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Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
原子、分子與離子
黃俊嬴
高雄醫學大學
醫藥暨應用化學系;
Lab: 第一教學大樓 N1128
Tel: (07)312-1101*2810
Mail: genin@kmu.edu.tw
Chapter 2
Table of Contents
2.1 The Early History of Chemistry

2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2.4 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
2.5 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction
2.6 Molecules and Ions
2.7 An Introduction to the Periodic Table
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds
Return to TOC
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Section 2.1
The Early History of Chemistry
Early History of Chemistry
• Greeks were the first to attempt to explain why

chemical changes occur. (By about 400 B.C. they had
proposed that all matter was composed of four fundamental
substances: fire, earth, water, and air.)
Return to TOC

Section 2.1
學習目標
1. 認識一些早期至近代的化學歷史、重要人物以及定律。
Return to TOC
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Section 2.1
Alchemy (煉金術) dominated for 2000 years.

*Several elements discovered (silver (Ag), gold (Au) and copper (Cu))
*Mineral acids prepared. (Hydrochloric and Nitric acid, Potash and
Sodium Carbonate. They were able to identify the elements Arsenic,
Antimony, and Bismuth.)
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Section 2.1
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was the first “chemist”.
Performed quantitative experiments. (measured the relationship
between the pressure and volume of air)
PV = K
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Section 2.1
約瑟夫ꞏ普利斯特里
• Oxygen gas, discovered by Joseph Priestley
(1773-1804) an English clergyman and scientist.
牧師
 the discovery that a gas later identified as

carbon dioxide could be dissolved in water to
produce seltzer (soda water).
 the first to observe that graphite was an
electrical conductor
 his greatest discovery occurred in 1774 when
he isolated oxygen by heating mercuric oxide.
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Section 2.2
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Three Important Laws

拉瓦節
• Law of conservation of mass (Antoine Lavoisier (1743-
1794), a French chemist; 近代化學之父):
 Mass is neither created nor destroyed. 質量守恆定律
(Also, he wrote the first modern chemistry textbook. It is not
surprising that Lavoisier is often called the father of modern
chemistry.)
約瑟夫ꞏ普魯斯特
• Law of definite proportion (Joseph Proust (1754-1826)):
 A given compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by mass. 定比定律
Return to TOC

Section 2.2
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Three Important Laws (continued)
• Law of multiple proportions (John Dalton (1776-

1844)): 倍比定律; 道爾吞定律
 When two elements form a series of compounds,
the ratios of the masses of the second element that
combine with 1 gram of the first element can
always be reduced to small whole numbers.
Return to TOC

Section 2.3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

1/5 Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms. (元
素是由原子組成)
2/5 The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms
of different elements are different in some fundamental
way or ways. (同元素的組成原子長得都一樣)
3/5 Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of

different elements combine with each other. A given
compound always has the same relative numbers and
types of atoms. (不同元素的原子組合成的化合
物中，其各原子的比值固定)
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Section 2.3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued)
4/5 Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the

atoms—changes in the way they are bound together.
(化學反應:原子的重新排列組合)
5/5 The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical
reaction. (化學反應進行的同時，各原子的本
質不會變)
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Section 2.3
Using similar reasoning for other compounds,

Dalton prepared the first table of atomic
masses (sometimes called atomic weights by
chemists, since mass is often determined by
comparison to a standard mass—a process
called weighing).
Dalton's Table of atoms, their

properties and masses
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Section 2.3
Concept Check
Which of the following statements regarding

Dalton’s atomic theory are still believed to be
true?
I. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.

II. All atoms of a given element are identical.
III. A given compound always has the same relative
numbers and types of atoms.
IV. Atoms are indestructible.
Return to TOC

Section 2.3
Gay-Lussac and Avogadro

• Gay—Lussac, 1808 (French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac
(1778-1850) )
 Measured (under same conditions of T and P)
the volumes of gases that reacted with each
other.
• Avogadro’s Hypothesis, 1811 (Italian chemist named

Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856)
 At the same T and P, equal volumes of
different gases contain the same number of
particles. (體積正比於粒子數量)
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Section 2.3
Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results
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Section 2.4
Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
J. J. Thomson (1898—1903)
• Postulated the existence of electrons using cathode-

ray tubes. (發現電子)
• Determined the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron.
(where e represents the charge on the electron in coulombs (C) and m
represents the electron mass in grams.)
• The atom must also contain positive particles that

balance exactly the negative charge carried by
particles that we now call electrons.
*葡萄乾布丁模型
Return to TOC

Section 2.4
Cathode-Ray Tube
陰極射線管
The green color in the photo is due to the response of the screen (coated with
zinc sulfide) to the electron beam.
is -1.7588196 10 C kg .
Return to TOC

Section 2.4
Robert Millikan (1868-1953), (1909)
• Performed experiments involving charged oil drops.

