getting to know students and having
a trusting relationship with them both inside and outside the classroom is important. Learning
students’ names is critical to establishing that relationship and to treating students as individuals.
Advisement of students about academic and professional issues was also felt to be important.
Holding high expectations of students and helping them rise to meet those expectations was con-
sidered key. One nurse educator wrote that faculty members also have a responsibility to help
develop students’ character.

Teacher Style
The interpersonal, professional, and personal aspects of good teaching are all important. But
more is involved in being a good teacher than just the skills, techniques, and attributes men-
tioned thus far. Effective teaching involves another phenomenon sometimes referred to as
teacher style. Style can be considered a blending of form and content. Eble (1980) believes that
style in teaching is an outgrowth of the teacher’s personality and character, which is undoubt-
edly true. For a distinctive style to emerge, it must emerge from something, and that something
is probably not just the intellect, but the essential personality. It is style that makes a teacher
memorable, interesting, and worth listening to. It is style that makes good teachers into inspired
teachers.
Style goes beyond having certain skills and behaviors. It goes beyond carrying out handy
hints in a teacher’s handbook. Style is a blending of certain ways of talking, moving, relating,
and thinking. It is more than the ability to entertain or a sense of humor, although these qualities
may play a part in a teacher’s style.
If you think back to the memorable and inspiring teachers you have had (probably
very few), you may be able to recognize style as an important part of their effectiveness. One
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The next morning, bright and early, they were again ready to start.
The dolphin, who knew now where he was, began to rise to the
surface. A few hours later he had reached the place Tursio had
spoken about.
“Here we are at last!” he cried.
“Here? Why, where is the ship?”
“There,” answered Marsovino,
pointing to a great black mass which
showed through the water.
“That! Why look how it is trimmed!”
And he was indeed right. The
inhabitants of the sea had taken
possession of everything. The keel of
the ship was overgrown with beautiful
slender seaweeds. The decks were
covered with sponges. The stairs had
disappeared under the work of polyps.
On the lookout bridge hundreds of anemones raised their brightly
colored corollas. The needles of sea urchins threatened passers-by
from the portholes. Silvery fishes and starfishes were seen all over.
Everything was living on the dead ship.
“Now let us hasten,” said Marsovino.
“Very well,” answered Pinocchio.
“We have been so long in coming that now we must be quick,”
continued the dolphin.
“Father must be worried. Let us look for the treasure, and then we
can begin our return journey to-night.”
“Very well,” again assented Pinocchio.
“Make haste, then. Get into that ship. Don’t lose any more time.”
“Come, let us go.”
“Let us go! How can I go? Don’t you see how small the doors are?
You must go alone!”
Pinocchio did not like the idea. He stood still and thought. His
courage utterly failed him. To go alone into that great black ship!
Why, how could he do such a thing?
“Well, what are you thinking of?” asked Marsovino, who had dropped
Pinocchio at the door of the stairs.
“I haven’t made up my mind yet. I don’t like the idea of going in there
very much.”
“But you must. I can’t go, and we must have the gold. Will you
decide? I thought you had offered to help Mr. Tursio.”
When he heard that, Pinocchio finally made up his mind. He opened
the door and went down a few steps. Then he stopped.
“Must I really go?” he asked.
Marsovino began to lose his patience.
“If you do not make haste getting into that ship, I shall return without
you,” he could not help saying.
“Very well. Here I go.”
“You remember Tursio’s instructions, don’t you? At the bottom of the
stairs there is a large room. At one end a door leads into the
captain’s room. In a corner of the captain’s room, you will find two
boxes. They contain the treasure. Good-by and good luck.”
Very slowly Pinocchio went down. Luckily for him a few sunfishes
were floating around, giving some light.
When he reached the bottom of the stairs, he saw in front of him a
large square room. In the walls were long narrow holes, like the
shelves of a pantry. These had probably been the sailors’ bunks. But
to Pinocchio they were puzzles.
The roof, which was very high, was of glass. This made the room
lighter than the stairs, and so Pinocchio took courage.
At one end of the room there was a small narrow door. Pinocchio
walked to it and tried to open it. Still, though the door was not locked,
it would not open. It seemed as if some one were holding it closed
from the inside. The marionette pushed it, kicked it, struggled with it,
and finally he succeeded in opening it. He was able to put just the tip
of his nose in the crack.
He had no sooner done this, though, than it was held as in a vise.
Pinocchio felt something pulling and pulling.
