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Copyright © 2018 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Indexer: Michael Ferreira
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Brief Contents
Preface
About the Authors
PART I. UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT: WHY AND HOW
WE STUDY CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
1. Issues and Themes in Child Development
2. Theories of Development
3. How We Study Development
PART II. BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS AND PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
4. How Children Develop: Nature Through Nurture
5. Prenatal Development, the Newborn, and the Transition to
Parenthood
6. Physical Development: The Brain and the Body
PART III. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
7. Theories of Cognitive Development
8. Intelligence and Academic Achievement
9. Language Development
PART IV. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
10. Emotional Development and Attachment
11. Identity: The Self, Gender, and Moral Development
12. Social Development: Social Cognition and Peer
Relationships
PART V. CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT
13. Families
14. Activities, Media, and the Natural World
15. Health, Well-Being, and Resilience
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
11
Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Authors
PART I. UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT: WHY AND HOW
WE STUDY CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
1. Issues and Themes in Child Development
Why Study Child Development?
Understanding the Process of Development
Using Our Knowledge of Child Development
Parents and Family Members
Child Development Professionals
ACTIVE LEARNING: How Much Do You Know
About Careers in Child Development?
Policymakers
ACTIVE LEARNING: Social Policy Affecting
Children and Adolescents
Understanding How Development Happens
Domains of Development
Ages and Stages
Themes in the Field of Child Development
Nature and Nurture
Continuous Versus Stagelike Development
Stability Versus Change
Individual Differences
The Role of the Child in Development
Positive Psychology
Integrating Themes and Issues
Contexts of Development
Family
School
Community
Culture
ACTIVE LEARNING: Cultural Competence and
Grief
Being a Smart Consumer of Information About
Development
Knowing Your Sources
ACTIVE LEARNING: Evaluating Information on the
12
Web
Becoming a Critical Thinker
Guarding Against Generalizations
Avoiding Perceptual Bias
ACTIVE LEARNING: Testing Your Knowledge of
Child Development
Getting the Most From Your Textbook
2. Theories of Development
Test your Knowledge
Basic Principles and Applications
Why Theories of Development Are Important
How Do Developmental Theories Differ?
How Does Change Happen?
Why Does Change Happen?
Theories of Child and Adolescent Development
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
ACTIVE LEARNING: Comparing Psychoanalytic
Theories
Modern Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
Learning Theories
John B. Watson and Classical Conditioning
ACTIVE LEARNING: Understanding the Process of
Classical Conditioning
Modern Applications of Classical Conditioning
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
ACTIVE LEARNING: Reward Yourself!
Modern Applications of Operant Conditioning
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory
Modern Applications of Social Cognitive Theory
Theories of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Modern Applications of Piaget’s Theory
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Modern Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Information Processing
Modern Applications of Information Processing
Evolutionary Theories
Ethology
ACTIVE LEARNING: Rough-and-Tumble Play
13
Sociobiology
Modern Applications of Evolutionary Theory
Ecological Theory
ACTIVE LEARNING: Examples of Ecological
Systems
Modern Applications of Ecological Theory
Dynamic Systems Theory
Modern Applications of Dynamic Systems
Theory
Overview and Historical Context of Theories
Journey of Research: Theories in Historical and
Cultural Context
The Impact of Biology and Culture on Child Development
Theory and Research
Neuropsychology and Behavioral Genetics
Developmental Theory in a Cultural Context
3. How We Study Development
Test your Knowledge
The Scientific Method
Basic and Applied Research
Developing Hypotheses
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Forming a Hypothesis
Operationalizing Concepts
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Operationalizing Concepts
Reliability and Validity
Sampling and Representative Samples
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Sampling
Methods and Measures
Observations
ACTIVE LEARNING: Observation or Interpretation?
