The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Signals and Systems I: Tutorials

1st Tutorial: Signals

Sergio Andrés Dorado-Rojas

Electrical Engineer
M.Eng. Student - Industrial Automation (Research)
sadorador@unal.edu.co

Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Bogotá

Faculty of Engineering
Departament of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

February 2018

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Contents

3 Some fundamental signals

1 The concept of signal
Unit step, impulse and ramp
General definition of signal
functions
Concept of signal as a function
Relationships between
2 Classification of signals
singularity functions
Continuous-time, discrete-time
Pulses
and digital signals
Polynomial singularity functions
Periodic and non-periodic
4 Signal transformations
signals
Transformations on the
Even and odd symmetry
independent variable
Energy and power signals
Amplitude transformations

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

The concept of signal

Definition
A general definition of signal is:
A signal is a function whose information describes the time profile of a physical
quantity [1].

In other words, a signal is a measurable (physical) function whose values describe

a physical quantity [2].
A signal does not necessarily have to be a time-dependent function.
However, this definition will be refined for the sake of simplicity.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Concept of signal as a function

One-dimensional signal
A one-dimensional signal is that
which depends only on one
Concept of signal as a function
independent variable -namely, time-.
A signal x(t) or x[n] is a set of data
Multi-dimensional signal or function of time that represents a
variable of interest.
Signals that depend on more than
one independent variables are known
as multi-dimensional signals.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Classification of signals

Figure: Classification of signals.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals
Continuous-time, discrete-time and digital signals
Continuous-time signal
A signal is called a continuous-time
(CT) signal if it is defined at every
time instant in a time interval of
interest, and its amplitude can
assume any value in a continuous
range.
S. A. Dorado-Rojas
Some fundamental signals Signal transformations
Discrete-time signal
A signal is called a discrete-time
(DT) signal (or a time sequence)
if it is defined only at discrete time
instants, and its amplitude can
assume any value in a continuous
range.
Digital signal
A DT signal is called a digital signal
if its amplitude can assume a value
only from a finite given set.
Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Sampling and quantization

 
Sampling a CT signal yields a DT signal.
 
Sampling period (or sampling time)
The sampling period (or time) T
is the time interval existent between
two immediate sampling instants.

In general, the sampling instants
need not be equally spaced.

When the sampling instants are
equally spaced, one can say that a
Figure: Sampling and quantization of a DT signal has implicitly a sampling
CT signal [2].
period:
x [n] := x (nT )
S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Sampling and quantization

 
Quantizing a DT signal yields a digital signal.
 
Quantization level and step
The quantization levels are the
possible values of a digital signal.
The quantization step is the value
between immediate quantization
levels.

All signals processed on digital
computers are digital signals.
Figure: Sampling and quantization of a 
CT signal [2]. Nevertheless, the analysis of digital
signals is complicated.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Quantization as a nonlinear operation

Example 1.1
The quantization function q(x) rounds every number to its nearest integer (that is, the
quantization step is 1). Determine if q is a linear operation.
Linear operations must exhibit the additivity and proportionality properties:
I Additivity:
Sum of each input’s output q(2.7) + q(3.7) = 3 + 4 = 7
Sum of the inputs q(2.7 + 3.7) = q(6.4) = 6
I Proportionality:
q(3.7 × 2.7) = q(9.99) = 10
q(3.7) × q(2.7) = 4 × 3 = 12

q is not a linear operation

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Periodic and non-periodic signals

Periodic CT signal
A CT periodic signal is one that
repeats itself every T seconds and Periodic DT signal
therefore satisfies: A DT signal x[n] is periodic with
x(t) = x(t + nT ) (1) period N samples if it satisfies:
where:
I n is an integer. x[n] = x[n + N] (2)
I T is the period of the signal.

