Chapter 5: Hydroelectric Energy

Hydropower has been harnessed to do useful work – to grind grain, saw lumber and provide power to do other devices
such as mills, lifts, cranes, hammers, and trompe (water powered air compressor). The Greeks used vertical axis water
wheels as early as 85 BC and horizontal axis wheels from about 15 BC. The origins of water wheels can also be traced
back to ancient Egypt, Persia, and China where these were used for irrigation as well as grinding grain or flour.
Hydropower was the only source of mechanical energy (other than wind) until the development of the steam engine in the
nineteenth century. The early hydraulic units were relatively small, and their outputs rarely exceeded few hundred
kilowatts.

Hydropower Resources
Hydropower, also known as waterpower, is a source of energy that utilizes the energy of falling or flowing water to
generate electricity. This is achieved by converting the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a water source to
produce power. Hydropower is a method of sustainable energy production. Hydropower is now used principally for
hydroelectric power generation. Hydropower resources can include:
Rivers and streams: Hydropower plants can be built on rivers and streams to generate electricity using the energy of
flowing water.
Tidal power: Tidal power plants generate electricity using the energy of the tides, which are caused by the gravitational
pull of the moon and sun.
Wave power: Wave power plants generate electricity using the energy of ocean waves.

Components of Hydroelectric Plant

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 Figure 1 Typical hydropower components

The components in a hydroelectric plant differ from project to project. The major components of hydropower are as follow:
1. Dam and Reservoir/Forebay
Dams are large structures built across rivers to block the natural flow of water and it creates a reservoir of water behind
it in case of reservoir type system (e.g., Kulekhani I HEP). It also used to divert the flow of the water in case of run-
off-river system (other hydropower in Nepal). A forebay is a basin area of hydropower plant where water is
temporarily stored before going into intake chamber. The storage of water in forebay is decided based on required
water demand in that area. This is also used when the load requirement in intake is less. The reservoirs are built across
the rivers to store the water, the water stored on upstream side of dam can be carried by penstocks to the powerhouse.
In this case, the reservoir itself acts as forebay.
2. Intake Structure
The intake structure is the connection between the forebay and the penstock of the hydropower. Usually, at the
entrance of the intake, there is a screen, called trash rack, responsible for keeping floating debris out of the plant. If
debris along with water flows into the penstock it will cause severe damage to the turbine and other hydro-mechanical
components. Along with trash racks, arrangements are provided to periodically clean the debris blocked by the trash
racks.

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 3. Penstock
A penstock pipe is a large steel pipe that carries water from the intake to the turbines in a hydropower plant. The
penstock runs down the slope to the powerhouse where turbine and generator and other control systems are kept. It
can be of different diameter, depending on the size and capacity of the hydropower plant. They run with some pressure
so, sudden closing or opening of penstock gates can cause water hammer effect to the penstocks. So, these are designed
to resist the water hammer effect apart from this penstock is like normal pipe. To overcome this pressure, heavy wall
is provided for short length penstock and surge tank is provided in case of long length penstocks.
4. Surge Tank
A surge chamber or surge tank is a cylindrical tank which is open at the top to control the pressure in penstock. It is
connected to the penstock and as close as possible to the powerhouse. Whenever the powerhouse rejected the water
load coming from penstock the water level in the surge tank rises and control the pressure in penstock. Similarly,
when the huge demand is needed in powerhouse surge tank accelerates the water flow into the powerhouse and then
water level reduces. When the discharge is steady in the powerhouse, water level in the surge tank becomes constant.
5. Turbine
A hydraulic turbine is a mechanical device having blades that converts the hydraulic energy of water into rotational
mechanical energy. The rotating turbine is coupled with generator to generate electricity. After passing through the
turbine, the water flows out into the river. There are several types of turbines used in hydropower plants which can be
broadly classified as i) reaction and ii) impulse types.
6. Generator
Generator is coupled with the rotating shaft of turbine. When the turbine spins, it turns the rotor of the generator,
which is made up of a series of coils of wire surrounded by a magnetic field. As the rotor turns, the magnetic field
induces an electrical current in the coils of wire, generating electricity.
7. Transmission and Distribution lines
A transmission line, also known as a power line, is a system of electrical conductors that are used to transmit electrical
power from powerhouse to consumers. Transmission lines can range in size from small distribution lines that deliver
power to individual homes and businesses, to large high-voltage lines that transmit electricity over long distances.
8. Draft Tube
If reaction turbines are used, then draft tube is a necessary component which connects turbine outlet to the tailrace.
The draft tube contains gradually increasing diameter so that the water discharged into the tailrace with safe velocity.
At the end of draft tube, outlet gates are provided which can be closed during repair works.