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Doing Observational
Research
Self-Report Measures
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Children’s Eyewitness
Testimony
Standardized Tests
Physiological Measures
Archival Records
14
Case Studies
Ethnography
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Measures
Replication of Results
How Research Is Designed
Experimental Research Designs: Identifying the
Causes of Behavior
ACTIVE LEARNING: Experimental Research Design
Natural or “Quasi” Experiments
Correlational Designs
ACTIVE LEARNING: Positive and Negative
Correlations
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Research Designs
Developmental Designs
Longitudinal Research
Cross-Sectional Research
Sequential Research
Microgenetic Research
Interpreting and Communicating the Results of a
Study
Ethics in Research With Children and Adolescents
PART II. BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS AND PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
4. How Children Develop: Nature Through Nurture
Test your Knowledge
The Study of Genetics and Behavior
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The History of Research
on Genetics
Molecular Genetics: Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Mendelian Inheritance: Dominant and Recessive
Genes
ACTIVE LEARNING: Understanding the Inheritance
of Tay-Sachs Disease
One Behavior, Many Genes; One Gene, Many Effects
Genetic Disorders
Single Gene Disorders
Chromosome Disorders
Multifactorial Inheritance Disorders
Genetic Counseling and Testing
15
ACTIVE LEARNING: Assessing Genetic Risk
Ethical Considerations in Genetic Testing
Treatment of Genetic Disorders
Behavioral Genetics
Studies of Adopted Children
Studies Comparing Identical and Fraternal Twins
Studies of Identical Twins Reared Apart
ACTIVE LEARNING: Concordance Rates
The Interaction of Genes and Environment
How the Environment Shapes Gene Expression
Canalization
Behavioral Epigenetics
Complexities in the Study of Gene-Environment
Interaction
How Genes Shape the Environment
5. Prenatal Development, the Newborn, and the Transition to
Parenthood
Test your Knowledge
Prenatal Development
The Three Stages of Prenatal Development
The Germinal Stage (Conception to 2 Weeks)
The Embryonic Stage (2 Weeks to 2 Months)
The Fetal Stage (Week 9 to Birth)
ACTIVE LEARNING: Old Wives’ Tale or Scientific
Fact?
Health and Risks in Pregnancy
Three Trimesters of Pregnancy
Miscarriage
Maternal Health and Well-Being
Maternal Diet
Exercise
Teratogens
Alcohol
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Understanding the
Effects of Alcohol on a Pregnancy
Tobacco
Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drugs
ACTIVE LEARNING: Safety of Medications During
Pregnancy
Illegal Drugs
Diseases
16
Maternal Stress
Environmental Toxins
The Birth Experience
Labor and Delivery
First Stage: Early and Active Labor
Second Stage: Pushing
Third Stage: Delivering the Placenta
Birthing Options
The Newborn
The Baby’s Birth Experience
Infant States
Mirror Neurons
Risks to the Newborn’s Health and Well-Being
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: From Child Hatchery to
Modern NICU
Infant Mortality
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Abusive Head Trauma and Shaken Baby Syndrome
The Transition to Parenthood
Becoming a Mother
Becoming a Father
Becoming a Family
ACTIVE LEARNING: Easing the Transition to
Parenthood
6. Physical Development: The Brain and the Body
Test your Knowledge
Brain Development
ACTIVE LEARNING: Brain and Body
Structures of the Brain
Developmental Processes
Neurons and Synaptic Connections
Plasticity of the Brain
Myelination of Neurons
Brain Development Through Childhood and
Adolescence
Disorders Related to Brain Development
Cerebral Palsy
Autism Spectrum Disorder
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Searching for the Cause
of Autism Spectrum Disorder
17
Schizophrenia
Development of the Senses
Vision
Hearing
Smell
Taste
Touch
Cross-Modal Transfer of Perception
ACTIVE LEARNING: How Toys Stimulate Babies’
Senses
Body Growth and Changes
Changing Bodily Proportions
ACTIVE LEARNING: Head-to-Body Proportions
ACTIVE LEARNING: Your Growth in Childhood
Teeth
Sexual Development
The Timing of Puberty
ACTIVE LEARNING: Timing of Puberty
Risks of Sexual Maturation: Pregnancy and STDs
Teen pregnancy
STIs and STDs
Motor Development
Infant Reflexes
Development of Motor Skills
Myelination of Motor Neurons
Motor Development in Older Children
Body Awareness
ACTIVE LEARNING: Developing Body Awareness
Motor Disability: Developmental Coordination
Disorder
Nutrition
Breast-Feeding
Healthy Eating
ACTIVE LEARNING: School Lunches
Malnourishment
Obesity and Being Overweight
Eating Disorders
PART III. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
7. Theories of Cognitive Development
Test your Knowledge
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
18
ACTIVE LEARNING: Organizing by Cognitive
Schema
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
ACTIVE LEARNING: Testing Object Permanence
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
Intuitive thought
Egocentrism
Conservation
ACTIVE LEARNING: Conservation
Stage of Concrete Operations (7 to 12 Years)
Stage of Formal Operations (12 Years and Older)
ACTIVE LEARNING: Formal Operations
Adolescent egocentrism
Is Formal Operations the Final Stage?
