UNIT 2

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMET

GROWTH:
GROWTH IS PHYSICAL CHANGE AND INCREASE IN NUMBER AND SIZE OF CELLS. IT CAN BE MEASURED
QUANTITATIVELY. THE PATTERN OF PHYSIOLOGICAL GROWTH IS SIMILAR FORnALL PEOPLE. HOWEVER,
GROWTH RATES VARY DURING DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. GROWTH REFERS TO
PHYSICAL INCREASE IN SOME QUANTITY OVER TIME. IT INCLUDES CHANGES IN TERMS OF HEIGHT,
WEIGHT, BODY PROPORTIONS AND
GENERAL PHYSICAL APPEARANCE. THUS, GROWTH REFERS TO AN INCREASE IN PHYSICAL SIZE OF WHOLE
OR ANY OF ITS PART AND CAN BE MEASURED.
DEVELOPMENT:
DEVELOPMENT REFERS TO THE
QUALITATIVE CHANGES IN THE ORGANISM AS WHOLE. DEVELOPMENT IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS
THROUGH WHICH PHYSICAL, EMOTIONAL AND INTELLECTUAL CHANGES OCCUR. IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE
WITHOUT GROWTH. DEVELOPMENT INCLUDES ALL THOSE PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES THAT TAKE IN THE
FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF DIFFERENT ORGANS OF AN ORGANISM.
LEARNING:
INVOLVES CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR THAT OCCUR AS A RESULT OF MATURATION AND EXPERIENCES WITH
ENVIRONMENT.
EXPERIENCE:
STIMULI IN THE SURROUNDING THAT MODIFY DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS THROUGH THE
LEARNING
ADAPTATION:
INTERPLAY BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND ENVIRONMENT
MATURATION:
AN INCREASE IN COMPETENCE AND ADAPTABILITY.
DIFFERENT AREAS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
1. PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
2. SOCIAL GROWTH And DEVELOPMENT
3. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
4. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
5. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ARE INDEPENDENT INTERRELATED PROCESSES. FOR EXAMPLE, AN
INFANT’S MUSCLES, BONES, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM MUST GROW TO A CERTAIN POINT BEFORE THE
INFANT IS ABLE TO WALK, OR TALK. GROWTH GENERALLY TAKES PLACE DURING THE FIRST 20YEARS OF
LIFE; DEVELOPMENT TAKES PLACE DURING THAT TIME AND ALSO CONTINUES AFTER THAT POINT.
Comparison Between Growth and Development
Growth Development
Growth refers to physiological Changes Development refers to overall Changes in the
individual.
Changes in the quantitative Respect is termed as Development changes in the Quality along with
Growth quantitative Aspect
Growth does not continue Throughout life Development continues throughout Life
Growth stops after maturation Development is progressive
Growth occurs due to the Multiplication of Cells Development occurs due to both Maturation and
interaction with The environment
Growth is one of the parts of the Developmental Development is a wider and Comprehensive term
process
Growth may be referred to Describe the changes Development describes the Changes in the
in particular Aspects of the body and behavior Of Organism as a whole
the organism
The changes produced by growth Are subjects of Development brings qualitative Changes which
measurements. They may be quantified and are difficult to Measure directly. They are Assessed
Observable in nature through keen Observation of behavior in different
Situations.
Growth may or may not bring Development. Development is possible without Growth.
Principles of Growth and Development
1. Principle of Continuity
The development follows the principle of continuity which Means that development is a continuous process. It
starts With pre-natal and ends with death.
2. Principle of Integration
Development thus involves a movement from the whole to Parts and from parts to the whole and this way it is
the Integration of the whole and its parts as well as the specific And general responses. It enables a child to
develop Satisfactorily concerning various aspects or dimensions Of his personality.
Example: Child first starts to learn hand movement then Finger movement and then learn the Movement of
both hand and finger together this is called Integration
3. Principle of lack of uniformity in the developmental rate
Development through a continuous process, but does not Exhibit steadiness and uniformity in terms of the
rate of Development in various development of personality or the Developmental periods and stages of life.
