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CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvi
Supplemental Resources xxi
Quick Start to College: Helpful Information and Advice as You Begin xxv
chapter 1 Welcome to chapter 2 Values, Goals,

College: Growing Toward and Time: Managing
Success 1 Yourself 28
What Would You Do? 1 What Would You Do? 29
STATUS CHECK 3 How Prepared Are You STATUS CHECK 3 How Developed Are Your
for College? 2 Self-Management Skills? 30
WHERE ARE YOU NOW—AND WHERE CAN WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO KNOW WHAT YOU
COLLEGE TAKE YOU? 2 VALUE? 30
STUDENT PROFILE 3 How Values Develop and Change 31
How Values Affect Your Life Experience 31
The Culture of College 4
Your Place in the World of Work 5 HOW DO YOU SET AND ACHIEVE GOALS? 31
HOW CAN SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE HELP YOU GET ANALYTICAL Explore Your
ACHIEVE YOUR GOALS? 7 Values 32
The Three Thinking Skills 8
Establish Your Personal Mission 32
How Thinking Skills Move You Toward Your Goals 8
STUDENT PROFILE 34
GET ANALYTICAL Define Your
“College Self” 10 Set Long-Term Goals 34
Set Short-Term Goals 35
HOW CAN A “GROWTH MINDSET” MOTIVATE Set Up a SMART Goal-Achievement Plan 35
YOU TO PERSIST? 11
Build Self-Esteem with Responsible Actions 11 GET CREATIVE Find Ways to Get
Practice Academic Integrity 12 Unstuck 36
Face Your Fears 13
HOW CAN YOU EFFECTIVELY MANAGE
Learn from Failure 14 YOUR TIME? 38
Change the Conversation 14 Identify Your Time Profile and Preferences 38
Build a Schedule 39
GET CREATIVE Consider How Make To-Do Lists and Prioritize 41
to Connect 15 Plan and Track 42
WHY DO YOU NEED EMOTIONAL Confront Procrastination 43
INTELLIGENCE? 15
GET PRACTICAL Conquer Your
How Emotional Intelligence Promotes Success 16
Time Traps 44
The Abilities of Emotional Intelligence 16
HOW CAN THIS BOOK PREPARE YOU TO Change the Conversation 45
SUCCEED? 17 Be Flexible 46
GET PRACTICAL Use Emotional Manage Stress by Managing Time 47
Intelligence to Get Involved 18 ● Case Wrap-Up 48
● Case Wrap-Up 20 ● Successful Intelligence Wrap-Up 49
● Successful Intelligence Wrap-Up 21
Building Skills for College, Career,
Building Skills for College, and Life 50
Career, and Life 22
vii
chapter 3 Learning How chapter 4 Critical,
You Learn: Making the Most Creative, and Practical
of Your Abilities 56 Thinking: Solving Problems
and Making Decisions 84
What Would You Do? 57
STATUS CHECK 3 How Aware Are You What Would You Do? 85
of How You Learn? 58 STATUS CHECK 3 How Developed Are Your
WHY EXPLORE WHO YOU ARE AS A Thinking Skills? 86
LEARNER? 58 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO ASK AND ANSWER
Use Assessments to Learn About Yourself 58 QUESTIONS? 86
Use Assessments to Make Choices and to Grow 59
HOW CAN YOU IMPROVE YOUR ANALYTICAL
WHAT TOOLS CAN HELP YOU ASSESS HOW YOU THINKING SKILLS? 87
LEARN AND INTERACT WITH OTHERS? 60 Gather Information 88
Assess Your Multiple Intelligences with Pathways Break Information into Parts 88
to Learning 60 Examine and Evaluate 88
Assess Your Style of Interaction with the Personality Make Connections 91
Spectrum 62
HOW CAN YOU IMPROVE YOUR CREATIVE
HOW CAN YOU USE YOUR SELF-KNOWLEDGE? 66 THINKING SKILLS? 93
Classroom Choices 68 Brainstorm 93
STUDENT PROFILE 70 GET ANALYTICAL Analyze a
Statement 94
GET THINKING Maximize Your
Classroom Experience 71 Take a New and Different Look 95
Study Choices 71 GET CREATIVE Activate Your Creative
Technology Choices 73 Powers 96
Change the Conversation 74 Set the Stage for Creativity 96
Workplace Choices 74 Take Risks 97
HOW CAN YOU IDENTIFY AND MANAGE Change the Conversation 97
LEARNING DISABILITIES? 76
HOW CAN YOU IMPROVE YOUR PRACTICAL
Identifying a Learning Disability 76 THINKING SKILLS? 97
Managing a Learning Disability 76 Why Practical Thinking Is Important 98
● Case Wrap-Up 78 Through Experience, You Build Emotional
Intelligence 99
Practical Thinking Means Action 100
Building Skills for College, Career, GET PRACTICAL Take a Practical

and Life 80 Approach to Building Successful
Intelligence 101
HOW CAN YOU SOLVE PROBLEMS AND MAKE
DECISIONS EFFECTIVELY? 101
Solve a Problem 101
Make a Decision 103
STUDENT PROFILE 105

Keep Your Balance 105
● Case Wrap-Up 107


and Life 109
viii CONTENTS
chapter 5 Reading and chapter 6 Listening and
Information Literacy: Note Taking: Taking In and
Learning from Print Recording Information 148
and Online Materials 114
STATUS CHECK 3 How Developed Are Your
STATUS CHECK 3 How Developed Are Your Listening and Note-Taking Skills? 150
Reading and Information Literacy Skills? 116 HOW CAN YOU BECOME A BETTER
WHAT SETS YOU UP FOR READING LISTENER? 150
COMPREHENSION? 116 Know the Stages of Listening 150
Define Your Reading Purpose 117 Become an Active Listener 151
Take an Active and Positive Approach 117 STUDENT PROFILE 152
Choose the Right Setting 118
Manage Listening Challenges 153
Learn to Concentrate 118
Expand Your Vocabulary 119 GET ANALYTICAL Discover Yourself
HOW CAN SQ3R IMPROVE YOUR READING? 119 as a Listener 156
Step 1: Survey 120 HOW CAN YOU IMPROVE YOUR NOTE-TAKING
Step 2: Question 121 SKILLS? 156
GET ANALYTICAL Survey a Text 123 Prepare 157
Record Information Effectively During Class 157
Step 3: Read 125
Change the Conversation 128 GET PRACTICAL Face a Note-Taking
Step 4: Recite 128 Challenge 158
Step 5: Review 128 Review and Revise 159
GET PRACTICAL Mark Up a Page Taking Notes from a Text 160
to Learn a Page 129 Change the Conversation 160
WHAT STRATEGIES HELP WITH SPECIFIC WHAT NOTE-TAKING SYSTEMS CAN YOU
SUBJECTS AND FORMATS? 130 USE? 160
Math and Science 130 Outlines 160
GET CREATIVE Use SQ3R to Make Cornell T-Note System 161
a Connection 131 Multiple Intelligence Strategies 162
STUDENT PROFILE 132 Think Links 164

Charting Method 165
Social Sciences and Humanities 132
Other Visual Strategies 165
Literature 133
Visual Aids 133 HOW CAN YOU TAKE NOTES FASTER? 165
Multiple Intelligence Strategies 134 GET CREATIVE Craft Your Own
Online Materials 135 Shorthand 167
HOW CAN YOU BE AN INFORMATION LITERATE
READER AND RESEARCHER? 136
Map Out the Possibilities 136 ● Successful Intelligence Wrap-Up 169
Conduct an Information Search 137
Be a Critical Internet Searcher 137 Building Skills for College, Career,
HOW CAN YOU RESPOND CRITICALLY TO WHAT and Life 170
YOU READ? 139
Focus on Important Information 139
Ask Questions to Evaluate Arguments 140
Evaluate Every Source 140


and Life 144
CONTENTS ix
chapter 7 Memory chapter 8 Test Taking:
and Studying: Retaining Showing What You
What You Learn 174 Know 206
STATUS CHECK 3 How Developed Are Your STATUS CHECK 3 How Prepared Are You
Memory and Studying Skills? 176 for Taking Tests? 208
HOW DOES MEMORY WORK? 176 HOW CAN PREPARATION IMPROVE TEST
The Information Processing Model of Memory 176 PERFORMANCE? 208
Why You Forget 178 Identify Test Type and What You Will Be Expected
to Know 208
HOW CAN YOU REMEMBER WHAT YOU
Determine Where and How the Test Will Be
STUDY? 179
Given 209
GET ANALYTICAL Link Memory STUDENT PROFILE 210
and Analytical Thinking 180
Create a Study Schedule and Checklist 210
When, Where, and Who: Choosing Your Best
Use Reading and Studying Strategies 211
Setting 180
Make and Take a Pretest 211
GET PRACTICAL Answer Your Prepare for Final Exams 211
Journalists’ Questions 182
GET CREATIVE Write Your Own
What and Why: Evaluating Study Materials 183 Test 213
How: Using Study Strategies 184
Prepare Physically 213
Multiple Intelligence Strategies 186 Make the Most of Last-Minute Cramming 213
WHAT WILL HELP YOU REMEMBER MATH HOW CAN YOU WORK THROUGH TEST
AND SCIENCE MATERIAL? 191 ANXIETY? 214
Change the Conversation 191 Prepare Well and Have a Positive Attitude 214
Math Anxiety 215
HOW CAN MNEMONIC DEVICES BOOST
RECALL? 192 Change the Conversation 215
Test Time Strategies 216
GET CREATIVE Craft Your Own
Test Anxiety and the Returning Student 216
Mnemonic 193
WHAT GENERAL STRATEGIES CAN HELP YOU
Create Visual Images and Associations 193 SUCCEED ON TESTS? 216
Use Visual Images to Remember Items in a List 193 Test Day Strategies 216
Make Acronyms 194
Use Songs or Rhymes 196 GET PRACTICAL Assess Test Anxiety
with the Westside Test Anxiety Scale 217
WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP YOU PUT IT
ALL TOGETHER? 196 Multiple Intelligence Strategies 218
STUDENT PROFILE 197 Maintain Academic Integrity 219
Create a Summary of Reading Material 197 HOW CAN YOU MASTER DIFFERENT TYPES OF
Combine Class and Reading Notes into a Master TEST QUESTIONS? 222
Set 198 Multiple-Choice Questions 224
True/False Questions 225
Matching Questions 225
● Successful Intelligence Wrap-Up 201 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions 225
Essay Questions 226
WHAT CAN YOU LEARN FROM TEST MISTAKES? 228
and Life 202
GET ANALYTICAL Write to the Verb 230


and Life 234
x CONTENTS
chapter 9 Diversity and chapter 10 Wellness
Communication: Making and Stress Management:
Relationships Work 238 Staying Healthy in Mind
and Body 266
STATUS CHECK 3 How Developed Are Your What Would You Do? 267
Cultural Competence and Communication STATUS CHECK 3 How Effectively Do You
Skills? 240 Maintain Your Personal Wellness? 268
HOW CAN YOU DEVELOP CULTURAL HOW CAN FOCUSING ON HEALTH HELP YOU
COMPETENCE? 240 MANAGE STRESS? 268
What Diversity Means 240 Eat Well 270
Action 1: Value Diversity 241 Get Exercise 271
Action 2: Identify and Evaluate Personal Perceptions
and Attitudes 242 STUDENT PROFILE 272
GET CREATIVE Expand Your Get Enough Sleep 273