Critique of Piaget’s Work
Ages and Stages
How Universal Is Cognitive Change?
Theory of Core Knowledge
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Is Object Permanence
Learned or Innate?
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive
Development
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Private Speech
Information Processing
Attention
Attention in Infancy
Attention in Childhood
Attention in Adolescence
ACTIVE LEARNING: Studying and Distractions
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Memory
Memory in Infancy
Infantile amnesia
Memory in Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Working Memory
Encoding processes and information processing
speed
ACTIVE LEARNING: Encoding Processes
19
Knowledge base
False memories
ACTIVE LEARNING: Creating False Memories
Memory in Adolescence
Executive Function
Executive Function in Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Executive Function: Head-
Shoulders-Knees-Toes
Executive Function During Adolescence
Metacognition
ACTIVE LEARNING: Metacognition
Comparing Four Theories of Cognitive Development
8. Intelligence and Academic Achievement
Test your Knowledge
Defining and Assessing Intelligence
Defining Intelligence
ACTIVE LEARNING: Defining Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The History of
Intelligence Tests
Standardized Testing and Alternative Testing
Methods
Infant Intelligence
The Nature-Nurture Controversy and Intelligence
Neuroscience and Intelligence
IQ Scores and Academic Achievement
Alternative Views of Intelligence
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
ACTIVE LEARNING: Applying Multiple
Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Variations in Intellectual Ability
Intellectual Disability
Specific Learning Disorder
Giftedness
Creativity and Intelligence
ACTIVE LEARNING: Creativity Tests
Academic Achievement: Learning in the School Context
Classroom Environment
ACTIVE LEARNING: Teacher-Heroes in Movies and
Real Life
20
Student-Teacher Ratios
Ability Grouping
Grade Retention
School Dropouts and High School Graduates
College-Bound Students
Group Differences in Academic Achievement
Gender and Academic Achievement
Boys’ Academic Achievement
Girls and the STEM Fields
ACTIVE LEARNING: Implicit Associations Test
Single-Gender Classrooms
Ethnic, Racial, and Cultural Influences on School
Achievement
The Impact of Poverty on Academic Achievement
9. Language Development
Test your Knowledge
Aspects of Language
Language and the Brain
Theories of Language Development
Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory
Nativism
Interactionism
Cognitive Processing Theory: Statistical Learning
Stages of Language Development
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Is There a Critical
Period for Language Learning?
Prenatal Development
Infants’ Preverbal Communication
Crying
Cooing
Babbling
Preverbal Perception of Language
How Adults Foster Language Development
Shared Attention, Gestures, and Sign Language
Child-Directed Speech
SES and Language Development
Toddlers’ Development of Words and Sentences
Growth of Vocabulary
ACTIVE LEARNING: Using Linguistic Constraints
Creating Sentences
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Impact of Word Order
21
Language Development in Early Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Collecting a Language Sample
ACTIVE LEARNING: Private Speech
Language Development in Middle Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Metalinguistic Awareness
The Language of Teenagers
Literacy: Reading and Writing
Reading
Emergent Literacy
ACTIVE LEARNING: Using Dialogic Reading
Learning to Read in School
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: What’s the Best Way to
Learn to Read?