• Determined the magnitude of the charge on a single
electron.
• Calculated the mass of the electron.
Thomson’s plum pudding model.

Return to TOC

Section 2.4
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Millikan’s experiments showed that the charge on an oil drop is always a whole-
number multiple of the electron charge. Return to TOC

Section 2.4
Ernest Rutherford (1911;原子質量集中在核)

• Explained the nuclear atom.
• Atom has a dense center of positive charge called
the nucleus.
• Electrons travel around the nucleus at a relatively
large distance.
He2+
Return to TOC

Section 2.4
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
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Section 2.4
重點整理
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Section 2.5
The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction
學習目標
1. 認識以現代化學的觀點所闡述的原子結構。
2. 認識將原子拉在一起的作用力: 鍵結
3. 對週期表有一些基本的認識
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Section 2.5
• The atom contains:

 Electrons – found outside the nucleus; negatively
charged.
 Protons – found in the nucleus; positive charge
equal in magnitude to the electron’s negative
charge.
 Neutrons – found in the nucleus; no charge;
virtually same mass as a proton.
Return to TOC

Section 2.5
Nuclear Atom Viewed in Cross Section
• The nucleus is:
 Small compared with the
overall size of the atom.
 Extremely dense; accounts
for almost all of the atom’s
mass.
Return to TOC

Section 2.5
Isotopes
• Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers
of neutrons.
• Show almost identical chemical properties; chemistry of atom
is due to its electrons.
• In nature most elements contain mixtures of isotopes.
• For lighter elements, stable isotopes usually have equal
numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
n+p
p A
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Section 2.5
Exercise
A certain isotope X contains 23 protons and 28

neutrons.
• What is the mass number of this isotope?
• Identify the element.
Mass Number = 51
Atomic Number= 23
Vanadium
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Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Chemical Bonds (共價鍵與離子鍵)

• Covalent Bonds
 Bonds form between atoms by sharing electrons.
 Resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule.
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Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Covalent Bonding
Return to TOC

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Chemical Bonds
• Ionic Bonds
 Bonds form due to force of
attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
 Ion – atom or group of atoms that has a net positive
or negative charge.
 Cation – positive ion; lost electron(s).
 Anion – negative ion; gained electron(s).
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Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Molecular vs. Ionic Compounds
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Section 2.7
An Introduction to the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table
• Metals vs. Nonmetals
• Groups or Families – elements in the same vertical
columns; have similar chemical properties
• Periods – horizontal rows of elements
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Section 2.7
TABLE 2.2 The Symbols for the Elements That Are Based on the Original Names
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Section 2.7
Groups or Families
• Table of common charges formed when creating
ionic compounds.
Group or Family Charge

Alkali Metals (1A) 1+
Alkaline Earth Metals (2A) 2+
Halogens (7A) 1–
Noble Gases (8A) 0
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Section 2.7
重點整理
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Section 2.8
Naming Simple Compounds
學習目標
1. 熟悉並熟練較簡單的化合物(二元化合物)之命名。
2. 熟悉並熟練酸之命名
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Section 2.8
Naming Compounds (命名)