Example: A person may have a high rate of growth and Development in terms of height and weight but may
not have The same pace of mental and social development.
4. Principle of individual difference
Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. One of the Most important principles of development is that
involves Individual differences. There is no fixed rate of development. That all children will learn to walk is
universal, but the time At which each child takes his/her first step may vary.
5. Principle of uniformity pattern
Although development does not proceed at a uniform rate And shows marked individual differences
concerning the Process and outcome of various stages of development, it Follows a definite pattern in one or
the other dimension which Is uniform and universal concerning the individual of a Species.
6. Principle of interaction between Heredity and Environment
A child’s development is influenced by both genetics and Surroundings. While heredity sets some limits, the
Environment, including family, peers, and society, completes The developmental process. Growth is a result of
the Interplay between both factors.
7. Principle of Cephalocaudal
Development proceeds in the direction Of the longitudinal axis. Development From head to foot or toe. That is
why, Before it becomes able to stand, the
Child first gains control over his head And arms and then on his legs.
8. Principle of Proximodistal
Development of motor skills to start at Central body parts to outwards. That Is why, in the beginning, the child
is Seen to exercise control over the large Fundamental muscles of the arm and Then hand and only afterward
over the Smaller muscles of the fingers.
Factors Influencing Child Development
Internal Factors
All those factors which lie within the individual are called Internal factors. These factors include
1. Heredity factors
2. Biological or constitutional factors
3. Intelligence
4. Emotional Factors
5. Social Nature1.
1) Heredity factors:
Heredity factors play their part at the Time of conception in the mother’s womb. The heredity factor
Contribution includes-
➢ What is transferred to the offspring from its immediate Parents in the form of genes and chromosomes?
➢ The height, weight, colour of eyes and the skin, the Characteristics of hair all these decided by the
hereditary Influence
➢ The physical structure, nervous system and other things Related to one’s constitutional make–up, body
chemistry and Physical development are, to a great extent, decided by Heredity factors.
2) Biological factors:
A child’s physical health, body Structure, and body chemistry play a crucial role in their Overall growth and
development. Weakness, internal Deformities, or health issues can hinder normal growth, Impacting not only
physical well-being but also mental, Social, and emotional development. The nervous system Influences
cognitive growth, while endocrine glands and Hormones regulate body chemistry. Imbalances, such as in The
pituitary gland, can affect height. Defects like an ugly Face or short stature may lead to feelings of inferiority,
Posing challenges in adapting to the environment and Hindering aspects of personality development.
3) Intelligence:
Intelligence is the ability to learn, adjust and Take up the right decision at right time, which has a great
Influence on the overall growth and development of a child. It Affects child social behaviour, moral judgement
and Emotional growth.
4) Emotional Factors:
Emotional factors, e.g. emotional Adjustability and maturity, play a big role in influencing a Person’s overall
growth and development. A child who is Found to be overwhelmed by negative emotions like fear, Anger,
jealousy etc. is adversely affected in his physical, Mental, social, moral and language development.
5) Social Nature:
A person’s socialization helps him in Achieving adjustment and advancement in other aspects of His growth
and development.
External factors:
The environment in the womb of the Mother: The amount and quality of nourishment available in The
mother’s womb from the time of conception till his birth Is very important in the aspects of growth and
development Of the child. The factors associated with this period are
➢ The Physical and mental health of the mother during Pregnancy
➢ Single child or multiple children getting nourished in the Womb
➢ The quality & quantity of nutrition received by the embryo Within the womb of the mother
➢ Normal or abnormal delivery
➢ Any damage or accident to the baby in the womb
The environment available after birth:
Whether a child gets From different conditions and forces of his environment after His birth, influences his
growth and development in many Ways.
These include Accidents and incidents in life:
The quality of the physical environment, medical care and Nourishment:
The quality of the facilities and opportunities provided by the Social and cultural forces:
Educational Implication of the principles of growth and Development
Continuous Development:
Recognizing that development is a Constant and ongoing process throughout life encourages Persistent
efforts towards achieving perfection in various Dimensions of personality.
