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 Teaching
Primary Science
Constructively
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7 LIVING THINGS AND ENVIRONMENTS ________________________________ 227

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................227
HOW DO CHILDREN THINK ABOUT LIVING THINGS? ......................................................................... 228
REPRESENTATIONS AND LEARNING ABOUT ANIMALS ...................................................................... 232
LEARNING ABOUT LIFE CYCLES, ADAPTATION AND ECOLOGY ..................................................... 243
CHILDREN INVESTIGATING SMALL ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR .................................................................. 251
PLANTS IN THE SCHOOLGROUND ENVIRONMENT............................................................................. 259
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR ........................................................................................................ 266
Summary ________________________________________________________________269
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers_______________________270
Connecting to the curriculum ___________________________________________ 271
Online resources ________________________________________________________ 273
References ______________________________________________________________ 273

CHAPTER 8 LIVING THINGS: LINKING SCIENCE AND DESIGN TECHNOLOGIES 275

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................275
TAKING ACCOUNT OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE............................................................................................277
STUDENTS OBSERVING AND RECORDING.............................................................................................. 278
MAKING LINKS WITH THE ENGLISH LITERACY AREA ........................................................................... 279
AUTHENTIC TECHNOLOGICAL ACTIVITY ..................................................................................................280
STUDENT OWNERSHIP AND ENGAGEMENT ........................................................................................... 283
SCIENCE CONCEPTS RELATED TO ECOSYSTEMS.................................................................................. 286
SCIENTISTS CONTINUALLY UPDATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS ..................................................... 287
TEACHING APPROACHES THAT VALUE STUDENTS’ IDEAS AND SMALL-GROUP WORK.......288
APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES................................................................................................. 292
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR ........................................................................................................ 294
Summary ________________________________________________________________ 297
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers_______________________ 297
Connecting to the curriculum ___________________________________________298
Online resources ________________________________________________________299
References _____________________________________________________________ 300

CHAPTER 9 MATERIALS _______________________________________________________________ 302

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................302
TEACHERS’ IDEAS ABOUT OBJECTS, MATERIALS AND SUBSTANCES............................................303
STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT OBJECTS, MATERIALS AND SUBSTANCES ............................................309
DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT MATERIALS............................................................................ 317
CONSTRUCTIVIST SEQUENCES..................................................................................................................... 325
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR ........................................................................................................ 336
Summary ________________________________________________________________339
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers______________________ 340
Connecting to the curriculum ___________________________________________ 341
Acknowledgements ______________________________________________________343
Online resources ________________________________________________________343
References _____________________________________________________________ 344

CHAPTER 10 MATERIALS AND CHANGE ______________________________________________ 347

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 347
TEACHERS’ IDEAS ABOUT MATTER AND CHANGE ...............................................................................349
STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT MATTER AND CHANGE................................................................................. 351
 CONTENTS ix

LEARNING ABOUT PHYSICAL CHANGE..................................................................................................... 359

LEARNING ABOUT CHEMICAL CHANGE................................................................................................... 374
EQUIPMENT, CONSUMABLES AND SAFETY ............................................................................................. 378
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR ........................................................................................................380
Summary ________________________________________________________________382
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers_______________________383
Connecting to the curriculum __________________________________________ 384
Acknowledgements ______________________________________________________386
Online resources ________________________________________________________386
References ______________________________________________________________ 387
Endnotes ________________________________________________________________389

CHAPTER 11 OUR PLACE IN SPACE___________________________________________________ 390

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................390
TEACHERS’ IDEAS ABOUT ASTRONOMY ................................................................................................... 393
STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT CELESTIAL PHENOMENA ............................................................................ 395
CHILDREN’S QUESTIONS ABOUT SPACE .................................................................................................. 401
DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT ASTRAL OBJECTS AND EVENTS ................................... 401
LEARNING EXPERIENCES ABOUT ASTRONOMY....................................................................................403
PLANNING SPACE SCIENCE TEACHING SEQUENCES FOR CONCEPTUAL
CHANGE OR DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................................ 422
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR ........................................................................................................ 425
Summary ________________________________________________________________428
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers_______________________429
Connecting to the curriculum __________________________________________ 430
Acknowledgements ______________________________________________________432
Online resources ________________________________________________________432
References ______________________________________________________________433