Perception of Diversity 244 Stay Safe 274
Action 3: Be Aware of What Happens When Multiple Intelligence Strategies 275

Cultures Interact 244
GET PRACTICAL Find Health
Action 4: Build Cultural Knowledge 245
Resources 276
Action 5: Adapt to Diverse Cultures 245
Address Mental Health Issues 276
Change the Conversation 246
HOW CAN YOU MAKE EFFECTIVE DECISIONS
STUDENT PROFILE 247 ABOUT ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, AND DRUGS? 279
Alcohol 279
HOW CAN YOU COMMUNICATE
EFFECTIVELY? 247 Change the Conversation 279
Adjust to Communication Styles 247 Tobacco 279
Multiple Intelligence Strategies 250 GET ANALYTICAL Evaluate Your
Know How to Give and Take Criticism 251 Substance Use 281
Understand Body Language 252 Drugs 283
GET ANALYTICAL Give Constructive Facing Addiction 284
Criticism 253 HOW CAN YOU MAKE EFFECTIVE DECISIONS
ABOUT SEX? 284
HOW DO YOU MAKE THE MOST OF PERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS? 253 GET CREATIVE Find More Fun 285
Use Positive Relationship Strategies 254 Birth Control 285
Plug into Communication Technology Without Sexually Transmitted Infections 285
Losing Touch 254
AIDS and HIV 285
Manage Conflict 256
GET PRACTICAL Conflict Prevention
Strategies 257 ● Successful Intelligence Wrap-Up 289
Manage Anger 257

Avoid Destructive Relationships 258
and Life 290

and Life 262
CONTENTS xi
chapter 11 Managing chapter 12 Careers and
Money: Living Within Your More: Building a Successful
Means 294 Future 322
STATUS CHECK 3 How Effectively Do You STATUS CHECK 3 How Prepared Are You
Manage Money? 296 for Workplace and Life Success? 324
WHAT DOES MONEY MEAN IN YOUR LIFE? 296 HOW CAN YOU PREPARE FOR CAREER
How You Perceive and Use Money 296 SUCCESS? 324
Needs Versus Wants 297 Consider Your Personality and Strengths 324
How Your Time Relates to Money 298 Be Strategic 325
Build Knowledge and Experience 327
HOW CAN YOU CREATE AND USE
A BUDGET? 299 Investigate Career Paths 328
Figure Out What You Earn 299 Know What Employers Want 328
Figure Out What You Spend 299 Expect Change 330
Evaluate the Difference 300 STUDENT PROFILE 331
Adjust Expenses or Earnings 301
HOW CAN YOU CONDUCT AN EFFECTIVE
GET PRACTICAL Map Out Your JOB SEARCH? 332
Budget 302 Use Available Resources 332
Use an Organized, Consistent Strategy 333
HOW CAN YOU INCREASE INCOME THROUGH
WORK AND FINANCIAL AID? 304 Your Resumé, Cover Letter, and Interview 334
Juggle Work and School 304 Change the Conversation 334
Explore and Apply for Financial Aid 305
HOW CAN YOU CONTINUE TO ACTIVATE YOUR
Change the Conversation 305 SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE? 334
STUDENT PROFILE 307 GET PRACTICAL Find Useful

Keywords 335
GET CREATIVE Brainstorm Day-to-
Day Ways to Save Money 308 GET ANALYTICAL Evaluate Your
Development 336
WHAT WILL HELP YOU USE CREDIT CARDS
WISELY? 309 HOW WILL YOUR LEARNING IN THIS COURSE
How Credit Cards Work 310 BRING SUCCESS? 338
Watch for Problems 310 Lifelong Learning and the Growth Mindset 338
Manage Credit Card Debt 311 GET CREATIVE Think Fifty Positive
Build a Good Credit Score 312 Thoughts 340
GET ANALYTICAL Examine Credit Flexibility Helps You Adapt to Change 340
Card Use 314
HOW CAN YOU PLAN FOR A SOLID FINANCIAL ● Successful Intelligence Wrap-Up 343
FUTURE? 314
Save and Invest Your Money 314
Multiple Intelligence Strategies 315 and Life 344
Begin Saving for Retirement 316

APPENDIX A: The Writing Process 351
Building Skills for College, Career, APPENDIX B: Social Networking and Media 357
and Life 319 ENDNOTES 359
INDEX 363
xii CONTENTS
PREFACE
“It’s not just what you know;

it’s what you know how to do.”
Since its publication, Keys to Success has set the standard for helping students
understand how to be successful in College, Career, and Life. This Seventh
Edition presents Keys’ tried-and-true system, revised for even greater efficacy,
for building students’ ability to think analytically, creatively, and practically.
These three thinking skills increase students’ power to choose and to act as
they progress through college and the world of work.
■ Text-wide Theme of Successful Intelligence Focuses on Analytical, Creative, and

Practical Thinking Skills: Based on Robert Sternberg’s concept of using success-
ful intelligence to maximize learning and life success, the way to achieve Col-
lege, Career, and Life success is through building analytical, creative, and
practical thinking skills. Here’s what you’ll see:
1. Get Analytical, Get Creative, and Get Practical exer-

cises are geared toward building the specific skill.
2. SI Wrap-Up summarizes how students have built their Analyze a Statement
thinking skills in the context of the chapter top- Reread the case study that opens the chapter. Consider the statement below; then analyze it by answering the
questions that follow.
ics and exercises. There’s no point in pursuing a career area that you love
if it isn’t going to earn you a living.
3. Steps to Success: Boost Your Brain Power
exercises build all thinking skills at three levels Is this statement fact or opinion? Why?
Activate _________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Your Creative Powers
of challenge, starting with recall and moving to _________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
application and analysis, making it easy to First, think about the past month; then list three creative acts you performed.
1.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
To study, I _________________________________________________________________________________________
What examples can you think of that support or negate this statement?
accommodate students’ abilities. 2.
3.
In my personal life, I _______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
At work or in the classroom, I _____________________________________________________________________
4. The theme, introduced in Chapter 1, has Now think of a problem or situation that is on your mind. Brainstorm one new idea for how to deal with it.
been retained and strengthened with the lat-

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TakeWrite
a down
Practical Approach
a second idea—but toaspect of creativity. What would be a risky way to
focus on the risk-taking
handle the situation? How do you hope it would pay off?
est research and a stronger link to motiva- Building Successful Intelligence

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Look back_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
at your Wheel of Successful Intelligence in Chapter 1 on page 26. Write here the skill area in which
tion, mindset, and future success. you most need to build strength:
Finally, sit with the question—write down one more idea only after you have been away from this page for at
least 24 hours.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Pre- and Post-course assessments, found Write down two practical actions you can take that will improve your skills in that area. For example, someone
who wants to be more creative could take a course focused on creativity; someone who wants to be more
in Chapters 1 and 12, help students assess practical could work on paying attention to social cues; someone who wants to be more analytical could decide
to analyze one newspaper article every week.
1. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
their progress in building these thinking _________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
skills and their motivation to persist in _________________________________________________________________________________________________________
achieving goals.
■ Emphasis on How Students Learn: This text gives the tools to
for Memory
Apply Different Intelligences to Remembering Material for Psychology
find out how students think and learn best and what to do to
apply that information usefully. Chapter 3’s Self-Assessments
APPLY MI MEMORY STRATEGIES
TO THE TOPIC OF
USE MI STRATEGIES TO MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
INTELLIGENCE REMEMBER MORE EFFECTIVELY FOR A PSYCHOLOGY COURSE
help explore learning strengths and weaknesses. Then, in Chap- Verbal-Linguistic • Develop a story line for a mnemonic first; then
work on the visual images.
• Answer learning objectives as though they
were essay questions: “What are three types
• Write out answers to practice essay questions. of needs?” “What are instinct approaches to
ters 5–12, Multiple Intelligence Strategies grids help find ways motivation?”*
to relate the chapter topic to learning preferences. In-chapter Logical-Mathematical • Create logical groupings that help you
memorize knowledge chunks.
• When you study material in the middle, link it
• Group and compare the theories of
emotion—the James-Lange theory, the
Cannon-Bard theory, the Schachter-Singer and
material (especially the Communication and Careers chapters)

to what comes before and after. cognitive arousal theory, the facial feedback
hypothesis, and Lazarus’s cognitive-
mediational theory.
shows how to apply how you learn to specific situations. Bodily-Kinesthetic • Reenact concepts physically if you can to solidify
them in memory.
• Record information onto a digital recorder and
• Model facial expressions with another student
and take turns guessing the emotion behind
the expression.
listen as you walk between classes.
■ Success Skills That Transfer to Today’s Global Workplace . . . Visual-Spatial • Focus on visual mnemonics such as mental • Create a colorful mnemonic to remember
walks. maladaptive eating problems such as obesity,
and to Life: Keys skills transfer to success in today’s global • Use markers to add color to the images you use
in your mnemonics.
anorexia nervosa, and bulimia.
marketplace. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, an orga- Interpersonal • Do flash card drills with a study partner.
• Recite important material to a study partner.
• Working with a study partner, recite and
explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to each
nization founded by top educators and business leaders, devel-

other.
oped a framework to identify the core knowledge and skills

people need to learn to be effective in a global workplace. In
every chapter, Keys’ coverage builds the skills covered in that framework.
xiii
What’s New in this edition?
Annotated Instructor’s Edition
offers quick access to icebreakers,
What Think about this problem as you extra activities, “fast facts,”
Would read, and consider how you would
resource links to instructor