Individual Differences:
Acknowledging the principle of Individual differences emphasizes tailoring support to each Child based on
their abilities, strengths, and limitations.
Developmental Patterns:
The principles suggest patterns for Children’s advancement, aiding educators in understanding Expectations
at specific stages and planning suitable Experiences to facilitate growth.
Optimizing Learning Experiences:
Applying principles like Proceeding from general to specific responses and Integration assists in creating
effective learning experiences For maximum growth and development.
Interrelation and Interdependence:
Emphasizing the Interrelation and interdependence principles guides efforts Towards harmonious, all-around
development, cautioning Against favoring one aspect at the expense of another.
Spiral Advancement:
Considering the principles of spiral Advancement helps in making arrangements for subsequent Progress and
consolidating achievements at specific Developmental stages.
Directional Tendencies:
Understanding cephalocaudal and Proximodistal tendencies aids in arranging suitable learning Experiences,
processes, and environments to align with and Support these natural developmental directions.
Interaction of Heredity and Environment:
The principle of Interaction underscores the joint responsibilities of heredity And environment in personality
development, highlighting the Need to provide a conducive environment for a child to Maximize their growth
and development.
UNIT 3
Learning
Definition of Learning
• The process by which a Lasting change in potential Behavior occurs due to Practice or experience.
• Involves acquiring Modifications in existing Knowledge, skills, habits, or Tendencies through
Experience, practice, or Exercise.
Educational Psychology Focus:
• Learning is the central Focus of educational Psychology.
• It aims to bring about Changes in the behavior of The organism.
Not All Changes Are Learning:
• Temporary changes due to Illness, fatigue, hunger, And changes caused by Maturation do not qualify
As learning.
Perspectives on Learning
Various Definitions by Scholars:
• Gates and others: “Learning is the modification Of behavior through experience.”
• Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of New behavior or the strengthening or weakening Of old
behavior as a result of experience.”
• Crow and Crow: “Learning is the acquisition of Habits, knowledge, and attitudes. It involves new Ways of
doing things and operates in an Individual’s attempt to overcome obstacles or Adjust to new situations.”
• Skinner: “Learning is the process of progressive Behavior adaptation.”
• Munn: “To learn is to modify behavior and Experience.”
• M. L. Bigge: “Learning may be considered as a Change in insights, behavior, perception, Motivation, or a
combination of these.
”Learning theories”
A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and Animals learn. There are three main categories or
Philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall:
Theory of Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)
• Pavlov initially studied salivation in digestion
• Observed dogs salivating when lab attendant Entered with meat, even before food was Presented
• Conducted experiments, including pairing a bell With food presentation
• Dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell Alone
• Result: Dogs associated the bell (neutral Stimulus) with food, demonstrating classical Conditioning
Stimulus:
• A stimulus is anything that comes in Through your senses. It could be something Simple like a smell, a light,
a bell, or a tone.
Response:
• A response is anything that goes out through Your muscles—anything you do.
• In a simple way a stimulus is anything that can Directly influence behaviour and the stimulus Produces a
response.
• In classical conditioning, there are 2 types of Stimulus and 2 types of response. They are Unconditioned
stimulus, conditioned stimulus, Unconditioned response, and conditioned Response as explained below.
The Classical Conditioning Procedure:
•UCS – Unconditioned Stimulus (Food): Natural stimulus eliciting an unlearned Response.
•UCR – Unconditioned Response (Salivation): Innate response occurring naturally to the Unconditioned
stimulus.
•CS – Conditioned Stimulus (Bell): Initially neutral stimulus paired with the Unconditioned stimulus.
•CR – Conditioned Response (Salivation to Bell Alone): Learned response to the conditioned Stimulus after
association with the unconditioned
Some signs of negative classical conditioning in students that teachers can look for
Students looking nervous every time there is a test
• Students may not volunteer answers in Class?
• Students always shouting out answers?
• Not giving other students a chance to talk?
Ways teachers can help students
• Try to make negative classical conditioning Extinct by:
• Create a positive classroom environment.
• Treat students with respect and dignity.
• Present subjects or tasks in a nonthreatening manner.
Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner
• Skinner, considered the father Of Operant Conditioning, built On Thorndike’s law of effect, Introducing the
concept of Reinforcement. Reinforced Behavior tends to be Strengthened, while behavior Without
reinforcement weakens Or extinguishes. Skinner’s Notable invention, the Skinner Box, demonstrated operant
Conditioning. In an experiment, A rat learned to press a lever For food reinforcement. Skinner Also illustrated
the principles of Discrimination and shaping Behavior, showcasing the Effectiveness of operant Conditioning.
Four aspects in this theory
1. Positive Reinforcement: Receiving Something pleasant will increase Behaviour occurrences. E.g.
praise, Awards, grades etc.
2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing Something unpleasant will increase Behaviour occurrences e.g.
good Students exempted from room Cleaning
3. Positive Punishment: Receiving Something unpleasant will decrease Behaviour occurrences e.g. slap,
Bullying, beating etc.
4. Negative Punishment: Removing Something pleasant will decrease Behaviour occurrences E.g. to
send Students out of the roomNote that the terms “positive” and “negative” have nothing whatsoever
to do with whether
Implication of Operant Conditioning in Teaching Learning Process
Early Childhood Stage
• Student raises hand and waits for a Reward (positive reinforcement).
• Rewards include praise or a piece Of candy for good behavior.
Adolescence Stage
• Rewarding above-average Performance with monetary Incentives (positive reinforcement).
• Implementing punishment by having The child pay for undesirable grades.
• Students motivated by group work On assignments and projects.
”Punishment:
Definition: A consequence applied to Decrease the likelihood of a behavior Recurring.
Purpose: Discourages undesirable Behavior through the introduction of An unpleasant consequence.
Types: Positive punishment (adding Something unpleasant) and negative Punishment (removing something
Desirable).
Considerations: Effectiveness Depends on consistency, timing, and Appropriateness.
Extinction:
Definition: Gradual elimination Of a learned behavior by Ceasing to reinforce it.
Process: Withholding Reinforcement that previously Followed the behavior Weakens and eventually
Eliminates the behavior.
Example: Ignoring a child’s Tantrums; if no attention is Given, the behavior may Decrease over time.
Application: Used to Extinguish undesirable Behaviors by removing the Reinforcement that maintains Them.
Shaping:
Definition: Gradual Reinforcement of behaviors That approximate the Desired behavior.
Process: Successive Approximations are Reinforced until the target Behavior is achieved.
Example: Teaching a dog to Sit by rewarding small Movements toward the Desired position.
Application: Useful in Teaching complex behaviors By reinforcing steps leading To the ultimate goal.
Behavioral Approaches to Teaching
Programmed Instruction (PI)
- Organizing materials to be Learned or practiced in small Parts called frames. Learners respond to
Questions or problems in Each frame; if their response Is correct, they receive Positive Reinforcement and the
next Frame is presented. When Learners respond incorrectly, They may be asked to Repeat or be given more
Information to help them Produce a correct response.
Behavioral Approaches to Teaching
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)- computers are used to Present programmed instruction Or to
otherwise Assist learners with specific Learning tasks. Programmed Instruction and ComputerAssisted
Instruction Seem to be a little more effective Than normal educational Practices, probably because of
The extensive use of Practice and reinforcement.
Cognitive Approaches to Teaching and Learning:
Presentation – the teacher directs the learning Activities, this is sometimes called “expository Teaching” or
“reception Learning.”
Authentic Learning – give students tasks Requiring them to learn directly from their Environment. Both
direct experience And authentic learning conclude that firsthand, Personal experience is better than
secondhand
Vicarious or abstract learning.
Scaffolding – providing learners with support When they need help or guidance, wise teachers Provide better
directions and better Explanations, or provide additional learning Sources.
Reciprocal Teaching – instructional activity During which a dialogue or interchange takes Place between
teacher and Students regarding what is to be learned
Problem Solving – requires that a situation exists In which a goal is to be achieved and learners Are asked to
consider how they Would attain the goal.
Information Processing- refers to the Study of how we mentally take in and Store information and then
Retrieve it when needed.
Short-term memory- as the term Suggests, is a storage system that holds Only a limited amount and certain
Kinds of information for a few seconds.
Beliefs about short-term memory:
1. Short-term memory capacity is Severely limited.
2. To overcome the limited capacity of Our short-term memory, new information Can be both Organized
and connected to what we Already know.
3. Information can be remembered better By connecting it with what students Already know.
4. To forestall forgetting new Information, we must manipulate it or, as Cognitive scientists say, engage
In active “rehearsals” with it.
long-term memory – if the information is Used (or thought about) to any degree is Transferred to our long-
term, or Permanent, memory and saved.
Beliefs about long-term memory:
1. The capacity of our long-term memory Seems limitless.
2. We are best able to retrieve Information from our long-term memory if That information was related
To something we knew at that time.
3. We can call up, or recollect, related Information from long-term memory when Processing new
Information in short-term, working Memory.
4. Reviewing information fixes it more Firmly.
5. Mnemonic or memory tricks can also Be used to aid remembering
Attention: how long students are able to focus or pay Attention
Beliefs about gaining students attention:
1. Learning experiences should be as pleasant and Satisfying as possible
2. Whenever possible, lessons should take into Account the interests and needs of students
3. The attention of learners can be gained and held Longer by making use of different sensory channels
And change.
4. Since it is easier to maintain attention when Learners are alert, schedule work that requires Intense
concentration during the morning and work That may be more intrinsically interesting and/or may
Require less concentration in the afternoon.
5. Call direct attention to information of importance
6. Distractions interfere with attention.
Beliefs about the Memory
Process:
1.Information in short-term Memory is lost either when that Memory is overloaded or with The Passage of
time.
2. When information in shortterm memory is lost, it cannot be Recovered
3.Retrieval, or remembrance, of Information in our long-term Memory is enhanced if we Connected The
information to something we Already knew at the time we Originally learned the new Information.
Unit 4
INFORMATION PROCESSING
•What is Memory
•In psychology, memory is defined as when we absorb information from the world, process and store that
information, and then retrieve that information at a later time. It is a process in which a person
recalls past information to help him learn in the present, thereby improving his adjustment to his
surroundings.
Components of memory
Encoding:
Encoding is when the information we take in from our senses is encoded so that the brain can store that
information. Different types of memory use various forms of encoding. Encoding refers to the initial
experience of perceiving and learning information.
Storage –
after the information is encoded, it is stored in the brain. There are different types of memory storage, such as
short-term and long-term
Retrieval:
information that is stored in the brain is retrieved at a later date.
Memory consists of two major abilities of the mind
1. The ability to recognize, at present, anything that was learnt in the past
2. General power to store information of past experiences
Parts of Memory
Sensory Register: The sensory register receives input from the environment and quickly processes it
according to the individual's preconceived concept of what is important.
Working or Short-Term Memory
Working or Short-Term Memory: Within seconds the relevant information is passed to the working or
shortterm memory where it may temporarily remain or rapidly fade, depending on the individual's priorities.
Long-Term Memory:
Permanent “bank” within the brain. Once a memory arrives there, the mind stores
it completely and indefinitely.
What is Forgetting?
Forgetting means failure to recall or recognize an idea or a group of ideas. It is the failure of the individual to
revive in consciousness an idea or a group of ideas without the help of the original stimulus. Forgetting is the
process of fading of some impressions from the mind, or in simpler words, inability to remember is forgetting.
Theories of Forgetting
1. Disuse or Decaying theory:
The theory of disuse suggests that a person forgets those things which are not used.
Educational Implication:
If students forget information because of disuse, teachers can provide repetition and review to
remind them of important items
2. Interference:
Hindrance of learning new information because of other information learned before or after the new
information.
A. Proactive Interference: Information learned previously causes problems with new information.
B. Retroactive Interference: New information cause recall problem with previously learned
information.
Positive transfer occurs when previous learning facilitates new learning while
Negative transfer takes place when previous learning interferes with current learning;
Educational Implication:
•Teachers have to relate new material to old material, emphasizing similarities and differences. The
similarities should facilitate positive transfer; knowledge of differences should minimize negative transfer.
3. Retrieval Cue Failure:
•Some psychologists maintain that forgetting can be explained by the inability to retrieve
from memory, rather than by simple memory loss, distortion, suppression, or interference.
•In other words, individuals don’t appear to remember simply because of what is termed retrieval cue failure.
The “retrieval cue failure” refers to the inability to recall an item of information from memory.
Educational Implication:
•There is evidence that for declarative (semantic) information—the explicit, conscious sorts of learning with
which schools are most concerned—certain types of retrieval cues are the most effective.
Retrieval cues are “words or other stimuli that can help us retrieve information that is stored in our
memories”.
•A Retrieval Cue is a prompt that help us remember. When we make a new memory, we include certain
information about the situation that act as triggers to access the memory. For example, when someone
is introduced to us at a party, we don't only store the name and appearance of the new acquaintance
in our memory. We also include external cues about the situation like what kind of party it was, who
made the introduction, or what music was playing.We also include internal cues like what mood
you were in at the time, or what you thought of the person being introduced. When we try to
recall the person, having one or more of these cues present will help us remember better. So,
when you meet the person again, it would be easier to remember them if you bumped into
them at another party, or you saw them with the same person who introduced you, or you
were in the same mood as when you first met them.
Motivated Forgetting or Repression: -
A purposeful process of blocking or "suppressing" information. There is some evidence that people may forget
events that are particularly unpleasant. One explanation for repression is
Freud’s belief that unpleasant memories filter into the subconscious mind, where the individual is not aware
of them even though they may continue to have a profound effect on the person’s emotional life.
•Educational Implication:
Repression theory holds that memories of highly unpleasant (traumatic) events may be unconsciously
repressed. Ideally, schools and teachers seldom provide students with experiences so horrendous that they end
up being buried in an unconscious place.
Methods to Improve Memory
•Revision or Rehearsal: Fading memory traces can be retained by revision. Revision of the
learnt material and the application of facts or skills learnt should be taken up immediately
after learning. Practicing material helps people remember it. The more people rehearse
information, the more likely they are to remember that information.
•Overearnings: Overearnings, or continuing to practice material even after it is learned, also increases
retention.
•Minimizing Interference: People remember material better if they don’t learn other, similar
material right before or soon after their effort. One way to minimize interference is to sleep
after studying material, since people can’t learn new material while sleeping.
•Deep Processing: People also remember material better if they pay attention while learning it and think
about its meaning rather than memorize the information by rote. One way to process information deeply is to
use a method called elaboration. Elaboration involves associating the material being learned with other
material. For example, people could associate the new material with previously learned material,
•Focus Your Attention: Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to
move from your short-term memory into your longterm memory, you need to actively attend to this
information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music, and other diversions.
•Sleep on it. Studies show that your brain processes and stores information while you sleep. Try to
review information just before you go to sleep— even if it’s only for a few minutes—and see if it
helps embed the information in your memory.
•Acronyms: Acronyms are words made out of the first letters of several words. For example, to remember the
parts of speech, people often use the name NA PAC VIP (noun, adjective, pronoun, adverb, Conjunction, verb,
interjection, preposition)
•Narrative methods: Narrative methods involve making up a story to remember a list of words.
•Peg Word Method: When using the peg word method, people first remember a rhyme that associates
numbers with words: one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven
is heaven, eight is a gate, nine is swine, ten is a hen. They then visualize each item on their list being
associated with a bun, a shoe, a tree, and so on. When they need to remember the list, they first think of a bun,
then see what image it’s associated with. Then they think of a shoe, and so forth.
•Motivation; Motivation can also minimize the forgetting and maximize the memory power.
•Let the child have no fear; Fearful environment can also minimize the memory power and maximize the
forgetting ability. Teacher should keep in mind the liberty and freedom of the
child and provide him free fearful environment.