9. Tailrace
Tailrace is the flow of water from turbines back to the stream and the powerhouse is located nearer to the stream. If it
is located far away from the stream, then it is necessary to build a channel for carrying water into the stream. Otherwise,
the water flow may damage the plant in many ways like lowering turbine efficiency, cavitation, damage to turbine
blades etc. This is because of silting or scouring caused by unnecessary flow of water from powerhouse. Hence, proper
design of tailrace is important.
In the context of Nepal, generating electricity from flowing rivers is the most common. Power generation from hydropower
generally involves the following steps.
• Water is collected and stored in a reservoir, usually created by building a dam across a river.
• The water is diverted from the reservoir. The floating debris is screened by trash racks whereas the heavier sand
particles settle at the forebay. Then the water flows through a penstock (a large pipe) and into the turbine runner.

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 • The force of the moving water causes the turbine blades to rotate, which in turn spins the generator coupled to the
turbine and produces electricity.
• After passing through the turbine, the water flows out of the power plant and back into the river via draft tube in
case of reaction turbines. In impulse turbines, no draft tubes are needed.
• The amount of power generated depends on the volume of water flow and the height difference, known as the
head, between the reservoir free surface level (headrace) and the turbine runner axis. In practice, various losses
decrease the efficiency of the hydroelectric powerplant.
• The electricity generated by the hydroelectric plant is then transmitted for consumption through transmission line.
The transmission lines are high voltage lines whereas a step-down transformer feeds the supply to distribution
lines into residential and commercial hubs.
Hydropower Schemes
Hydropower is the most established renewable resource for electricity generation. Large-scale hydropower is a well-
established, mature, and proven technology. The hydropower schemes are broadly classified as: (i) Storage and (ii) Run-
of-the-River (RoR) schemes.
A storage scheme makes use of a dam to stop river flow, building up a reservoir of water behind the dam. The water is
then released through turbines when power is needed. The advantage of this approach is that rainfall can accumulate during
the wet season of the year and then release power during some or all the drier periods of the year. Storage hydropower
provides base load as well as the ability to be shut down and started up at short notice according to the demands of the
system (peak load). It can offer enough storage capacity to operate independently of the hydrological inflow for many
weeks or even months. Kulekhani HEP is storage type hydropower scheme in Nepal.
A run-of-the-river scheme does not stop the river flow, but instead diverts a part of the flow into a channel and pipe and
then through a turbine. Typically, a run-of-river project will have little or no storage facility. Run-of-river provides a
continuous supply of electricity (base load), with some flexibility of operation for daily fluctuations in demand through
water flow that is regulated by the facility.
Pumped storage hydropower provides peak-load supply, harnessing water which is cycled between a lower and upper
reservoir by pumps which use surplus energy from the system at times of low demand. When electricity demand is high,
water is released back to the lower reservoir through turbines to produce electricity.

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 Figure 2 Pumped storage hydropower scheme.

Offshore hydropower is a less established but growing group of technologies that use tidal currents or the power of waves
to generate electricity from seawater.
Large- and Small-Scale Systems
Hydropower plant can be classified based on its power generation capacity. In general, large scale hydropower systems
typically refer to a system that generates electricity on a commercial scale. These systems have the capacity to generate
large amounts of electricity that can provide the power to millions of people. Production is in MW to GW. They require
large investment in infrastructure such as dam, reservoir, and long-distance transmission line (power grid). Large scale
hydropower systems are often used in areas where there is high demand for electricity and reliable source of water.
On the other hand, small scale hydropower systems are typically used to generate electricity for small communities or
localized area. These systems are often installed in remote areas where there’s no access to electric grid. Small scale
hydropower system can range from few kW to several hundred kW. They are often less expensive compared to large scale
system.
The definition of large- and small-scale system differs by country. In Nepal, following distinction is used for hydropower
systems (Department of Energy, Nepal).
1. Micro < 100 kW
a. Mini
b. Pico
2. Small: 1-100 MW
3. Large: > 100 MW
Introduction to turbines
A turbine converts the kinetic energy of water into rotational energy. There are two main types of hydropower turbines:
reaction and impulse. The type of hydropower turbine selected for a project is based on the height of standing water—
referred to as "head"—and the flow, or volume of water over time, at the site.

