CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY ENGINEERING

Scope Of Energy Engineering for Civil Engineers

Energy engineering offers various opportunities for civil engineers to work in the field of energy management,
including renewable energy and sustainable building design. These are some areas where civil engineers can apply
their skills in energy engineering:

• Energy-efficient building design: Civil engineers can design buildings that are optimized for energy
efficiency by incorporating passive solar design, efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems, and energy-efficient lighting.
• Renewable energy systems: Civil engineers can design and install renewable energy systems such as solar
panels, wind turbines, and geothermal systems to reduce reliance on non-renewable sources of energy.
• Energy management and auditing: Civil engineers can conduct energy audits and manage energy systems
in buildings, industries, and transportation networks to identify energy-saving opportunities and optimize
energy usage.
• Energy modelling and simulation: Civil engineers can use software tools to simulate and model energy
consumption in buildings and systems, which helps in designing more efficient energy systems.
• Green building certification: Civil engineers can help in obtaining green building certification such as LEED
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification by designing energy-efficient and sustainable
buildings.
• Infrastructure planning for sustainable energy: Civil engineers can play a crucial role in developing
sustainable infrastructure for energy production, transmission, and distribution by designing and constructing
smart grids, energy storage systems, and electric vehicle charging stations.
In conclusion, energy engineering offers a vast scope for civil engineers to contribute to sustainable energy
management and building design. With their knowledge and skills in construction, design, and project management,
civil engineers can help in creating a more sustainable future for our planet.

World Energy Status

The world energy status is constantly evolving, driven by factors such as population growth, urbanization,
technological advancements, and policy changes. Here is an overview of the status, challenges, and opportunities in
the world energy sector:
1. Current Status:
• Fossil Fuels Dominance: Fossil fuels continue to dominate the world energy mix, accounting for over
80% of total energy consumption in 2020. Oil, coal, and natural gas are the primary sources of energy.
• Renewable Energy Growth: Renewable energy is experiencing significant growth, with solar and wind
energy being the fastest-growing sources of electricity generation. In 2020, renewable energy accounted
for 29% of global electricity generation, up from 27% in 2019.
• Energy Access: Around 770 million people still lack access to electricity, with Sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia being the regions with the highest numbers of people without access to electricity.

2. Challenges:
• Climate Change: Climate change is a significant challenge for the energy sector, with the burning of
fossil fuels being the leading cause of greenhouse gas emissions. This has led to increased efforts to shift
towards cleaner energy sources.
• Energy Security: The security of energy supply remains a challenge, with geopolitical tensions, natural
disasters, and accidents posing threats to energy infrastructure.
• Energy Poverty: Lack of access to affordable and reliable energy is a significant issue, particularly in
developing countries. This impacts economic development, health, and education.
3. Opportunities:
• Renewable Energy: The growth of renewable energy presents significant opportunities for the energy
sector, including job creation, increased energy security, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

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 • Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and industries can
significantly reduce energy consumption and costs while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Energy Access: Providing access to affordable and reliable energy to the 770 million people who lack it
can improve their quality of life and support economic development.

4. Summarized Data:
• Fossil fuels accounted for 81% of global energy consumption in 2020. (BP, 2021)
• Renewable energy accounted for 29% of global electricity generation in 2020. (IRENA, 2021)
• Around 770 million people lack access to electricity. (IEA, 2021)
• Solar and wind energy are the fastest-growing sources of electricity generation. (IRENA, 2021)
• Climate change is the leading cause of global warming, with burning fossil fuels being the primary source
of greenhouse gas emissions. (NASA, 2021)

Energy Uses in Different Sectors:

1. Transportation:
Transportation is one of the largest energy-consuming sectors globally, accounting for around 29% of total energy
consumption in 2020. Much of this energy is derived from petroleum-based fuels. Electric vehicles are gaining
popularity, but they still only make up a small fraction of the total vehicle fleet.
2. Buildings:
Buildings account for around 28% of global energy consumption. Space heating and cooling, lighting, and
appliances are the major sources of energy use in buildings. Energy-efficient buildings and the use of renewable
energy sources such as solar and geothermal are being increasingly adopted to reduce energy consumption.
3. Manufacturing:
Manufacturing is another significant energy-consuming sector, accounting for around 24% of total energy
consumption in 2020. The primary energy sources used in manufacturing include electricity, natural gas, and
petroleum-based fuels. Energy efficiency measures, such as process optimization and equipment upgrades, are
being implemented to reduce energy consumption and costs.
4. Appliances:
Appliances, such as refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, are a significant source of energy use
in households and buildings. Energy-efficient appliances and labeling schemes, such as Energy Star, have been
introduced in many countries to promote the use of appliances that consume less energy.
5. Summarized Data:
• Transportation accounted for 29% of total energy consumption in 2020. (IEA, 2021)
• Buildings accounted for 28% of global energy consumption. (IEA, 2021)
• Manufacturing accounted for 24% of total energy consumption in 2020. (IEA, 2021)
• Space heating and cooling are the largest energy end-uses in buildings, accounting for around 55% of total
building energy consumption. (IEA, 2019)
• Appliances account for around 17% of total electricity consumption in households. (IEA, 2021)
References:
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2021). Global Energy Review 2021. Retrieved from
https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2021.
IEA. (2019). The Future of Cooling in Buildings. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-cooling-
in-buildings.
IEA. (2021). Energy Efficiency 2021. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2021.
IEA. (2021). Energy Access Outlook 2021. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-access-outlook-2021

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BP. (2021). Statistical Review of World Energy 2021. Retrieved from https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-
sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-full-report.pdf.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). (2021). Renewable Capacity Statistics 2021. Retrieved from
https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_Renewable-Capacity-Statistics-
2021.pdf.
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2021). Energy Access Outlook 2021. Retrieved from
https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-access-outlook-2021.
NASA. (2021). Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/.

Energy Scenario of Nepal

Nepal is a country located in South Asia, known for its rich cultural heritage and natural beauty. However, the country
has been facing significant energy challenges due to its limited energy resources and poor infrastructure. The country
does not have any fossil fuel reserves and relies heavily on imports of oil, gas, and coal. Much of its population still
depends on traditional biomass sources such as firewood, agricultural residues and animal dung for cooking and
heating. These sources are not only inefficient and polluting, but also contribute to deforestation and environmental
degradation. The current energy scenario of Nepal can be summarized as follows:
1. Energy consumption in Nepal: Nepal's total primary energy consumption in 2019 was around 25,845 Ktoe
(kilo-tonne of oil equivalent), with petroleum products being the largest contributor at around 41.5%. Other
significant contributors include biomass (32.3%), electricity (18.3%), and coal (3.2%).
2. Electricity generation in Nepal: In Nepal, most of the electricity generation is through hydropower plants.
The total installed capacity of hydropower plants in Nepal was around 1,189 MW in 2021. The largest
hydropower plant in Nepal is the 456 MW Upper Tamakoshi Hydroelectric Project, which is expected to be
completed by 2022. Nepal also imports electricity from India to meet its domestic demand.
3. Renewable Energy in Nepal: Renewable energy sources have an immense potential in Nepal, and the
government has been promoting the use of renewable energy in the country. As of 2021, the total installed
capacity of renewable energy sources in Nepal was around 1,443 MW, which is about 44% of the total installed
capacity of the country. The major sources of renewable energy in Nepal are hydropower, solar power, and
wind power.
4. Energy Access in Nepal: Despite progress made in recent years, Nepal still faces a significant energy access
challenge. According to the latest data available, around 83% of the population has access to electricity in
Nepal. However, access to electricity is much lower in rural areas, where only 63% of households have access
to electricity.
5. Energy Policy in Nepal: The Government of Nepal has been working on various policy and regulatory
reforms to promote the use of renewable energy in the country. The National Energy Crisis Prevention and
Electricity Development Decade Plan (2016-2026) aims to increase the country's installed capacity to 15,000
MW by 2030, with a focus on hydropower, solar power, and wind power. The government has also been
implementing various subsidy programs to promote the use of renewable energy in the country.
In conclusion, Nepal's energy scenario is dominated by hydropower, with significant potential for renewable energy
sources. Despite progress made in recent years, the country still faces a significant energy access challenge, particularly
in rural areas. The government has been working on various policy and regulatory reforms to promote the use of
renewable energy in the country.
References:
1. Statistical Pocket Book, 2020, Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal.
https://mof.gov.np/uploads/document/file/Statistical_Pocket_Book_2077_78_English_Version.pdf
2. Nepal Electricity Authority, Annual Report 2020/21.
https://nea.org.np/files/downloads/Annual_Report_2077_78.pdf