You
approach it. This chapter takes a
closer look at your personal values,
materials such as PowerPoints
D
Do? the goals you set reflecting those
values, and how you manage your time
to achieve those important goals. and MyStudentSuccessLab, coach-
ing tips, use of social networking,
evonne attended college as a part- through how to stop global warming, and I can’t
time student for the past year and even turn in a paper on time or stay awake and real-world benefits.
this term decided to take on a full when I study,” Devonne sighed.
load of courses. However, she is finding it hard “Listen, at the very least, you need a decent
to manage her responsibilities. In sociology class grade on this project,” Ms. Cordoza responded. Compelling case stories and activities
the instructor, Ms. Cordoza, has assigned a “But you might find out that world problems
group project focusing on the biggest problems have more to do with you than you think. Can open and are revisited throughout
the world is facing today. She has asked
Devonne to stay after class to talk about it.
you make your group’s next meeting this Friday
at 1 P.M.?” (To be continued . . . ) each chapter. Through others’ expe-
“Devonne, I know you haven’t been able to
make your group’s first two meetings,” she said,
Managing responsibilities is a challenge riences, students learn to question,
for almost every student. You’ll learn more
“and I want to make sure you don’t let this
project drop. How can I help?”
about Devonne, and revisit her situation,
within the chapter.
spot issues, solve problems, evalu-
“I’m just swamped,” Devonne replied. “I’ve
got four other classes and I work weekends; I
ate their own choices, and plan
take care of my nephew every morning, and my
schedule is just not working out.”
for similar situations in the future.
“Is that the little guy you brought to class
last week?” asked Ms. Cordoza.
7 Why is it important to know what Mid-chapter and end-of-chapter
you value? p. 30
“Yes, that’s him. I’m sorry I had to do that,” 7 How do you set and achieve
goals? p. 31
case activities (Change the Conver-
said Devonne.
Ms. Cordoza thought for a moment. “Look, 7 How can you effectively manage your
time? p. 38
sation and Case Wrap-up) encour-
you did keep him quiet so he didn’t disturb the
class. My issue is that you couldn’t be present for age critical, creative, and practical
naging Yourself the class while managing him. Class time is your
time to get what you need from your education.” thinking about personal, local, and
“You know, this project just doesn’t make
sense to me. We’re supposed to be thinking global issues.
Real-World Benefits to Jump-Starting
Career and Life Success: In addi-
tion to fully integrated coverage
of college–career–life connections in each chapter, here’s
CHAPTER 9 how Keys helps students connect.
1. Social Networking and Media is integrated in the

text, in an appendix and as a segment of the Career Port-
folio activity, where students use social media to build a
profile on an effective career and internship networking
site step-by-step.
2. 21st Century Skills, findings from a partnership of
ve taken
your pla
nned educators and business people who have discovered
y you ha
Make a Difference
BUILD BASIC SKILLS. Looking ck
again he re when
you ca
n hone
stly sa
he at the five actions for cultural competence earlier in this chapter,

skills that recent graduates lack but employers require
, do it. (C
Finally
reread the suggestions for Action 5: Adapt to Diverse Cultures on pages 245–246. For the three strategies
listed here, give a real-life version (something you’ve done or know someone else has done). For example,
by choosing to wear a blindfold for an entire day as part of a “Blind for a Day” experience, students are
and reward, are covered. Keys develops these skills—
putting themselves in other people’s shoes.
Look past external characteristics: __________________________________________________________________

including teamwork, communication, innovation, and
lution
s Toge
th er
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
.
personal accountability.
te So
Creashoes: E TO HO
ME
levant
problem
Put yourself in other people’s
PR OB LE
M SO
________________________________________________________________
LV IN G CL OS
as a gr oup on
so ng
lvi a real
and re
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
20 m in ut es as a
class
one gr
oup m
ember
to take
notes.
3. Student Profiles connect the skill in the chapter
To work a group; nt s. Assign people
to the world of work.
Go al: as de w
minutes five stu
Help others in need: _______________________________________________________________________________
two to regard
to ho
task: 10 oups of es with
Time on into gr a time: ity fac s on
Divide , one at
__________________________________________________________________________________________________ mmun rs, focu
uc tions: ng qu estions sc ho ol or co gr ou p prefe
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IN TE LL . Have To secu d and persona that or on separate shee
IO NA L ejudice otherer en
a job inter ve no sponse school in Memphis. always stressed to my two kids, and
EM OT e wi th pr on th e
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ligwill have to put
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perienc you be
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letter to all y intel your commun
Your ex e? Have e situa
t thselli emoutotion accompany your resu ication skills now also to my two stepchildren,
prejudic gs abou ngnepoin
an ts of mé. With this to the test—on
type of ur feelin t). Outli uation.your resumé and highlight key com paper—by crea What I focus on: that a college education is a need,
en ed and yo he ar d abou t
Forth
of e sitport
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folio them e
to th at aca- munication tool, you can t-
happ or ou
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seen or helpf d ex
, thre or aca- employer. About me: I have a family to help support and I not a want.
u have positive
ground and expl as an e-pa ragraphr, cove
tion yo names, but selec h of ide
altainin se, majo guraglette
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brin g Social Networking ake use of er ga andrdinindu sp
g astry that appropria com
il ininterest you. Use
pany. Be crea
tive—you may
emp loyer, describ-
G Introductory
paragraph: Star the format show use fictitious high school and didn’t return to school. First of all, the work-study What will help me in the
CONTROL YOUR COMMUNICATION name a person t with a state n in Key 9.7. program is amazing, and everyone workplace:
the ment that conv school for 20 years. I wanted to fin-
Many people these days are overwhelmed empvolume
by the loyer know of electronic communication incethat
s thecomes their
com pany that you s who told employe r to read on. ish my education, but as a single who needs financial aid should con- Living on a budget and sacrificing
readhelpful
in the than you to write You might
way each day. Make sure appl that ying
LinkedIn is more overwhelming or referhow
, and tell the newspap er or on theby establishing you
to som ething positive mom raising two kids, I couldn’t fig- sider work study. Though sometimes now for long-term goals later both
want to be contacted. Sign in to your account emp
and loyer that
proceed as follows: Internet. Iden about the
you are inter tify the position
Middle paragrap ested in work for which you ure out how to go back to school. I feel very busy, I keep my goal right involve a lot of discipline. I know
h: Sell your valu ing for the com are
• Click on “Editpany My Profile.”
in some way. e. Try to conv pany.
ince the emp My teenage daughter helped me gain in front of me: a good education is a from having been in the workforce
• Scroll to the bottom,
sible, tieand click onCent the er your
Edit button
“sale next
s efforto “Contact loyer that hirin
Settings.”
your qualifica t” on your expe g you will help the courage to get my GED through ticket to a better-paying job. Second, that discipline enables you to make
• Indicate what type of messages you tions to
would like
thetoneed
accept LinkedIn. rience in school the com-
s ofon the company and the work
• Indicate whatFina kindsl para graph: Close you are looking to receive
of opportunities with a call to from . Refe
the network
r indi you
rectl are
y to your encl
place. If pos- Hinds’ Dropout Recovery Initiative. I our family has to run on a tight bud- commitments to excellence even
building. expect your call action. Ask the osed resumé. discovered I had an interest in nurs- get. I did get married three years when the going gets tough. Disci-
to arrange an employer to
inter call
• If you choose, include
Exch ange advice to users contactingview you.. (For example, if you feel likeyou, or tell
it will takethe employe ing and was able to find a work- ago, so things aren’t as tight as they pline helps you weather some of the
your first draf r to
too much time
imp rovetoimp
accept InMail as t with
well as manage
a classmate your regular e-mail, you can instruct users
act and persuasi . Read each othe study program so I could continue at were, but we all keep our long-term temporary storms in the working
xiv PREFACE
to contactmakyou using your
e corrections. regular
Create a final
vene
e-mail account.)
ss, writing style
draft for your
, grammar, punc
portfolio.
r’s lette r and make mar
tuation, and ginal notes to
spelling. Disc
uss and then
Hinds, attending college classes. goals in view to resist spending world and in life.
Social Netw
orking
CON TRO L YOU
R COM MUN
Many people ICAT ION
these days are
way each day. overwhelmed
Make sure that by the volume
want to be cont LinkedIn is mor of electronic
acted. Sign in e helpful than communicati
to your acco overwhelmin on that comes
unt and p g by estab their
Updated and Expanded Coverage: All chapters have
What else has changed been updated, but these topics deserve special
in this edition? mention: chapter opening self-assessments (all

chapters), motivation (Chapter 1), emotional intel-
ligence (Chapter 1 and in every chapter’s end-of-
Stronger Study and Life Skills Organization: To chapter “emotional intelligence” journal activity),
reflect current educational best practices and bet- information literacy (Chapter 5), and brain-based
ter address student concerns, these five chapters learning (Chapter 7).
were reorganized.
MyStudentSuccessLab (www.mystudentsuccesslab
Revised! Chapter 5, Reading and Informa- .com): An online solution designed to help students
tion Literacy: This chapter now focuses on acquire the basic skills needed to succeed in col-
reading, text annotating and notes, and infor- lege and beyond. It is organized to support these
mation literacy. Studying, formerly a section in goals:
Chapter 5, is updated, expanded, and relocated
in Chapter 7. 1. Connect: Promote higher engagement &
Revised! Chapter 6, Listening and Note retention through real student video inter-
Taking: This is now a more streamlined chap- views on key issues.
ter that focuses on the listening process and 2. Practice: Facilitate skill-building with three
taking notes in class. Memory has been moved exercises per topic that provide interactive
to Chapter 7. experience and practice.
3. Personalize: Students apply what is learned
New! Chapter 7, Memory and Studying: and create personally relevant projects;
A brand-new chapter that includes the latest Instructors assess skill mastery.
information on brain-based learning, how to
lock information into memory, and how to Many of our best suggestions come from you.
study effectively. Please contact your Pearson representative with
Revised! Chapter 11, Managing Money: An questions or requests for resources or materi-
entire chapter is now devoted to financial lit- als. Send suggestions for ways to improve Keys to
eracy, a key issue for students living in today’s Success to Carol Carter at caroljcarter@lifebound
economy. Includes new information. It includes .com. We look forward to hearing from you!
new credit and student loan regulations.
Revised! Chapter 12, Careers and More:
Now a full chapter of coverage is provided on
this crucial topic.
PREFACE xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With the help of many, this stellar Seventh Edition has taken yet another leap
forward. We thank:
Seventh Edition Reviewers

Mary Adams, Northern Kentucky University
Shawn Bixler, The University of Akron
Julia Brown, South Plains College
Frederick Charles, Indiana University
Carrie Cokely, Curry College
Donna Dahlgren, Indiana University Southeast
Ann French, New Mexico State University
Lewis Grey, Middle Tennessese State University
Valerie Jefferson, Rock Valley College
Gary G. John, Richland College
Elvira Johnson, Central Piedmont Community College
Natalie McLellan, Holmes Community College
Kimberly O’Connor, Community College of Baltimore City
Tom Peterson, Grand View University
Jack E. Sallie, Jr., Montgomery College
Tia Short, Boise State University
Julie Stein, California State University
Rose Stewart-Fram, McLennan Community College
Karla Thompson, New Mexico State University
Susannah Waldrop, University of South Carolina, Upstate
Jill Wilks, Southern Utah University
Kim Winford, Blinn College
Reviewers for Previous Editions