Non-periodic signals
Any signal that does not satisfy the periodicity condition (Equation 1 or 2) is called a
non-periodic CT or DT signal.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals
Periodicity of CT and DT sinusoids
 
Every CT sinusoid x(t) = A sin (ω0 t + φ )
is periodic for any ω0 ∈ R
Periodicity of linear combinations of
CT sinusoids
Given two sinusoids x1 (t) and x2 (t) with
frequencies ω1 and ω2 and two nonzero
scalars α, β ∈ C:
I If ω1 and ω2 have no common divisor,
αx1 (t) + β x2 (t) is not periodic.
I If ω1 and ω2 have common divisors,
then any linear combination of
αx1 (t) + β x2 (t) is periodic. Moreover,
its fundamental frequency is their
greatest common divisor.
S. A. Dorado-Rojas
Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

A DT sinusoid x [n] = sin [Ω0 n + φ ] is
periodic with fundamental period N if
and only if its angular frequency Ω0 is a
2π
rational multiple of π ( Ω ∈ Q)
 0

Periodicity of linear combinations of
DT sinusoids
If x1 [n] and x2 [n] are periodic sinusoids
(periods N1 and N2 ), then any linear
combination αx1 [n] + β x2 [n] for nonzero
α, β will be periodic with period N equal to
the least common multiple of N1 and N2 :
N = lcm (N1 , N2 )
Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Even and odd signals

Even and odd signals

An even or symmetric signal x(t) or x[n] is one for which
x(−t) = x(t)
(3)
x[−n] = x[n]
An odd or anti-symmetric signal y (t) or y [n] is one for which
y (−t) = −y (t)
(4)
y [−n] = −y [n]
This definition holds if t, n are interchanged by other variables.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Even and odd signals: examples

CT even signal DT even signal
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

t n
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5
-0.5

-1.0
-1.0

CT odd signal DT odd signal

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

t n
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5 -0.5

. -1.0 -1.0

Figure: Examples of CT and DT even and odd signals.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Even and odd parts of a signal

Any signal x(t) or x[n] can be represented as the sum of even and odd parts as

x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t) x[n] = xe [n] + xo [n] (5)

where the even part xe and the odd part xo are given by

xe (t) = 12 [x(t) + x(−t)] xo (t) = 12 [x(t) − x(−t)]

(6)
xe [n] = 21 {x[n] + x[−n]} xo [n] = 12 {x[n] − x[−n]}
and hence:

x(t) = x(t)+x(−t)
2 + x(t)−x(−t)
2 (7)
x[n] = x[n]+x[−n]
2 + x[n]−x[−n]
2

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Properties of even and odd functions

I The product of two even functions is also an even function.

I The product of two odd functions is an even function.

I The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.

I The sum (or difference) of two even functions is also an even function.

I The sum (or difference) of two odd functions is an odd function).

I The sum (or difference) of an even function and an odd function is neither even
nor odd.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Normalized energy and power of a signal

Normalized energy for a CT signal Average power for a CT signal
For a CT signal x(t), the normalized energy For a CT signal x(t), the average or
E of a complex-valued x(t) is: normalized power P of a complex-valued x(t)
is:
1
Z
Z ∞ Z ∞ P = lim x(t)x ∗ (t)dt
T →∞ T <T >
E= x(t)x ∗ (t)dt = ||x(t)||2 dt (8) (10)
−∞ −∞ 1
Z
= lim ||x(t)||2 dt
T →∞ T <T >

Normalized energy for a DT signal

Average power for a DT signal
For a DT signal x[n], the normalized energy
For a DT signal x[n], the average or
E of a complex-valued signal x[n] is:
normalized power P of a complex-valued signal
x[n] is:
∞
∞ ∞ 1
E= ∑ x[n]x ∗ [n] = ∑ ||x[n]||2 (9) P= ∑ x[n]x ∗ [n]
2N + 1 n=−∞
n=−∞ n=−∞ (11)
∞
1
= ∑ ||x[n]||2
2N + 1 n=−∞

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Energy and power signals

Energy signal
Power signal
A signal x(t) or x[n] is an energy
A signal x(t) or x[n] is a power
signal if and only if
signal if and only if
0<E <∞⇔P =0
  0<P <∞⇔E =∞
If x[n] is absolutely summable, then it 
Almost all periodic functions of practical
has finite total energy (i.e., it is squared
interest are power signals.
absolutely summable).
   
