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 Renewable Energy Sources 366
13 Atmospheric Science, Air Quality, The Science Behind the Story:
and Pollution Control 278 Comparing Energy Sources 368
Central Case Study Solar Energy 370
Clearing the Air in L.A. and
Mexico City on a smoggy day Wind Power 374
in Mexico City 279 Geothermal Energy 376
Mexico City on a clear day

Ocean Energy Sources 378

The Atmosphere 280 Hydroelectric Power 379
Outdoor Air Quality 283 Bioenergy380
The Science Behind the Story: Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 384
Measuring the Health Impacts
of Mexico City’s Air Pollution 288 17 Managing Our Waste 388
Ozone Depletion 293
Central Case Study
Addressing Acid Deposition 295
A Mania for Recycling
Indoor Air Quality 298 on Campus 389

14 Global Climate Change 302 Approaches to Waste Management 390

Central Case Study Municipal Solid Waste 390
Rising Seas May Flood The Science Behind the Story:
the Maldives303 Tracking Trash 398
Industrial Solid Waste 400
Our Dynamic Climate 304 Hazardous Waste 400
Studying Climate Change 308
The Science Behind the Story: 18 The Urban Environment:
How Do Climate Models Work?310 Creating Sustainable Cities 407
Current and Future Trends and Impacts 312 Central Case Study
Responding to Climate Change 322
Managing Growth in
Portland, Oregon 408
15 Nonrenewable Energy Sources,
Their Impacts, and Our Urbanizing World 409
Energy Conservation 331 Sprawl411
Central Case Study Creating Livable Cities 412
Urban Sustainability 416
Hydrofracking the
Marcellus Shale332 The Science Behind the Story:
Baltimore and Phoenix Showcase Urban Ecology 418
Sources of Energy 334
Fossil Fuels: Their Formation, Extraction, and Use 337 Epilogue: Sustainable Solutions 422
Reaching Further for Fossil Fuels … and
Coping with the Impacts 343
Appendix A: AnswersA-1
The Science Behind the Story:
Discovering Impacts of the Gulf Oil Spill348 Appendix B: How to Interpret Graphs B-1
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 354 Appendix C: Metric System C-1
Nuclear Power 356 Appendix D: Periodic Table of the Elements D-1
Appendix E: Geologic Time Scale E-1
16 Renewable Energy GlossaryG-1
Alternatives 364 Photo Credits CR-1
Central Case Study IndexI-1
Germany Goes Solar 365
vi

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Dear Student,
You are coming of age at a unique and momentous time in
history. Within your lifetime, our global society must chart
a promising course for a sustainable future. The stakes could
not be higher.
Today we live long lives enriched with astonishing tech-
nologies, in societies more free, just, and equal than ever
before. We enjoy wealth on a scale our ancestors could hardly
have dreamed of. Yet we have purchased these wonderful
things at a price. By exploiting Earth’s resources and ecologi-
cal services, we are depleting our planet’s bank account and
running up its credit card. More than ever before, the future of
our society rests with how we treat the world around us.
Your future is being shaped by the phenomena you will
learn about in your environmental science course. Environ-
mental science gives us a big-picture understanding of the
world and our place within it. Environmental science also
offers hope and solutions, revealing ways to address the prob-
lems we face. Environmental science is not simply some sub-
ject you study in college. Rather, it provides you basic literacy
in the foremost issues of the 21st century, and it relates to
everything around you throughout your lifetime.
We have written this book because today’s students will
shape tomorrow’s world. At this unique moment in history, the
decisions and actions of your generation are key to achieving
a sustainable future for our civilization. The many environ-
mental challenges that face us can seem overwhelming, but
you should feel encouraged and motivated. Remember that
each dilemma is also an opportunity. For every problem that
human carelessness has created, human ingenuity can devise
a solution. Now is the time for innovation, creativity, and the
fresh perspectives that a new generation can offer. Your own
ideas and energy will make a difference.
–Jay Withgott and Matthew Laposata
A01_WITH4579_05_FM_pi-xii.indd 7
Preface
Dear Instructor,
You perform one of our society’s most vital jobs by educating
today’s students—the citizens and leaders of tomorrow—on
the fundamentals of the world around them, the nature of sci-
ence, and the most central issues of our time. We have writ-
ten this book to assist you in this endeavor because we feel
that the crucial role of environmental science in today’s world
makes it imperative to engage, educate, and inspire a broad
audience of students.
In Essential Environment: The Science behind the Stories, we
strive to implement a diversity of modern teaching approaches
and to show how science can inform efforts to bring about a
sustainable society. We aim to encourage critical thinking and
to maintain a balanced approach as we flesh out the vibrant
social debate that accompanies environmental issues. As we
assess the challenges facing our civilization and our planet,
we focus on providing forward-looking solutions, for we truly
feel there are many reasons for optimism.
As environmental science has grown, so has the length of
textbooks that cover it. With this volume, we aim to meet the
needs of introductory courses that favor a more succinct and
affordable book. We have distilled the most essential content
from our full-length book, Environment: The Science behind
the Stories, now in its fifth edition. We have streamlined our
material, updated our coverage, and carefully crafted our
writing to make Essential Environment every bit as readable,
informative, and engaging as its parent volume.
New to This Edition
In this fifth edition of Essential Environment, we have incor-
porated the most current information from a fast-moving field.
A number of major changes new to this edition enhance our
presentation while strengthening our commitment to teach
science in an engaging and accessible way.
CENTRAL CASE STUDY
Seven of our 17 Central Case Studies are new to
this edition, providing a wealth of fresh stories and
new ways to frame issues in environmental science.
Students will travel from Pennsylvania to Hawaii and
from Africa to Mexico to Costa Rica as they learn how
debates over hydraulic fracturing, air pollution, defor-
estation, and biodiversity conservation are affecting
P R E FAC E
people’s lives. In addition, two new case studies focus
on campus sustainability initiatives, showcasing some
of the many innovative steps students are taking to
advance sustainable solutions on campus.
vii
21/08/14 4:29 pm
 ■
Chapter 3: Saving Hawaii’s Native Forest Birds
■
Chapter 5: Costa Rica Values Its Ecosystem
Services
■
Chapter 7: Farm to Table—And Back Again—
The Commons at Kennesaw State
University
■
Chapter 8: Will We Slice through the Serengeti?
■
Chapter 13: Clearing the Air in L.A. and Mexico
City
■
Chapter 15: Hydrofracking the Marcellus Shale
■
Chapter 17: A Mania for Recycling on Campus
T HE S CIENCE BEHIND THE STORY
Eight of our 18 Science Behind the Story features are
new to this edition, giving you a current and excit-
ing selection of scientific studies to highlight. Students
will follow researchers as they evaluate energy sources,
design climate models, monitor animal populations,
assess impacts of smog and forest fragmentation, and
seek solutions to pollution from hydraulic fracturing
and plastic in the ocean.
■
Chapter 3: Monitoring Bird Populations at
Hakalau Forest
■
Chapter 8: Wildlife Declines in African Reserves
■
Chapter 9: Forest Fragmentation in the Amazon
■
Chapter 11: Can Acid Mine Drainage Reduce
Fracking’s Environmental Impact?
■
Chapter 12: Predicting the Oceans’ “Garbage
Patches”
■
Chapter 13: Measuring the Health Impacts of
Mexico City’s Air Pollution
■
Chapter 14: How Do Climate Models Work?
■
Chapter 16: Comparing Energy Sources
Selected Science behind the Story features are now
s­ upported by new “Process of Science” exercises online in
MasteringEnvironmentalScience that use these examples
to help students explore how scientists conduct their work.
Each chapter now contains Data Q data-
analysis questions that help students to
actively engage with graphs and other data-driven fig-
ures. This new feature accompanies several figures in
each chapter, challenging students to practice quantita-
tive skills of interpretation and analysis. To encourage
students to test their understanding as they read, answers
are provided in Appendix A, and students can practice
data analysis skills further with new Interpreting Graphs
and Data: DataQs in MasteringEnvironmentalScience.
viii
A01_WITH4579_05_FM_pi-xii.indd 8
Currency and coverage of topical issues To live up to
our book’s hard-won reputation for currency, we have
incorporated the most recent data possible and have
enhanced coverage of issues now gaining prominence.
As climate change and energy concerns play ever-larger
roles in today’s world, our coverage continues to evolve.
This edition highlights how renewable energy is grow-
ing, yet also how we are reaching further for fossil fuels
with deep offshore drilling, Arctic exploration, oil sands
extraction, and hydraulic fracturing for tight oil and shale
gas. Climate change connections continue to prolifer-
ate throughout our text, and our climate change chap-
ter includes new coverage of climate modeling, Hurri-
cane Sandy, research into jet stream effects on extreme
weather, the latest predictions for America and the world,
and political responses at all levels.
This edition also expands coverage of a diversity of
topics including the valuation of ecosystem services, intro-
duced species and their ecological impacts on islands,
prospects for nuclear power and safety after Fukushima,
ocean acidification, advanced biofuels, sustainable agri-
culture, hormone-disrupting substances, impacts on coastal
wetlands, marine plastic pollution, and green-collar jobs.
We continue to use sustainability as an organizing theme,
and we aid this by moving primary coverage of sustain-
able development to Chapter 5 and highlighting campus
sustainability initiatives in several chapters.
Enhanced style elements We have updated and
improved the look and clarity of our visual presentation
throughout the text. A more open layout, more engag-
ing photo treatments, and new designs for tables and for
each feature all make the book more inviting and acces-
sible for learning. This edition includes more than 30%
entirely new ­photos, graphs, and illustrations, while most
existing figures have been revised to reflect current data
or for better clarity or pedagogy.
Existing Features
We have also retained the major features that made the first
four editions of our book unique and that are proving so
­successful in classrooms across North America:
A focus on science and data analysis We have main-
tained and strengthened our commitment to a rigorous
presentation of modern scientific research while at the
same time making science clear, accessible, and engag-
ing to students. Explaining and illustrating the process
of science remains a foundational goal of this endeavor.
We also continue to provide an abundance of clearly cited
data-rich graphs, with accompanying tools for data analy-
sis. In our text, our figures, and numerous print and online
features, we aim to challenge students and to assist them
with the vital skills of data analysis and interpretation.
27/08/14 5:59 pm
 An emphasis on solutions For many students, today’s
deluge of environmental dilemmas can lead them to
believe that there is no hope or that they cannot person-
ally make a difference. We have aimed to counter this
impression by highlighting innovative solutions being
developed on campuses and around the world. While
being careful not to paint too rosy a picture of the chal-
lenges that lie ahead, we demonstrate that there is ample
reason for optimism, and we encourage action.
Central Case Studies integrated throughout the
text We integrate each chapter’s Central Case Study
into the main text, weaving information and elaboration
throughout the chapter. In this way, compelling stories
about real people and real places help to teach founda-
tional concepts by giving students a tangible framework
with which to incorporate novel ideas.
The Science Behind the Story Because we strive to
engage students in the scientific process of testing and
discovery, we feature The Science Behind the Story in
each chapter. By guiding students through key research
efforts, this feature shows not merely what scientists dis-
covered, but how they discovered it.
FAQ The FAQ feature highlights questions fre-
quently posed by students in introductory
environmental science courses, thereby helping to
address widely held misconceptions and to fill in com-
mon conceptual gaps in knowledge. By also including
questions students sometimes hesitate to ask, the FAQs
show students that they are not alone in having these
questions, thereby fostering a spirit of open inquiry in
the classroom. A number of new FAQs have been added
in this edition.
Weighing the Issues These questions aim to help develop
the critical-thinking skills students need to navigate mul-
tifaceted issues at the juncture of science, policy, and eth-
ics. They serve as stopping points for students to reflect
on what they have read, wrestle with complex dilemmas,
and engage in spirited classroom discussion.
Diverse end-of-chapter features Testing Your Compre-
hension provides concise study questions on main top-
ics, while Seeking Solutions encourages broader creative
thinking aimed at finding solutions. “Think It Through”
questions place students in a scenario and empower
them to make decisions to resolve problems. Calculat-
ing Ecological Footprints enables students to quantify
the impacts of their choices and measure how individual
impacts scale up to the societal level.
A01_WITH4579_05_FM_pi-xii.indd 9
MasteringEnvironmental
Science
With this edition we are thrilled to offer expanded opportu-
nities through MasteringEnvironmentalScience, our power-
ful yet easy-to-use online learning and assessment platform.
With Pearson’s talented staff and extensive resources, we have
developed new content and activities specifically to support
features in the textbook, thus strengthening the connection
between online and print resources. This approach encourages
students to practice their science literacy skills in an interac-
tive environment with a diverse set of automatically graded
exercises. Students benefit from self-paced activities that fea-
ture immediate wrong-answer feedback, while instructors can
gauge student performance with informative diagnostics. By
enabling assessment of student learning outside the classroom,
MasteringEnvironmentalScience helps the instructor to maxi-
mize the impact of classroom time. As a result, both educators
and learners benefit from an integrated text and online solution.
New to this edition Informed by instructor feedback and
motivated by the desire to help students to build ­science liter-
acy skills, we have made the following additions to Master-
ingEnvironmentalScience. The first two were ­created specif-
ically for the fifth edition by co-author Matthew Laposata:
■
Process of Science activities help students navigate
the scientific method, guiding them through explora-
tions of experimental design using Science Behind
the Story features from the fifth edition. These activi-
ties encourage students to think like a scientist and to
practice basic skills in experimental design.
■
First Impressions Pre-Quizzes help instructors deter-
mine their students’ existing knowledge of core con-
tent areas in environmental science at the outset of
the academic term, providing class-specific data that
can then be employed for powerful teachable mo-
ments throughout the term. Assessment items in the
Test Bank connect to each quiz item, so instructors
can formally assess student understanding.
■
Interpreting Graphs and Data: Data Q activities pair
with the new in-text Data Analysis Questions and
coach students to further develop skills related to
presenting, interpreting, and thinking critically about
environmental science data.
■
Five more Video Field Trips have been added to the
existing library in MasteringEnvironmentalScience.
With these new videos, you can now kick off your
class period with a field trip to a wind farm or a water
desalination plant, a visit with researchers tackling
invasive species or bee colony collapse disorder, or a
tour of a sustainable college campus.
P R E FAC E
ix
27/08/14 6:02 pm
 Existing features MasteringEnvironmentalScience also
retains its popular existing features. Interpreting Graphs
and Data exercises and the interactive GraphIt! pro-
gram each guide students in exploring how to present
and interpret data and how to create graphs. Interactive
Causes and Consequences exercises let students probe
the causes behind major issues, their consequences,
and possible solutions. Viewpoints offers paired essays
authored by invited experts who present divergent points
of view on topical questions.
Essential Environment has grown from our experiences in
teaching, research, and writing. We have been guided in our
efforts by input from hundreds of instructors across North
America who have served as reviewers and advisors. The
participation of so many learned, thoughtful, and committed
experts and educators has improved this volume in countless
ways.
We sincerely hope that our efforts are worthy of the
immense importance of our subject matter. We invite you to
let us know how well we have achieved our goals and where
you feel we have fallen short. Please write to us in care of our
editor, Alison Rodal (alison.rodal@pearson.com) at Pearson
Education. We value your feedback and are eager to know
how we can serve you better.
–Jay Withgott and Matthew Laposata
A01_WITH4579_05_FM_pi-xii.indd 10
Instructor Supplements
Instructor Resource Center on DVD with
TestGen (0-133-89259-X)
This powerful media package is organized chapter-by-chapter
and includes all teaching resources in one convenient loca-
tion. You’ll find Video Field Trips, PowerPoint presentations,
Active Lecture questions to facilitate class discussions (for use
with or without clickers), and an image library that includes
all art and tables from the text.
Included on the IRDVD, the Test Bank includes hundreds
of multiple-choice questions plus unique graphing, and scenario-
based questions to test students’ critical-thinking abilities.
Instructor Guide (0-133-90122-X)
This comprehensive resource provides chapter outlines, key
terms, and teaching tips for lecture and classroom activities.
Blackboard Open Access (0-133-97474-X)
MasteringEnvironmentalScience™ for Essential Environment:
The Science Behind the Stories (0-321-97688-6)
The MasteringEnvironmentalScience platform is the
most effective and widely used online tutorial, homework, and
assessment system for the sciences.
28/08/14 11:46 PM
 Acknowledgments
A textbook is the collective product of many minds and hearts. We give a big thanks to marketing manager Amee Mos-
The two of us are exceedingly fortunate to be supported and ley, as well as to Lauren Harp. And of course, the many sales
guided by a tremendous publishing team. representatives who help communicate our vision, deliver our
Our acquisitions editor, Alison Rodal, coordinated our product, and work with instructors to ensure their satisfaction
team’s work for this fifth edition of Essential Environment. are absolutely vital, and we deeply admire and appreciate their
Alison’s skills, focus, dedication, sound judgment, and expe- tireless work and commitment.
rience in multiple aspects of publishing greatly enhanced our Lastly, Jay thanks his parents and his many teachers and
efforts. Project manager Margaret Young led us ably through mentors over the years for making his own life and education
the complex choreography of the textbook process. As pro- so enriching. He gives loving thanks to his wife, Susan, who
gram manager, Anna Amato lent her insight and her steady has patiently provided caring support throughout this book’s
hand, building on her past contributions. Development edi- writing and revision over the years. Matt thanks his family,
tor Julia Osborne added perceptive and valuable feedback on friends, and colleagues, and he is grateful for his children,
our art program and the layout of our chapters. We appreciate who give him three reasons to care passionately about the
their patience with us, and we admire their commitment to future. Most important, he thanks his wife, Lisa, for enriching
top-quality work. his life with her keen insight, passion for life, unconscious
We thank our editor-in-chief, Beth Wilbur, for her grace, and effortless beauty—and for faithfully reminding
steady support of this book through its five editions, as well him to treasure and cherish the truly valuable things in life.
as Pearson’s upper management for continuing to invest in The talents, input, and advice of Susan and of Lisa have been
the resources and top-notch personnel that our books have vital to this project, and without their support our own contri-
enjoyed for the past decade. butions would not have been possible.
We thank executive editorial manager Ginnie Simi- We dedicate this book to today’s students, who will shape
one Jutson. Editorial assistant Libby Reiser was amazingly tomorrow’s world.
responsive and managed a smooth review process. Sally
–Jay Withgott and Matthew Laposata
Peyrefitte, as always, provided reliable and meticulous copy
editing, and photo researcher Steve Merland helped acquire
quality photos. Wynne Au Yeung did a terrific job executing
the art program, Yvo Riezebos designed our text interior, and
Derek Bacchus designed our cover. We send a big thank-you
to Angela Urquhart and Andrea Archer for their excellent
work managing the production process.
We also remain grateful for lasting contributions to the
book’s earlier editions by Nora Lally-Graves, Mary Ann Mur-
ray, Susan Teahan, Tim Flem, Deborah Gale, Dan Kaveney,
Etienne Benson, Russell Chun, Jonathan Frye, April Lynch,
Kristy Manning, and of course Scott Brennan. And our books
continue to owe a great deal to the vision, guidance, and heart-
felt commitment of Chalon Bridges.
As we expand our online offerings with MasteringEnvi-
ronmentalScience, we thank Tania Mlawer, Juliana Tringali,
Sarah Jensen, Lee Ann Doctor, Daniel Ross, Jana Pratt, and
Todd Brown for their work on the Mastering website and our
media supplements. A special thanks to Jellyfish Smack Pro-
ductions for their fabulous work on our Video Field Trips.
A c k nowledgments

As always, a select number of top instructors have teamed

with us to produce the supplementary materials, and we remain
deeply grateful for their work. Our thanks go to Heidi Mar-
cum for working on EnvSci dynamic study modules, Danielle
DuCharme for updating our Instructor’s Guide, Daniel Pavuk
for his help with the Test Bank, Reggie Cobb for revising the
PowerPoint lectures and clicker questions, Steve Fitzpatrick
for revising the reading quizzes, and Donna Bivans for cor-
relating the shared media.
xi

A01_WITH4579_05_FM_pi-xii.indd 11 21/08/14 4:29 pm

 Reviewers
We wish to express special thanks to the dedicated reviewers
who shared their time and expertise to help make this edition
the best it could be. Over 600 instructors and outside experts
have reviewed material for the previous four editions of this
book and the five editions of this book’s parent volume, where
they are acknowledged in full. Below we thank those who
contributed in particular to this fifth edition of Essential
Environment—in most cases with multiple in-depth chap-
ter reviews despite busy teaching schedules. Our sincere
gratitude goes out to all of them. If the thoughtfulness and
thoroughness of these reviewers are any indication, we feel
confident that the teaching of environmental science is in
excellent hands!

Marc Albrecht, University of Nebraska at Kearney

Eric C. Atkinson, Northwest College
Martin Baranowski, Passaic County Community College
Stefan Becker, Lehman College, CUNY
Tom Campbell, Northeastern Illinois University
Daniel Capuano, Hudson Valley Community College
John B. Dunning, Jr., Purdue University
Kathleen A. Enseñat, South Puget Sound Community College
Brad C. Fiero, Pima Community College
Jeffrey French, North Greenville University
Wendy R. Hartman, Palm Beach State College
Keith R. Hench, Kirkwood Community College
Leslie Hendon, University of Alabama at Birmingham
Robert Hickey, Central Washington University
Jason Hlebakos, Mount San Jacinto College
Kelley Hodges, Gulf Coast State College
Jennifer Latimer, Indiana State University
Kurt M. Leuschner, College of the Desert
Mark Manteuffel, St. Louis Community College and
Washington University
John B. McGill, York Technical College
Kiran Misra, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
Martha Murphy, Santa Rosa Junior College
Troy Mutchler, Kennesaw State University
Eric R. Myers, South Suburban College
Douglas Nesmith, Baylor University
Dorna Sakurai, Santa Monica College
Amanda Senft, Bellevue College
Jamey Thompson, Hudson Valley Community College
Melanie Trecek-King, Massasoit Community College
Marie Trone, Valencia College, Osceola Campus
Candice Weber, College of the Desert
Nine (9) anonymous reviewers

xii

A01_WITH4579_05_FM_pi-xii.indd 12 27/08/14 6:09 pm

 1

Science and Sustainability:

An Introduction to
Environmental Science
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe the field of environmental science Comprehend the nature and importance of science, and
characterize aspects of the process of science
Explain the importance of natural resources and ecosystem
services to our lives Appreciate the role of ethics in environmental science, and
compare and contrast major approaches in environmental
Discuss the scale and consequences of population growth
ethics
and resource consumption
Diagnose and illustrate major pressures on the global
Describe the steps of the scientific method
environment

Articulate the concept of sustainability and describe

campus sustainability efforts
Photo: Our Island, Earth 1

M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 1 13/08/14 6:03 pm

 Our Island, Earth
Viewed from space, our home planet resembles a small blue
marble suspended in a vast inky-black void. Earth may seem
enormous to us as we go about our lives on its surface, but the
astronaut’s view reveals that our planet is finite and limited.
With this perspective, it becomes clear that as our population,
technological power, and resource consumption all increase,
so does our capacity to alter our surroundings and damage
the very systems that keep us alive. Finding ways to live
peacefully, healthfully, and sustainably on our diverse and
complex planet is our society’s prime challenge today. The
field of environmental science is crucial in this endeavor.
Our environment surrounds us
A photograph of Earth offers a revealing perspective, but
it cannot convey the complexity of our environment. Our
­environment consists of all the living and nonliving things
around us. It includes the continents, oceans, clouds, and ice
caps you can see in the photo of Earth from space, as well as
the animals, plants, forests, and farms of the landscapes sur-
rounding us. In a more inclusive sense, it also encompasses
the structures, urban centers, and living spaces that people
have created. In its broadest sense, our environment includes
the complex webs of social relationships and institutions that
shape our daily lives.
People commonly use the term environment in the nar-
rowest sense—to mean a nonhuman or “natural” world apart
from human society. This is unfortunate, because it masks the
vital fact that people exist within the environment and are part
of ­nature. As one of many species on Earth, we share depend-
ence on a healthy, functioning planet. The limitations of lan-
guage make it all too easy to speak of “people and nature,” or
­“humans and the environment,” as though they were separate
and did not interact. However, the fundamental insight of envi-
ronmental science is that we are part of the “natural” world and
that our interactions with the rest of it matter a great deal.
• Solar energy • Fresh water
• Wind energy • Forest products
• Wave energy • Biodiversity
• Geothermal energy • Soils
(a) Inexhaustible renewable (b) Exhaustible renewable natural
natural resources resources
Figure 1.1 Natural resources may be renewable or nonrenewable. Perpetually renewable, or inexhaust-
ible, resources such as sunlight and wind energy (a) will always be there for us. Renewable resources such as
timber, soils, and fresh water (b) are replenished on intermediate time scales, if we are careful not to deplete
them. Nonrenewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels (c) exist in limited amounts that could one day
2 be gone.
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 2
Environmental science explores our
interactions with the world
Understanding our relationship with the world around us
is vital because we depend on our environment for air, wa-
ter, food, shelter, and everything else essential for living.
Moreover, we modify our environment. Many of our actions
have enriched our lives, bringing us better health, longer
life spans, and greater material wealth, mobility, and leisure
time—yet they have often degraded the natural systems that
sustain us. Air and water pollution, soil erosion, species ex-
tinction, and other impacts compromise our well-being and
jeopardize our ability to build a society that will survive and
thrive in the long term.
Environmental science is the scientific study of how the
natural world works, how our environment affects us, and
how we affect our environment. By understanding these in-
teractions, we may be able to devise solutions to our many
pressing challenges. It can be daunting to reflect on the sheer
magnitude of dilemmas that confront us today, but these
problems also bring countless opportunities for creative
­solutions.
Environmental scientists study the issues most centrally
important to our world and its future. Right now, global con-
ditions are changing more quickly than ever. Right now, we
are gaining scientific knowledge more rapidly than ever. And
right now there is still time to tackle society’s biggest chal-
lenges. With such bountiful opportunities, this moment in
history is an exciting time to be alive—and to be studying
environmental science.
We rely on natural resources
Islands are finite and bounded, and their inhabitants must
cope with limitations in the materials they need. On our
­island—planet Earth—there are limits to many of our natural
resources, the substances and energy sources we take from
our environment and that we rely on to survive (FIGURE 1.1).
• Crude oil
• Natural gas
• Coal
• Minerals
(c) Nonrenewable natural resources
13/08/14 6:03 pm
 Natural resources that are replenished over short periods
are known as renewable natural resources. Some renewable
natural resources, such as sunlight, wind, and wave energy,
are perpetually renewed and essentially inexhaustible. Others,
such as timber, water, animal populations, and fertile soil, re-
new themselves over months, years, or decades. These types
of renewable resources may be used at sustainable rates, or
they may be depleted if we consume them faster than they are
replenished. Nonrenewable natural resources, such as miner-
als and crude oil, are in finite supply and are formed far more
slowly than we use them. Once we deplete a nonrenewable
resource, it is no longer available.
We rely on ecosystem services
If we think of natural resources as “goods” produced by nature,
then it is also true that Earth’s natural systems provide “ser-
vices” on which we depend. Our planet’s ecological systems
purify air and water, cycle nutrients, regulate climate, pollinate
plants, and recycle our waste. Such essential services are com-
monly called ecosystem services (FIGURE 1.2). Ecosystem ser-
vices arise from the normal functioning of natural systems and
are not meant for our benefit, yet we could not survive without
them. The ways that ecosystem services support our lives and
civilization are countless and profound (pp. 35, 97).
Just as we may deplete natural resources, we may de-
grade ecosystem services when, for example, we destroy
habitat or generate pollution. In recent years, our depletion of
nature’s goods and our disruption of nature’s services have in-
tensified, driven by rising affluence and a human population
that grows larger every day.
Figure 1.2 We rely on the ecosystem services that natural
systems provide. For example, forested hillsides help people
living below by purifying water and air, cycling nutrients, regulating
water flow, preventing flooding, and reducing erosion, as well as by
providing game, wildlife, timber, recreation, and aesthetic beauty.
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 3
8
7
Human population (billions)
6
Industrial revolution
• Fossil fuels 5
• Cities and factories
• Industrialized agriculture 4
• Better medicine
Agricultural • Better sanitation 3
revolution
2
1
0
~10,000 yr 0 500 1000 1500 2000
before present
Year
Figure 1.3 The global human population increased after
the agricultural revolution and then skyrocketed as a
result of the industrial revolution. Data from U.S. Census Bureau,
U.N. Population Division, and other sources.
 or every person alive in the year 1800, about how
F
C H A P T E R 1 • S c i e n c e a n d S u s ta i n a b i l i t y: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E n v i r o n m e n ta l S c i e n c e
many are alive today?
GO TO INTERPRETING GRAPHS & DATA ON
Population growth amplifies
our ­impact
For nearly all of human history, fewer than a million people
populated Earth at any one time. Today our population has
grown beyond 7 billion people. For every one person who used
to exist, several thousand people exist today! FIGURE 1.3 shows
just how recently and suddenly this monumental change has
taken place.
Two phenomena triggered our remarkable increase in
population size. The first was our transition from a hunter-
gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural way of life. This change
began around 10,000 years ago and is known as the agricul-
tural revolution. As people began to grow crops, domesticate
animals, and live sedentary lives on farms and in villages,
they produced more food to meet their nutritional needs and
began having more children.
The second phenomenon, known as the industrial
revolution, began in the mid-1700s. It entailed a shift from
rural life, animal-powered agriculture, and handcrafted goods
toward an urban society provisioned by the mass production
of factory-made goods and powered by fossil fuels (nonre-
newable energy sources such as coal, oil, and natural gas;
pp. 337–338). Industrialization brought dramatic advances in
technology, sanitation, and medicine. It also enhanced food
production through the use of fossil-fuel-powered equipment
and synthetic pesticides and fertilizers (pp. 137, 147).
The factors driving population growth have brought us
better lives in many ways. Yet as our world fills with people,
population growth has begun to threaten our well-being. We
must ask how well the planet can accommodate the 9 billion
people forecast by 2050. Already our sheer numbers, unparal-
leled in history, are putting unprecedented stress on natural
systems and the availability of resources. 3
13/08/14 6:03 pm
 Resource consumption exerts social 1.8

and environmental pressures 1.6

Global footprint (number of planets)

Besides stimulating population growth, industrialization in- 1.4 Ecological footprint
creased the amount of resources each of us consumes. By Biocapacity
1.2
mining energy sources and manufacturing more goods, we Overshoot
have enhanced the material affluence of many of the world’s 1.0
people. In the process, however, we have consumed more and
0.8
more of the planet’s limited resources.
One way to quantify resource consumption is to use the 0.6
concept of the “ecological footprint,” developed in the 1990s
by environmental scientists Mathis Wackernagel and William 0.4
Rees. An ecological footprint expresses the cumulative area 0.2
of biologically productive land and water required to provide Footprint in 1960 Footprint today
the resources a person or population consumes and to dispose 0
of or recycle the waste the person or population produces 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
(FIGURE 1.4). It measures the total area of Earth’s biologically
productive surface that a given person or population “uses” Figure 1.5 Analyses by one research group indicate that
once all direct and indirect impacts are totaled up. we have overshot Earth’s biocapacity—its capacity to sup-
For humanity as a whole, Wackernagel and his col- port us—by 50%. We are using renewable natural resources
leagues at the Global Footprint Network calculate that we 50% faster than they are being replenished. Data from WWF, 2012.
are now using 50% more of the planet’s resources than are Living planet report 2012. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.
available on a sustainable basis. That is, we are depleting How much larger is the global ecological footprint today
renewable resources by using them 50% faster than they are than it was half a century ago?
being replenished. This is like drawing the money out of a
GO TO INTERPRETING GRAPHS & DATA ON
bank account rather than living off the interest the money

makes. To look at this another way, it would take 1.5 years

for the planet to regenerate the renewable resources that
people use in 1 year. This excess use is termed overshoot
Carbon (54%): because we are overshooting, or surpassing, Earth’s capac-
forest land needed to ity to sustainably support us (FIGURE 1.5).
absorb CO2 emissions
from burning
Some scientists have criticized the methods by which
fossil fuels the Global Footprint Network calculates footprints, and many
question how well its methods measure overshoot. Indeed,
any attempt to boil complicated issues down to a single num-
ber is fraught with peril, even if the general concept is sound
and useful. Yet some things are clear; for instance, people from
wealthy nations such as the United States have much larger
ecological footprints than do people from poorer nations.
­Using the Global Footprint Network’s calculations, if all the
Fishing grounds (4%):
for seafood world’s people consumed resources at the rate of Americans,
we would need the equivalent of four planet Earths!
Pasture (8%):
for animal products Environmental science can help us
Forest (10%): avoid past mistakes
for wood products
Historical evidence suggests that civilizations can crumble
Built-up land (2%): when pressures from population and consumption overwhelm
for housing, resource availability. Historians have inferred that environmen-
transportation,
commerce, etc. tal degradation contributed to the fall of the Greek and Roman
empires; the Angkor civilization of Southeast Asia; and the
Cropland (22%): Maya, Anasazi, and other civilizations of the Americas. In Iraq,
for food and fiber Syria, and elsewhere in the Middle East, areas that today are
Figure 1.4 An ecological footprint shows the total area of barren desert had earlier been lush enough to support the origin
­ iologically productive land and water used by a given per-
b of agriculture and thriving ancient societies. Easter Island has
son or population. Shown is a breakdown of major components long been held up as a society that self-destructed after deplet-
of the average person’s footprint. Data from WWF, 2012. Living planet ing its resources, although new research paints a more complex
4 report 2012. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. picture (see The Science Behind the Story, pp. 6–7).

M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 4 13/08/14 6:03 pm

 In today’s globalized society, the stakes are higher than
ever because our environmental impacts are global. If we
cannot forge sustainable solutions to our problems, then the
resulting societal collapse will be global. Fortunately, envi-
ronmental science holds keys to building a better world. By
studying environmental science, you will learn to evaluate the
many changes happening around us and to think critically and
creatively about ways to respond.
The Nature of
Environmental Science
Environmental scientists examine how Earth’s natural sys-
tems function, how these systems affect people, and how we
influence these systems. Many environmental scientists are
motivated by a desire to develop solutions to environmental
problems. These solutions (such as new technologies, policies,
or resource management strategies) are applications of envi-
ronmental science. The study of such applications and their
consequences is, in turn, also part of environmental ­science.
Environmental science is
interdisciplinary
Studying our interactions with our environment is a complex
endeavor that requires expertise from many disciplines, in-
cluding ecology, earth science, chemistry, biology, geography,
economics, political science, demography, ethics, and others.
Environmental science is interdisciplinary, bringing tech-
niques, perspectives, and research results from multiple disci-
plines together into a broad synthesis (FIGURE 1.6).
Traditional established disciplines are valuable because
their scholars delve deeply into topics, developing expertise
in particular areas and uncovering new knowledge. Interdis-
ciplinary fields are valuable because their practitioners con-
solidate and synthesize the specialized knowledge from many
disciplines and make sense of it in a broad context to serve
the multifaceted interests of society.
Environmental science is especially broad because it
­encompasses not only the natural sciences (disciplines that
examine the natural world), but also the social sciences (disci-
plines that address human interactions and institutions). Most
environmental science programs focus more on the natural sci-
ences, whereas programs that emphasize the social sciences
­often use the term environmental studies. Whichever approach
one takes, these fields bring together many diverse perspectives
and sources of knowledge.
An interdisciplinary approach to addressing environ-
mental problems can produce effective solutions for society.
For example, we used to add lead to gasoline to make cars
run more smoothly, even though research showed that lead
emissions from tailpipes caused health problems, includ-
ing brain damage and premature death. In 1970 air pollution
was severe, and motor vehicles accounted for 78% of U.S.
lead emissions. In response, environmental scientists, engi-
neers, medical researchers, and policymakers all merged their
knowledge and skills into a process that eventually brought
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 5
Ethics Ecology
Biology
Economics
Chemistry
Engineering
Political Environmental Atmospheric
science science science
History
Oceanography
Anthropology Geology
Archaeology Geography
Figure 1.6 Environmental science is an interdisciplinary
C H A P T E R 1 • S c i e n c e a n d S u s ta i n a b i l i t y: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E n v i r o n m e n ta l S c i e n c e
pursuit. It draws from many different established fields of study
across the natural sciences and social sciences.
about a ban on leaded gasoline. By 1996 all gasoline sold
in the United States was unleaded, and the nation’s largest
source of atmospheric lead pollution had been completely
eliminated.
Environmental science is not the
same as environmentalism
Although many environmental scientists are interested in solv-
ing problems, it would be incorrect to confuse environmental
science with environmentalism or environmental activism.
They are very different. Environmental science involves the
scientific study of the environment and our interactions with it.
In contrast, environmentalism is a social movement dedicated
to protecting the natural world—and, by extension, people—
from undesirable changes brought about by human actions.
FAQ Aren’t environmental scientists also
environmentalists?
Not necessarily. Although environmental scientists search
for solutions to environmental problems, they strive to keep
their research rigorously objective and free from advocacy.
Of course, like all human beings, scientists are motivated by
personal values and interests—and like any human endeavor,
science can never be entirely free of social influence. Yet,
although personal values and social concerns may help shape
the questions scientists ask, scientists do their utmost to carry
out their work impartially and to interpret their results with
wide-open minds. Remaining open to whatever conclusions
the data demand is a hallmark of the effective scientist.
5
13/08/14 6:03 pm
 The S c i e n c e Behind The Story
What Are the Lessons of Easter Island?
A mere speck of land
in the vast Pacific
Ocean, Easter Island
is one of the most
remote spots on the
globe. Yet this far-
flung island—called
Rapa Nui by its
Easter Island’s immense statues
inhabitants—is the
focus of an intense debate among scientists seeking to solve its
mysteries and decipher the lessons it can offer us. The debate
shows how, in science, new information can challenge existing
ideas—and also how interdisciplinary research helps us to tackle
complex questions.
Ever since European explorers stumbled upon Rapa Nui
on Easter Sunday, 1722, outsiders have been struck by the
island’s barren landscape. Early European accounts suggested
that the 2000–3000 people living on the island seemed im-
poverished, subsisting on a few meager crops and possessing
only stone tools. Yet the forlorn island also featured hundreds
of gigantic statues of carved rock. How could people without
wheels or ropes, on an island without trees, have moved
90-ton,10 m (33 ft) statues as far as 10 km (6.2 mi) from the
quarry where they were chiseled to the coastal sites where they
were erected? Apparently some calamity must have befallen a
once-mighty civilization on the island.
Researchers who set out to solve Rapa Nui’s mysteries
soon discovered that the island had once been lushly forested.
Scientist John Flenley and his colleagues drilled cores deep into
lake sediments and examined ancient pollen grains preserved
there, seeking to reconstruct, layer by layer, the history of
vegetation in the region. Finding a great deal of palm pollen,
they inferred that when Polynesian people colonized the island
(between a.d. 300–900, they estimated), it was covered with
palm trees similar to the Chilean wine palm—which can live for
centuries.
By studying pollen and the remains of wood from char-
coal, archaeologist Catherine Orliac found that at least 21
other plant species—now gone—had also been common.
Clearly the island had once supported a diverse forest. For-
est plants would have provided fuelwood, building material
for houses and c ­ anoes, fruit to eat, fiber for clothing—and,
researchers guessed, logs and fibrous rope to help move
statues.
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 6
But pollen analysis showed that trees began declining after
human arrival, and ferns and grasses became more com-
mon. Then between 1400 and 1600, pollen levels plummeted.
Charcoal in the soil proved the forest had been burned, likely
for slash-and-burn farming. Researchers concluded that the
islanders, desperate for forest resources and cropland, had
deforested their own island.
With the forest gone, soil eroded away (data from lake
bottoms showed a great deal of accumulated sediment). Ero-
sion would have lowered yields of bananas, sugarcane, and
sweet potatoes, perhaps leading to starvation and population
decline.
Further evidence indicated that wild animals disappeared.
Archaeologist David Steadman analyzed 6500 bones and
found that at least 31 bird species provided food for the island-
ers. Today, only one native bird species is left. Remains from
charcoal fires show that early islanders feasted on fish, sharks,
porpoises, turtles, octopus, and shellfish—but in later years
they consumed little seafood.
As resources declined, researchers concluded, people fell
into clan warfare, revealed by unearthed weapons and skulls
with head wounds. Rapa Nui appeared to be a tragic case of
ecological suicide: A once-flourishing civilization depleted its
resources and destroyed itself. In this interpretation—popular-
ized by scientist Jared Diamond in his best-selling 2005 book
Collapse—Rapa Nui seemed to offer a clear lesson: We on our
global island, planet Earth, had better learn to use our limited
resources sustainably.
When Terry Hunt and Carl Lipo began research on Rapa
Nui in 2001, they expected simply to help fill gaps in a well-
understood history. But science is a process of discovery,
and sometimes evidence leads researchers far from where
they anticipated. For Hunt, an anthropologist at University
of Hawaii at Manoa, and Lipo, an archaeologist at California
State University, Long Beach, their work led them to con-
clude that the traditional “ecocide” interpretation didn’t tell
the whole story.
First, their radiocarbon dating (dating of items using
radioisotopes of carbon; p. 28) indicated that people had not
colonized the island until about a.d. 1200, suggesting that
deforestation occurred rapidly after their arrival. How could so
few people have destroyed so much forest so fast? Hunt and
Lipo’s answer: rats. When Polynesians settled new islands, they
brought crop plants and chickens and other domestic animals.
26/08/14 9:17 am
 They also brought rats—intentionally as a
food source or unintentionally as stowaways.
In either case, rats can multiply quickly, and
they soon overran Rapa Nui.
Researchers find rat tooth marks on old
nut casings, and Hunt and Lipo suggested
that rats ate so many palm nuts and shoots
that the trees could not regenerate. With no
young trees growing, the palm went extinct
once mature trees died.
Diamond and others counter that plenty
of palm nuts on Easter Island escaped rat
damage, that most plants on other islands
survived rats introduced by Polynesians, and
that over 20 additional plant species went ex-
tinct on Rapa Nui. Moreover, people brought

the rats, so even if rats destroyed the forest,
human colonization was still to blame.
Despite the forest loss, Hunt and Lipo
argue that islanders were able to persist and
thrive. Archaeology shows how islanders
adapted to Rapa Nui’s poor soil and windy Were the haunting statues of Rapa Nui built by a civilization that collapsed after devastating
weather by developing rock gardens to pro- its environment, or by a sustainable civilization that fell because of outside influence?
tect crop plants and nourish the soil. Hunt
and Lipo contended that tools that previous
researchers viewed as weapons were actually farm implements;
lethal injuries were rare; and no evidence of battle or defensive
fortresses was uncovered.
Hunt, Lipo, and others also unearthed old roads and
inferred how the statues were transported. It had been thought
that a powerful central authority forced armies of laborers to roll
them over countless palm logs, but Hunt and Lipo concluded
that small numbers of people could move them by tilting and
rocking them upright —the same way we move refrigerators
today. Indeed, the distribution of statues on the island sug-
gested the work of family groups. Islanders had adapted to
their resource-poor environment by becoming a peaceful and
cooperative society, with the statues providing a harmless out-
let for competition over status and prestige.
Altogether, the evidence led Hunt and Lipo to propose that
far from destroying their environment, the islanders had acted as
responsible stewards. The collapse of this sustainable civilization,
they argue, came with the arrival of Europeans, who unwittingly
brought contagious diseases to which the islanders had never
been exposed. Indeed, historical journals of sequential European
voyages depict a society falling into disarray as if reeling from
­epidemics, its statues tumbling around it.
C H A P T E R 1 • S c i e n c e a n d S u s ta i n a b i l i t y: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E n v i r o n m e n ta l S c i e n c e
Peruvian ships then began raiding Rapa Nui and tak-
ing islanders away into slavery. Foreigners acquired the
land, forced the remaining people into labor, and introduced
thousands of sheep, which destroyed the few native plants
left on the island. Thus, the collapse of Rapa Nui’s civiliza-
tion resulted from a barrage of disease, violence, and slave
raids following foreign contact. Before that, Hunt and Lipo
say, Rapa Nui’s people boasted 500 years of a peaceful and
resilient society.
Hunt and Lipo’s interpretation, put forth in a 2011 book,
The Statues That Walked, would represent a paradigm shift
(p. 12) in how we view Easter Island. Debate between the two
camps over these complex issues remains heated, however,
and interdisciplinary research continues as scientists look for
new ways to test the differing hypotheses. This is how science
advances, and in the long-term, data from additional studies
should lead us closer and closer to the truth.
Like the people of Rapa Nui, we are all stranded together
on an island with limited resources. What is the lesson of Easter
Island for our global island, Earth? Perhaps there are two: Any
island population must learn to live within its means—but with
care and ingenuity, there is hope that we can.

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 The Nature of Science
Science is a systematic process for learning about the world
and testing our understanding of it. The term science is also
used to refer to the accumulated body of knowledge that
arises from this dynamic process of observing, questioning,
testing, and discovery.
Knowledge gained from science can be applied to address
society’s needs—for instance, to develop technology or to in-
form policy and management decisions (FIGURE 1.7). From the
food we eat to the clothing we wear to the health care we rely
on, virtually everything in our lives has been improved by the
application of science. Many scientists are motivated by the
potential for developing useful applications. Others are moti-
vated simply by a desire to understand how the world works.
Scientists test ideas by critically
­examining evidence
Science is all about asking and answering questions. Scientists
examine how the world works by making observations, taking
(a) Chevy Volt, an electric hybrid car
(b) Prescribed burning
Figure 1.7 Scientific knowledge is applied in engineering and
technology and in policy and management decisions. Energy-
efficient electric automobiles (a) are technological advances made
possible by materials and energy research. Prescribed burning (b) is
8 a forest management practice informed by ecological research.
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 8
measurements, and testing whether their ideas are s­ upported by
evidence. The effective scientist thinks critically and does not
simply accept conventional wisdom from others. The scien-
tist becomes excited by novel ideas but is skeptical and judges
ideas by the strength of evidence that supports them. In these
ways, scientists are good role models for the rest of us, be-
cause we can all benefit from learning to think critically in our
everyday lives.
A great deal of scientific work is observational science
or descriptive science, research in which scientists gather
basic information about organisms, materials, systems, or
processes that are not yet well known. In this approach, re-
searchers explore new frontiers of knowledge by observing
and measuring phenomena to gain a better understand-
ing of them. Such research is common in traditional fields
such as astronomy, paleontology, and taxonomy, and also
in newer, fast-growing fields such as molecular biology
and genomics.
Once enough basic information is known about a sub-
ject, scientists can begin posing questions that seek deeper
explanations about how and why things are the way they are.
At this point they may pursue hypothesis-driven science,
­research that proceeds in a more targeted and structured man-
ner, using experiments to test hypotheses within a framework
traditionally known as the scientific method.
The scientific method is a traditional
approach to research
The scientific method is a technique for testing ideas with ob-
servations. There is nothing mysterious or intimidating about
the scientific method; it is merely a formalized version of the
way any of us might use logic to resolve a question. Because
science is an active, creative process, innovative researchers
may depart from the traditional scientific method when par-
ticular situations demand it. Moreover, scientists in different
fields approach their work differently because they deal with
dissimilar types of information. Nonetheless, ­scientists of all
persuasions broadly agree on fundamental elements of the
process of scientific inquiry. As practiced by individual re-
searchers or research teams, the scientific method (FIGURE 1.8)
typically follows the steps outlined below.
Make observations  Advances in science usually begin
with the observation of some phenomenon that the scientist
wishes to explain. Observations set the scientific method in
motion and play a role throughout the process.
Ask questions  Curiosity is in our human nature. Just
observe young children exploring a new environment—they
want to touch, taste, watch, and listen to everything, and as
soon as they can speak, they begin asking questions. Sci-
entists, in this respect, are kids at heart. Why is the ocean
salty? Why are storms becoming more severe? What is caus-
ing algae to cover local ponds? When pesticides poison fish
or frogs, are people also affected? How can we help restore
populations of plants and animals? All of these are questions
environmental scientists ask.
13/08/14 6:03 pm
 Scientific method can be attributed to changes in the independent variable. Such
an experiment is known as a controlled experiment because the
Observations scientist controls for the effects of all variables ­except the one
he or she is testing. In our example, the pond left unfertilized
serves as a control, an unmanipulated point of comparison for
the manipulated treatment pond.
Questions Whenever possible, it is best to replicate one’s experi-
ment; that is, to stage multiple tests of the same comparison.
Our scientist could perform a replicated experiment on, say,
10 pairs of ponds, adding fertilizer to one of each pair.
Hypothesis
Analyze and interpret results  Scientists record data,
or information, from their studies (FIGURE 1.9). They par-
ticularly value quantitative data (information expressed us-
Predictions ing numbers), because numbers provide precision and are
easy to compare. The scientist conducting the fertilization
Reject experiment, for instance, might quantify the area of water
hypothesis. surface covered by algae in each pond or might measure the
Fail to reject Form a dry weight of algae in a certain volume of water taken from
Test
hypothesis. new one.
Test a new
each. It is vital, however, to collect data that is representative.
prediction.

C H A P T E R 1 • S c i e n c e a n d S u s ta i n a b i l i t y: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E n v i r o n m e n ta l S c i e n c e
Results

Figure 1.8 The scientific method is the traditional experimen-

tal approach that scientists use to learn how the world works.

Develop a hypothesis  Scientists address their ques-

tions by devising explanations that they can test. A hypothesis
is a statement that attempts to explain a phenomenon or an-
swer a scientific question. For example, a scientist investigat-
ing why algae are growing excessively in local ponds might
observe that chemical fertilizers are being applied on farm
fields nearby. The scientist might then propose a hypothesis
as follows: “Agricultural fertilizers running into ponds cause
the amount of algae in the ponds to increase.”

Make predictions  The scientist next uses the hypoth-

esis to generate predictions, specific statements that can be
directly and unequivocally tested. In our algae example, a
­researcher might predict: “If agricultural fertilizers are added
to a pond, the quantity of algae in the pond will increase.”

Test the predictions  Scientists test predictions by gather-

ing evidence that could potentially refute them and thus disprove
the hypothesis. The strongest form of evidence comes from
experiments. An experiment is an activity designed to test the
validity of a prediction or a hypothesis. It involves manipulating
variables, or conditions that can change.
For example, a scientist could test the prediction linking
algal growth to fertilizer by selecting two identical ponds and
adding fertilizer to one of them. In this example, fertilizer input Figure 1.9 Researchers gather data in order to test predic-
is an independent variable, a variable the scientist manipulates, tions in experiments. Here, Dr. Jennifer Smith of the Scripps
whereas the quantity of algae that results is the dependent Institution of Oceanography in San Diego photographs coral at a
variable, a variable that depends on the fertilizer input. If the remote reef in the South Pacific. Data from analysis of the photos
two ponds are identical except for a single independent variable will help her test hypotheses about how human impacts affect the
(fertilizer input), then any differences that arise between the ponds condition and community structure of coral reefs. 9

M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 9 27/08/14 10:18 am

 Because it is impractical to measure a pond’s total algal
growth, our researcher might instead sample from multiple
areas of each pond. These areas must be selected in a random
manner; choosing areas with the most growth or the least
growth, or areas most convenient to sample, would not pro-
vide a representative sample.
Even with the precision that numbers provide, experi-
mental results may not be clear-cut. Data from treatments and
controls may vary only slightly, or replicates may yield dif-
ferent results. The researcher must therefore analyze the data
using statistical tests. With these mathematical methods, sci-
entists can determine objectively and precisely the strength
and reliability of patterns they find.
If experiments disprove a hypothesis, the scientist will
reject it and may formulate a new hypothesis to replace it. If
experiments fail to disprove a hypothesis, this lends support
to the hypothesis but does not prove it is correct. The scientist
may choose to generate new predictions to test the hypothesis
in different ways and further assess its likelihood of being
true. Thus, the scientific method loops back on itself, giving
rise to repeated rounds of hypothesis revision and experimen-
tation (see Figure 1.8).
If repeated tests fail to reject a hypothesis, evidence in fa-
vor of it accumulates, and the researcher may eventually con-
clude that the hypothesis is well supported. Ideally, the scientist
would want to test all possible explanations. For instance, our
researcher might formulate an additional hypothesis, proposing
that algae increase in fertilized ponds because chemical fertiliz-
ers diminish the numbers of fish or invertebrate animals that
eat algae. It is possible, of course, that both hypotheses could
be correct and that each may explain some portion of the initial
observation that local ponds were experiencing algal blooms.
We test hypotheses in different ways
An experiment in which the researcher actively chooses and
manipulates the independent variable is known as a manipu-
lative experiment. A manipulative experiment provides strong
evidence because it can reveal causal relationships, showing
that changes in an independent variable cause changes in a de-
pendent variable. In practice, however, we cannot run manipu-
lative experiments for all questions, especially for processes
involving large spatial scales or long time scales. For example,
in studying global climate change (Chapter 14), we cannot run
a manipulative experiment adding carbon dioxide to 10 treat-
ment planets and 10 control planets and then compare the re-
sults! Thus, it is common for researchers to run natural experi-
ments, which compare how dependent variables are expressed
in naturally different contexts, and to search for correlation, or
statistical association among variables.
For instance, let’s suppose our scientist studying algae sur-
veys 50 ponds, 25 of which happen to be fed by fertilizer runoff
from nearby farm fields and 25 of which are not. Let’s say he or
she finds seven times more algae in the fertilized ponds. The sci-
entist may conclude that algal growth is correlated with fertilizer
input; that is, that one tends to increase along with the other.
This type of evidence is not as strong as the causal dem-
onstration that manipulative experiments can provide, but often
10 a natural experiment is the only feasible approach for a subject
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 10
of immense scale, such as an ecosystem. Many questions in en-
vironmental science are complex and exist at large scales, so
they must be addressed with correlative data. As such, environ-
mental scientists cannot always provide clear-cut, black-and-
white answers to questions from policymakers and the public.
Nonetheless, good correlative studies can make for very strong
science, and they preserve the real-world complexity that ma-
nipulative experiments often sacrifice. Whenever possible, sci-
entists try to integrate natural and manipulative experiments to
gain the advantages of each.
The scientific process continues
­beyond the scientific method
Scientific research takes place within the context of a com-
munity of peers. To have impact, a researcher’s work must be
published and made accessible to this community. Thus, the
scientific method is embedded within a larger process involv-
ing the scientific community as a whole (FIGURE 1.10).
Peer review   When a researcher’s work is complete and
the results analyzed, he or she writes up the findings and
submits them to a journal (a scholarly publication in which
scientists share their work). The journal’s editor asks several
other scientists who specialize in the subject area to examine
the manuscript, provide comments and criticism (generally
anonymously), and judge whether the work merits publica-
tion in the journal. This procedure, known as peer review, is
an essential part of the scientific process.
Peer review is a valuable guard against faulty research
contaminating the literature (the body of published studies)
on which all scientists rely. However, because scientists are
human, personal biases and politics can sometimes creep into
the review process. Fortunately, just as individual scientists
strive to remain objective in conducting their research, the
scientific community does its best to ensure fair review of all
work. Winston Churchill once called democracy the worst
form of government, except for all the others that had been
tried. The same might be said about peer review; it is an im-
perfect system, yet it is the best we have.
It is important to note that scientists are not paid money
for peer review; their services are entirely voluntary. Moreover,
researchers generally have to pay the journals that publish their
papers.
Conference presentations   Scientists also frequently
present their work at professional conferences, where they
interact with colleagues and receive comments on their re-
search. Such interactions can help improve a researcher’s
work and foster collaboration among researchers.
Grants and funding   To fund their research, most sci-
entists need to spend a great deal of time requesting money
from private foundations or from government agencies such
as the National Science Foundation. Grant applications un-
dergo peer review just as scientific papers do, and competi-
tion for funding is generally intense.
Scientists’ reliance on funding sources can occasionally
lead to conflicts of interest. A researcher who obtains data
27/08/14 10:20 am

Scientific process (as practiced by scientific community)
Scientific method (as practiced by
individual researcher or research group)
Observations
Questions
Hypothesis Paper rejected
Revise
Predictions paper
Reject
Fail to
hypothesis
Test reject
hypothesis
Results
Scientific paper
showing his or her funding source in an unfavorable light may
be reluctant to publish the results for fear of losing funding—
or worse yet, could be tempted to doctor the results. This situ-
ation can arise, for instance, when an industry funds research
to test its products for health or safety. Most scientists resist
these pressures, but whenever you are assessing a scientific
study, it is always a good idea to note where the researchers
obtained their funding.
Weighing The Issues
Follow the Money Let us say you are a research scientist
wanting to study the impacts of chemicals released into lakes
by pulp-and-paper mills. Obtaining research funding has been
difficult. Then a large pulp-and-paper company contacts you
and offers to fund your research examining how its chemical
effluents affect water bodies. What are the benefits and draw-
backs of this offer? Would you accept the offer?
Repeatability  The careful scientist may test a hypothesis
repeatedly in various ways. Following publication, other sci-
entists may attempt to reproduce the results in their own ex-
periments. Scientists are inherently cautious about accepting
a novel hypothesis, so the more a result can be reproduced by
different research teams, the more confidence scientists will
have that it provides a correct explanation.
M01_WITH4579_05_CH01_p001-020.indd 11
Figure 1.10 The scientific method
that research teams follow is part
of a larger framework—the over-
all process of science carried out
by the scientific community. This
Further process includes peer review and
research publication of research, acquisition of
by scientific funding, and the elaboration of theory
community
through the cumulative work of many
researchers.
Publication
in
scientific
journal
Paper accepted
C H A P T E R 1 • S c i e n c e a n d S u s ta i n a b i l i t y: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E n v i r o n m e n ta l S c i e n c e
Peer review
Theories  If a hypothesis survives repeated testing by numer-
ous research teams and continues to predict experimental out-
comes and observations accurately, it may be incorporated into
a theory. A theory is a widely accepted, well-tested explanation
of one or more cause-and-effect relationships that has been
extensively validated by a great amount of research. Whereas
a hypothesis is a simple explanatory statement that may be dis-
proved by a single experiment, a theory consolidates many re-
lated hypotheses that have been supported by a large body of data.
Note that scientific use of the word theory differs from
popular usage of the word. In everyday language when we
say something is “just a theory,” we are suggesting it is a
speculative idea without much substance. However, scientists
mean just the opposite when they use the term. To them, a
theory is a conceptual framework that explains a phenomenon
and has undergone extensive and rigorous testing, such that
confidence in it is extremely strong.
For example, Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural se-
lection (pp. 48–50) has been supported and elaborated by many
thousands of studies over 150 years of intensive research. Re-
search has shown repeatedly and in great detail how plants and
animals change over generations, or evolve, expressing charac-
teristics that best promote survival and reproduction. Because
of its strong support and explanatory power, evolutionary the-
ory is the central unifying principle of modern biology. Other
prominent scientific theories include atomic theory, cell theory,
big bang theory, plate tectonics, and general relativity. 11
13/08/14 6:03 pm
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Clevedon
Case
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Clevedon Case

Author: Nancy Oakley

John Oakley

Release date: May 15, 2022 [eBook #68091]

Most recently updated: July 13, 2022

Language: English

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

CLEVEDON CASE ***
This etext was transcribed by Les Bowler.

WHAT THIS STORY IS ABOUT

The well-known authority on criminology, Dennis Holt, inherited a
house in a remote village, the sort of place in which, to quote
himself, “nothing ever happens.” One night at fifty-three minutes
past eleven (he was always meticulously accurate about time), his
attention was attracted by a peremptory tapping on the window
pane. A moment later, the lower sash was slowly pushed up and a
young girl appeared.
“Let me in!” she whispered. “Please—I have hurt myself.”
That was the beginning of a bewildering series of happenings in the
life of Dennis Holt. Suddenly he found himself precipitated into the
midst of a bewildering mystery, which at one time seemed to
threaten even his own liberty.
Patiently piecing together the ascertained facts, Holt eventually
presented a remarkable reconstruction of what had taken place on
that dramatic night.

THE
CLEVEDON
: : CASE : :

BY
NANCY & JOHN
OAKLEY
 PHILADELPHIA
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London, Reading and Fakenham.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. A Midnight Visitor 9
II. The Tragedy at White Towers 23
III. A Meeting in the Dark 34
IV. The Silver-headed Hatpin 45
V. Kitty Clevedon and Ronald Thoyne 59
VI. A New Sensation 70
VII. Evidence at the Inquest 80
VIII. The story of a Quarrel 94
IX. What Kitty Clevedon said 105
X. An Invitation from Lady Clevedon 117
XI. A visit from Ronald Thoyne 129
XII. Ronald Thoyne disappears 145
XIII. The Vicar’s story 154
XIV. Kitty sends a Telegram 163
XV. On Ronald Thoyne’s Yacht 172
XVI. The Mystery of Billy Clevedon 185
XVII. More about Billy Clevedon 193
XVIII. The Anonymous Letters 205
 XIX. The Hairpin Clue 217
XX. Still more about Billy Clevedon 227
XXI. Why Tulmin blackmailed Clevedon 239
XXII. More Anonymous letters 251
XXIII. Tulmin’s queer story 263
XXIV. The wrath of Ronald Thoyne 275
XXV. The story of Mary Grainger 286
XXVI. Nora Lepley’s explanation 297
XXVII. Who killed Philip Clevedon 306
 CHAPTER I
A MIDNIGHT VISITOR

I became mixed up with the Clevedon case—the Cartordale Mystery,

as it has been called—in curious fashion. True, it was to some
extent in my line of business, though I do not actually earn my living
by straightening out tangles. With me it is all a matter of “copy.”
You may or may not have read my various books—there are eight of
them now—on criminology. Their preparation has led me into all
sorts of queer by-ways and has given me a curiously clear and
analytical insight into the mind of the criminal. I have solved many
mysteries—you will forgive the apparent boastfulness, but I have no
useful Watson to detail my exploits—but I stop there, with solving
them, I mean. When I know the answer, I hand the whole matter
over to the police. “There is your man (or woman)—take him,” I say.
And sometimes they do take him—and hang him. But occasionally
they reply, “But we can’t take him—we couldn’t prove it against him.”
That, however, is no business of mine. I am a scientist, not a police
official, and have nothing to do with the foolery of their law courts or
the flummery of what they call their rules of evidence.
I have supplied the answer to the conundrum and that suffices me.
The mystery and its solution go into my notebooks, to be used
eventually for my own purpose, it may be to illustrate a theory, or
perhaps to demonstrate a scientific fact. I have no desire to pose
and no intention of posing as a worker of miracles.
There is nothing marvellous about my methods nor wonderful in the
results. I do but proceed from fact to fact, as you will see in this
narrative, wherein I have set forth exactly what happened, however
foolish it may make me look. The reader will accompany me step by
step in my investigation of the Clevedon mystery and will learn
precisely how the solution, which so bewildered and astonished the
little group in Cartordale, came to me. You will see me groping in the
dark, then you will discover, as I did, a pin-point of light which grows
wider and wider until the whole story stands revealed. And if you
guess the solution before I did, that will show that you are a cleverer
detective than I am, which may very easily be.
I did not, by the way, go to Cartordale for the purpose of investigating
this particular mystery. I became involved in it almost involuntarily. It
was a queerly tangled skein enough, and that of itself would have
been sufficient fascination to drag me into it, though I was deep in it
long before any intention or even desire to solve the puzzle
manifested itself. As a rule I carefully select my cases. Some
appeal to me, others do not. But in this instance I was not entirely a
free agent. I was in it before I quite knew where I was going. That
being so, it may be interesting to explain how I came to be at
Cartordale at all.
My Aunt Emily, to put it briefly, left me the house and the money that
took me into the wilds of Peakshire. I had never met her in the flesh,
and she, as far as I know, had never set eyes on me. In point of fact,
she never forgave my father for taking to himself a second wife after
my mother died. But that is family history and dry stuff. Aunt Emily
made amends for past neglect by her will. She left me about eight
hundred a year from investments, and the house at Cartordale, both
very useful, though I was not exactly a poor man. My books have
provided me with a fairly steady income for some years.
Stone Hollow, the house I had inherited, was a square, rather
gloomy-looking building—outwardly sombre, at all events—situated
at the head of Cartordale, a wild and romantic valley in the heart of
Peakshire, some sixteen miles from the large industrial city of
Midlington. The name, Stone Hollow, had a comparatively recent
derivation, arising from the fact that the house was built on the site
of, and largely on the profits from, a now disused stone quarry.
The house itself stood on a sort of broad shelf, and behind it a tall hill
sprang almost perpendicularly upwards, still showing on its face the
marks and scars of former quarrying operations, though Nature was
already busy trying to hide the evidences of man’s vandalism behind
a cover of green and brown. Before the house, the ground sloped
gently downwards towards the Dale, while to the left was a stretch of
heather clad moorland lying between Stone Hollow and White
Towers, the residence of Sir Philip Clevedon.
It sounds rather well in description, but I will frankly confess that after
a very few days at Cartordale I was bored. Though I had travelled
widely, I had never actually lived out of London and was always very
quickly eager to be back there. At first, I had done my best to
persuade myself that a country life was really the ideal and that it
would provide me with quiet and isolation that would be useful for
literary work. But I soon arrived at the limit of my resources in self-
deception. Which brings me to the night of February 23rd.
I was lolling on the couch in the room I had made my study,
pretending to work and succeeding very badly.
“Nothing ever happens in a place like this,” I said aloud, with a
yawn. “I should become a hopeless vegetable if I lived here. I
couldn’t even write another book. There isn’t a chapter in the whole
blessed place. Neither robbery nor murder ever happens. The folk
wouldn’t know the meaning of the words without looking them up in a
dictionary. Honesty is the badge of all their tribe, and honesty, if
commendable, is dull.”
I took up a batch of manuscript from the desk at my elbow and
began to read in rather desultory fashion, making a correction here
and there with a pencil.
“Another delusion shattered,” I murmured. “They say one can write
so much better in the quiet of the country than amid the bustle and
distractions of town. That is bunkum. This one can’t, anyway. I
thought I would have made a good start with this book, but I have
done next to nothing, and what there is of it is rotten. I could do
more work in a week in London than I shall do in three months of
this. I think I’ll be getting back next week.”
But I was wrong in saying that nothing ever happened in Cartordale.
Adventure was even at that moment coming towards me with very
hurried footsteps.
The time—it is essential always to be precise in details—was fifty-
three minutes past eleven, and the date February 23rd.
It came, the beginning of the story, with a quick, almost peremptory
tapping on the window-pane and then the bottom sash was slowly
pushed up. I turned to the desk and took a revolver from one of the
small drawers, then strode across the room and raised the blind with
a quick rattle, half expecting that my visitor would reveal himself in
the shape of a burglar. What I saw brought even me to a standstill,
little susceptible as I am to surprises of any sort.
My visitor was not a burglar—at least, not a male of that species—
but a girl, who looked young enough to be in her teens, though she
may have been a year or two outside them, and a great deal too
pretty to be wandering about alone at that time of night. She was
wearing a long, sleeveless cloak and a grey, woollen cap, from
beneath which part of her hair had escaped and was blowing about
her face in little wisps of bronze-gold cloud.
“Let me in,” she whispered. “Please—I have hurt myself and I am
afraid to go on.”
I stretched out my hands and, placing them beneath her arms, lifted
her over the low window-sill and into the room.
“How strong you are,” she murmured.
But even as she said that, the something that had kept her up gave
way and she lay a limp, dead weight in my clasp. I carried her to the
couch, but as I placed her down and began to unfasten the long,
grey cloak, I noticed that the sleeve of her white blouse was stained
with blood. That was evidently the hurt to which she had referred;
and I began to wonder whether I had not better summon my
housekeeper. It looked essentially a case for feminine aid. The girl,
however, was already recovering.
“No, come here,” she said, as I began to move towards the door.
I returned to her side and gently lifted her arm.
“Yes, you have hurt yourself,” I remarked. “See—your arm, isn’t it?
—there is blood—”
“Yes, it’s my arm,” she replied, lifting her cloak and showing a ragged
tear in the blouse on the under-side of the sleeve. “It’s not very bad
—I think—but it seems to be bleeding a good deal, and I—I am
afraid of blood.”
“May I look at it?” I asked. “I could perhaps bandage it, and—”
“Are you a doctor—how nice!” she cried.
“No,” I replied with a smile, “I am not a doctor. But I am a first-aid
expert, enough of one, anyway, to say whether or not a doctor is
necessary. Yes, I have treated much bigger injuries than this. It is
only a scratch, I fancy, and the blood looks more than it really is. A
very little blood makes a mess of things. Lie still a minute. I have
everything here within reach and we’ll soon put you right.”
I brought a pair of scissors and cut away the sleeve, finding the arm
beneath it—the left arm, by the way—rather badly gashed.
“To-morrow you must show that to a doctor,” I said when I had
washed and bandaged it. “Now I will give you a glass of wine and—”
“Is there anyone but you in the house?” the girl asked abruptly, as if
some thought had suddenly occurred to her.
“There is my housekeeper,” I said, “and a maid. Shall I rouse them
and—?”
“Mercy, no!” she exclaimed. “Whatever would they say if they found
me here—at this time of night—?”
I nodded, quite comprehending the hint so conveyed.
“I have been visiting a friend,” she went on, observing me keenly
through her drooping eyelashes, perhaps to see how I took the story,
“and I—I lost my way.”
“Your friends should not have allowed you to attempt to find it by
yourself,” I returned.
“My friends are not plural,” she retorted with a little trill of laughter.
“They—or rather she—she is a maiden lady—and I am not in the
least bit nervous. I am a country girl by birth and upbringing, and the
darkness means nothing to me. It is the fog that worries me. I
stayed later than I should have done, and in my hurry to get back I
lost my way. Then I saw the light in your window and I came,
meaning to ask where I was. I had to climb over a wall, and in doing
that I cut my arm on some glass. I think it is very stupid to put glass
on walls—”
“It shall be knocked off to-morrow,” I interrupted.
“Oh, it doesn’t matter,” the girl said demurely. “I am not likely to
come this way again. But do you know Cartordale?”
“Well, know is hardly the word. I am afraid I don’t very well. I have
only been here a short time,” I answered. “I know very few people. I
have never seen you before, for example.”
That was a leading question very thinly disguised, but she did not
rise to it.
“I am afraid,” I went on, “it would be but another instance of the blind
leading the blind if I attempted to guide you about the Dale. I will do
my best if you will tell me where you live, unless, indeed, you would
prefer to stay here until morning. The place is at your service and I
could very easily waken the—”
But my visitor’s negative gesture was very decided.
“What house is this?” she demanded.
“It is called Stone Hollow,” I told her.
“Oh, I know Stone Hollow,” she cried. “It was Mrs.—Mrs.—a lady
with a curious name, but I have forgotten it.”
“Mrs. Mackaluce,” I volunteered. “She was my aunt.”
“Yes, that was the name, I remember now. I have been here before,
but never by the—the back window. If you can put me on the
roadway outside Stone Hollow I shall know where I am.”
“I can take you home, at all events, if you can show me the way,” I
said.
The girl looked at me for a moment or two doubtfully as if that were
not quite what she had intended.
“It is not right that you should be out alone at this time of the night,” I
added.
“Oh, right and wrong are merely terms,” she replied, rising to her
feet. “There is no law against being out at night. It isn’t forbidden in
the Defence of the Realm Act, is it? If I like to be out at night it is
right I should be.”
“I was thinking of the danger, not of the law,” I responded dryly.
“Why, whatever danger can there be?” the girl cried, opening wide
her pretty eyes. “There are no highway robbers in Cartordale, nor
any Germans.”
But I did not argue with her. I simply handed her the woollen cap
which had fallen off when she fainted, then helped her to fasten the
cloak around her, and finally led her into the hall, picking up my own
hat and coat as I went. I was fully determined on seeing her to her
own home, wherever that might be and whatever her objections. I
opened the door noiselessly and closed it again with the merest click
of the lock.
“It is very dark,” I muttered, being a man of the town and used to
gas-lamps.
“Yes, it often is at midnight,” the girl replied demurely, but with a little
catch in her voice as if she were choking back a laugh. “But I can
see very well. Those who are country-born have eyes in their feet,
you know, and never miss the path. Why, there are men of the Dale,
and women too, for that matter, who will walk across the moors at
dark and never miss the path for all it is no more than three feet
wide.”
“But you have lost your way once already to-night,” I murmured.
“That doesn’t affect the question,” she retorted scornfully. “It was
only because I was trying a short cut. I left the path of my own
accord. If I had kept to the road I should have been home by now.
The longest way round is the quickest way home. Is that a proverb?
It sounds like one. If it isn’t it should be. It is true, anyway. Besides,
it is foggy. That makes a difference. Give me your hand.”
Apparently she did see better than I, for the next minute I felt the grip
of her slender fingers as she seized mine and began to pull me
forward. We went swiftly and in silence, still hand in hand, for some
minutes, then her clasp loosened.
For a moment or two the shadow of her lingered beside me, then
suddenly disappeared into the fog. We had reached a part of the
Dale that was flanked on one side by a wall of rock which deepened
even the blackness of the night and made the darkness, to me, at all
events, absolutely impenetrable. There was no sign of light or
house, nor indeed of any building, and when I groped my way to the
side of the road, I stumbled, first into a ditch and then against a low
rubble wall, beyond which was only fog much thicker now than it had
been earlier in the evening.
And it was there I lost her. How she went, or in which direction, I had
no idea. But I had no doubt that she had evaded me of design—and
that her home was nowhere thereabout. That she knew the Dale
intimately was evident. She had deliberately led me to its darkest
spot simply that she might there lose me. I smiled grimly as I
realised that. She had fooled me with incomparable skill and wit. I
paid a frank mental tribute to her cleverness. A young lady of brains,
this, and one whose acquaintance was well worth cultivating.
I stood waiting for some little time—possibly ten minutes or a quarter
of an hour—then lit a cigarette and walked slowly back to Stone
Hollow, pondering over the queer little adventure, wondering who the
girl was and whether—or rather when—I should see her again. She
was evidently an inhabitant of the Dale—her familiarity with it at all
events suggested that—in which case she could hardly expect to
evade me permanently. I must sooner or later meet and recognise
her. At any rate it was a piquant little mystery, and I must confess
that somehow Cartordale no longer seemed quite so dull as it had
been.
I had little idea then as to what the mystery, in which I had thus
become involved, really was or how quickly it would develop on
tragic and very unexpected lines.
I reached Stone Hollow again at 2.7 a.m. The whole episode, from
the knock on the window to my return home had occupied two hours
fourteen minutes.
 CHAPTER II
THE TRAGEDY AT WHITE TOWERS

When I came down to Stone Hollow to take over my new

inheritance, I found the house completely furnished on extremely
comfortable if rather old-fashioned lines; and Martha Helter in
possession. She had been my aunt’s housekeeper for over twenty
years and had evidently every intention of being mine also. I was
quite agreeable, since it saved me a lot of trouble, nor have I so far
seen any reason to regret that decision.
Mrs. Helter—the title had apparently been accorded her by courtesy,
since she was still a spinster and everybody but myself used it; but I
began with Martha, her Christian name, and Martha it is to this day—
is a most capable manager and runs my household with a precision
that reminds one of well-oiled wheels, and a careful economy that
has its recommendation in these days of ridiculous prices. She
seemed to know and to be known by almost everybody in the Dale,
and was an all but exhaustless fountain of anecdote and news.
I say “all but” because she could not give me immediately the
information I sought regarding my pretty midnight visitor. Not that I
attached very much actual importance to that queer incident. It had
amused me, and perhaps, though I would not confess it even to
myself, I was just a little piqued at being so cleverly outwitted by a
mere girl. I had cause during the day to revise my estimate of the
interest I was to take in my uninvited guest. But my first thought was
to identify her.
“Martha,” I said to my housekeeper, “did you ever meet hereabouts a
young lady wearing a grey woollen cap and a long cloak without
sleeves, a sort of cape reaching to her boots?”
Martha Helter pondered the question for a minute or two, but shook
her head.
“I don’t think I have ever seen a cloak like that in Cartordale,” she
replied.
“I saw one yesterday,” I said, “and I wondered who the wearer was.
Never mind, perhaps I shall see her—I mean it—again. It was the
pattern of the cloak that took my fancy.”
I am not quite sure why I added that last phrase, though if Martha
noticed anything she kept a perfectly straight face.
“A grey woollen cap and a long cloak without sleeves?” said the little
maid who entered the room at that moment and to whom the
housekeeper propounded the question. “Why, yes’m, that’s Miss
Kitty Clevedon—lives with her ladyship, you know. There are two
gentlemen to see the master,” she added.
“Bring them in,” I said. “Who are they? Do you know them?”
“One of them is Sergeant Gamley, of the County Police,” Susan
replied, “but the other is a stranger and did not give his name.”
“Bring them in,” I repeated.
Sergeant Gamley was in uniform, a tall, thin man with a long hatchet
face and an air of important solemnity which he never shed. His
companion was rather more rotund in build, with puffy red cheeks
above which peered small, keen eyes that did not seem to linger
long on anything, but which for all that missed nothing. Abraham
Pepster was chief of the detective force at Peakborough, the county
town, and one may judge to some extent his prevailing characteristic
by the fact that his nickname among disrespectful subordinates was
“Gimlet-eyes.” It was, however, Sergeant Gamley who opened the
conversation on this particular occasion.
“We have called, Mr. Holt,” he said, “with regard to the tragedy at
White Towers. Sir Philip Clevedon—”
“A tragedy—of what nature?” I interrupted. “I have heard nothing of
it. There is nothing in the papers about it, is there? Or have I
missed it?”
I interposed just then because I wanted to slow down the story a
little. The girl who had visited me last night was named Clevedon—
Susan had just told me so—and now there was a Sir Philip Clevedon
and a tragedy. I could not help wondering, of course, what
connection there could be between the two, but I was determined to
feel my way cautiously, resolved not to be hustled or bounced into
saying more than I wanted to say. The story, whatever it was, should
come from them without any help from me.
“No, Mr. Holt, I dare say you haven’t heard anything yet—not many
have,” Sergeant Gamley went on. “As you say, it isn’t in the papers.
You are a stranger among us—yes, yes. For the moment I had
forgotten that. I knew your late respected aunt very well indeed, Mr.
Holt. There was a little matter of a burglary in this very house some
four years ago. Mr. Holt”—he turned to his companion—“has been
living here only a very short time. He succeeded the late Mrs.
Mackaluce, whose nephew he was.”
“Hadn’t you better tell Mr. Holt what has happened at White Towers?”
the other man suddenly interrupted, speaking in a small, soft voice
that was rather curiously in contrast with his bulk, and without any
trace of impatience. He had perhaps been as willing as myself that
the conversation should not be hurried.
“You can see White Towers from the upper windows of your own
house, Mr. Holt,” Sergeant Gamley continued. “It lies between you
and the village, a large house with an outstanding turret and two
smaller towers.”
“I have seen it,” I said, “but my housekeeper said it was White
Abbey, if that is the place you mean.”
“The good lady is a little mixed,” was Gamley’s reply.