Peg Adams, Northern Kentucky University
Raishell Adams, Palm Beach Community College—Palm Beach Gardens
Veronica Allen, Texas Southern University
Fred Amador, Phoenix College
Angela A. Anderson, Texas Southern University
Robert Anderson, The College of New Jersey
Manual Aroz, Arizona State University
Dirk Baron, California State University–Bakersfield
Glenda Belote, Florida International University
Todd Benatovich, University of Texas at Arlington
John Bennett, Jr., University of Connecticut
Lynn Berkow, University of Alaska
Susan Bierster, Palm Beach Community College–Lake Worth
Ann Bingham-Newman, California State University–LA
Mary Bixby, University of Missouri–Columbia
Barbara Blandford, Education Enhancement Center at Lawrenceville, NJ
Jerry Bouchie, St. Cloud State University
D’Yonne Browder, Texas Southern University
Mary Carstens, Wayne State College
Mona Casady, SW Missouri State University
Christy Cheney, Valencia Community College–East Campus
Leslie Chilton, Arizona State University
Kobitta Chopra, Broward Community College
Jim Coleman, Baltimore City Community College
Sara Connolly, Florida State University
Kara Craig, University of Southern Mississippi
Jacqueline Crossen-Sills, Massasoit Community College
Janet Cutshall, Sussex County Community College
xvi
Carolyn Darin, California State University–Northridge
Deryl Davis-Fulmer, Milwaukee Area Technical College
Valerie DeAngelis, Miami-Dade Community College
Joyce Annette Deaton, Jackson State Community College
Rita Delude, NH Community Technical College
Marianne Edwards, Georgia College and State University
Judy Elsley, Weber State University in Utah
Ray Emett, Salt Lake Community College
Jacqueline Fleming, Texas Southern University
Patsy Frenchman, Santa Fe Community College
Rodolfo Frias, Santiago Canyon College
Ralph Gallo, Texas Southern University
Jean Gammon, Chattanooga State Technical Community College
Skye Gentile, California State University, Hayward
Bob Gibson, University of Nebraska–Omaha
Jennifer Guyer-Wood, Minnesota State University
Sue Halter, Delgado Community College
Suzy Hampton, University of Montana
Karen Hardin, Mesa Community College
Patricia Hart, California State University, Fresno
Maureen Hurley, University of Missouri–Kansas City
Karen Iversen, Heald Colleges
Valerie Jefferson, Rock Valley College
Cynthia Johnson, Palm Beach Community College–Lake Worth
S. Renee Jones, Florida Community College at Jacksonville–North Campus
Georgia Kariotis, Oakton Community College
Laura Kauffman, Indian River Community College
Kathryn K. Kelly, St. Cloud State University
Cathy Keyler, Palm Beach Community College–Palm Beach Gardens
Quentin Kidd, Christopher Newport University
Nancy Kosmicke, Mesa State College
Patsy Krech, University of Memphis
Dana Kuehn, Florida Community College at Jacksonville–Deerwood Center
Noreen Lace, California State University–Northridge
Charlene Latimer, Daytona Beach Community College–Deland
Paul Lede, Texas Southern University
Lanita Legan, Texas State University
Linda Lemkau, North Idaho College
Kristina Leonard, Daytona Beach Community College–Flagler/Palm Coast
Christine A. Lottman, University of Cincinnati
Frank T. Lyman, Jr., University of Maryland
Judith Lynch, Kansas State University
Patricia A. Malinowski, Finger Lakes Community College
Marvin Marshak, University of Minnesota
Kathy Masters, Arkansas State University
Howard Masuda, California State University–Los Angeles
Antoinette McConnell, Northeastern Illinois University
Caron Mellblom-Nishioka, California State University–Dominguez Hills
Jenny Middleton, Seminole Community College
Barnette Miller Moore, Indian River Community College
Gladys Montalvo, Palm Beach Community College
Rebecca Munro, Gonzaga University
Nanci C. Nielsen, University of New Mexico–Valencia Campus
Sue Palmer, Brevard Community College
Alan Pappas, Santa Fe Community College
Bobbie Parker, Alabama State University
Carolyn Patterson, Texas State Technical College–West Texas
Curtis Peters, Indiana University Southeast
Virginia Phares, DeVry of Atlanta
Brenda Prinzavalli, Beloit College
Margaret Quinn, University of Memphis
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
Corliss A. Rabb, Texas Southern University
Terry Rafter-Carles, Valencia Community College–Orlando
Jacqueline Robinson, Milwaukee Area Technical College
Eleanor Rosenfield, Rochester Institute of Technology
Robert Roth, California State University–Fullerton
Manuel Salgado, Elgin Community College
Rebecca Samberg, Housatonic Community College
Karyn L. Schulz, Community College of Baltimore County–Dundalk
Pamela Shaw, Broward Community County–South Campus
Jacqueline Simon, Education Enhancement Center at Lawrenceville, NJ
Carolyn Smith, University of Southern Indiana
Cheryl Spector, California State University–Northridge
Rose Stewart-Fram, McLennan Community College
Joan Stottlemyer, Carroll College
Jill R. Strand, University of Minnesota–Duluth
Tracy Stuck, Lake Sumter Community College–Leesburg Campus
Toni M. Stroud, Texas Southern University
Cheri Tillman, Valdosta State University
Ione Turpin, Broward Community College
Thomas Tyson, SUNY Stony Brook
Joy Vaughan-Brown, Broward Community College
Arturo Vazquez, Elgin Community College
Eve Walden, Valencia Community College
Marsha Walden, Valdosta State University
Debbie Warfield, Seminole Community College
Rose Wassman, DeAnza College
Ronald Weisberger, Bristol Community College
Angela Williams, The Citadel
Don Williams, Grand Valley State University
William Wilson, St. Cloud State University
Tania Wittgenfeld, Rock Valley College
Michelle G. Wolf, Florida Southern College
● Robert J. Sternberg, Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences at Tufts
University, for his groundbreaking work on successful intelligence and for his
gracious permission to use and adapt that work for this text.
● Those who generously contributed personal stories, exhibiting courage
in being open and honest about their life experiences: Charlotte Buckley, Hinds
Community College; Androuw Carrasco, University of Arizona; Kelly Carson,
Project Bridge; Louise Gaile Edrozo; Jad El-Adaimi, California Polytechnic State
University; Norton Ewart; Aneela Gonzales, Golden West College; Andrew Hill-
man, Queens College; Kevin Ix, Bergen Community College; Tomohito Kondo,
De Anza College; Joe A. Martin, Jr., Creator of Real World University website;
Gary Montrose; Zack Moore, University of Rhode Island; Kelly Thompson, Colo-
rado State University; Ming-Lun Wu, National Chengchi University, Taipei, Tai-
wan; Brad Zak, Boston College; Alexis Zendejas, Brigham Young University.
● Our Executive Editor Sande Johnson, Editorial Assistant Clara Ciminelli,
and Development Editor Charlotte Morrissey for their dedication, vision, and
efforts.
● Our production team for their patience, flexibility, and attention to
detail, especially Production Editor Greg Erb; Director of Production Elaine

Ober; interior book designer Carol Somberg; cover designer Linda Knowles;
and Diana Neatrour and the rest of the team at Omegatype.
● Mary Gumlia for her contribution to the instructor’s manual; Cynthia
Johnson for her work on the PowerPoint presentation; John Kowalczyk for
his work on the Test Item File; Martha Martin for creating the clicker ques-
tions; and Cheri Tillman for her work on the MyStudentSuccessLab Study Plan
Quizzes and Enrichment activities.
xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
● Our marketing gurus, especially Amy Judd, Executive Marketing Man-
ager; Margaret Waples, Vice President, Director of Marketing; and our Sales
Director Team: Connie James, Director of Sales Programs; Deb Wilson, Senior
Sales Director; and Sean Wittmann, Missy Bittner, Lynda Sax, Chris Cardona,
and Hector Amaya, Sales Directors.
● Editor-in-Chief of Student Success and Career Development Jodi
McPherson; President of Pearson Teacher Education and Student Success

Nancy Forsyth; CEO of Teacher Education & Development Susan Badger;
and Prentice Hall President Tim Bozik, for their interest in the Keys series.
● The Pearson representatives and the management team led by Brian
Kibby, Senior Vice President Sales/Marketing.

● The staff at LifeBound for their hard work and dedication: Heather
Brown, Kelly Carson, and Cynthia Nordberg.

● Our families and friends, who have encouraged us and put up with our
commitments.
● Special thanks to Judy Block, who contributed research and writing to
this book.
Finally, for their ideas, opinions, and stories, we would like to thank all of
the students and professors with whom we work. Joyce, in particular, would
like to thank the thousands of students who have allowed her, as their profes-
sor, the privilege of sharing part of their journey through college. We appreci-
ate that, through reading this book, you give us the opportunity to learn and
discover with you—in your classroom, in your home, on the bus, and wherever
else learning takes place.
Chelsey Emmelhainz, Student

Developmental Manager,
began her work with Carol Carter’s
company, LifeBound, as a college
junior. As a developmental editing
intern, she was involved in a vari-
ety of projects including LifeBound
books Leadership for Teenagers, and
the revision of Majoring in the Rest
of Your Life. Based on these con-
tributions, Chelsey was hired as an
editorial assistant to work on this
revision of Keys to Success.
Initially responsible for con-
tributing ideas to make the book
student-centered, she also researched
and contributed ideas to update
chapter revisions, culled informa-
tion from other students, conducted
and coordinated interviews, and made recommendations for visuals and photo
research. Chelsey also assisted the authors with the instructor’s materials and
servicing program. In the final months of production, Chelsey researched pho-
tos and worked on Keys’ sister publications, Quick and Keys to College Studying.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix
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Apply Concepts from College to Your Career and Life

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Learn to Use Media Resources

• www.mystudentsuccesslab.com helps you build skills you need to succeed through
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Connect, practice, and personalize with MyStudentSuccessLab.
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MyStudentSuccessLab is an online solution designed to help students acquire the

skills they need to succeed. They will have access to peer-led video presentations and
develop core skills through interactive exercises and projects that provide academic,
life, and career skills that will transfer to ANY course.
It can accompany any Student Success text, or be sold as a stand-alone course

offering. To become successful learners, students must consistently apply techniques
to daily activities.
How will MyStudentSuccessLab make a difference?
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Video Presentation — Experience peer led video ‘by students, for students’ of all
ages and stages.
How would better class preparation improve the learning experience?