“My nose will surely come off,” he thought; but after trying and trying
he was at last free again.
“I wonder what that was? What can be behind
that door? In any case it may be better to
have some weapon of defense,” and thinking
this, Pinocchio looked around.
“Those shelves may hold something useful.”
But when he came near them, what did he
see? A mattress, pillows, sheets!
“What could this have been? A hospital?”
Poor Pinocchio! He was most certainly a
dunce!
On the floor in a corner he found a pair of
large boots.
“These will do,” he thought.
Again he pushed the door. This time he was
able to open it wide. As soon as he had done
so, he threw a large boot in blindly. Had he never done so, it would
have been better! In a second the room became as black as pitch.
“Marsovino! Oh! Oh! Oh! Marsovino!” screamed the poor boy,
thinking himself blinded.
The dolphin, waiting for Pinocchio at the head of the stairs, became
frightened at this appeal. He thought something serious had
happened. He swam to the top of the deck and broke several panes
of glass. Looking into the room he called: “What is the matter? I am
here.”
Pinocchio felt a little better when he saw Marsovino.
“Oh, Marsovino!” he cried.
“What has happened, my poor Pinocchio?”
“I have found a bottle of ink.”
“A bottle of what?”
“Of ink. I threw a boot at something, and now the room is full of ink.”
“Oh, now I understand. You have to deal with an octopus.”
“What’s that?”
“A mollusk.”
“Oh, if that’s what it is, I’m not afraid. I know them well.”
 “‘Marsovino! Oh! Oh! Oh!’”

“Yes, but not this one. This is the greatest mollusk known. It is a near
relation of the calamary, but much larger. There are some even five
or six yards long.”
“Oh!” shivered Pinocchio, looking around.
“The one in the captain’s room must be a small one, though. If I were
with you, I should free you in a second. There is nothing a dolphin
likes better than an octopus or a calamary.”
“But the ink?”
“The ink is the means of defense of these mollusks. When pursued
or in danger, this animal ejects this inky liquid. In that way, it forms a
cloud in the water and is able to escape.”
“Shall I be killed?”
“If you keep out of reach of its long arms, you will be all right.”
“Oh, now I see what got hold of my poor nose. It is aching yet. Now
tell me, Marsovino, if this animal is guarding the treasure, how shall I
possibly get at it? We might as well give it up,” and Pinocchio started
towards the stairs.
“How very courageous you are! After trying so hard, are you going to
give up at the last minute?”
Pinocchio did not answer, but very
slowly he retraced his steps. Going
over to the bunks, he took a large
mattress. Holding it in front of him, he
moved toward the door, which was
still ajar.
The water from the captain’s room
had mixed with the water of the large
room, and now it was not so dark.
Very cautiously, the marionette
peeked over the mattress.
In a corner of the room lay the poulpe
or octopus. As Marsovino had said, it
was not very large. Still it was very
ugly.
Think of a large head, soft and jellylike, with two great eyes staring at
you. Think of that head and eight long thick arms around it. No
wonder Pinocchio felt like turning back.
The monster moved restlessly about, stretching and twisting its
arms. In one of them it held Pinocchio’s boot. Every minute its huge
body changed color. At first it was white, then gray, then brown, then
spotted with purple. Pinocchio hardly knew what to think of it.
“You are certainly very ugly, my dear bottle of ink,” he thought.
“Well, why am I standing here? I might as well try to kill him. Hurrah!
Here comes the brave marionette!”
Very slowly Pinocchio walked up to the octopus, but not near enough
to be in reach of those arms. Then with a quick move he threw the
mattress over the struggling mass. Pressing it down tightly, he held it
there.
For a long time the arms twitched nervously about, but at last they
stopped moving. The boy waited a few minutes longer, and then,
thinking the creature dead, he stood up.
The mattress, however, he left on top of the poulpe. Not only that,
but running back, he took another and put it on top of the first. He
wanted to be sure the octopus would not move. At last he breathed
easily and set to work to get the boxes.
Yes, think of it! That lazy marionette really set to work. He dragged
the boxes one after the other into the large room, and then he called
Marsovino.
“Here is the treasure, Marsovino. Now how am I to carry these heavy
boxes upstairs?”
Marsovino then lowered a stout rope which he had carried with him.
Pinocchio tied the boxes to it, one after the other, and the dolphin
pulled them up.
“Throw the rope down again, Marsovino!”
“What for? Are there three treasure boxes?”
“You will see.”
As soon as the end of the rope touched the floor of the room,
Pinocchio tied it around his waist. “Now pull!” he called.
