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Chapter 1
Chemical Foundations
化學的基礎
黃俊嬴
高雄醫學大學
醫藥暨應用化學系;
Lab: 第一教學大樓 N1128
Tel: (07)312-1101*2810
Mail: genin@kmu.edu.tw
Chapter 1
Table of Contents
1.1 Chemistry: An Overview

1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 Units of Measurement
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement
1.5 Significant Figures and Calculations
1.6 Dimensional Analysis
1.7 Temperature
1.8 Density
1.9 Classification of Matter
Return to TOC
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview
學習目標
1. 了解科學的定義以及以科學方法解決問題之流程。
Return to TOC
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Section 1.1
• A main challenge of chemistry is to understand the

connection between the macroscopic world that
we experience and the microscopic world of atoms
and molecules.
• You must learn to think on the atomic level.
Return to TOC

Section 1.1
Atoms vs. Molecules

• Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
• Atom: smallest part of an element that is still that element.
• Molecule: Two or more atoms joined and acting as a unit.
Return to TOC

Section 1.1
Molecules
• Use subscripts when more than one atom is in the molecule.
A Chemical Reaction (Intramolecular force)

• One substance changes to another by reorganizing the way
the atoms are attached to each other.
Return to TOC

Section 1.2
The Scientific Method
Science
• Science is a framework for gaining and organizing
knowledge.
• Science is a plan of action — a procedure for
processing and understanding certain types of
information.
• Scientists are always challenging our current beliefs
about science, asking questions, and experimenting
to gain new knowledge.
– Scientific method is needed.
Return to TOC

Section 1.2
Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method

• Process that lies at the
center of scientific inquiry.
Fig. 1.3 - Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method Return to TOC

Section 1.2
Scientific Models
Law
• Summarizes what happens.
For example, the observation that the total mass of materials is not
affected by a chemical change in those materials is called the law
of conservation of mass.
Hypothesis
• A possible explanation for an observation.
Theory (Model)
• An attempt to explain why it happens.

• Set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall
explanation of some natural phenomenon.
Return to TOC

Section 1.2
重點整理
Return to TOC

Section 1.3
Units of Measurement
學習目標
1. 認識在量測時常用到的單位以及熟悉單位間轉換計算。
2. 認識在量測時因為不確定性所衍生的一些表示量測結果的
方式(有效數字)以及在經過運算後有效數字位數之取法。
4. 了解準確度(accuracy)與精密度(precision)之差異。
Return to TOC

Section 1.3
Nature of Measurement
Measurement
• Quantitative observation consisting of two parts.
 number
 scale (unit)
• Examples
 20 grams
 6.63 × 10–34 jouleꞏs
Table 1.1 - Fundamental SI Units (SI: International System)

Return to TOC

Section 1.3
Prefixes Used in the SI System
• Prefixes are used to change the size of the unit.
Return to TOC

Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement
• A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain.
• A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
• Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit (the
estimated number).
Ex: Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

• The volume is read at the bottom of the
liquid curve (meniscus).
• Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about
20.15 mL.
 Certain digits: 20.15
 Uncertain digit: 20.15 Return to TOC

Section 1.4
Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy (準確度)
• Agreement of a particular value with the true value.
Precision (精密度)
• Degree of agreement among several measurements of the
same quantity.
Fig. 1.8
Return to TOC

Section 1.4
Types of Error
Random error (intermediate error)
*Measurement has an equal probability of
being low or high.
*Occurs in estimating the value of the last
digit of a measurement
(無可避免的誤差)
Systematic error (determinate error)

*Occurs in the same direction each time.
*Either always high or always low.
(可以避免的誤差)
Return to TOC

Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
(有效數字位數的判斷; 影響最後數字的不確定性)
1. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant

figures. (確切數字的有效數字位數為無限位)
 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly.
 9 pencils (obtained by counting).
2. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.