Practice activities — Practice skills for each topic — beginning, intermediate,
and advanced — leveled by Bloom’s taxonomy.
What could you gain by building critical thinking and problem-solving

skills in this class? Apply (final project) — Complete a final project using
these skills to create ‘personally relevant’ resources.
MyStudentSuccessLab Feature set:
Topic Overview: Module objectives.
Video Presentation – Connect: Real student video interviews on key issues.
Practice: Three skill–building exercises per topic provide interactive experience and practice.
Apply – Personalize: Apply what is learned by creating a personally relevant project and journal.
Resources: Plagiarism Guide, Dictionary, Calculators, and Assessments (Career, Learning Styles, and Personality Styles).
Additional Assignments: Extra suggested activities to use with each topic.
Text–Specific Study Plan (available with select books): Chapter Objectives, Practice Tests, Enrichment activities, and Flashcards.
MyStudentSuccessLab Topic List –

1. Time Management/Planning 8. Problem-Solving
2. Values/Goal Setting 9. Information Literacy
3. Learning How You Learn 10. Communication
4. Listening and Taking Class Notes 11. Test Prep and Test Taking
5. Reading and Annotating 12. Stress Management
6. Memory and Studying 13. Financial Literacy
7. Critical Thinking 14. Majors and Careers
MyStudentSuccessLab Support:
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Una fuit labes: cetera lactis erat.
(cioè più del credibile; segnata di nero in mezzo alle corna; il resto
era latte).
Festo scrive res minimi pretii, cum dicimus non hettæ te facio: e noi,
Non ti stimo un ette [63].
Non si doveano unire due infiniti, eppure abbiamo in Livio (iv. 47)
jussit sibi dare bibere; che è il nostro dar bere, dar mangiare.
Tutto ciò ne fa argomentare che, fra i patrizj latini prevalendo
elementi etruschi e greci, di questi si nutrisse la loro lingua, mentre
gli oschi e sabini dominavano nella rustica, adoperata dai plebei, la
quale noi crediamo sia la stessa che oggi parliamo, colle
modificazioni portate da trenta secoli e da tante vicende.
Oltre i comici, che al vulgo mettono in bocca modi affatto insueti agli
scrittori colti, troviamo direttamente indicata la lingua plebea e
rustica, che doveva essere più analitica, alle desinenze supplendo
colle preposizioni, cogli ausiliarj alle inflessioni de’ verbi; e
determinava meglio le relazioni mediante gli articoli.
Plauto discerne la lingua nobilis dalla plebeja: la prima dicevasi
anche urbana o classica, cioè propria delle prime classi; l’altra
rustica o vernacola dal nome de’ servi domestici (vernæ), e anche
da Vegezio pedestris, da Sidonio usualis, quotidiana da Quintiliano, il
quale muove lamento che «interi teatri e il pieno circo s’odano
spesso gridare voci anzi barbare che romane», e avverte che in
buona lingua non dee dirsi due, tre, cinque, quattordice [64], e geme
che ormai il parlare sia mutato del tutto [65].
Cicerone scriveva a Peto (lib. ix, ep. 21): Veruntamen quid tibi ego in
epistolis videor? Nonne plebejo sermone agere tecum?.. Epistolas
vero quotidianis verbis tenere solemus. Marziale ricorda certe
parole da contado, risibili a delicato lettore,
Non tam rustica, dilicate lector,

Rides nomina?
A Virgilio fu apposto d’usare voci da villa, e nominatamente il cujum
pecus e il tegmen [66]. Che v’avesse maestri del ben parlare latino
l’accerta Cicerone, aggiungendo che non è tanto gloria il sapere il
latino, quanto vergogna l’ignorarlo [67]; ed esortando, giacchè s’ha il
linguaggio di Roma corretto e sicuro, a seguir questo, ed evitare non
solo la rustica asprezza, ma anche l’insolito forestierume [68], Ovidio
raccomanda ai fanciulli romani d’imparare linguas duas, cioè il latino
e il greco, e di scrivere agli amanti in lingua pura e usitata [69]. Che
se la passionata imitazione del greco diede al latino una consistenza
che lo preservava almeno dalle profonde e repentine alterazioni, al
popolo non importarono questi raffinamenti, e perseverò
nell’abitudine di ciò che aveano detto il nonno e la nonna [70].
Abbiamo uno strano libro, sul quale forse non fu ancora detta l’ultima
parola, il Satiricon di Petronio. Leggendolo, sentesi un parlare
disforme dal consueto; composizioni insolite di parole, come:
pietaticultrix, gracilipes, choraula, præfiscini, fulcipedia e gallinæ
altiles, e periscelides tortæ, e domefacta per domita; frequenti
diminutivi: taurulus, alicula, amasiunculus, manuciolum, palliolus,
tunicula, vernaculæ meliusculæ; frasi insolite: non sum de gloriosis;
Capuæ exierat; invado pectus amplexibus; defunctorio ictu; e parole
che per avventura trovansi anche altrove, ma qui colpiscono per
essere in tanto numero: come lautitia, tristimonium, barbatoria;
ingurgitare; vicinia, gingillum, catillum, candelabrum, camella,
bisaccium, capistrum; plane matus sum: vinum mihi in cerebrum
abiit.
Altre sue frasi di schiavi s’accostano alle nostre moderne: — «Non
potei trovare una boccata di pane. — Quello era vivere! — Come un
di noi — Mi sono mangiato i panni». (Non hodie buccam panis
invenire potui. — Illud erat vivere! — Tamquam unus de nobis —
Jam comedi pannos meos).
Catone, che scriveva pei campagnuoli, dice, Arundinem prende.
Nell’Asino d’oro, un soldato domanda a un giardiniere quorsum
vacuum duceret asinum? Quegli non comprende, onde l’interrogante
replica: Ubi ducis asinum istum? e l’altro capisce e risponde. Ciò
significa che la voce quorsum non avea corso tra il popolo. Avea
corso invece quella di boricco per cavallo di vettura, non usata negli
scritti; onde san Girolamo (in Eccles., x) Mannibus, quos vulgo
buricos appellant. Il popolo, ne’ migliori tempi, dicea scopare, stopa,
basium, bellus, caballus, bigletum, bramosus, brodium, dove gli
aristocratici usavano verrere, linum, osculum, pulcher, equus,
schedula, cupidus, jusculum.
Maggior colpo mi fa Varrone, dove attesta che i Latini usarono il solo
ablativo, e la inflessione fu introdotta soltanto per utile e
necessità [71]. Non stiamo ad appuntargli che un sì importante
elemento non può intromettersi per proposito; ma consideriamo che
le parole nostre italiane sono, la più parte, l’ablativo delle latine. A.
Gellio menziona un libro di T. Lavinio de sordibus verbis, il quale
sarebbe prezioso al caso nostro [72], ma è perduto; ed egli stesso
dice che arboretum ignobilius est verbum, arbusta celebratius; e
mette fra i verba obsoleta et maculantia ex sordidiore vulgi usu,
botulus, voce che è in Marziale, e da cui il nostro budello [73]: e così
dice che sermonari rusticius videtur sed rectius: sermocinare
crebrius est sed corruptius [74]: taxare pressius crebriusque est quam
tangere [75], donde il nostro tastare [76].
I legionarj nelle colonie e ne’ campi esteri adottarono parole
germaniche, e in Vegezio abbiamo, Castellum parvulum, quem
burgum vocant. Poichè la lingua scritta era diversa dalla parlata e
doveasi impararla, tanto valea studiare quella o la greca [77]. Onde
usavasi indistintamente il greco; fin i primi cristiani se ne valsero, e
Giustino e Taziano, che pur pubblicavano le loro apologie a Roma: e
Tertulliano fu il primo cristiano che scrivesse in latino, benchè il
facesse anche in greco: lo stesso Giuseppe Ebreo, onde presentare
la sua storia all’imperatore romano, la fece tradurre dall’ebraico in
greco: greche sono spesso le iscrizioni anche mortuarie, e con
caratteri greci.
§ 8º
Della pronunzia.
Occorre dimostrazione per far convinti che la pronunzia volgare