Writing Skills
Bilingualism and Bilingual Education
Growing Up Bilingual
Bilingual Education
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Bilingual Education—
Sink or Swim?
Culture, Identity, and Bilingualism
Language Disorders
Communication Disorders
Autism Spectrum Disorder
ACTIVE LEARNING: Observing Conversation Skills
Dyslexia: A Language-Based Learning Disorder
PART IV. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
10. Emotional Development and Attachment
Test your Knowledge
Emotions: Universality and Difference
What Is Emotion?
ACTIVE LEARNING: Why We Use Emoticons and
Emoji
Development of Emotions: The Role of Self and
Others
Social Referencing
Empathy
ACTIVE LEARNING: Empathy and Sympathy
Self-Conscious Emotions
ACTIVE LEARNING: Shame and Guilt
Temperament
Measuring Temperament
22
Stability of Temperament
ACTIVE LEARNING: Temperament
Regulation of Emotions and Self-Control
Self-Control and Self-Regulation
Effortful Control and Delay of Gratification
ACTIVE LEARNING: How Do Children Resist
Temptation?
Long-Term Outcomes of Self-Control
Normal Emotions and Emotional Problems
Fear and Anxiety
Sadness and Depression
Anger and Aggression
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
(DMDD)
Conduct Disorder
The Development of Secure Attachment
ACTIVE LEARNING: Experiencing a Sense of
Secure Attachment
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The History of the Study
of Attachment
The Development of Attachment: Bowlby’s Stages
Preattachment (Birth to 6 Weeks)
Attachment in the Making (6 Weeks to 6-8
Months)
Clear-Cut Attachment (6-8 Months to 18
Months–2 Years)
Goal-Corrected Partnership (18 Months On)
Security of Attachment
Attachment as a Relationship
The Role of the Mother
The Role of the Father
The Role of the Infant
All Together Now
ACTIVE LEARNING: Educating Parents
Attachment to Nonparental Caregivers
The Biology of Attachment
Attachment and Culture
Attachment Beyond Infancy
Long-Term Outcomes of Infant Attachment
Attachment in Childhood and Adolescence
23
ACTIVE LEARNING: Romantic Attachment Styles
Attachment Disorders
Causes of Attachment Disorder
Prevention and Treatment of Attachment Disorders
11. Identity: The Self, Gender, and Moral Development
Test your Knowledge
Development of the Self-Concept
Self-Concept and Culture
The Self in Infants and Toddlers
Mirror Self-Recognition
Use of Pronouns
Visual Perspective-Taking
Possessiveness
The Self in Preschoolers
The Self in School-Age Children
The Self in Adolescents
Marcia’s Identity Statuses
Adolescent Rites of Passage
ACTIVE LEARNING: Rites of Passage
Development of Self-Esteem
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Difference Between Self-
Concept and Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem During Childhood
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The Self-Esteem
Movement
Self-Esteem During Adolescence
Media, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem
Gender Identity
Theories of Gender Development
Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theories
Cognitive Developmental Theory
ACTIVE LEARNING: Kohlberg’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory of Gender Development
Gender Schema Theory
Gender Self-Socialization Model
ACTIVE LEARNING: Going Against Gender
Stereotypes
Identity in Lesbian Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender
(LGBT) Children and Teens
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual [LGB] Children and
Teens
24
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Heterosexual
Questionnaire
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Explanations for
Homosexuality
Transgender, Transsexual, and Gender
Nonconforming Children and Teens
Ethnic and Racial Identity
Moral Identity
The Role of the Environment
The Role of Cognitive Development
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Kohlberg’s Life History
and His Theory
Gender Differences in Moral Thought
Cultural Differences in Moral Thought
Moral Thought and Moral Action
Social Domain Theory
The Role of Emotional Development
The Role of Innate Processes
Promoting Moral Development
12. Social Development: Social Cognition and Peer
Relationships
Test your Knowledge
Social Cognition: Theory of Mind
ACTIVE LEARNING: Mind Reading and
Mindblindness
ACTIVE LEARNING: False Beliefs
Peer Relationships in Infancy and Early Childhood
Infants and Toddlers: From Parent to Peer
Preschoolers and The Role of Play
ACTIVE LEARNING: What Is Play?