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Reaction turbine
A reaction turbine generates power from the combined forces of pressure difference across the turbine blade and moving
water. A runner is placed directly in the water stream, allowing water to flow over the blades rather than striking each
individually. Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower head and higher flows. The most common types of
reaction turbines are Propeller, Kaplan and Francis turbine.

Francis turbine
Impulse turbine
An impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner. A water stream hits each bucket on the
runner. An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high-head, low-flow applications. The two main types of impulse
turbine are Pelton and cross-flow turbines.

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 Pelton turbine

Hydropower potential in Nepal

The abundance of water resources in Nepal is exceptional and thus Nepal is endowed with huge hydropower potential. It
has approximately 6,000 rivers with a total length of 45,000 kilometres. These rivers typically discharge 220 billion cubic
meters of water every year. The country's mountainous terrain and numerous rivers provide favourable conditions for the
development of hydropower projects. Depending on the availability of water resources, the technical hydropower potential
of Nepal has been estimated to be 83 gigawatts (GW). Normally, because of the various limitations, not all the technically
available water resources can be developed. Thus, 42 GW is thought to be economically feasible. Sapta Koshi, Karnali,
Sapta Gandaki, Mahakali, are the principal river of Nepal.

As of 2022, the total installed capacity in Nepal amounts to 2190 MW out of which the installed capacity of Independent
Power Producers (IPP) amounts to 1532 MW (132 operational hydel projects) and NEA subsidiary companies have
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installed capacity of 478 MW. Upper Tamakoshi HEP is the largest hydro project in the country with installation capacity
of 456 MW. The country produced 3259 GWh of energy in fiscal year 2021/22. So far, developed hydropower in Nepal
is a tiny fraction of the total economic potential. Even with the ongoing hydropower developments, about 88% of the
economic potential of hydropower is available for further development.
Nepal has potential to significantly contribute to providing environmental services to the South Asian region by delivering
clean, renewable energy while mitigating climate change. Nepal is strategically located between two largest countries in
Asia: India and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). These two countries are facing great demand for electricity
annually. Bangladesh is facing growing energy demand and it is also energy deficient. Demand within Nepal is also
growing rapidly. Energy demand in Southeast Asia has increased on average by around 3% a year over the past two
decades, and this trend continues to 2030 under today’s policy settings. In addition to domestic and industrial use, Nepal
also has good potential to use electricity for transportation. India, China, and other neighbouring Asian countries like
Bangladesh could easily absorb any additional supply of electricity over and above the needs of Nepal, provided that
appropriate transmission infrastructure is in place.
In conclusion, hydropower development is a controversial topic as it potentially has significant environmental and social
impacts. However, hydropower has received favourable consideration recently due to its potential to mitigate climate
change. As of 2020, one-fifth of the global electricity supply comes from hydropower, and hydropower development has
promoted and helped shape economic growth in many countries such as Bhutan, Canada, Norway, and the United States.
Nepal can learn from the historical advancement of these countries. Hydropower can play an important role to address
growing demand worldwide for clean, reliable, and affordable energy and Nepal can present itself as a key contributor of
sustainable and cheap energy. Moreover, properly designed and implemented multipurpose water infrastructure projects
also offer other development opportunities such as irrigation, fisheries, and domestic and industrial water supply for
developing nations like Nepal.
Factors that can impact the efficiency and performance of a hydroelectric power plant:
1. Turbine type: The type of turbine used in a hydroelectric power plant can significantly impact its efficiency. For
example, Kaplan turbines are more efficient than Francis turbines at low head sites, while Francis turbines are
more efficient at high head sites. Therefore, the appropriate turbine type should be selected based on the site's
head and flow conditions.
2. Head and flow rate: The head and flow rate of a hydroelectric system affect its efficiency and performance.
Higher heads and flow rates generally result in higher power output. Therefore, the maximum head and flow rate
of the site should be considered during the design process to ensure the system operates at its maximum potential.
3. Penstock design: The design of the penstock, which transports water from the reservoir to the turbine, can impact
the system's efficiency. The penstock's diameter, material, and length must be optimized to minimize frictional
losses and maximize the water's kinetic energy.
4. Reservoir size and shape: The size and shape of the reservoir can affect the hydroelectric system's performance.
A larger reservoir can store more water and produce more power, while a smaller reservoir may require the system
to shut down during periods of low flow. Therefore, the appropriate reservoir size should be selected based on the
site's water availability and power demand.
5. Intake design: The intake design can impact the system's performance by regulating the flow rate of water
entering the turbine. The intake's shape, size, and location should be optimized to ensure a steady flow of water
to the turbine.
6. Generator type: The type of generator used in a hydroelectric power plant can also affect its efficiency.
Synchronous generators are more efficient than induction generators at higher power levels. Therefore, the
appropriate generator type should be selected based on the site's power output requirements.