fosse diversa da quella delle persone colte? È essa un accidente
sfuggevole, per modo che non si conosce se non per congetture; ma
abbiamo qualche notizia certa di alterazioni fonetiche. In essa
elidevano spesso la m, la c, la s finali. Oltre l’uso dei poeti antichi
che, per esempio, finiscono l’esametro con Ælius sextus, ovvero
optimus longe, questo detrimento è attestato da Vittorino (De
orthogr.): Scribere quidem omnibus literis oportet, enuntiando autem
quasdam literas elidere. Quintiliano (ix. 4) dice che la m appena
pronunziavasi: Atqui eadem illa litera, quoties ultima est, et vocalem
verbi sequentis ita contingit, ut in eam transire possit, etiam si
scribitur, tamen parum exprimitur, ut multum ille et quantum erat,
adeo ut pene cujusdam novæ literæ sonum reddat. Neque enim
eximitur, sed obscuratur, et tantum aliqua inter duas vocales velut
nota est, ne ipsæ coeant. Cassiodoro [78] cita un passo di Cornuto,
ove dice che il pronunziare la m avanti a vocale durum ac barbarum
sonat; par enim atque idem est vitium, ita cum vocali sicut cum
consonanti m literam exprimere. Era questa una fina distinzione che
al volgo dovea sfuggire. E però la m è taciuta in molte epigrafi [79],
come per esempio ante ora positu est. La m finale dovea dare alla
sillaba un suono nasale, simile all’on, en francese, conservatosi in
alcuni dialetti italiani, dove pure non toglie l’elisione colla vocale
susseguente. Infatti il cum diede origine a confondere, constantia,
conquero; e in italiano originò e il come e il con.
Anche mutavano l’u in o (servom, voltis); pronunziavano o invece di
e o di au (vostris, olla per aulla), e il v pel b (vellum per bellum); col
che da culpa, mundus, fides, tres, aurum, scribere, sic, per hoc,
escono colpa, mondo, fede, tre, oro, scrivere, sì, però. Onde
Festo [80] scrive: Orata genus piscis appellatur a colore auri, quod
rustici orum dicebant, ut auricolas oricolas.
È dell’indole dell’italiano l’omettere la nasale avanti la sibilante,
sicchè da mensis, impensa femmo mese, spesa. Ora questo usava
già fra gli antichi, e Cicerone pronunziava foresia, hortesia,
megalesia, e nelle lapide ricorrono albanesis, alliesis, ariminesis,
africesis, ateniesis, castresis, miseniesis, narbonesis, ostiesis,
picenesis; come anche clemes, pares, potes per clemens, parens,
potens.
Sembra poi che gli Umbri trascurassero regolarmente le finali,
massime le nasali, poichè nelle loro iscrizioni troviamo vinu, vutu,
nome, tota jovina per vinum, vultum, nomen, totam jovinam
(civitatem iguvinam); e anche dagli Osci abbiamo scritto via
pompaiiana teremnattens per viam pompejanam terminaverunt.
Negli Umbri ancora riscontriamo fuia, habia, habe, portaja, mugatu
per fuat, habeat, habet, portet, mugiatur, e fasia per faciat, che
ricorre nel volsco.
La terminazione culo dagli Osci e dagli Umbri contraevasi in clo, e lo
facevano pure i Romani, sicchè ne nascevano apicla, oricla, circlus,
cornicia, oclus, panucla, pediclus, masclus,... che facilmente
convertivansi ne’ nostri pecchia, orecchia, cerchio, occhio,
cornacchia, pannocchia, pidocchio, maschio.
È presumibile che nella parlata de’ Latini già usassero certi scambj
di lettere che troviamo tuttodì nelle nostre, e massime nella toscana.
In planus, plenus, glacies e simili, la l fu cambiata in i, come tuttodì
fa il volgo dicendo i — padre — voi fare — ai campo — moito — aito.
Già Catullo beffava un Arrio, che aspirava le vocali, dicendo
hinsidias, hionios, e fu chi quell’Arrio suppose toscano, per indurre
che già allora adopravasi in quel paese l’aspirazione, che ora ne è
quasi caratteristica. Certamente l’aspirazione del c doveva essere
abbastanza usata, se alterò alcune voci greche, come camus in
amus, chortos in hortus, cheimon in hiems. Il c confondeasi col t,
dicendo indifferentemente condicio, nuncius, servicium, e conditio,
nuntius, servitium, come oggi si dice schiantare, schietto, maschio,
al par di stiantare, stietto, mastio, e nel volgo andache, ho dacho.
Il v talvolta è soppresso, come in facea, fuggìa, e tra i volgari in arò,
arei, laoro, faorire; e forse già diceasi caulis e cavolis, come oggi
caolo e cavolo, manualis e manovalis.
Molte volte al semplice o latino è sostituito nell’italiano l’uo, come
vuole, duolo, suolo, e probabilmente già faceasi dal volgo, che
anche da noi usa ancora pote, vole, dolo.
Inclina anche oggi il volgo a trarre tutti i verbi alla prima
conjugazione; e fa vedano, leggano, sentano all’indicativo, e al
congiuntivo vedino, legghino, sentino.
Molto si studiò recentemente sopra gli accenti, e se non si saprebbe
alla prima indicare come da dixerunt, fecerunt derivassero gli
sdruccioli dissero e fecero, non sarebbe difficile provare che
vecchiamente si usava disserono, fecerono: da cui disseno, feceno
per sincope. Quella desinenza no è caratteristica del plurale,
talmente che il popolo talvolta l’applicò anche ad altre voci che ai
verbi, come ad eglino ed elleno. Del resto il popolo dice andàvamo,
volèvamo dove i colti fanno piana la voce, cioè mantiene l’accento
sulla radicale, come fanno costantemente i Tedeschi [81].
Molte voci contraevansi, come populus, circulus, soldum, lardum,
sartor, posti, del che è qualche vestigio pur nello scritto; e Quintiliano
(i. 6) dice che Augusto pronunziava calda invece di calida. Meus
dovette dirsi mius, del che è restato il vocativo mi: e in Ennio
abbiamo debil homo.
E che veramente il modo di pronunziare s’accostasse più che lo
scritto a questo che usiam noi, ce ne sono argomento i tanti errori
delle iscrizioni. Un vaso trovato a Pompei porta scritto, Presta mi
sincerum (vinum). Le bizzarre iscrizioni, ivi graffite da mani plebee e
soldatesche, oltre le scorrezioni ortografiche, hanno anche errori
grammaticali e modi plebei. Per esempio: Saturninus cum discentes
rogat. Cosmus nequitiæ est magnissimæ — O felice me [82].
Crescono tali errori nelle epigrafi de’ primi tempi cristiani, errori che
ravvicinano le parole alle nostre italiane. Nei recenti scavi a Ostia:
Loc. Aphrodisiaes cum deus permicerit. — Cœlius hic dormit et
Decria quando Deus boluerit. Dal cimitero di Sant’Elena in Roma fu
scavata questa del terzo o quarto secolo:
Tersu decimu calendas febraras

decessit in pace quintus annoro
octo mensorum dece in pace.
In un’altra sta:
Gaudentius in pace qui vixit annis xx

et VIII mesis cinque dies biginti
apet depossone x kal. octobres.
Il Muratori [83] adduce epitafj del cimitero di Santa Cecilia in Roma,

d’età certo antica, che dicono:
Qui jacet Antoni

Dio te guardi
et Jacoba sua uxor.
Madoña Joaña
uxor de Cecho
della Sidia
e in San Biagio sotto al Campidoglio:
Ite della dicta echiesa.
In più d’un sigillo antico è scolpito vivat in Dio o in Diu [84].

In altre iscrizioni l’apostrofe sta spesso in luogo della m, onde
clarissimu’, multo’, annoro’: Zulia per Julia è citato da Celso
Cittadini [85], in una lapide presso il Bosio; Olympios bixit annos tres,
meses undeci, dies dodeci in pace; in altre bresciane si ha Asinone,
Caballaccio, Marione, Musone, Paulacius.
In alcune incontri perfino l’i efelcustico, che sembra singolarità del
nostro vulgare, leggendosi in una iscrizione delle Grotte vaticane AB
ISPECIOSA. In una pittura delle Catacombe è figurata un’agape, e vi
si legge Irene da calda — Agape miscemi [86]. E in un’altra iscrizione:
Bellica fedelissima virgo impace.
Quello che Quintiliano dice che «ciò che mal si scrive, di necessità
mal si pronunzia», può anche voltarsi a dire che mal si scrive ciò che
mal si pronunzia: e l’essere le iscrizioni per lo più di cristiani, cioè di
gente ineducata e affettuosa, appoggia sempre meglio il mio
assunto, che il parlare nostro odierno sia il vulgare medesimo di
Roma antica.
Questo accadeva nelle vicinanze di Roma; ora che doveva essere
nelle provincie, discoste dal luogo dove meglio si parlava e proferiva,
e dove sopravviveano i prischi dialetti? Racconta Erasmo che,
essendo venuti ambasciatori d’ogni gente d’Europa per congratularsi
con Massimiliano d’Austria fatto imperatore, recitarono un’orazione,
tutti in latino, ma pronunziandola ciascuno a modo del suo paese,
sicchè fu creduto si fosse ognuno espresso nella lingua materna [87].
Argomentatene come dovesse alterarsi il romano idioma su bocche
sì diverse, e come soffrirne l’ortografia, attesochè, quando più la
coltura scemava, gli scrivani s’attenevano mentosto al letterario che
all’uso della pronunzia.
§ 9º
La traduzione della Bibbia.
Se dunque si avesse a scrivere un libro, non più per la classe eletta

e letterata, ma pel popolo, sarebbe dovuto riuscire pieno di que’
modi, che noi asseriamo correnti fra il vulgo, e inusati alla raffinata
letteratura. Or questo libro c’è, non fatto dopo già sfasciato il latino,
ma ai tempi di Tacito e di Svetonio, quando appena l’età dell’oro
cedeva a quella d’argento, quando Barbari non erano intervenuti
ancora a mescolare elementi eterogenei. Alludiamo alla versione
della Bibbia, che risale al primo secolo; e fu poi riformata da san
Girolamo, il quale pure viveva prima dell’invasione dei Barbari [88].
Ora, in essa abbondano gl’idiotismi, che sono sentenziati per errori e
barbarismi, sebbene molti abbiano riscontro nei classici. Quell’in
sæculum sæculi ripetuto, è in Plauto: Perpetuo vivunt ab sæculo ad
sæculum: (Miles glor., iv. 2). «Viderunt Ægyptii mulierem quod esset
pulchra nimis» (Genesi, xii. 14) risponde al plautino Legiones
educunt suas nimis pulchris armis præditas (Amphitr., i, 1). Il
Servitutem qua servivi tibi (Gen., xxx. 26) all’Amanti hero servitutem
servit (Aulul., iv. 4): l’Ignoro vos (Deut. xxxiii. 9) al Ne te ignores
(Captiv., ii. 3): il Feci omnia verba hæc (iii Reg., xviii. 36) al Feci ego
isthæc dicta quæ vos dicitis (Casina, v. 4). Bonum est confidere in
Domino quam confidere in homine, dice il Salmo cxii. 8; e Plauto:
Tacita bona est semper quam loquens (Rudens, iv. 4). Il Miscui
vinum de’ Proverbj, (ix. 5) è sostenuto dal Commisce mustum della
Persa, i. 3; il Tibi dico surge di san Marco, v. 41, dall’Heus tu, tibi
dico, mulier del Pœnul., v. 5; il Dispersit superbos mente cordis sui
di san Luca, i. 51, dal Pavor territat mentem animi dell’Epidic., iv.
1 [89]. Anzi io credo che i siffatti fossero forme popolari, già vive al
tempo di Nerone, e sopravvissute ne’ vulgari odierni, come tant’altri
di cui diamo un saggio:
Mensuram bonam... et supereffluentem dabunt in sinum

vestrum. Luca, vii. 38.
Repone in unam partem molestissima tibi cogitamenta. iv
Esdra, xiv. 14.
Et nemo mittit vinum novum in utres veteres. Luca, v. 37.
Populus suspensus erat audiens illum, xix. 48.
Quærebant mittere in illum manus, xx. 19.
Sed meno misit super eum manus. Giov., vii. 44.
Quasi absconditus vultus ejus et despectus, unde nec
reputavimus eum. Isaia, liii. 3.
Non est dicere, quid est hoc, aut quid est istud. Eccl., xxxiv.
26.
In electis meis mitte radices. Eccl., 24.
In tempore redditionis postulabit tempus, xxxix. 6.
Habebat Judam semper charum in animo, et erat viro
inclinatus, ii Macab., xiv. 24.
Ipsi diligunt vinacia uvarum. Osea, iii. 1.
Sed rex, accepto gustu audaciæ Judaeorum, iv Macab., xiii.
18.
Etiam rogo et te, germane compar, adjuva illas. Paolo ad
Philip., iv. 3.
Moyses grandis factus. Paolo ad Hebr., xi. 24.
Cum dixerint omne malum adversum vos. Matteo, v. 11.
Et omnes male habentes curavit, viii. 16.
Mulier, quae sanguinis fluxum patiebatur. ix. 20.
Corripe eum inter te et ipsum solum. xviii. 15.
Apud te facio pascha. xxvi. 18.
Par turturum. Luca, ii. 24.
Spero os ad os loqui. ii Giov., 12.
Oblatus est... et non aperuit os suum. Isaia, liii. 7.
Voi ci vedete i nostri modi «dar la buona misura, metter radice,