Physical Development
Emotional Development
Social Development
ACTIVE LEARNING: Parten’s Stages of Social Play
Cognitive Development
Playgrounds That Accommodate Children (and
Adults) With Disabilities
Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood
School-Age Children and Friendships
ACTIVE LEARNING: Rejection Sensitivity
Gender and Play
25
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no related content on Scribd:
The continuous policy of the Russian government to civilise by
means of the knout has on the one hand brought about the result
that not Russia but only a few Russians evolved intellectually and,
on the other, it has given a certain direction to the thought and
intellectual productions of these few. Even during the reign of Peter I
or Catherine II, when the spirit of civilisation began to move its
wings, independent thought has had to sustain a fierce struggle
against authority. In the most civilised countries of western Europe
ever and anon a cross-current of reaction traverses the stream of
intellectual evolution: narrow-minded zealots, hypocritical bigots,
false patriots, literary Gibeonites, gossiping old women arrayed in
the mantles of philosophers, do their best to put fetters on the
independent thought of man, to nip the free and natural intellectual
development in the very bud by forcing it under the iron grip of
tradition and authority. These reactionary tendencies of the lovers of
darkness are only exceptions, and will lead thought for a while into a
side channel, but cannot stop the triumphant march onwards. Not so
in Russia.
In the empire of the czar thought is almost a crime and every
means is employed to keep it within the boundaries prescribed by
the governing power. To overstep these boundaries, to develop itself
freely, and I might say naturally, is to declare war against authority, to
revolt. The history of evolution of thought in Russia is therefore
almost identical with the revolutionary movement. If whilst working
on the construction of the temple with the right hand, the left has to
wield the sword against a sudden attack of the enemy, the edifice
can rise only very slowly. Renan says (in his Future of Science) that
the great creations of thought appear in troublous times and that
neither material ease nor even liberty contributes much to the
originality and the energy of intellectual development. On the
contrary the work of mind would only be seriously threatened if
humanity came to be too much at its ease. Thank God! exclaims the
Breton philosopher, that day is still far distant. The customary state
of Athens, he continues, was one of terror; the security of the
individual was threatened at every moment, to-day an exile, to-
morrow he was sold as a slave. And yet in such a state Phidias
produced the Propylæa statues, Plato his dialogues and
Aristophanes his satires. Dante would never have composed his
cantos in an atmosphere of studious ease. The sacking of Rome did
not disturb the brush of Michael Angelo. In a word, the most beautiful
things are born amid tears and it is in the midst of struggle, in the
atmosphere of sorrow and suffering that humanity develops itself,
that the human mind displays the most energy and activity in all
directions. Renan was an individualist, and aristocratic in his
teachings, and seems only to have in view the individual, nay the
genius. Suffering and oppression, physical, intellectual and moral,
are schools where the strong gather more strength and come forth
triumphant, but where the weaker are destroyed. What is true for the
élite, for the very limited number of the chosen few, does not hold
good for humanity at large, which is not strong enough to think when
it is hungry, to fight against opposing forces and to hurl down the
barriers erected against the advance of thought. Few indeed are
those who can carry on the struggle to a successful issue. The
Russian government, with its Mongolian traditions of autocracy,
threw the great nation, which remained behind Peter’s forward
march, back into complete indifference and apathy, into a state of
submissive contentment, where, like a child, it kisses the rod that
punishes it, sometimes cries like a child, and is lulled to sleep by the
whisperings of mystic superstition and the vapours of vodki.