Marsovino pulled, and in a second
Pinocchio stood on the bridge.
“I really had no wish to return by those
dark dusty stairs,” he laughed, seeing
Marsovino’s look of wonder.
 CHAPTER XV
At last the two had done their duty. The treasure
was theirs. All that remained now was to go back to
Tursio with it.
“Let us start this minute,” said Marsovino, who was
anxious to see his father again.
“Yes, but first please give me something to eat.”
“Should you like to have some grapes?” said Marsovino, kindly.
“I don’t see the use of making my mouth water needlessly,”
answered Pinocchio.
“But I mean what I’m saying. Should you like some grapes?”
“Show them to me first. Then I’ll answer you.”
“Come here then, unbeliever.” As he spoke, Marsovino led Pinocchio
to a mast, which, strange to say, had not been touched by the
polyps. Hanging from a slender thread was a bunch of what looked
like red grapes.
“What are they?” Pinocchio could only ask.
“Don’t you see? They are sea grapes. Eat them.”
“But first I want you to tell me what they are.”
“They are the eggs of the calamary, a near relation of the octopus
you had to deal with to-day.”
“Very well, then. I’m willing to destroy all sign of those horrible
beings.” In a short time Pinocchio had made a good luncheon out of
them.
 “‘What are They?’”

Luncheon finished, Marsovino gave Pinocchio the box of pearls

which he was holding for the marionette. Then the dolphin tied the
treasure boxes on his back, and the two friends were ready to start.
They again passed the beach where the seals had had their battle.
Now it was full of men. Some were skinning the poor animals. Others
were pressing out the oil from their bodies. Still others were
spreading the skins out on the sand to dry.
Again the two travelers came into the polar seas. Here they found a
great change. Icebergs had melted, and the sea was full of floating
ice.
At last, without meeting any mishaps, the two again entered the
warmer ocean. They had gone only a few miles when Pinocchio
heard a great noise behind him. Both friends turned. On the calm
surface of the sea rose two high columns of water.
“The whale!” exclaimed Marsovino.
“Nonsense, whale!” answered Pinocchio, who now and then still
forgot how little he knew. “Don’t you see it’s a fountain? How could
an animal send the water so high?”
“Still it is the whale. You are just seeing a cetacean breathe.”
“You are a cetacean, too. But I see only one hole in your head, and
the jet of water you throw is very low.”
“Yes, we are cetaceans, but we are not whales. The whale proper
has two breathing holes.”
“Mercy! what a noise that monster does make!” breathed Pinocchio.
“Now, if she comes near us, we’ll disappear.”
“Have no fear, Pinocchio. The whale, although such a large animal,
is quiet and harmless if you let her alone. She is even timid. And
don’t think that because her mouth is large she can eat large
animals.”
“Her mouth may be large, but her throat is so small that she can
swallow only very small fishes. If we had met the cachalot, or sperm
whale, we should have reason to be frightened.”
“And what is that?”
“It’s an immense cetacean. You can tell it from the common whale,
not only by its one breathing hole, but also by its size. The head
alone is enormous, and its mouth is frightful with its many large
sharp teeth.”
“Hasn’t this whale teeth?”
“No. But instead of teeth, its upper jaw is lined with at least seven
hundred plates of a thick horny substance. These plates are often
twelve and fifteen feet long.”
“When the whale wants to eat it opens its huge mouth, and then
closes it full of water. This water is then strained through the plates,
and hundreds of small fishes are caught in them. The whale can
then swallow her dinner at her leisure.”
“What a dinner!” exclaimed Pinocchio. “Now tell me this. Why is it
that so many whales are captured by whalers? You say that they are
harmless. Why, then, should they be killed?”
“They are caught because of their value. Those horny plates I spoke
of are what is called whalebone. The large tongue of the whale
contains many barrels of oil. From the body of the whale great
quantities of fat may be had. All these things are of great use in the
world.”
“What about that other whale you
spoke of? The one with the terrible
teeth.”
“The sperm whale? Oh! that one is a
dreadful being. With its great mouth
and sharp teeth it can eat anything.
Seals, dolphins, and even the terrible
squaloids are lost, if they come near
him. He is very ferocious.”
While Marsovino and Pinocchio were
talking, the whale had come nearer.
The marionette saw a small dark
object climb on her back.
“What is that?” he asked.
“That’s a baby whale. Whales are very affectionate mothers. The
baby whale is tired, so the mother is going to carry it.”
Suddenly a dark head and body rose out of the water. Like an arrow
it threw itself on the poor whale. With its large mouth it tore a great
piece of flesh from the cetacean’s side and then disappeared into the
waves.
“Mercy! The sea wolf!” cried Marsovino, looking around for some
place to hide.
“What is the sea wolf? The name does not sound terrible.”
“It is the most dangerous and fierce squaloid. It is even worse than
the hammer! Let us run!” said Marsovino, breathlessly.
“But if we run the wolf will run after us.”
“You are right. Where shall we hide? Oh, here! Let us try to get
among these weeds.”
Near them was a large plant. Its leaves would make a very safe
hiding place. Pinocchio stood on Marsovino’s back and pushed the
leaves aside. In a short time the two were so well hidden that no
eyes could see them.
“Here we are safe,” and the dolphin
gave a sigh of relief.
“And how well we can see.”
Pinocchio, like the boy he was,
wanted to see the fight.
In fact, a short distance away, a terrific
fight was in progress. The wolf had
now attacked the baby whale. This
made the mother furious. She tried to
hit the shark with her tail, but he was
too quick for her. The poor cetacean
was getting the worst of it. The wolf’s
mouth, provided with four hundred
sharp teeth, was tearing the whale’s
side to pieces. Blood was pouring from them both, and it seemed as
if the whale could not hold out much longer.
A second dark body now made its appearance. It was as long as the
whale, but much larger. Its head was enormous, and from the top of
it rose a single high column of water.
“The sperm whale! The cachalot!” breathed Marsovino, and it
seemed to Pinocchio that the dolphin turned pale.
It was not to be mistaken! It was the terrible whale! And he seemed
not at all frightened by the sight of the fighters. Instead, opening wide
his mouth—and such a mouth—he threw himself on them. With a
snap of the great jaws the sea wolf’s tail disappeared.
And then, as if the battle were not fierce enough, a long bladelike
object appeared on the scene. The sides of the blade were provided
with sharp teeth. Behind the blade was a dark head. The new arrival
was the sawfish, coming to see what the matter was. Without much
ado it started to deal blows, first on this side, then on that.
Not even the sperm whale escaped the terrible saw. Long ragged
tears were soon seen on its body. Cries of pain were heard on all
sides. The sea was a sea of blood.
Finally the whale, seeing that she was lost if she stayed there long,
tried to escape. As swiftly as she could, she swam away with her
baby.
Though the whale was gone, the fight
still raged. The wolf and the saw,
although both of the same family, are
sworn enemies. Not paying much
attention to the sperm whale, they
started to battle with each other. But the
wolf was so exhausted by the loss of
blood that it could not do much. The
cachalot, seeing himself overlooked,
threw himself on the sawfish. But as
quick as a flash the sawfish dived and
came up on the other side of the giant. Angrier than ever, the whale
now turned to the wolf and in an instant snapped his head off.
The whale was satisfied. Pouring blood from twenty wounds, he left
the field of battle. The sawfish was left alone in all his glory. He was
hurt but little. Very calmly he started to make a dinner of the sea
wolf, or at least of what was left of him.
The dolphin now thought it safe to try to escape. Once out of the
weeds, he fled as fast as he could.
Poor Pinocchio could only sit still and look around. He feared any
minute to see a hammerhead or a wolf or a whale appear before
him.
“Oh! how horrible, how awful is the sea!” he thought.
 CHAPTER XVI
After racing along madly for a while, Marsovino
became so tired that he had to stop.
“I must rest,” he said to Pinocchio.
“Very well, I’m willing,” answered the marionette.
In front of them the two friends could see a dark
mass. Seen from the sea, it looked like a strip of
land. But on approaching, one could see that it was
nothing but a high rock.
This strip was separated from the shore of a small island by a long
narrow channel of water. Marsovino swam a few yards up the
channel, and then stopped to let Pinocchio jump on land.
“That battle in the sea has upset me greatly,” said Pinocchio to his
friend. “I must strengthen myself with some food. But I don’t see
anything around. What shall I eat?”
The last words were interrupted by a soft whistle from the channel. A
second whistle was heard, then a third, then a fourth. Our two friends
turned. Large, clumsy, black bodies were coming out of the water.
They were trying very hard to get to shore.
Pinocchio knew them at once. They were sea tortoises, and it was
they who had made those strange sounds. After dragging
themselves to the shore, they stood on the sand, moving their heads
and blinking up at the sun.