mettere da una banda, essere inclinato ad uno, prenderci gusto,
compare, diventar grande, dire tutti i mali, aver male, patir un male,
tra sè e lui, far pasqua, bocca a bocca, non aprir bocca, stare
sospeso, mettere le mani addosso, non crederlo lui, ecc.». Notiamo
per ultimo questo di san Luca, vii. 40: Simon, habeo tibi aliquid
dicere. E in illa hora, come diciamo in allora.
Mentre i precettori sentenziano la versione della Bibbia di corruzione
e barbarie, il buon critico in quei salmi sente l’idioma del Lazio
prendere un vigore inusato, e, per secondare la sublimità de’
concetti e l’idea dell’infinito, ripigliare la nobile altezza che dovette
avere nei sacerdotali suoi primordj, un’armonia diversa da quella che
i prosatori cercavano nel periodeggiare e i poeti nell’imitazione dei
metri greci, e che pure è tanta, da farla ai maestri di canto preferire
persino all’italiano.
Questo rifarsi della favella plebea, questo ritorno verso l’Oriente
dond’era l’origine sua, avrebbe potuto ringiovanire il latino,
infondendogli l’ispirato vigore delle belle lingue aramee e la semplice
costruzione del greco; ma troppo violenti casi sconvolsero
quell’andar di cose; e quando l’Impero cadeva a fasci, era egli a
promettersi un ristoramento della letteratura?
§ 10º
La lingua latina si sfascia. Età del ferro.
Nell’età che intitolarono del ferro, la crescente adulazione trovò

qualificazioni enfatiche a lusingare i fortissimi e felicissimi ed incliti e
provvidentissimi e vittoriosissimi monarchi, e quella serie di illustri e
magnifici conti, patrizj, maestri ed altri. Gl’imperatori, man mano che
scadevano di grandezza e potenza, si puntellavano con titoli
ampollosi, parlando in nome della loro serenitas, tranquillitas,
lenitudo, clementia, pietas, mansuetudo, magnificentia, sublimitas,
perfino æternitas come fece Costanzo. Al greco si ricorse non solo
dagli scienziati, ma anche negli uffizj civili e domestici, massime
dopo trasferita la capitale a Costantinopoli [90]. Partita allora la gente
meglio stante colla Corte, ringhiera e senato a Roma ammutoliti, nè
corpo di scrittori o impero di tradizioni conserva l’aristocratica
castigatezza; sicchè il latino, come uno stromento complicato in
mani inesperte, dovette alterarsi viepiù quanto più sintetico, e perchè
non procede per mezzi semplici secondo il rigoroso bisogno delle
idee, ma con tanti casi e conjugazioni e artificiosa inversione di
sintassi.
Sottentra allora il pieno arbitrio dell’uso, cui stromenti sono il tempo e
il popolo, operanti nel senso medesimo. Il popolo vuole speditezza, e
purchè il pensiero sia espresso, non sta a curarsi d’esattamente
articolare la parola o di valersi di tutti gli elementi, lusso
grammaticale. Alla finezza di declinazioni e conjugazioni sostituì la
generalità delle proposizioni e degli ausiliarj, specificò gli oggetti
coll’articolo, mozzò le desinenze. Pei quali modi la lingua latina non
imbarbariva come suol dirsi, ma tornava verso i principj suoi,
riducendosi in una più semplice, poco o nulla distante dalla nostra
odierna; la lingua scritta accolse in maggior copia voci e forme della
parlata, modificate secondo i paesi: donde quel lamento di san
Girolamo, che la latinità ogni giorno mutasse e di paese e di
tempo [91].
Ajutarono siffatta evoluzione gli scrittori ecclesiastici, che più non
dirigendosi a corrompere ricchi e ingraziante letterati, ma recando al
vulgo le parole della vita e della speranza, non assunsero la lingua
eletta, ma la comune, la vernacola. Essi mostrano sprezzare
l’eleganza e persino la correzione; sant’Agostino dice che Dio
intende anche l’idiota, il quale proferisca inter hominibus; san
Girolamo professa voler abusare del parlar comune per facilità di chi
legge [92]. Gregorio Magno era uno degli uomini più colti del suo
tempo, amava le belle arti, come provano e gli edifizj che procurò e
l’innovamento della musica; a’ suoi giorni ancora nel Foro Trajano si
tenevano circoli per leggere Omero e Virgilio, come oggi a Napoli e a
Roma si legge l’Ariosto. Eppure Gregorio sentenziava di affettazione
il voler ridestare le tradizioni della grammatica classica; e guidato dal
senso pratico, vide che quei che diceansi barbarismi non erano che
trasformazione, e non esitava a dichiarare che non evitava il
barbarismo e il solecismo. Or quando esso ed altri santi Padri
professavano non volersi attenere alla grammatica, nessuno li
supporrà così bizzarri da far errori di proposito; bensì scrivevano
come si parlava dal popolo pel quale scrivevano, e farsi capire da
questo premeva a loro ben più che l’evitare gli appunti dei
grammatici.
A torto però si attribuisce ai soli scrittori ecclesiastici [93] il
peggioramento del latino. Anche gli scrittori profani rifuggivano al
rancidume, adoprando fortivile, interibi e postibi, obaudire per
obedire, penitudo, pigrare e repigrare, prolubium, rancescere,
repedere per reddere, rhetoricare, sublimare, usio per usus. Quali
abbandonavansi a incondite novità di parole, di composti [94], di
desinenze, di significato: crebbero gli astratti [95]; formaronsi nuovi
aggettivi [96], nuovi verbi [97].
Di desinenze cambiate offrono esempio i nomi adoptatio, ædifex,
agrarium per ager; albedo, altarium, alternamentum, baptismum,
cautela, colludium, concinnatio, ecc. [98] e i verbi effigiare,
exhereditare, honorificare, magnificare, obviare, significare,
resplenduit, ecc.
Diez (Grammatik der romanischen Sprache. Bonn 1836) fa ricche e
metodiche comparazioni di tutti gli idiomi romanzi, donde appajono
le trasformazioni del latino, sia successive in uno stesso paese, sia
contemporanee in paesi diversi. Poi dagli scrittori della bassa latinità
Gellio, Palladio, Tertulliano, Petronio, Celio Aureliano, Arnobio, Giulio
Firmico Materno, Lampridio e gli altri della Storia Augusta, Ausonio,
Ammiano Marcellino, Vegezio, Sulpicio Severo, i santi Gerolamo e
Agostino, Marciano Capella, Macrobio, Sidonio, trae una quantità di
voci, inusate dai classici, e passate nelle sei lingue romanze.
Trascegliamone qualcuna, attinente all’italiano:
acredo (Palladio) acredine.

æramen (Teod. prisc.) rame.
acicula e acucula (Cod. Theodos., iii. xvi. 1) agucchia.
albedo (Sulpicio, ecc. ecc.) albedine.
ambrex (Festo) embrice.
astur (Firm. Mat.) astore.
augmentare (Id.) aumentare.
bacar (Festo) bicchiere, che suol trarsi dal tedesco beker.
baceolus (s. Agost.) baggeo, che già notammo.
badius (Varrone) bajo.
battualia, quae vulgo dicuntur, e
battalia (Cassiodoro) battaglia.
bisaccium (Petronio) bisaccia.
burgus (Vegezio, castellum parvum quem burgum vocant).
caballarius (Giulio Firmico) cavaliero.
cambire (Apulejo) cambiare.
capsa (ploxinum capsam dixerunt. Festo) cassa.
carricare (s. Girol.) caricare.
carruca (Sparziano, Vopisco, ecc.) piccol carro, carrozza.
compassio (Tert., s. Agost., ecc.) compassione.
confortare (Lattanz., s. Cipriano) confortare.
coopertorium (Pandette) copertoio.
coquina (Arnob., ecc. ecc.) cucina.
falco (F. Materno) falcone.
falsare (s. Gir.) falsare.
fanicosus (Festo) fangoso.
filiaster (in una iscrizione e in Isidoro di Siviglia) figliastro.
gluto (Festo) ghiottone.
grossus (Sulp. Severo).
hereditare (Salviano).
hortulanus (Macrob.)
jejunare (Tert.)
juramentum (Pandette e altrove).
lanceare (Tert.)
meliorare (Pandette).
mensurare (Vegezio).
minorare (Tert.)
molestare (Petronio)
molina (Amm.) mulino.
papilio (Lampridio) padiglione.
pausare (Vegez. e altri).
pejorare (Cel. Aurel.)
pilare (Ammiano) pigliare e sacheggiare, piller, pillar.
pipio (Lamprid.) pippione, piccione.
plagare (s. Agost.) piagare.
populosus (Apul. e altri) popoloso.
pullicenus (Lampr.) pulcino.
rancor (s. Gir.) rancore.
refrigerium (Tert., ecc.)
regimentum (Festo) reggimento.
repatriare (Solin.)
somnolentus (Apul.)
species (Macrob., Pallad., ecc.) spezierie.
strata (Eutrop.)
summitas (Pallad. e altri) sommità.
testa (Prud. e altri).
tribulare (Tert.) tribolare [99].
Contro i solecismi non aveasi più per salvaguardia la schiettezza

della favella corrente, onde dicevasi: pacem alicui tribuere; vilissime
natum esse; bona opera facere; peccata remittere; homo pleraque
haud indulgens, per in plerisque; vita interficere; contemplatione
alicujus; affectionem habere per habere in animo; profugere villam
per e villa; in pendenti esse; insuper habere; erat in sermone per
rumor erat; urinam facere; trahere sanguinem per genus ducere. Nè
si schivavano inusati reggimenti de’ verbi; benedicere, fungi, frui,
erudire coll’accusativo; incumbere, queri, renunciare, contrahere,
petere col dativo; amare in aliquo, privare a re, ambire ad aliquid.
Come avviene quando la lingua e la letteratura si staccano dal
supremo canone del senso comune, si sbizzarrì a segno, che un tal
Virgilio Marone a Tolosa insegnava a’ suoi discepoli dodici latinità
«per circondare l’eloquenza di un nuovo lustro, e non comunicare ai
profani le alte dottrine che devono essere privilegio di pochi». L’una
chiamavasi usitata ch’era la lingua comune; poi l’assena o
abbreviata, la semedìa tra il parlar volgare e il dotto; la numerìa che
alterava il numero dei nomi; la lumbrosa che allungava il discorso,
adoprando quattro vocaboli invece di uno; la syncolla che invece ne
abbreviava quattro in una; seguivano la metrofia, la belsabia, la
bresina, la militena, la spela, la polema; tutte producendo alterazioni,
di cui non conosciamo la ragione. E, per un esempio, invece di ignis,
il fuoco era chiamato ardor, calax, quoquevihabis, spiridon, rusin,
fragon, fumaton, ustrax, vitius, saluseus, ænon; e con questo gergo
scriveansi opere di sistematica barbarie.
Un tal fatto, nuovo nella storia della letteratura latina, raccogliamo
dai Classicorum auctorum fragmenta, pubblicati dal Maj, e vaglia
questo esempio: Bis senos exploro vechros, qui ausonicam lacerant
palatham. Ex his gemella astant facinora, quæ verbalem sauciant
vipereo tactu struem. Alterum barbarico auctu loquelarem inficit
tramitem, ac gemello stabilitat modello, quaternaque nectit
specimina: inclytos literaturæ addit assiduæ apices: statutum toxico
rapit scripturæ dampno; literales urbanæ movet characteres
facundiæ; stabilem picturæ venenoso obice trasmutat tenorem. Alius
clarifero ortus est vechrus solo, quo hispericum reguloso ortu violatur
eologium, sensibiles partimi num corrodit domescas. Cetera notentur
piacula, qua italicum lecti faminis sauciant obrizum, quod ex his
propriferum loquelosi in hac assertione affigis facinus [100].
Un singolare documento ci rimane nei comandi, onde i tribuni
dirigevano l’esercizio militare: Silentio mandata implete — Non vos
turbatis — Ordinem servate — Bandum sequite — Nemo dimittat
bandum — Inimicos seque [101]. Quel bandum per vexillum, quel
sequite e seque e turbatis, imperativi insoliti, corrispondono alle
contorsioni, che in ogni parlare si fanno pel comando delle milizie.
Dell’anno 38 di Giustiniano conservasi un istromento sopra papiro,
fatto in Ravenna e già pieno di modi all’italiana, come domo quæ est
ad sancta Agata; intra civitate Ravenna; valentes solido uno; tina
clusa, buticella, orciolo, scotella, bracile, bandilos [102]. Ammiano
Marcellino dice che i Romani del suo tempo giacevansi in carruccis
solito altioribus [103]; e carroccia per carrozza dice oggi il vulgo
lombardo. La Storia Miscella riferisce, al 583, che, mentre
Commentiolo generale guerreggiava gli Unni, un mulo gittò il carico,
ed i soldati gridarono al lontano mulattiere nella favella natia, Torna,
torna, fratre; onde gli altri lo credettero un ordine di tornare indietro,
e fuggirono [104]. Ajmonio racconta che Giustiniano ebbe prigioniero
il re di certi barbari, e fattoselo sedere a lato, gli comandò di
restituire le provincie conquistate, e poichè quegli rispose Non dabo,
l’imperatore replicò, Daras; forma nostrale del verbo dare al
futuro [105]. Il Maj pubblicò una glossa del grammatico Placido, che
dice: Mu adhuc consuetudine est; e tuttora usiamo mo. Il De Rossi
nel Bullettino Archeologico reca un epitafio anteriore a Costantino,
ove è detto Spiritum Maximi refrigeri Januarius, forma ottativa per
refrigeret, quale l’usiamo oggi [106].
Nell’Historia Augusta si trova vos ipse: ad fratre suo: ad bellum
Parthis inferre: in Cassiodoro abbiamo pretiare per estimare; in
Sidonio cassare, cervicositas, papa, serietas.
Dopo altri, il Muratori [107] adduce iscrizioni del 260, e fino del 155
dopo Cristo, cioè del tempo degli Antonini, che potrebbero credersi
di età barbara, eppure contengono atti ufficiali. Un istromento
ravennate del 540 è poco men rustico che uno dell’800. Per non
esser troppo lunghi noi torremo solo dal lib. vi, p. 546 delle
Miscellanee del Baluzio una formola del 422, che può stare con
qualsivoglia de’ secoli barbari: Ob hoc igitur ego ille, et conjux mea
illa, commanens orbe Arvernis in pago illo, in villa illa. Dum non est
incognitum, qualiter cartolas nostras, per hostilitatem Francorum, in
ipsa villa illa, manso nostro, ubi visi sum manere, ibidem perdimus;
et petimus, vel cognitum faciemus, ut qui per ipsas stromentas et
tempora habere noscuntur possessio nostra, per hanc occasionem
nostrorum pater inter epistolas illas de mansos in ipsa villa illa, de
qua ipso atraximus in integrum, ut et vindedit ista omnia superiu
conscripta, vel quod memorare minime possimus judicibus brevis
nostras spondiis incolcacionibus, vel alias stromentas tam nostris,
quam et qui nobis commendatas fuerunt, hoc inter ipsas villas
suprascriptas, vel de ipsas turbas ibidem perdimus. Et petimus, ut
hanc contestaciuncula, seu planetaria, per hanc cartolas in nostro
nomine collegere vel adfirmare deberemus. Quo ita et fecimus ista,
principium Honorio et Theodosio consulibus eorum ab hostio sancto
illo castro Claremunte per triduum habendi, et custodivimus, seu in
mercato publico, in quo ordo curiæ duxerunt, aut regalis, vel
manuensis vester, aut personarum ipsius castri, ut cum hanc
contestaciuncula seu plancturia, juxta legum consuetudinem, in
præsentia vestra relata fuerit, nostris subscriptionibus signaculis
subroborare faciatis; ut quocumque perdiciones nostras de supra
scripta per vestra adfirmatione justa auctoritas remedia consequatur,
ut nostra firmitas legum auctoritas revocent in propinquietas [108]. Il
Marini adduce una carta del 564, dove leggesi uno orciolo aureo,
uno butte, una cuppa, uno runcilione [109].
A questa età ritroviamo dichiaratamente il nome di lingua italiana;
poichè verso il 560, Venanzio Fortunato, poeta trevisano, cantava:
Ast ego sensus inops, italæ quota portio linguæ.
Importerebbe di colmare la lacuna che resta fra il lessico del
Forcellini e quello del Ducange. L’uno dà il latino classico, l’altro il
latino barbaro: ma realmente nei tempi di decadenza, nel iv, v e vi
secolo, si usarono molte voci, che il Ducange non appoggia che ad
autorità del ix e x secolo. Il vocabolario dunque di que’ secoli
toglierebbe ogni soluzione di continuità. Un buon avviamento vi
diede Quicherat (Addenda lexicis latinis investigavit, collegit. Parigi
1862) aggiugnendo al Forcellini circa 7000 articoli, tolti da autori
della decadenza.
§ 11º
Differenze del latino dall’italiano.
In quel parlare comune, se non ce ne restasse così poco, io penso

troveremmo già l’italiano nelle sue maniere e lessiche e
grammaticali.
Quanto al fondo, una lingua è l’altra, giacchè quasi tutte le parole
nostre son latine. Ma troppo difficile sarebbe l’indovinare perchè, di
due parole viventi nel latino, l’una fosse preferita; così:
propter e per
magis e plus
jubere e mandare
utinam e sic
coram e in præsentia
sumo e prehendo
cogitare e pensare
nequeo e non possum
cras e de mane
vespere e sero
cogitare e pensare
intelligere e capere.
Possiamo credere avvenisse così di altre voci che ora usiamo

diverse affatto, ma che forse avevano un sinonimo, non mai usato
dagli scrittori che possediamo, ma passato nella lingua, come enim,
nunquam, etiam, igitur, ergo, ideo.
Abbiamo mora e remora, forse v’era demora, donde il nostro dimora.
Potea esservi sucursus, come cursus e recursus. Fatigare ci lascia
presumere vi fosse fatica, come litigare, fustigare, navigare, da lis,
fustis, navis. Talvolta il nome si formò da un aggettivo, come annales
e diarii sottintendendo libri; come ficatum jecur il fegato che
mangiavasi coi fichi.
Dedotta una parola dal latino, se ne derivarono altre; come da obblio
obbliare, da pettine pettinare, da prezzo prezzare e i suoi figliuoli; da
scimia scimiottare. Talvolta la derivazione è diversa da quel che
parrebbe: e p. es. posare e riposare derivano il primo da ponere, il
secondo da pausare.
In alcune voci variò l’accento, come in ardere, movere, ridere,
rilucere, mordere, mungere, nuocere, rispondere, ora abbreviate e
più di rado allungate, come in sapere, cadere, e principalmente in
nomi, quali filiolus, linteolus, cristallinus.
Il nostro avverbio in mente viene spontaneo da forme latine, avendo
in Ovidio celeri mente e insistam forti mente, in Quintiliano bona
mente factum, in Claudiano devota mente, e già in Virgilio Manet alta
mente repostum [110].
Nella negazione punto, mica, fiore, negotta ci rimase solo la cosa a
cui si paragonava; onde Plauto (Pseudolus, i. 4) neque guttam boni
consilii: e Festo dice: rem nullius pretii dicimus non hecte te facio. E
già nel basso latino troviamo quel vezzo nostro di unire due
negative; Petronio ha nemini nihil boni facere; poi nelle formole del
Mabillon: nec per meum nullum ingenium nunquam perdedit; e nel
Berquigny (Diplomata, t. i. 1086) nullus non praesumat de his
speciebus nihil abstraere. Il modo era greco: οὐκ ἐποίησε τοῦτο
ὀυδᾶμον ὀυδείς.
Talvolta una parola cambiò senso: ammazzare non significò più
uccidere colla mazza; necare fu ristretto all’annegare; tropus del
basso latino ci diede troppo; via dovea dirsi per volta, rimastoci in
tuttavia, e un via uno.
Quanto alla forma, alla grammatica, le principali differenze
consistono,
1. nell’indicare la relazione con preposizioni, anzichè col variare le
desinenze; ossia surrogare le pre-posizioni alle post-posizioni degli
idiomi agglomeranti;
2. nel premettere ai nomi l’articolo determinato o indeterminato;
3. nel formare coll’ausiliario molti tempi del verbo attivo e tutti quelli
del passivo: smettendo cioè il verbo che esprime la passione in atto
(legor), per prendere quello dell’azione in effetto (ho letto) [111].
Lasciam via alcune varietà particolari, come i comparativi, come il
neutro [112], come il verbo deponente, che non falsarono l’analogia
ma l’estesero, e che del resto sono sporadiche, e derivanti esse
pure, per vie indicate dai filologi, da un tipo anteriore e comune [113].
Gli usi grammaticali che accenniamo si riscontrano anche in altri
idiomi del ceppo indo-europeo; fra gli altri nel persiano e nel tedesco;
il che autorizza a credere esistessero già nella lingua parlata a
Roma [114]. Ce lo conferma il vedere come talvolta scivolassero
anche nello scritto.
E prima le declinazioni sembra che, col tempo, si riducessero tutte
alla II, col plurale in i quale passò nell’italiano; nel quale del resto
sopravvive qualche traccia di declinazioni in io e me, egli e lui, che e
cui; sicchè non può dirsi un sistema innovato di grammatica [115].
Già anticamente, per esprimere le relazioni, ricorrevasi, oltre le
cadenze, spesso alle preposizioni, quando per ragioni di chiarezza,

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