Has not the populace a terrifying example in the martyrs of
Russian thought? A terrible destiny awaits him who dares to step
beyond the line traced by the hand of the government, who ventures
to look over the wall erected by imperial ukase. “The history of
Russian thinkers,” says Alexander Herzen (Russland’s Sociale
Zustände, page 136), “is a long list of martyrs and a register of
convicts.” Those whom the hand of the imperial government has
spared died in the prime of youth, before they had time to develop,
like blossoms hurrying to quit life before they could bear fruit. A
Pushkin and a Lermontov fell in the prime of youth, one thirty-eight
and the other twenty-seven years old, victims of the unnatural state
of society. Russia’s Beaumarchais, Griboiedov, found a premature
end in Persia in his thirty-fifth year; Kolzov, the Russian Burns,
Bielinski, the Russian Lessing, died in misery, the latter at the age of
thirty-eight. Czerncevski was torn from his literary activity and sent to
Siberia. Dobrolubov sang his swan-song in his twenty-fifth year.
Chaadaev, the friend of Schelling, was declared mad by order of the
government. If such measures have kept the people in a state of
ignorance and still lowered the already low level of civilisation, the
autocratic rule has further, as it was unable to crush it, caused the
intelligentia to turn its thoughts into a certain direction.
If we follow the development of the Russian intelligentia we notice
at once that all the currents of its intellectual life are, at the present
time at least, converging into one centre, swelling the stream, that is
already running high, to a vast and mighty ocean, which is sending
its waters, through many channels, all over Europe. This centre is
literature. Since the foundation of the Academy of Science by Peter
the Great Russian achievements in the domains of science,
technical education, art, sculpture, music, painting, history and
philosophy have been very small.
In science and art the Russians have produced nothing of
importance, nothing original. Mendeleev, Lobatshevski, Pirogov,
Botkin, Soloviev are a few scientific names of some eminence but
they are few as compared with Europe and America. Many others,
who are known to the western world as Russians, are in reality
Germans or Armenians. The great historian, Karamzin, was of Tatar
extraction. In the domain of art Vereshchagin is a Russian but
Ainasowski is an Armenian, Brulov a Prussian and Antokolski a Jew
(cf. Brüggen, Das heutige Russland, p. 182).
Russia has had no Spinoza and no Kant, no Newton and no
Spencer. Since the foundation of the University of Moscow in 1755,
some semblance of Russian philosophy has appeared but a
Soloviev and a Grote, a Troitski and a Preobrajenski have only
introduced the philosophy of Germany, France, and England into
Russia, but not worked out their own philosophical systems. Thus,
whilst Russian scientists, technicians, artists and even musicians
have to go abroad to complete their education, Russian philosophers
borrow from Hegel or Descartes, from Locke or Comte. This is,
however, not the case with Russian literature. Russia has quickened
her development in the realm of literature. Her decades were
centuries. Rapidly she has lived through phases of growth and
evolution, of achievement and reflection which have filled long
periods in other people’s lives. The peaks of Russian creative power
in this domain, the productions of Pushkin and Turgeniev, of
Lermontov, Dostoievski and Tolstoi proudly face the heights of
literary western Europe.
Whilst, however, the Russian genius of the intelligentia centred its
force in literature, this literature bears the unmistakable trait, that
distinguishes it from European literature, of having a tendency to
teach and of taking a moral aspect. Russian literature on the whole
has not entered the sphere of artistic interest, it has always been a
pulpit whence the word of instruction came forth. With very few
exceptions, like Merejkovski and Andreiev, the Russian author is not
practising art for art’s sake (l’art pour l’art) but is pursuing a goal, is
accomplishing a task.
The Russian literature is a long cry of revolt, a continuous sigh or
an admonition. Taine says, somewhere, when speaking of Stendhal
and Balzac: “They love art more than men—they are not writing out
of sympathy for the poor, but out of love for the beautiful.” This is just
what the Russian modern author is not doing. The intellectual and
instructive moments predominate over the emotional and artistic.
This state of the intellectual development is explained by what has
been stated above. It is due to the sudden introduction of western
ceremonies and superficial civilisation, followed by a powerful foreign
influence on the one hand, and the general social and political state
of the country. When Peter had suddenly launched Russia—which
was floating like some big hulk between Asia and Europe—towards
the west, the few who helped him in this endeavour came under the
complete influence of western thought and manners. St. Petersburg
soon became a Versailles in miniature. Voltaire, Diderot, and the
encyclopædists governed and shaped Russian thought and Russian
society. But not only France—Germany too, and England, Byron and
his individualism, had gained great sway in Russia. The
independence of Russian thought and its intellectual development
only dates from about 1840. When it awoke at that time, when it
became conscious of itself, it felt that it had a great work, a great
mission to fulfil. Surrounded on one side by a people that was
ignorant, ready to sink lower and lower; opposed, on the other, by a
government that did its best to check individualism and
independence in every possible way—the Russian intelligentia felt its
great responsibility.
Surrounded by a population whose mental development was on a
very low level, the atmosphere was and still is not propitious for the
cultivation of art or science, whilst the Russian author had no time
simply to admire the beautiful in nature but was compelled to look
round and try what good he could do. Thus Russian genius
concentrated itself in literature as the best vehicle to expose the
state of Russian society. The Russian writer became an apostle. He
is not anxious to be artistic, to shape his style and to be fascinating,
but to give as true a picture of Russian life as he possibly can, to
show the evil and to suggest the remedy.
Such, in broad lines, is the present state which the few, whom we
termed the Russian intelligentia, have reached in their intellectual
development. In a moment of strength the Russian genius has
attained itself, with self-asserting individuality. Its task is great, its
obstacles are manifold, but it fights valiantly and moves on steadily.
This only applies to the few. When the day of political freedom will
dawn for Russia, then and then only the great evolution and the
intellectual development of Russia itself, of the Russian people as a
whole, will begin. On the day when civil and religious despotism, that
everywhere crushes individuality, will cease, then the genius of the
Russian people will spread its pinions, and the masses will awake
from their inertia to new life, like the gradual unfolding of spring into
summer.
CHAPTER I. LAND AND PEOPLE AND EARLY
HISTORY
EXTENT, CONFIGURATION, AND CLIMATE
DIVERSITY OF RACES
The Finns
The Finnish race, which outside of Hungary is almost entirely
comprised within European Russia, numbers five or six millions,
divided into a dozen different tribes. To the Hungarian family in the
north belongs the only Finnish people which ever played an
important rôle in Europe, or arrived at a high state of civilisation—the
Magyars of Hungary. In the northwest we find the Finns properly so
called; they are subdivided into two or three tribes, the Suomi, as
they designate themselves, constituting the only tribe in the whole
empire that possesses a national spirit, a love of country, a history,
and a literature; also the only one that has escaped the slow
absorption by which their kindred have been swallowed up. They
form five-sixths of the population of the grand duchy of Finland—a
population almost wholly rural. A Swedish element mingled with
German and Russian is predominant in the cities.
St. Petersburg is, truth to tell,
built in the midst of Finnish
territory; the immediate
surroundings are russified, and
that quite recently: even half a
century ago Russian was not
understood in the hamlets lying
at the very gates of the capital.
To this Finnish branch belong
the Livs, a tribe nearly extinct,
which has given its name at
Livonia; also the Lapps—the
last, physically the ugliest,
morally the least developed, of
all the branches of this tribe.
The race is almost infinitely
subdivided; its members profess
all the religions from Shamanism
to Mohammedanism, from
Greek orthodoxy to
Lutheranism. They are nomadic,
A Tatar
like the Lapp; pastoral, like the
Bashkir; sedentary and (Russian)
agricultural like the Esth and the
Finn. They have adopted the
customs and spoken the language of each and all, have been ruled
by peoples of different origins, have been russified after having been
partially tatarised—all these influences contributing to break up the
race into insignificant fragments. As numerous as their Hungarian
kindred, the Finns of the Russian Empire are far from being able to
claim an equal political significance.
Is it true that the alliance with the Finns is for Russia an
irremediable cause of inferiority? It is doubtful. In their isolation and
disruption, hampered by the thankless soil upon which they dwell,
the Finns have been unable to achieve an original development; as
compensation, they have everywhere manifested a singular facility of
assimilation with more developed races with which they have come
in contact; they allowed themselves easily to be overwhelmed by a
civilisation which they themselves were unable to originate: if they
possessed no blood-ties with Europe, they placed no obstacles in
the way of annexation by her. Their religion is the best proof. The
majority have long been Christians; and it is principally Christianity
which has led the way to their fusion with the Slavs and their
assimilation into civilised Europe. From Hungary to the Baltic and the
Volga, they have accepted with docility the three principal historical
forms of Christianity; the most modern, Protestantism, has thriven
better among the Finnish and Esthonic tribes than among the Celtic,
Iberian, and Latin peoples.
If we seek in language an unmistakable sign of race and
intelligence, it must be admitted that certain Finns—the Suomi of
Finland like the Magyars of Hungary—have brought their
agglutinated languages to a perfection which for power, harmony,
and wealth of expression well bears comparison with our most
complex flexional languages. If it is true that the Finns are related to
the Mongols, they have certainly the virtues of that race, which holds
its own so well in its struggle with Europe: they possess the same
stability, patience, and perseverance; hence perhaps the fact that to
every country and every state which has felt their influence the Finns
have communicated a singular power of resistance, a remarkable
vitality.
The Finn has become Christian; the Turk or Tatar, Moslem; the
Mongol, Buddhist: to this ethnological distribution of religion there
are few exceptions. Hereto are attributable the causes of the widely
different destinies of these three groups—particularly the
neighbouring Finns and Tatars. It is religion which has prepared the
one for its European existence; it is religion which has made that
existence impossible for the other. Islam has given the Tatar a higher
and more precocious civilisation; it has inspired him to build
flourishing cities like the ancient Sarai and Kazan, and to found
powerful states in Europe and Asia; it has achieved for him a brilliant
past, while exposing him to a future full of difficulties: while saving
him from absorption into Europe, it has left him completely outside
the gate of modern civilisation.
It is the Tatars who have given to the Russians the name of
Mongols, to which the Tatars themselves have but a questionable
right. In any case the title is not applicable to the true Russians, who
have at most but a drop or two of Mongol blood in their veins, and
less of Tatar than the Spaniards have of Moorish or Arab.
At the same time with the process of absorption and assimilation
of the Finnish element, another process has for centuries been going
on—an inverse process of secretion and elimination of the Tatar and
Moslem elements which Russia found herself unable to assimilate.
After their submission a great number of Tatars left Russia, being
unwilling to become the subjects of the infidels whose masters they
had been. Before the progress of Christianity they spontaneously
retreated to the lands still dominated by the law of the prophet. After
the destruction of the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan, they
tended to concentrate in the Crimea and the neighbouring straits—in
what up to the eighteenth century was known as Little Tartary; after
the conquest of the Crimea by Catherine II they took their way still
farther toward the empire of their Turkish brethren. Even in our own
time, after the war of Sebastopol and after the conquest of the
Caucasus, the emigration of the Tatars and the Nogaians began
again on an enormous scale, together with that of the Circassians. In
the Crimea the Tatar population, already diminished by one-half in
the time of Catherine II, is to-day scarcely one-fifth of what it was at
the time of the annexation to Russia. The introduction of obligatory
military service in the year 1874 drove them out in large numbers. By
defeat and voluntary exile have the Tatars been reduced to
insignificant groups in a country where, formerly, they reigned for
centuries—in some parts of which even they were the sole
inhabitants.b
THE SLAVS