(非0數字永遠算是有效數字)
 3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).
Return to TOC

Section 1.5
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
(有效數字位數的判斷)
3. There are three classes of zeros.
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits.
These do not count as significant figures.
 0.048 has 2 sig figs. (數字左邊的0不算有效數字)
b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These
always count as significant figures.
 16.07 has 4 sig figs. (被夾在中間的0一律算有效數字)
c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are
significant only if the number contains a decimal point.
 9.300 has 4 sig figs. (拖在尾巴的0，因為有小數點所以算有效數字)
 150 has 2 sig figs. (拖在尾巴的0，因為沒有小數點所以不算有效數字)
 160. has 3 sig figs. (拖在尾巴的0，因為有小數點所以算有效數字) Return to TOC

Section 1.5
Rules for Rounding (四捨五入)
1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits

through to the final result, then round.
2. If the digit to be removed
a. is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same.
For example, 1.33 rounds to 1.3.
b. is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit
is increased by 1. For example, 1.36 rounds to
1.4.
Return to TOC
歐亞書局
CH1 Chemical Foundations P.15
Section 1.5
Exponential Notation (指數表示法)

• Example
 300. written as 3.00 × 102
 Contains three significant figures.
• Two Advantages
 Number of significant figures can be easily indicated.
 Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very small
number.
Return to TOC

Section 1.5
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

1. For multiplication or division, the number of
significant figures in the result is the same as the
number in the least precise measurement used in the
calculation.
1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381  7.4
乘除: 與最少的有效數字的那項擁有相同位數有效數字
Return to TOC

Section 1.5
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

2. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same
number of decimal places as the least precise
measurement used in the calculation.
23.445
 7.83
31.275 Corrected
 31.28
加減: 結果數字小數點後的有效數字位數與小數點後
最少有效數字的那項擁有相同位數的小數點後有效
數字位數。
Return to TOC

Section 1.5
Concept Check
You have water in each
graduated cylinder shown. You
then add both samples to a
beaker (assume that all of the
liquid is transferred).
How would you write the

number describing the total
volume?
3.1 mL (2.8+0.28=3.08)
What limits the precision of the
total volume? Return to TOC

Section 1.6
Dimensional Analysis
單位間的轉換
• Use when converting a given result from one system
of units to another.
 To convert from one unit to another, use the equivalence
statement that relates the two units.
 Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking at the

direction of the required change (to cancel the unwanted
units).
 Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor to

give the quantity with the desired units.

Section 1.6
Dimensional Analysis
Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many
inches does this represent?
• Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor to give the
quantity with the desired units.
12 in
6.8 ft   82 in
1 ft
Example #2
An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb. What is the mass of
this sample in grams? (1 kg = 2.2046 lbs; 1 kg = 1000 g)
1 kg 1000 g
4.50 lbs   = 2.04  103 g
2.2046 lbs 1 kg
Section 1.7
Temperature
Three Systems for Measuring Temperature

• Fahrenheit
• Celsius
• Kelvin
Return to TOC

Section 1.7
Temperature
Converting Between Scales

TK  TC + 273.15 TC  TK  273.15

9 F
TC   5
TF  32F 
9F
C
 TF  TC   + 32F
5C
Return to TOC

Section 1.7
Temperature
Exercise
At what temperature does C = F?


TC  T F
 5

 32 F 
9F
C

x   5
x  32 F 
9F

C
x   40
So  40C =  40F
Return to TOC

Section 1.8
Density
• Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance.

• Common units are g/cm3 or g/mL.
mass
Density =
volume
Example
A certain mineral has a mass of 17.8 g and a volume of 2.35

cm3. What is the density of this mineral?
17.8 g 3
Density = Density = 7.57 g/cm
2.35 cm3
Return to TOC

Section 1.8
Density
重點整理
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Classification of Matter
學習目標
1. 了解物質的組成、分類，與彼此之間的差異。
2. 了解物理變化與化學變化之差異，以及其相關運用。
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Matter
• Anything occupying space and having mass.
• Matter exists in three states.
Solid
• Rigid; Has fixed volume and shape.
Liquid
• Has definite volume but no specific shape.
• Assumes shape of container.
Gas
• Has no fixed volume or shape.
• Takes on the shape and volume of its container.
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Schematic Representations of the Three States of Matter. Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Mixtures
• Have variable composition.
Homogeneous Mixture
 Having visibly indistinguishable parts; solution.
Heterogeneous Mixture
 Having visibly distinguishable parts.
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
The Organization of Matter
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Section 1.9
Concept Check
Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture?
 Pure water
 Gasoline
 Jar of jelly beans
 Soil
 Copper metal
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Physical Change (Intermolecular Forces)