第二章最重要的地方
I. Binary Compounds
 Composed of two elements
 Ionic and covalent compounds included
I.1 Binary Ionic Compounds (type 1, type 2)
 Metal—nonmetal
I.2 Binary Covalent Compounds (type 3)
 Nonmetal—nonmetal
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Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds
(Type I, 陰陽離子都只會帶有某一特定價數)
1. The cation is always named first and the

anion second.
2. A monatomic cation takes its name from the

name of the parent element.
3. A monatomic anion is named by taking the
root of the element name and adding –ide.
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Section 2.8
TABLE 2.3 Common Monatomic Cations and Anions
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Section 2.8
The rules for naming binary ionic compounds are

illustrated by the following examples:
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Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)
*陽離子可以有好幾種不同帶電荷方式存在所以要指定清楚)
• Metals in these compounds form more than one type

of positive charge.
• Charge on the metal ion must be specified.
• Roman numeral indicates the charge of the metal
cation.
• Transition metal cations usually require a Roman
numeral. (有d軌域的)
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Section 2.8
TABLE 2.4 Common Type II Cations
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Section 2.8
Figure 2.22
The common cations and anions.
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Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)
• Examples:
CuBr Copper(I) bromide
FeS Iron(II) sulfide
PbO2 Lead(IV) oxide
Polyatomic Ions
• Must be memorized (see Table 2.5).
• Examples of compounds containing polyatomic ions:
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Mg(NO3)2 Magnesium nitrate
(NH4)2SO4 Ammonium sulfate Return to TOC

Section 2.8
TABLE 2.5 Common Polyatomic Ions
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
Formation of Ionic Compounds
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Section 2.8
Binary Covalent Compounds
(Type III; 共價鍵化合物)
• Formed between two nonmetals.
1. The first element in the formula is named first,
using the full element name.
2. The second element is named as if it were an
anion.
3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of
atoms present.
4. The prefix mono- is never used for naming
the first element.
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Section 2.8
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III)
• Examples:
CO2 Monocarobon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide
SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide
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Section 2.8
Overall Strategy for Naming Chemical Compounds
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Section 2.8
Flowchart for Naming Binary Compounds
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Section 2.8
Exercise
Which of the following compounds is named

incorrectly?
a) KNO3 potassium nitrate

b) TiO2 titanium(II) oxide
c) Sn(OH)4 tin(IV) hydroxide
d) PBr5 phosphorus pentabromide
e) CaCrO4 calcium chromate
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Section 2.8
Acids
• Acids can be recognized by the hydrogen that
appears first in the formula. EX: HCl.
• Molecule with one or more H+ ions attached to an
anion.
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Section 2.8
Acids
• If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is
named with the prefix hydro– and the suffix –ic.
• Examples:
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HCN Hydrocyanic acid
H2S Hydrosulfuric acid
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
Acids
• If the anion does contain oxygen:
 The suffix –ic is added to the root name if the
anion name ends in –ate.
• Examples:
HNO3 Nitric acid (nitrate)
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid (sulfate)
HC2H3O2 Acetic acid (acetate)
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Section 2.8
Acids
• If the anion does contain oxygen:
 The suffix –ous is added to the root name if
the anion name ends in –ite.
• Examples:
HNO2 Nitrous acid (nitrite)
H2SO3 Sulfurous acid (sulfite)
HClO2 Chlorous acid (chlorite)
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
The application of these rules can be seen in the names

of the acids of the oxyanions of chlorine:
The names of the most important acids are given in

Tables 2.7 and 2.8. An overall strategy for naming acids
is shown in Fig. 2.25.
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
Table 2.8 - Names of Some Oxygen-Containing

Acids
Table 2.7 - Names of Acids* That Do Not
Contain Oxygen
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
Flowchart for Naming Acids
Return to TOC

Section 2.8
重點整理
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112-0

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

2.1 The Early History of Chemistry

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Early History of Chemistry

• Greeks were the first to attempt to explain why

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 3

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Alchemy (煉金術) dominated for 2000 years.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

 the discovery that a gas later identified as

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7

Three Important Laws

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8

Three Important Laws (continued)

• Law of multiple proportions (John Dalton (1776-

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

3/5 Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued)

4/5 Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11

Using similar reasoning for other compounds,

Dalton's Table of atoms, their

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12

Which of the following statements regarding

I. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

Gay-Lussac and Avogadro

• Avogadro’s Hypothesis, 1811 (Italian chemist named

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14

Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15

• Postulated the existence of electrons using cathode-

• The atom must also contain positive particles that

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17

Robert Millikan (1868-1953), (1909)

• Performed experiments involving charged oil drops.

Thomson’s plum pudding model.

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Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

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Ernest Rutherford (1911;原子質量集中在核)

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Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

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• The atom contains:

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A certain isotope X contains 23 protons and 28

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Chemical Bonds (共價鍵與離子鍵)

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