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 3. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre, Annual Report 2020/21.
https://aepc.gov.np/uploads/annual_report/AEPC_Annual_Report_FY2077-78.pdf
4. Nepal Living Standards Survey 2019/20. https://cbs.gov.np

Energy Consumption Pattern of Nepal

Nepal is a country located in South Asia with a population of around 30 million people. The energy consumption
pattern of Nepal is dominated by traditional biomass and petroleum products. In this response, we will discuss the
energy consumption pattern of Nepal using the latest available data.
Nepal’s total primary energy consumption in 2019 was around 25,845 Ktoe (kilo-tonne of oil equivalent), which is a
small amount compared to other countries. The energy consumption pattern in Nepal is as follows:
1. Petroleum products: 41.5%
Petroleum products, including gasoline, diesel, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), are the largest contributors to
energy consumption in Nepal. These products are mainly used in transportation and cooking. The demand for
petroleum products has been increasing in Nepal due to the growing number of vehicles and the increasing use of
LPG for cooking. Nepal imports all its petroleum products, mainly from India.
2. Biomass: 32.3%
Biomass is the second-largest contributor to energy consumption in Nepal. It includes the use of firewood,
agricultural residues, and animal dung for cooking and heating. According to the latest data available, around 80%
of Nepalese households still use traditional biomass for cooking and heating purposes. In addition to traditional
biomass fuels, Nepal also has significant potential for the development of other renewable energy sources, such
as solar, wind, and biogas. However, the use of these sources is still limited, mainly due to the high initial
investment costs and the lack of a favourable policy and regulatory environment.
3. Electricity: 18.3%
Electricity consumption in Nepal has been increasing in recent years due to the government’s focus on expanding
electricity access and promoting industrial development but it still accounts for only a small fraction of the total
energy consumption. In 2020, Nepal’s electricity consumption was estimated at 4.2 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh),
which is equivalent to about 2% of the total primary energy consumption. Most of the Nepal’s electricity is
generated by hydropower plants, which account for over 80% of the country’s installed capacity. As of 2021, the
total installed capacity of electricity in Nepal was around 1,838 MW, with hydropower being the largest
contributor. However, electricity consumption per capita in Nepal is still low compared to other countries in the
region.
4. Coal: 3.2%
Coal accounts for a small percentage of the total primary energy consumption in Nepal. Coal is mainly used in the
brick industry and for heating purposes in other industries. Nepal has limited domestic coal reserves and relies on
imports from neighbouring countries.
5. Others: 4.7%
6. Renewable Energy:
Renewable energy sources have a significant potential in Nepal, and the government has been promoting their use
in the country. As of 2021, the total installed capacity of renewable energy sources in Nepal was around 1,443
MW, which is about 44% of the total installed capacity of the country. The major sources of renewable energy in
Nepal are hydropower, solar power, and wind power.
Overall, Nepal’s energy consumption pattern is heavily skewed towards traditional biomass fuels, which have
significant environmental and health implications. The government of Nepal has been taking steps to increase the
share of renewable energy in the total energy mix to reduce the country’s dependence on imported fossil fuels and to
promote sustainable development. But progress has been slow due to various challenges, including the lack of adequate
infrastructure, financing, and technical expertise.

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Points To Note:
a) Economy is directly related to energy and ability to source the energy for a country. However, this being an
introductory course, the aspects of economics are not discussed here.
b) Energy consumption is but one of the indicators of country health. There are several other aspects that are
directly associated with energy.
c) Energy scenarios and consumption pattern may change very frequently. So, a large amount of statistical data
is used while discussing energy scenarios and consumption pattern.
d) This data may be outdated. The students are suggested to visit different portals that present this type of data is
visual form. A few of them are given below:
https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/nepal
https://www.worlddata.info/asia/nepal/energy-consumption.php
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_Nepal

• Wikipedia is a good place to start. However, always be sceptical about content in Wikipedia since
data can be easily edited by people.
• International agencies like US Energy Information Agency, British Petroleum, International
Hydropower Association, International Energy Agency, and International Renewable Energy Agency
(IRENA) regularly publish energy related data.
• Data specific to Nepal can be found on websites of Alternative Energy Promotion Centre, Nepal
Electricity Authority, Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Finance, etc.

Environmental Aspects of Energy

Energy production and consumption have significant environmental impacts that can lead to climate change, air and
water pollution, and other negative environmental effects. Here are some of the environmental aspects of energy:
1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Energy production and consumption are the primary sources of anthropogenic
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for around 75% of total GHG emissions globally. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is the most abundant GHG emitted from energy use, followed by methane and nitrous oxide.
The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas, is the primary source of GHG emissions from energy
production and consumption.
2. Air Pollution: Burning fossil fuels for energy also releases various air pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). These pollutants have detrimental effects on air
quality and human health, causing respiratory diseases and premature deaths. In 2020, around 7 million people
died prematurely due to air pollution.
3. Water Use: Energy production also requires a significant amount of water. Thermoelectric power generation,
which accounts for around 90% of global electricity production, is the largest water user among energy sectors,
accounting for around 45% of global water withdrawals.
4. Land Use: Energy production can also have significant impacts on land use. For example, large-scale
hydropower projects can result in the displacement of local communities and the destruction of wildlife
habitats. The production of biofuels and biomass for energy can also lead to deforestation and land use change.
Summarized Data:
1. Energy production and consumption account for around 75% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
(IEA, 2021)
2. In 2020, around 7 million people died prematurely due to air pollution. (IHME, 2021)
3. Thermoelectric power generation accounts for around 45% of global water withdrawals. (IEA, 2021)
4. Large-scale hydropower projects can result in the displacement of up to 80 million people worldwide.
(International Rivers, 2021)
References:
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2021). Global Energy Review 2021. Retrieved from
https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2021.

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Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). (2021). GBD Compare | IHME Viz Hub. Retrieved from
https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/.
IEA. (2021). Energy and Air Pollution 2021. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-and-air-pollution-
2021.
International Rivers. (2021). Dams and Displacement. Retrieved from https://www.internationalrivers.org/dams-and-
displacement

Sustainable Energy
Sustainable energy refers to energy sources and practices that can be maintained over time without depleting natural
resources or causing environmental harm. The use of sustainable energy contributes to mitigating climate change,
reducing air and water pollution, and promoting social and economic development.
Sustainable energy is the provision of energy such that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs. This means that sustainable energy is power which can be replenished
within a human lifetime and so cause no long-term damage to the environment. Sustainable energy includes all
renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, biomass, geothermal, wind, wave, tidal and solar energies.
Sustainable energy is a significant and focal aspect of sustainability, an important consideration for human
development and activity. Sustainable energy is of importance because of the broad and growing nature of energy use,
there are numerous environmental impacts associated with energy systems and the significance of energy to living
standards and economic development.
Conditions are necessary to attain or shift toward sustainable energy:
1. Obtaining sustainable energy resources,
2. Employing advantageous energy carriers,
3. Boosting efficiencies of energy systems,
4. Mitigating lifetime environmental impacts of energy systems, and
5. Addressing nontechnical aspects of sustainable energy, such as
a. Living standards and lifestyles,
b. Economics and affordability, and
c. Societal acceptability and equity

Sustainable Vs Renewable Energy:

Sustainable energy is theoretically inexhaustible. It cannot be depleted because sustainable energy sources don't need
to be replenished e.g.: sun or wind. Neither resource need to be created or replaced. Renewable energy is theoretically
exhaustible. It uses resources from the earth that can be naturally replenished e.g.: crops, biomatter. A renewable
energy source like bioenergy uses biological mass (agricultural byproducts like straw and manure) to create energy.
Another example of bioenergy is ethanol (from sugarcane or corn) since they can be farmed to generate energy.
Furthermore, if we go theoretically, energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they
are consumed can be termed as renewable energy. Generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than
burning fossil fuels. Theoretically, we can say all the sustainable energy sources can be termed as renewable energy
i.e., solar, hydro, wind, geothermal, ocean and biomass energy.
The following excerpt is taken from this source.
(Source: Henrik Lund, in Renewable Energy Systems (Second Edition), 2014)
Sustainable energy can be defined as energy sources that are not expected to be depleted in a time frame relevant to
humans; therefore, they contribute to the sustainability of all species.
This definition of sustainable energy and the preceding definition of renewable energy represent typical definitions of
both terms. They match rather closely the definitions given by the Internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia. These definitions,
however, reveal a difference in the significance of the two terms. Most important, Wikipedia (2008) includes the word
nuclear in the sources defined as sustainable energy sources. However, as Wikipedia adds, for social and political
reasons, there is a controversy as to whether nuclear sources should be regarded as sustainable. Nevertheless, at the
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present technological stage, nuclear is not sustainable, since it needs uranium, which is a scarce resource within the
relevant time frame.
The same discussions seem to apply to carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, which have recently been
promoted as an important solution in the debate on how to combat climate change. Very often this solution is proposed
in relation to the use of fossil fuels, especially coal. Often the question is posed, why not continue to burn coal, and
even invest in new coal-fired power stations when this technology can be made sustainable using CCS?
On the other hand, even though sustainable energy sources are most often considered to include all renewable sources,
some renewable energy sources do not necessarily fulfil the requirements of sustainability. For instance, the production
of biofuels such as ethanol from fermentation has in some life cycle analyses proven to be non-sustainable. Again, this
is a controversy that has not yet found a consensus.
Nevertheless, the conclusion is that sustainable energy in some definitions may include nuclear and fossil fuels in
combination with CCS, while these technologies and sources are not included in the definition of renewable energy.
On the other hand, renewable energy may include some biomass resources that may prove not to be sustainable.

Energy Storage, Security, And Its Properties:

To establish a sustainable energy system and overcome energy and environmental crisis caused by use of fossil fuel,
a new energy revolution is taking shape with electrical energy as central form of energy. It is characterized by the
development and utilization of large-scale renewable energy. The development and commercialization of energy
storage technology will have a significant impact on the power system in terms of future system models. Due to rapid
development of energy storage technology, its research and demonstration are expanding from small scale to large
scale.
So far main energy technologies have reached commercial or demonstration level all over the world e.g.: pumped
storage, compressed air flywheel, batteries like lead acid, lithium ion, sodium sulphate and flow batteries,
supercapacitors, and superconducting magnetic energy storage.

Mechanical Energy Storage

a) Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS)
Pumped storage is the most mature technology, which is characterized by having a large capacity, long service lifespan,
and low unit cost. However, the construction of pumped storage power is restricted by geographical conditions, the
construction period is longer, and the overall investment is large. A Hydropower reservoir can be taken as an example,
here with the help of a motor the water is pumped from low to higher altitude reservoirs; this water in turn can be
released to generate the energy.
b) Compressed air Energy Storage (CAES)
Here ambient air is compressed and stored underground in a salt cavern that stores energy, when the energy is needed
the pressurized air is heated and expanded in a turbine, driving a generator for power. Compressed air energy storage
has the advantage of large capacity, long time operation, long service lifespan, etc. However, its efficiency is low, the
system is complex and the location requirement for the air storage mine tunnel is high.
c) Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS)
Here, a dual-functional electric motor is used to accelerate a flywheel (a rotating mass that stores Kinetic Energy).
When the power supply is cut off and when the energy is needed the motor operates like a generator and the spinning
flywheel force drives a device like the turbine to produce energy, consequently slowing the rate of rotation; a flywheel
is recharged using a motor to increase the rotational speed once again.
The equation used here is E= ½ Iω2 where I is Inertia and ω is Angular velocity
I= mr2 where m is the mass of the flywheel and r is the radius of the flywheel
Therefore, either the mass should be increased or the angular velocity speed at which it rotates should be increased to
increase the energy stored. Also, the rotational speed is dependent upon the material used and the material is designed
as per the need. For solid disks / Long cylinders isentropic materials like steel are used whereas, for hollow cylinders

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or tubes, carbon and glass fibre reinforced composites are used. Bearings are installed to support the high rotational
velocity. FESS has the advantages of high efficiency, fast response, long service lifespan, less operational and
maintenance demand, good stability, short construction period, small footprint, and low to no pollution. Whereas its
energy density is low, the self-discharge rate is high. Therefore, it is only suitable for a short application.

Heat Storage
a) Sensible Heat Storage
The amount of heat that is required for increasing the temperature of the body is known as sensible heat. In this storage
system heat is stored by increasing the temperature of the heat storage material, generally using water as the heat
storage medium. Here the material does not undergo the phase change process. The heated solar water stored in a tank
is the best example of sensible heat storage.
b) Latent Heat Storage
Latent heat is the amount of heat that is required for changing the phase of the body without a temperature change.
The latent heat storage system uses regenerative materials like salt hydrates, metals, fatty acids, and polymers,
achieving phase change heat storage, which is implemented on solar thermal power generation.
The heat storage system in photothermal (the temperature increase of a material due to the absorption of light can be
referred as the photothermal effect) system can provide the heat energy needed for the generation of electricity when
solar radiation is insufficient on rainy days. Therefore, the output of electricity from the heat storage system can be
adjusted accordingly to the grid operation requirement. Molten Salt storage technology is under research.

Electrochemical Energy Storage

a) Lead-Acid Battery
Traditional Lead-acid batteries’ electrical charge is generated when the sulphate in the sulphuric acid becomes bonded
to the lead. The electrical charge is replenished by reversing this reaction. That is, the sulphate goes back into the
sulphuric acid, and thus, the battery is recharged. This battery technology is well-developed.
Advantages: low cost and easy maintenance. However, the available capacity decreases under deep, fast, and high-
power discharge,
Disadvantages: low energy density, lower life expectancy, and environmental pollution.
b) Lithium-Ion Battery
A battery is made up of an anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte, and two current collectors (positive and negative).
The anode and cathode store the lithium. The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the
cathode and vice versa through the separator. The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode
which creates a charge at the positive current collector. The electrical current then flows from the current collector
through a device being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector. The separator blocks the
flow of electrons inside the battery. This type of battery is most used in electronic appliances and EVs. They are the
main source of storage in most of the power industry at present.
Advantages: better stability, security, longer cycle life, and good charge/discharge characteristics.
Disadvantages: relatively high cost.
c) Redox Flow Battery
Flow batteries, also called redox (reduction-oxidation) batteries, comprise two electrolytes, separated by an ion or
proton exchange membrane. Energy can be stored in the electrolytes by increasing the potential difference between
the two liquids – in other words, by oxidizing one and reducing the other. Redox flow batteries mainly include
vanadium redox flow batteries and zinc-bromine flow batteries.
Vanadium redox flow battery:
Advantages: long lifespan and high life cycle

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Disadvantages: low energy and power density and slow response.
Zinc bromine flow battery:
Advantages: high energy density, low cost, and frequent deep discharge
Disadvantages: high self-discharge rate caused by electrode reaction producing complexes
d) Sodium sulphur battery
The sodium sulphur battery is a high-temperature battery. It operates at 300°C and utilizes a solid electrolyte, making
it unique among the common secondary cells. One electrode is molten sodium and the other is molten sulphur and it
is the reaction between these two that is the basis for the cell operation. It has become well developed MW level
electrochemical energy storage technology and has realized commercial operation. However, it uses the flammable
metal solid material and operates in high temperature (300-350 °C) conditions.
Advantages: high energy density, good power characteristics and long cycle life.
Disadvantages: poses an issue of safety risk.