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Factors that should be considered in the design process of a hydroelectric power plant:
1. Site selection: The location of the hydroelectric power plant is critical to its success. The site must have a reliable
water supply, appropriate head and flow rate, and suitable geology and topography.
2. Hydrological analysis: A hydrological analysis must be performed to estimate the water availability and the
expected flow rate at the site. The analysis should also consider the potential effects of climate change on the
water supply.
3. Turbine selection: The appropriate turbine type should be selected based on the site's head and flow rate. The
turbine should be designed to operate efficiently over a wide range of flow rates.
4. Penstock design: The design of the penstock should be optimized to minimize frictional losses and maximize the
water's kinetic energy. The penstock's diameter, material, and length should be selected based on the site's head
and flow rate.
5. Reservoir design: The reservoir's size and shape should be optimized to ensure a steady flow of water to the
turbine. The reservoir's capacity should be selected based on the expected water availability and the power
demand.
6. Intake design: The intake design should be optimized to ensure a steady flow of water to the turbine. The intake's
shape, size, and location should be selected based on the site's flow rate and water quality.
7. Generator selection: The appropriate generator type should be selected based on the site's power output
requirements. The generator should be designed to operate efficiently over a wide range of flow rates and produce
high-quality power.
8. Environmental impact: The hydroelectric power plant's environmental impact should be considered during the
design process. The plant should be designed to minimize its impact on the local ecosystem and biodiversity.
9. Safety regulations: The hydroelectric power plant's design should comply with relevant safety regulations to
ensure the safety of the workers and the local community.
10. Cost-effectiveness: The design should be cost-effective, considering the construction, operation, and maintenance
costs of the hydroelectric power plant.
Hydropower power equation
If net head available for a hydropower is H (m) and flow of water flow through the turbine is Q (m3/s), theoretical power
that can be produced from the hydropower can be calculated as:

We know that potential energy stored in the water associated with the net head h can be expressed as
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝐻
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 𝐸 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔𝐻[∵ 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉]
Power is defined as energy per unit time,
𝐸 𝜌𝑉𝑔𝐻
∴𝑃= =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑔𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑄̇ 𝑔𝐻𝑔
̇
This is the available power at ideal condition. The head used in the above equation is called gross head. In practise, some
losses are incurred while the water flows via pipes from the reservoir to the turbine. If the overall efficiency of the of the
hydropower plant if η and Hn is the net head, then above equation can be written as
𝑃 = 𝜂𝜌𝑄̇ 𝑔𝐻𝑛
In above equation
P = power (W)
η = overall (system) efficiency
ρ = density of water (kg/m3)
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Hn = net head (m)
Numerical Problems:
1. River water is collected into a large dam whose height is 65 m. How much power can be produced by an ideal
hydraulic turbine if water is run through the turbine at a rate of 1500 L/s?
2. Two hydraulic turbines (turbine A and turbine B) are considered. Turbine A uses a water body with a height of
200 m while turbine B uses the one with 100 m height. The flow rate of water through turbine A is 150 kg/s and
that through turbine B is 300 kg/s. Which turbine has more power producing potential?
3. A hydraulic turbine-generator unit placed at the bottom of a 75-m-high dam accepts water at a rate of 1020 L/s
and produces 630 kW of electricity. Determine (a) the overall efficiency of the turbine-generator unit and (b) the
turbine efficiency if the generator efficiency is 96 percent, and (c) the power losses due to inefficiencies in the
turbine and the generator.
4. A hydroelectric power plant consists of 18 identical turbine-generator units with an overall plant efficiency of 90
percent. The gross head of the dam is 150 m and the flow rate through each turbine is 3300 L/min. The plant
operates 80 percent of time throughout the year and the electricity generated is sold to the utility company at a
rate of $0.095/kWh. How much revenue can this plant generate in a year?
5. If the population of a country is 29.16 million, what is the per capita energy consumption of the nation if a
hydropower plant is designed with an effective head of 481 m and a flow rate of 15000 cubic meters per second?
Assume that the plant operates for 20 hours per day and 310 days per year, with an efficiency of 81%.

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