“You said you wanted something to eat, Pinocchio. Well, do you see
those large holes on the sand there? Look in them. You will surely
find some tortoise eggs in them. They will make a delicious dinner
for you.”
Pinocchio did not have to be told twice. In a moment he was gone. In
a short time he returned with two large eggs in his hands.
“Make haste, now, eat them. We must
continue our journey, and we have no
time to lose.”
“You are going to wait, my dear
Marsovino. I really do not see why you
should be in such a hurry.”
“Because father told me never to stop
needlessly. That’s why.”
“Yes, I know; but you shall wait now.
Since I have been with you I have eaten
nothing but raw fish. Fish and mollusks,
mollusks and fish, and I’m getting tired
of it. To-day I am going to eat boiled
eggs.”
“Boiled eggs! How, pray, and in what are
you going to boil them?”
“Ha, ha! That’s my secret. That day in the ship I found an iron box
with the word matches written on it. I kept it, but I never opened it.
Here it is.” And Pinocchio showed the dolphin a small black box
firmly closed.
“Now I’m going to use the matches. Do you want to see me build a
fire and cook my eggs?”
“Very well, have your own way. But make haste, you disobedient
boy.”
In no time Pinocchio had a good fire started.
“Now in what shall I put the water to boil?” he thought.
He looked around, and not very far away he saw a huge empty
tortoise shell.
“Marsovino!” he called. “Come here! Will you please blow on this fire
for me? I don’t want it to go out, and I want to get that tortoise shell
and some water.”
“But I can’t move out of the water,” answered Marsovino.
“Oh, yes, you can. Come! Drag yourself as near as possible to the
water. You amphibians can live out of the water for a while. So make
haste!”
“But Mr. Tursio told me never to leave the water.”
“Well, just for once.”
Marsovino finally gave in. There was no great harm in just one little
disobedience, he thought.
Pinocchio hastened away, and soon he was back with the shell full of
fresh water.
“Oh, how good that spring water was,” he said to his friend, who was
busily blowing the fire. “Now for a good dinner!”
The eggs were soon cooked, and Pinocchio certainly enjoyed them.
“I feel so well after that dinner I could travel to the end of the world,”
he said when he had finished.
The two travelers then turned toward the sea. But Marsovino gave a
cry of horror. In the channel hardly any water was left. The pebbly
bottom could be seen, and beyond that the steep rock.
“The tide!” cried Marsovino. “I forgot the tide! Poor me! I am lost!”
“What is the matter?”
“Don’t you see the water is gone? The tide has gone out, and now
how am I to get back to the sea? Before the tide comes in again I
shall be dead. Oh, oh, I shall never see dear father again.” And as
he talked poor Marsovino was beginning to breathe with difficulty,
and to suffer greatly.
Pinocchio understood little about tides, but he knew what Marsovino
meant by dying.
“And it is all my fault,” he cried, pulling at his hair. “If he dies, poor
me, what shall happen to me? I must find some way of saving him.”
Marsovino was now giving little sign of life. He lay on the sand, with
eyes closed, and breathing heavily.
With two bounds, Pinocchio was on top of the rocky ledge. Before
him was the sea.
“If only it were possible to break a hole in this rock,” he thought.
As if in answer, a strange object made its appearance in front of him.
It was a white spiral pole about two yards long. Behind the pole
Pinocchio saw a round gray head spotted with black. Against the
rocks the animal came with such force that they trembled. Suddenly
an idea struck our hero.
“Pardon me,” he called, “but will you allow me to speak with you a
moment?”
The immense animal, about six yards long, looked the boy over.
“What do you want, you small piece of humanity?” he asked proudly.
Pinocchio very humbly and very quickly told him the story of the poor
dolphin.
“And as it is my fault that he is in this condition, I want to try to save
him!” he exclaimed. “You seem so strong, will you please give this
rock a few knocks with that tooth of yours? I know you’ll be able to
break it.”
At this earnest supplication the narwhal, for that is what the animal
was, was highly pleased. He looked at Pinocchio in a tolerant way.
“First of all,” he answered, “before I do anything for you, let me ask
you a question.”
“Yes, sir, but please make haste, or Marsovino will die.”
“Do not interrupt me again, boy. First of all, what are you willing to
give me in return for this favor?”
“I have nothing, sir. I would give you anything I have—I wish I had
something—but I have nothing.”
“I do nothing for nothing. Good-by, then,” the narwhal replied. “But
answer me this. What have you in that box in your hands? That box