Electromagnetic Energy Storage:

Consists of a super capacitor and superconducting magnetic energy storage.
a) Supercapacitor:
A Supercapacitor is a device which can store electrical energy quickly and discharge slowly. We know that the normal
capacitors like Electrolytic Capacitor, Ceramic Capacitor etc can store electrical energy very quickly and discharge
also very quickly but the supercapacitor does not the same. The Supercapacitor is also called Ultracapacitor or
Electrical Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC). It is used as an additional storage device in EC due to low energy density
to store energy from regenerative braking. They are specifically designed capacitors which can store large electrical
charge; can be recharged quickly and release large amounts of power.
Advantages: high power density, fast response, high efficiency, long cycle life, low maintenance, wide operational
temperature range.
b) Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES):
Superconducting magnetic energy storage consists of a superconducting magnet, superconducting coil, and cryogenic
refrigeration unit. SMES is a system that can store and discharge electricity continuously as per need.
Superconductivity is the flow of electric current without electrical resistance and is achieved when electrical resistance
is naturally eliminated by cooling certain elements and chemical compounds. In this state a constant magnetic field is
continuously produced even if electricity is conducted. As a result, Electrical energy can be stored as magnetic energy.
Advantages: high power density, fast response, high energy conversion efficiency, long service lifespan.
Disadvantages: high cost, low energy density and complex maintenance.

Chemical Energy Storage

It is considered as a secondary energy carrier using hydrogen or synthetic gas of which hydrogen is electrolyzed and
can be synthesized into natural gas(methane).
Advantages: green technology without any pollution, leads to formation of large-scale energy storage which can store
>100GWh energy.
Disadvantages: low energy conversion efficiency (40-50%), high cost, large investment, and low security. The mass
aim of its application is to improve cost, efficiency and lifespan leading to the prospect of better renewable energy
utilization and large-scale hydrogen as the fundamental energy system. (Fuel cell is the main way of hydrogen
utilization).

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Energy Security
It means having stable access to energy sources on a timely, sustainable, and affordable basis. Access to energy is not
only crucial in supporting basic needs (food, lighting, water, essential health care) but is first and foremost a
precondition to economic growth, political stability, and prosperity. Energy sector is evolving to become sustainable,
adaptable to the growing energy demand and prepared for an increasingly interconnected and digital world. While the
energy world of tomorrow will bring many opportunities this transition also creates security related challenges.
Electricity networks are increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters and cyber-attacks while a growing share of
renewable energy must be safely integrated without threatening system stability.
The four A’s of energy security (availability, affordability, accessibility, and acceptability) are a frequent starting point
of contemporary energy security studies. Two of the four A’s – availability and affordability – prominently featured
already in the classic energy security studies (Deese, 1979, Yergin, 1988) and remain at heart of the International
Energy Agency's mainstream definition of energy security “as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an
affordable price” (IEA, 2014)4. The other two A’s – accessibility and acceptability – have a more complex history.
Both were among the global energy goals proclaimed by the World Energy Council in its Millennium Declaration
(WEC, 2000) but were not connected to energy security until the 2007 APERC report.

Prospect Of Energy Storage and Security:

Very large power grid operators association (VLPGO) (12 of the largest power grid operators) has launched an
investigation into renewable energy development and energy storage planning in different countries. Various countries
have taken 16 wind, solar and other non-fossil fuels energy into consideration in the long-term energy planning. With
the trends of rapid power system expansion and large-scale renewable energy development, each country has
undertaken the grid planning for next 10-20yrs taking into consideration the energy storage and various types of storage
techniques are evaluated and many demonstrations have been built, which can vigorously promote the development
of energy storage technology in the smart grid. Energy storage is deployed as fast response product for frequency
regulation service in many countries and most power system companies are willing to purchase this service.

Anil Sapkota 10