  If a signal is a power signal, then it
If x(t) is absolutely integrable and
cannot be an energy signal or vice versa;
bounded for all t in (−∞, ∞), then it has
power and energy signals are mutually
finite total energy (i.e., it is squared
exclusive [3].
absolutely integrable).  
 

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Concept of singularity functions and CT unit step

Singularity function
A singularity function is one that is discontinuous or has discontinuous derivatives.

Unit step or Heaviside function Unit step

1.0
The CT unit step function is defined
as 0.8

( 0.6

1 t ≥0
u(t) = (12) 0.4

0 t <0 0.2

 
The information or energy of CT -1 1 2 3
t

signals depends on not only Figure: CT unit step function.

amplitude but also time duration.
 
S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

DT unit step

DT unit step
1.0

0.8

DT unit step 0.6

The unit step sequence is defined 0.4

as ( 0.2
1 n≥0
u [n] = (13) n
0 n<0 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4

Figure: DT unit step sequence.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Unit impulse

Unit impulse function

The unit impulse function, or Dirac
delta function, occurs at t = 0 and is Unit impulse sequence
defined as The unit impulse sequence
(
∞ t =0 (Kronecker delta function) is defined
δ (t) = (14) as
0 t 6= 0 (
1 n=0
and it has the property δ [n] = (16)
0 n 6= 0
Z ∞ Z 0+
δ (t)dt = δ (t)dt = 1 (15)
−∞ 0−

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Unit impulse

DT unit impulse
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure: CT unit impulse function [3]. Figure: DT unit impulse sequence.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Unit ramp

Unit ramp function Unit ramp sequence

The unit ramp function is defined The unit ramp sequence is defined
as: as
( (
t t ≥0 n n≥0
r (t) = (17) r [n] = (18)
0 t <0 0 n<0

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Unit ramp

Unit ramp function DT unit ramp

3 4

2
3

t 2
-2 -1 1 2

-1
1

-2

-3 n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure: CT unit ramp function. Figure: DT unit ramp.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Sifting property of the unit impulse

Sifting or sampling property of the CT unit impulse

When a function is integrated with the impulse function, we obtain the value of the
function at the point where the impulse occurs (this is called the selection property of
the unit impulse):
Z b
x(t)δ (t − t0 ) dt = x (t0 ) (19)
a
Moreover, with a slight change of variable and the limits of integration, a function may
be recovered from a sifting integral of the unit impulse (sifting or sampling property):
Z ∞
x(τ)δ (t − τ) dτ = x(t) (20)
−∞

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Sifting property of the unit impulse

Sifting or sampling property of the DT unit impulse

Since the Kronecker delta sequence is nonzero only when its argument is zero,
multiplying a signal x [n] by a shifted impulse yields the value of the sequence at the
impulse time (selection property):

x [n] δ [n − n0 ] = x [n0 ] (21)

Because of the selection property, it is possible to see the signal x [n] as a sum of
weighted impulses (sifting or sampling property):
∞
x [n] = ∑ x[k]δ [n − k] (22)
k=−∞

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Relationships between singularity functions

Relationships between fundamental Relationships between fundamental

singularity functions DT sequences
d
I u(t) = dt [r (t)] I δ [n] = u [n] − u [n − 1]

d I u [n] = r [n] − r [n − 1]
I δ (t) = dt [u(t)]
Rt
I r (t) = −∞ u (τ) dτ
I u [n] = ∑∞
k=−∞ δ [k]

r [n] = ∑∞
R∞
k=−∞ u [k]
I u (t) = (τ) dτ I
−∞ δ

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Pulses

A rectangular pulse of width a and unit area is defined as

(
1
1 0≤t ≤a
δa (t) = [u(t) − u(t − a)] = a (23)
a 0 t < 0 and t > a
A triangular increasing pulse of unit area and length 2a is given by
1 1 1
2
r (t) − 2 r (t − 2a) − u(t − 2a) (24)
2a 2a a
A triangular decreasing pulse of unit area and length 2a is given by
1 1 1
u(t) − 2 r (t) + 2 r (t − 2a) (25)
a 2a 2a

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Pulses

Figure: Rectangular and triangular pulses [2].