CHAPTER 12 OUR PLANET EARTH_____________________________________________________ 436

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................436
WHAT IS THE EARTH’S SURFACE COMPOSED OF?............................................................................... 437
WHAT SLOW GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES CHANGE THE EARTH’S SURFACE? ............................. 462
WHAT SUDDEN GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES CAN AFFECT THE EARTH’S SURFACE? ............... 467
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR ........................................................................................................ 474
Summary ________________________________________________________________478
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers_______________________479
Connecting to the curriculum ___________________________________________ 481
Acknowledgements ______________________________________________________482
Online resources ________________________________________________________482
References _____________________________________________________________ 483

CHAPTER 13 WEATHER AND OUR ENVIRONMENT _________________________________ 485

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................485
WHAT ARE TEACHERS’ IDEAS ABOUT WEATHER?.................................................................................486
ELICITING STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT WEATHER.....................................................................................489
STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT WEATHER ......................................................................................................... 490
STUDENTS’ QUESTIONS ABOUT WEATHER .............................................................................................. 492
DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ IDEAS ABOUT WEATHER .............................................................................494
EXPLAINING THE WEATHER ...........................................................................................................................503
WHERE SHOULD TEACHING AND LEARNING ABOUT WEATHER BE SITUATED? .....................508
x CONTENTS

INTEGRATING WEATHER ACROSS THE CURRICULUM .........................................................................510

WEATHER AND ITS EFFECTS ........................................................................................................................... 512
SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR .........................................................................................................518
Summary _______________________________________________________________ 520
Concepts and understandings for primary teachers______________________ 520
Connecting to the curriculum ___________________________________________522
Acknowledgement _______________________________________________________524
Online resources ________________________________________________________524
References ______________________________________________________________525

AT A GLANCE: KEY TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES AND

OTHER PEDAGOGICAL TOPICS ________________________________________ 527

Index ____________________________________________________________________533
 Preface
A fundamental belief of the authors of this book is that effective primary science teaching will
support students in the formation and modification of their ideas so that they can make better
sense of the way in which their world works. Furthermore, it will enhance students’ understanding of
how these science ideas are derived and assist their agency in individual and social decision making
in areas underpinned by scientific ideas and processes.
This interpretation of learning science, which underpins this book, considers a significant
component of learning as conceptual development, modification and change. The intention is that
students take steps towards the concepts and understandings currently accepted by the scientific
community. Learning science, in this book, is also interpreted as students becoming members of a
classroom (scientific) learning community, one in which they are continually developing a range of
scientific competencies and learning what it means to engage in the practices of a scientific
community. These different dimensions to learning science are seen as commensurate with each other.
To achieve these aims, particular approaches to teaching primary science are espoused. These
approaches are based on the principle that we should teach in a way that is consistent with what we
know about how students learn. Most of the research evidence related to students’ science learning
suggests that students continually construct their own ideas about how their world works. The
evidence also suggests that students can be assisted to develop their competencies and identities in
the practices of a scientific (classroom) community as these ideas are tested against the available
evidence. This construction of ideas involves the interaction of the learner’s existing ideas with the
input of further experiences and ideas from their peers, teachers and other sources. Therefore, the
sociocultural context in which scientific ideas, competencies, practices and identities develop is an
ever-present consideration in how students learn.
Recent thinking strongly suggests that teachers need to be conscious of these interlinked aspects
if they are to facilitate the movement of student thinking from an ’everyday’ to a ’scientific’ way of
looking at the world, as well as assist them in making decisions about how to live sustainably in it.
Consequently, there has been an increasing emphasis on the scaffolding of student learning by the
teacher. This, in broad terms, is a constructivist view of learning, a view that has personal, social and
cultural dimensions. A goal of this book is that it will encourage teaching which is consistent with
this broad constructivist view of learning. At one level, this requires teachers to adopt a constructivist
mindset about how learning occurs. At another level, it encourages teachers to consider using
particular teaching strategies that support this view of learning. The title of this book, Teaching
Primary Science Constructively, endeavours to capture all of these ideals.
Consistent with this view of learning, this fifth edition continues to emphasise social
constructivism and the influence of the sociocultural context on learning. At the same time, it does
not devalue the place of conceptual change that is strongly linked with a personal constructivist
perspective. These constructivist interpretations of learning are presented within a wider framework
of factors that can influence change. ’Hot’ conceptual change that acknowledges the impact on
learning of a multitude of affective and related factors, for example, is now central to thinking about
how students learn science ideas and practices. The research evidence that effective science learning
is enhanced through student generated representations, and teachers using related pedagogy, is
growing and is integral to this edition. With reference to student agency in decision making in
everyday life, the pedagogy associated with primary students engaging with socioscientific issues is
now included. These facets of learning science are further exemplified by highlighting numerous
examples of ’science as a human endeavour’.

xi
xii PREFACE

The book has been written for two audiences. Firstly, it is intended for preservice teachers. The
content will encourage them to reflect upon their existing conceptions about how the world works;
that is, their science ideas, as well as their current beliefs about what is science, science learning and
science teaching. Consequently, most preservice teachers will be required to rethink what it means to
facilitate primary students’ science learning and hence the teaching approaches that they use.
Secondly, for practising teachers, this book will be a challenge to reconsider current teaching
methods. For those teachers familiar with constructivist learning, the book will provide the most
recent research findings related to student learning, as well as teaching, from a constructivist
perspective. It also highlights how teaching emphases have changed over the last few years within
this way of looking at learning science. For these teachers, numerous examples of the approach in
action, including many new ones, are presented in this edition and will assist their reflections on their
own practice. This book’s strength when it comes to practising teachers is that it provides teaching
ideas on how to implement a constructivist approach within specific content strands of their
primary science syllabuses.
This book addresses the implementation of the science understandings, science inquiry processes
and skills, and science as a human endeavour components that comprise most international primary
science curricula and syllabuses, including the science framework as outlined in the Australian
Curriculum: Science. A new chapter provides a substantive and interpretive overview of the Australian
Curriculum: Science. Each of its three strands, as well as other components such as general capabilities
and cross-curriculum priorities, are examined and then exemplified in various chapters as specific
science understanding areas, such as living things, weather and energy. To stress how each chapter
relates to components of the Australian Curriculum: Science, a ’Connecting to the curriculum’ section
at the end of most chapters provides examples of these relationships. There is also an increased focus
on the Science as a Human Endeavour strand in this edition, with additional content and
suggestions about how to interrelate this strand with Science Inquiry Skills and Science
Understandings. Apart from numerous everyday examples of the use and influence of science, more
thought-provoking input and tasks have been added relating to the nature and development of
science, as would be appropriate for teachers and learners at the primary level.
This is a unique text in that it provides suggestions for teaching specific concepts and
understandings across a wide range of content areas. It also offers explicit advice for facilitating an
appreciation of the nature of science and humankind’s interaction with science through these
various content strands. This book, therefore, differs markedly from texts that only provide principles
and advice related to general pedagogical issues, such as using different teaching approaches,
assessing students, teaching students from different backgrounds and so on. These teaching
considerations are not overlooked but are raised within the context of teaching specific science
concepts, science inquiry processes and skills, and science as a human endeavour. A very rich source
of pedagogical content knowledge, specific to the major content areas of primary science frameworks
or syllabuses, is consequently readily available to teachers.
To illustrate the approach taken, teachers might be seeking advice about ways to teach, say,
chemical change from a constructivist perspective to their middle and upper primary classes. This
book directly addresses this need. It does this by indicating ways to continually engage students
about this topic, especially in how it relates to science as a human endeavour. It also focuses on what
primary students think about chemical change and the conceptual difficulties they may encounter,
then provides specific teaching strategies and learning experiences related to chemical change,
including cooking, burning and rusting. Furthermore, it challenges teachers with research evidence
that argues that primary students can generate their own scientific representations of how materials
interact with each other, and asks them to consider innovative ways to engage students in this type
of scientific thinking. Chemical change case studies are also included. They illustrate how students
 PREFACE xiii

have learned within a constructivist and representational learning framework and provide examples
of the espoused pedagogy in action.
To learn from a constructivist perspective implies that the ways in which teachers challenge and
support students to further develop and modify their ideas is a critical issue. A wide range of
research-based models and schema, strategies, procedures and techniques has been suggested to
encourage learning. One key implication of the research that underpins this book is that one-off
science lessons do not facilitate effective conceptual development, and so, in this book, there is a
major focus on planning and implementing sequential lessons. Numerous case studies are included
to illustrate how teachers have applied constructivist learning sequences in their classrooms.
Conceptual development, the acquisition of inquiry processes and skills, and the formation of
identity within a scientific (classroom) learning community are evident in these exemplars of
practice. The authors also believe that when primary students use the processes associated with
technological capability, and practices involving the use of scientific and generic literacies, conceptual
development is enhanced. There are case studies included that highlight, for example, fair testing, the
symbiotic relationship that can exist between scientific and technological learning, multiple and
multimodal representations of science ideas, and the links between science and literacy, numeracy
and a range of other learning areas.
Primary teachers are sometimes concerned about their own science knowledge background as
well as about what science encompasses. These issues are discussed in the initial chapter along with
suggestions for ways forward. In the introductory sections of Chapters 4–13, there are activities for
readers that encourage them to check their own understanding of science concepts and the nature
of science related to the learning experiences with which they will engage their students. To further
assist teachers, at the end of each of these conceptual chapters is a listing of key concepts and
understandings that the authors believe primary teachers will find of value. These concepts and
understandings are derived from the research literature, which has investigated students’ science
ideas over the last four decades. They are for teachers and not necessarily students.
As implied, another feature of this book is that it draws on an extremely wide research and
professional literature related to primary science education. To the authors’ knowledge, no one book
has previously attempted to draw together the findings of international research studies on the ideas
primary students hold about the concepts included in most primary science frameworks and
syllabuses. Apart from updates on these research studies, this fifth edition emphasises how the
development of students’ ideas (about how their world works) are now being interpreted differently
to the way they were at the time of the fourth edition. Learning science is now considered to be
influenced by an even wider range of factors and conditions than previously thought. This has
implications for teaching science. Consequently, included in this book is the latest research and
thinking about the most effective ways to help students grow in their understanding of particular
science concepts, science inquiry processes, competencies and practices, and science as a human
endeavour. In addition, explicit indications are provided in this edition as to how teachers might
translate these findings into their own practice. At all times, however, commentary is worded on the
assumption that readers are teaching professionals and that they will make their own pedagogical
decisions based upon their own teaching experiences as well as the research and exemplified practice
in this book.
Allied to these advances, there is a growing number of studies which suggest that teachers who
blend literacy learning (in its various forms) with science learning will have a positive impact on
students’ conceptual and process-oriented understanding of science. Recent thinking acknowledges
that learning science involves the student in accessing a range of multimodal literacies in science.
Increased reference is made to the implications for teaching of this research. Overall, every effort has
been made to be accurate in reporting the current state of research about primary students’ learning
in science, and to describe and interpret this research so that it is meaningful for primary teachers.
xiv PREFACE

We appreciate that primary teachers are busy people. In light of this, having research findings
interpreted and summarised, we believe, will be of invaluable assistance. Even so, we wish to
emphasise that the research base related to teaching primary science has continued to expand with
every edition of this book. References to the research and professional literature are therefore
extensive. Also, while primary science teaching is now underpinned by a more refined research base,
some approaches still remain contested, and this is acknowledged – teachers will make their own
pedagogical decisions based on the available evidence. To reiterate, one purpose of this book is to
highlight that the suggested teaching ideas are built on a solid research base while also being
accessible for testing by practising and future teachers.
This book can be used by an individual or by colleagues. It certainly encourages the reader to
interact with the text and has numerous and, in many cases, updated reader activities, which vary in
their content. Some of them include hands-on and minds-on tasks using simple materials, while
others are activities that require access to primary students, analysis and reflection; several activities
ask questions relating to decisions made by teachers in the case studies. A wide selection of these
activities include tasks that require readers to relate the ’activity content’ to the Australian
Curriculum: Science (or their own syllabus or framework). The overall range of reader activities is
extensive. They could readily be used as exercises and/or assignments in university and professional-
development courses.
One way to use the book in a structured course would be to focus on a conceptual area in a
primary science syllabus or framework (e.g., the Australian Curriculum: Science) and work through the
particular activities, reading and discussion in the relevant chapter. Supplementary reading and
activities could readily develop from the numerous questions, tasks and references suggested. There
are, however, many other ways to productively access the book’s content. As a guide, it would be
most helpful if you read sections, or all, of Chapters 1 and 2 first. They act as advance organisers for
the remainder of the chapters and sections of them are referred to in all later chapters. You could
revisit these chapters several times and find that you glean more meaning from them each time you
return. As all the conceptual chapters assume a knowledge of Chapter 3, which focuses on scientific
inquiry (thinking and working scientifically), then it should be read next. The remaining chapters can
be read in any order, although Chapter 9 should precede Chapter 10; also, many readers may find
that Chapter 4 provides helpful background for Chapter 5.
The content of this book could readily encompass two science education units in a university
preservice primary teacher education degree. If it is used for a one-semester unit, in a postgraduate
diploma or degree, or in limited professional-development courses, it is suggested that the focus be
on selected chapters or text activities. Furthermore, the book could be of great value to a teacher
who uses particular chapters to guide teaching about specific concepts.
Apart from accessing the research and professional literature, the authors, who are practising
teachers and/or teacher educators, have drawn on their own experiences and research and that of
many others in writing this book. The assistance of these people, mainly practising teachers, has been
duly acknowledged in various places within the text, but we again thank them for it. Their advice, in
particular their case study material, is an integral component in most of the chapters. Authorship of
various chapters has changed as new editions have been produced, and previous authors’
contributions have also been acknowledged within specific chapters. In particular we would like to
thank Beverley Jane, Valda Kirkwood and Graham Crawford – some chapter content still reflects
their earlier input. As editors, we would especially like to thank our co-writers for the most
cooperative manner in which they have written this book, and for their willingness to embrace the
developments in learning science since the fourth edition and hence make significant, and in some
instances major, revisions to most chapters.
There have been several reviewers of the fourth edition and draft chapters of this fifth edition.
The feedback provided by these specialist science educators was incisive and helpful, and their
 PREFACE xv

contributions are acknowledged – several of their suggestions are included in this final version. For
this fifth edition, we would like to thank Christine Redman (Melbourne University), Penny Stephens
(Charles Sturt University), Hongming Ma (Monash University), Neil Boland (Auckland University of
Technology), Carrol Walkley (Massey University), Sally Birdsall (University of Auckland), Nathan
Brubaker (Monash University), Christine McDonald (Griffith University), Neil Taylor (University of
New England), Geoff Lummis (Edith Cowan University), Kashmira Dave (University of Sydney), Helen
Trevethan (University of Otago) and Gillian Kidman (Queensland University of Technology).
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the assistance of Cengage staff, especially Ms Ann Crabb,
who were most helpful and encouraging as this fifth edition took shape. The cover design that
Cengage developed for this edition was most appreciated. The concept underpinning the design was
’exploring science’ – it centres on the constructivist mindset of the text wherein the student is
empowered to actively inquire about and explore science. Images from key topic areas are positioned
to form a mountain-like shape with the student standing on top, representing the journey for the
student to take and the body of knowledge to be gained. The image of the inquisitive student
looking towards the orange bird shows that learning about science is an ongoing human endeavour –
there is always more to discover.
If this book is instrumental in assisting some teachers to implement more effective science
education for primary students, we shall all have achieved our purpose.
Keith Skamp and Christine Preston
 Using this book
This book is about helping preservice and
practising teachers facilitate the learning of
science by primary students. It has been
structured in a particular way to assist your
learning. If you understand how it has been
organised, then you will be able to navigate your
way through it far more effectively. Furthermore,
an appreciation of the wide range of ideas it
includes will encourage you to look for aspects
that might otherwise be overlooked.
The argument is advanced that we should
teach science based on what we know about
how students learn science. Most science
educators accept that research findings indicate
that constructivism is the theory which
underpins how students learn science.
Constructivism is set within a sociocultural
context, with appropriate emphases on learning
through representation and the impact of factors
such as students’ affective engagement and an
appreciation of their own agency. Seen within
such a landscape, constructivism is a learning
theory which describes what we understand
about how students construct their ideas.
How students construct ideas and develop
scientific competencies and practices in order to
understand their world also relates to how
teachers construct their ideas about science,
teaching science and learning science. Therefore,
we have applied many constructivist and related
learning principles in the book’s interaction with
you, the reader. We take it as a given that you,
the reader, have your own ideas about what
science is, what it means to learn science and,
consequently, the roles you would adopt to
teach it. Therefore, you are constantly challenged
in relation to your existing ideas about how your
world works and how you believe we determine
those ideas; that is, the concepts, generalisations
and inquiry processes and practices underpinning
science, as well as your ideas about learning
science and teaching science.
As stated in the Preface, Chapter 1 introduces
constructivism and is an advance organiser for
the other chapters. You are advised to keep
xvi
returning to this chapter to obtain a sense of
what a broad view of constructivism as a learning
theory and its teaching implications encompasses.
You are then encouraged to interpret your science
syllabus or framework with a constructivist
mindset. In Chapter 2, guidance is provided to
assist you in this venture using the Australian
Curriculum: Science, which underpins syllabus and
related documents in the Australian scene. As in
this curriculum, and many other science
frameworks around the world, we see science being
characterised as, firstly, a way of knowing and
embracing various competencies and practices;
secondly, an evolving body of knowledge and
understandings; and thirdly, as a human endeavour.
Each of these attributes is interdependent. Scientific
inquiry, encapsulated in large part as thinking and
working scientifically (see Chapter 3), focuses on
science as a way of knowing and how young
students can be introduced to its values, practices
and inquiry processes, and skills. Explicit teaching
about the nature and development of science is
integral to this book’s approach and is stressed in a
generic sense in Chapters 1–3, then through
specific science content in all later chapters and
emphatically in various case studies such as in
Chapters 6 and 9.
Chapters 4–13 are the conceptually oriented
chapters related to the content strands in most
recent primary science syllabuses, irrespective of
their country of origin. They have been written
with a basic schema in mind. You will usually
find:
l a section on your ideas, as teachers, about
the topic
l a significant discussion about, and summary
of, the research related to primary students’
ideas about the topic
l a clear description of (or references to)
scientists’ ideas on aspects of the topic, which
are either integrated with the primary
students’ ideas or are presented as separate
parts of the text; these inclusions clarify the
alternative and non-scientific conceptions

that many students and adults, including
teachers, hold
l an indication of what children want to know
about the topic
l a discussion of key constructivist and related
teaching principles and selected strategies
relevant to the topic
l one or more teaching case studies or vignettes
of lesson sequences based on constructivist
and related teaching approaches; some
chapters (for example, 5, 6 and 8) are
completely structured around one or more
detailed case studies. These are reports of
actual classroom teaching and often are
based on the teachers’ own reports
l reference to influential research and
professional-development initiatives, such as
the Australian Academy of Science’s Primary
Connections project
l innovative, specific and interrelated examples
of science as a human endeavour related to
the topic
l the inclusion of other teaching and learning
considerations – such as the effective use of
information and communication technology
(ICT) – related to the topic and sometimes
primary science in general
l concepts and understandings for primary
teachers
l examples of how the content and pedagogy
align with the Australian Curriculum: Science
l reader activities to encourage interaction
with the text.
All of these common chapter elements are
discussed in more detail in various sections of
Chapters 1 and 2. As a major focus of this book
is the advocacy of various constructivist and
related teaching approaches, each of Chapters
3–12 includes examples of constructivist models
and schema in action, and exemplifies
representational learning and novel ways to
engage students in their learning.
As suggested earlier, many issues, apart from
specific constructivist learning approaches,
influence teaching and learning. Conceptual
development theories based upon constructivist
USING THIS BOOK xvii
premises acknowledge that these factors also
will influence students’ conceptual growth.
These other considerations are integrated into
the text of each chapter. Teaching and learning
issues regularly referred to in this book, with
reference to the chapters where they are
particularly emphasised, are:
l integration in general (2, 12, 13), especially
science–literacy connections (3, 6, 8, 10, 13) but
also with mathematics (3, 6); the symbiotic
relationship between technology and science is
a major focus at times (2, 3, 8, 13)
l assessment for learning (2, 5, 6, 7)
l teaching using analogies (4)
l affective teaching (7, 9, 10)
l socioscientific issues, including sustainability
(2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13)
l equipment, consumables and safety (10)
l culturally appropriate teaching and learning,
including different ways of knowing about
our world (2, 8, 11, 13)
l learning in informal settings, such as science
centres (6) and outdoors (11, 13).
Many other pedagogical issues are raised in
various chapters, such as the effective use of small
groups, teaching for creative outcomes, and the use
of appropriate and engaging contexts for learning
with young students. To readily locate these
teaching and learning issues, refer to the section ’At
a glance: key teaching and learning strategies and
other pedagogical topics’ (see p. 527).
All the chapters have a range of analytical,
hands-on and/or reflective activities to encourage
you, the reader, to engage with the content and
the overall themes as outlined in the Preface and
in Chapter 1. For this to occur, you will need to
interact with the written text and think about
how you are learning; that is, be metacognitive.
You could do the activities by yourself, but in
many instances it would be beneficial if you
could share your thoughts with another teacher
or a small group. Such an approach is consistent
with you being an active learner and part of a
(mini) science learning community. More
effective learning often occurs when you interact
with others and are required to articulate your
xviii USING THIS BOOK
ideas and beliefs about science and learning or
teaching science. Learning with others also fulfils
some of the social constructivist conditions for
learning that, in part, underpin the theory upon
which this book is based.
Several of the activities can, of course, be
done mentally or simply in discussion with
others, but you are urged to keep a written
running record of your interactions with the
book’s contents and its reader activities. There
are studies that strongly suggest that we learn
far more effectively when we think and write
about what and how we are learning, and diaries
and portfolios have been found to be most
helpful in this regard.
As authors, we invite you to interact with
this book as a ’deep’ rather than as a ’surface’
learner. Deep learners are intrinsically motivated
and seek meaning in the ideas with which they
interact. We hope you accept the invitation!
 About the authors
EDITORS
KEITH SKAMP (Chapters 1, 2, 9, 10 and 11) is an Adjunct Professor in the School of Education at
Southern Cross University. He has held visiting scholar and professorial positions at Teachers College,
Columbia University, New York; Durham University, England; University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada; University of Lethbridge, Canada; and Flinders University, South Australia. Keith
has been a lecturer in undergraduate and graduate units in science education, environmental
education and research methodology for many years, and he has led and been involved in
professional and curriculum development initiatives in primary science at State, national and
international levels. His research and consultancy in science and environmental/sustainability
education has included major research reports for the Australian Academy of Science’s Primary
Connections initiative, as well as for State and federal governments, and has resulted in numerous
refereed journal articles and other publications. Currently his research focuses on students’ responses
to global warming. Keith has received distinguished awards for university teaching and service to
professional science education associations.

CHRISTINE PRESTON (Chapters 12 and 13) is a Lecturer in the faculty of Education and Social Work
at the University of Sydney. She has been a primary science teacher and maintains current classroom
practice by teaching kindergarten science at Abbotsleigh Junior School in Sydney. Christine’s lecturing
experience includes early childhood, primary and secondary science education; primary curriculum
studies; and professional experience and research methods at both undergraduate and postgraduate
levels. She has conducted professional research projects for Sydney Water, evaluating the
Streamwatch program, and for the Open Training and Education Network (OTEN), evaluating the
Murder under the Microscope program. Christine’s teaching awards include the Inaugural Rotary
Club of Sydney award for Innovation and Excellence in the Vocation of Teaching; the NSW Minister
of Education and Australian College of Education (NSW) Quality Teaching Award; and the Faculty of
Education and Social Work Teaching Excellence award. Her current research interests are primary
children’s interpretation of science diagrams, teaching science using toys and education about the
marine environment.

CONTRIBUTORS
ROSEMARY FEASEY (Chapter 3) is a leading expert in primary science. She is currently a freelance
consultant working in the UK and elsewhere overseas. Rosemary has taught across the primary range
and trained teachers for many years at Durham and Northumbria universities. She works extensively
across Science Learning Centres in England, as well as for the Primary Science Teaching Trust as a
College Mentor to Trust awardees of the Primary Science Teacher Awards. Rosemary was the first
person from a primary science background to become Chair of the Association for Science Education
(ASE) in its 100-year history. She is passionate about primary science and has always been proactive
in primary science education. Rosemary has produced many publications on primary science. She also
has been involved in programs for the BBC and is a British Academy of Film and Television Arts
(BAFTA) nominee.

FILOCHA HASLAM (Chapter 7) was, for many years, a science, mathematics and horticulture teacher
in middle and secondary schools. She completed her PhD at Monash University and spent more
xxii
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxiii

than five years as a lecturer at each of the three Victorian universities. Her passion for exploring and
supporting student learning and teacher change via qualitative research, both in the primary and
secondary sector, led to her continued research involvement in the successful implementation and
evaluation of many innovative projects across school, State and federal initiatives. These include the
Glen Waverley Thinking Curriculum Project, the Knox Northwest Cluster of Schools Innovation and
Excellence projects, the Australian Government Quality Teaching Program (AGQTP) projects, the
Boys’ Education Lighthouse Schools (BELS) project and the Role of Representation in Learning
Science (RILS) project. Her current research includes creativity and reasoning in science and
mathematics through multimodal representation.

LINDA HOBBS (Chapter 6) has vast experience in education, ranging from secondary science
teaching to teacher education and professional development. For over 10 years, Linda has been
teaching in primary science education courses at the University of Ballarat, RMIT and Deakin
University. Her research interests include school-based qualitative analyses of issues around teaching
out-of-field, especially in maths and science, focusing explicitly on teacher experiences, identity and
expertise. More recently, her research has extended into exploring school-based science curriculum
models for primary preservice teachers.

PETER HUBBER (Chapters 4 and 5) is Associate Professor of Science Education at Deakin University.
He spent 27 years in the classroom as a science and mathematics teacher before coming to Deakin
University in 2000. He has a strong record in professional development, working with teachers and
schools in local, State and federal initiatives. Such initiatives include several Australian Government
Quality Teaching Program (AGQTP) projects, Australian School Innovation in Science, Technology
and Mathematics (ASISTM) projects, Middle Years Pedagogy Research and Development (MYPRAD)
projects, and the Science and Technology Education Leveraging Relevance (STELR) program. He
regularly presents at national and international conferences and has several publications in the area
of student learning in science. His current research within two Australian Research Council (ARC)–
funded projects relates to the role of representation in learning science, inquiry and the cloud-based
teaching and learning of science.

WENDY JOBLING (Chapter 8) taught in Victorian state schools for many years. Since joining Deakin
University in 2006, Wendy has taught undergraduate and postgraduate teacher education students
in science and design and technologies. Wendy is a member of the Victorian Model Solar Vehicle
Committee, which runs a competition for primary and secondary students and provides workshops
for students and teachers. Her research interests are in science and design and technologies learning
in preschool and primary settings. She is currently involved in a project for the Department of
Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) which is providing professional learning for
primary science specialists.

SUZANNE PETERSON (Chapters 6 and 7) was an exemplary teacher of primary science. Through her
interaction with colleagues and records of her science pedagogy, she inspired others. Her ’story’, as
partly recorded in sections of this book, will encourage a deeper understanding of the power of
primary school science to educate. Her untimely death was regarded, by those who knew her, as a
tragic loss to education.

RUSSELL TYTLER (Chapters 6 and 7) is Professor of Science Education at Deakin University. He has
been involved over many years in system-wide curriculum development and professional-
development initiatives. He has researched and written extensively on student learning and reasoning
xxiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

in science, and on science investigations. His recent research interests include the role of
representation in learning science, public understanding of science, teacher and school change, and
international perspectives on science and environmental education. He has undertaken a number of
influential studies concerning student engagement with science and mathematics, and STEM policy.
Russell has held visiting professor positions in Europe and Asia. He has a secondary science teaching
background.
 1
CHAPTER

Teaching primary science

constructively
BY KEITH SKAMP

INTRODUCTION
Primary students enjoy science when it is student-centred, their
‘voices’ are heard and there is a focus on investigation
(Goodrum, Hackling and Rennie 2001; Logan and Skamp
2008). This interest in science starts at a very young age –
it has been found to be high for both boys and girls at
age 10 (Tytler and Osborne 2012). Furthermore, even
early childhood learners’ exploratory play can be
focused on key science ideas; there is clear
evidence that very young children can hold
relatively sophisticated scientific understandings
(e.g., Fleer 2009; Fleer and Robbins 2003a). If this is
the case, then teachers need to maintain that interest
by teaching in ways that assist effective learning.
There is no doubt that teachers are the critical factor in
determining the quality of students’ formal science
learning (Royal Society, in Harlen 2010b), and so the focus
of this book is on assisting you to fulfil that key responsibility
as effectively as possible.

We should teach science in a way that is consistent with what we know

Source: ª Shutterstock/Eric Isselee

about how students learn science. To not do so would be a disservice to
learners. There is not complete consensus about how primary students learn science, but there is a
vast body of research that indicates they learn by constructing ideas and developing (‘constructing’)
competencies. What does this mean? What are the teaching implications?

When we talk about students learning science by constructing ideas and competencies, we are
referring, in broad terms, to the learning theory called ‘constructivism’.1 It relates to students’
‘sense’ or ‘meaning making’; that is, how they make sense or meaning of their world and how it
works. This theory has been interpreted in specific ways in relation to teaching science. Many
studies have investigated the effectiveness of teaching science based on constructivist premises.
This book draws on this research to support the approaches advocated.

A deliberate decision has been made to cite these research studies. This is to emphasise the fact
that the way in which students learn primary science is informed by an expanding international
1
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