• Change in the form of a substance, not in its
chemical composition.
 Example: boiling or freezing water
• Can be used to separate a mixture into pure

compounds, but it will not break compounds into
elements.
 Distillation 蒸餾
 Filtration 過濾
 Chromatography 層析
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
1. Distillation (蒸餾):
One of the most important methods for separating the
components of a mixture is distillation, a process that
depends on differences in the volatility (how readily
substances become gases) of the components.
In simple distillation, a mixture is heated in a device
such as that shown in Fig. 1.14.
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Figure 1.14
Simple laboratory distillation apparatus. Cool water circulates through

the outer portion of the condenser, causing vapors from the distilling flask
to condense into a liquid. The nonvolatile component of the mixture
remains in the distilling flask. Return to TOC

Section 1.9
蒸餾鍋爐
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
2. Filtration (過濾)
Another method of separation is simple filtration,
which is used when a mixture consists of a solid and a
liquid. The mixture is poured onto a mesh, such as filter
paper, which passes the liquid and leaves the solid behind.
Return to TOC
歐亞書局
Section 1.9
3. Chromatography (層析)
A third method of separation is called
chromatography. Chromatography is the general name
applied to a series of methods that employ a system wit
two phase (states) of matter: a mobile phase and a
stationary phase. The stationary phase is a solid, and the
mobile phase is either a liquid or a gas.
https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comments/5mep0p/sped_up_gif_of_chromatography/
Return to TOC
歐亞書局
Section 1.9
One simple type of chromatography, paper

chromatography, employs a strip of porous paper,
such as filter paper, for the stationary phase.
A drop of the mixture to be separated is placed on
the paper, which is then dipped into a liquid (the
mobile phase) that travels up the paper as though it
were a wick (see fig. 1.15).
Return to TOC
歐亞書局
Section 1.9
Figure 1.15
(a) (b) (c)
Paper chromatography of ink. (a) A line of the mixture to be

separated is placed at one end of a sheet of porous paper. (b) the
paper acts as a wick to draw up the liquid. (c) the component with
the weakest attraction for the paper travels faster than the
components that cling to the paper. Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Chemical Change (Intramolecular Forces)

• A given substance becomes a new substance or
substances with different properties and different
composition.
 Example: Bunsen burner (methane reacts with oxygen to
form carbon dioxide and water)
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
Concept Check
How many of the following are examples of a

chemical change?
 Pulverizing (crushing) rock salt

 Burning of wood
 Dissolving of sugar in water
 Melting a popsicle on a warm summer day
Return to TOC

Section 1.9
重點整理
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112-0

1.1 Chemistry: An Overview

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

• A main challenge of chemistry is to understand the

• You must learn to think on the atomic level.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 4

Atoms vs. Molecules

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5

A Chemical Reaction (Intramolecular force)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 6

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7

Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method

Fig. 1.3 - Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method Return to TOC

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8

• A possible explanation for an observation.

• An attempt to explain why it happens.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Table 1.1 - Fundamental SI Units (SI: International System)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

Ex: Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14

Precision and Accuracy

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15

Systematic error (determinate error)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

1. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant

2. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 18

Rules for Rounding (四捨五入)

1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits

Exponential Notation (指數表示法)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 20

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 21

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22

How would you write the

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 23

 Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking at the

 Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor to

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 24

Three Systems for Measuring Temperature

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26

Converting Between Scales

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27

At what temperature does C = F?

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28

• Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance.

A certain mineral has a mass of 17.8 g and a volume of 2.35

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 29

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 32

Schematic Representations of the Three States of Matter. Return to TOC