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Polynomial singularity functions

Polynomial singularity functions

Singularity functions

For n ≥ 0, we denote a polynomial 4

singularity function as: 3

f(t)
( g(t)
Out[129]=

(t − a)n
2 h(t)
t ≥a
ht − ain =
k(t)
(26)
0 t <a 1

where the step function can be

t
-1 1 2 3

written as: Figure: Plots of some polynomial

singularity functions.
(
1 t ≥a
ht − ai0 = (27)
0 t <a

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Derivatives and integrals of polynomial singularity functions

For n ≥ 0
1
Z
ht − ain dt = ht − ain+1 (28)
n+1
and for n ≥ 1

d
ht − ain = n ht − ain−1 (29)
dt

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Transformations on the independent variable

Transformations on the independent variable

I Time reversal: given a signal x(t) or x [n], their time-reversed forms are x(−t) or x [−n],
which could be obtained as the reflection of x(t) or x [n] about the vertical axis.
I We obtain x(−t) by replacing every t with −t

I We obtain x [−n] by replacing every n with −n

I Time-scaling: given a signal x(t) or x [n], their time-scaled from are x(at) or x [an]
I The scaled signal x (at) will be compressed if |a| > 1 (i.e., time goes faster)

I The scaled signal will be expanded if |a| < 1 (i.e., time goes slower)

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Transformations on the independent variable

Transformations on the independent variable

I Time shifting: given a signal x(t) or x [n], their time-shifted forms x (t − t0 )
and x [n − n0 ] where t0 , n0 are constants are obtained as follows:

I If t0 > 0 or n0 > 0, the signals x (t − t0 ) and x [n − n0 ] are delayed and shifted to the
right relative to t = 0 and n = 0 respectively.

I If t0 < 0 or n0 < 0, the signals x(t − t0 ) = x(t + |t0 |) and x [n − n0 ] = x [n + |n0 |] are
advanced replicas of x(t) and x [n], with the signals shifted to the left.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Precedence rule
Precedence rule
Consider a signal y (t) or y [n] obtained from x(t) or x [n] by time shifting and
time-scaling operations such that

y (t) = x(at − b) y [n] = x [an − b]

The time shifting operation is applied first

v (t) = x(t − b) v [n] = x [n − b]

and the time-scaling operation is performed in the last step

y (t) = v (at) = x(at − b) y [n] = v [an] = x [an − b]

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Amplitude transformations
Amplitude transformations
Given a signal x(t) or x [n], amplitude transformations take the general forms

y (t) =Ax(t) + B CT signals

y [n] =Ax [n] + B DT signals
where:
I A = −1 means amplitude reversal (reflection about the horizontal axis);
I |A| > 1 means amplitude stretching or elongation;
I |A| < 1 means amplitude compression;
I B > 0 shifts upwards the amplitude of the signal;
I B < 0 shifts downwards the amplitude of the signal.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

Time constants for DT decreasing exponentials

Given a sequence x [n] = b n with 0 < |b| < 1, its time constant is given by [2]
1
tc = − (30)
ln |b|
It is said that the sequence takes nc samples to decrease to less than 1% of its
original magnitude, where nc is obtained by rounding to the next integer five time
constants:
 
−5
nc = round (5tc ) = round (31)
ln |b|

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals
The concept of signal Classification of signals Some fundamental signals Signal transformations

References

O. Beucher, Signale und Systeme: Theorie, Simulation, Anwendung. Springer,

2015.
C.-T. Chen, Signals and Systems, 3rd ed., 2004.
M. Sadiku, Signals and Systems - A primer with MATLAB. CRC Press, 2015.

S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals