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Methods of
Fundamental Solutions
in Solid Mechanics
Hui Wang
Qing-Hua Qin
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2019 Higher Education Press. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by
the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter
of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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To our parents and families.
About the authors
Dr. Hui Wang was born in Mengjin County, China in 1976. He received his
bachelor’s degree in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics from Lanzhou
University, China, in 1999. Subsequently he joined the College of Science as
an assistant lecturer at Zhongyuan University of Technology (ZYUT) and
spent 2 years teaching at ZYUT. He earned his master’s degree from Dalian
University of Technology in 2004 and doctoral degree from Tianjin University
in 2007, both of which are in Solid Mechanics. Since 2007, he has worked at
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Henan University of Tech-
nology, as a lecturer. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 2009 and
Professor in 2015. From August 2014 to August 2015, he worked at the
Australian National University (ANU) as a visiting scholar, and then from
February 2016 to February 2017, he joined the ANU as a Research Fellow.
His research interests include computational mechanics, meshless
methods, hybrid finite element methods, and the mechanics of composites.
So far, he has authored three academic books by CRC Press and Tsinghua
University Press, respectively, 7 book chapters, and 62 academic journal
papers (47 indexed by SCI and 8 indexed by EI). In 2010, He was awarded
the Australia Endeavor Award.
Dr. Qing-Hua Qin was born in Yongfu County, China in 1958. He
received his Bachelor of Engineering degree in mechanical engineering from
Chang An University, China, in 1982, earning his Master of Science degree in
1984 and doctoral degree in 1990 from Huazhong University of Science and
Technology (HUST) in China. Both degrees are in applied mechanics. He
joined the Department of Mechanics as an associate lecturer at HUST in 1984
and was promoted to lecturer in mechanics in 1987 during his Ph.D. candi-
dature period. After spending 10 years lecturing at HUST, he was awarded
the DAAD/K.C. Wong research fellowship in 1994, which enabled him to
work at the University of Stuttgart in Germany for 9 months. In 1995 he left
HUST to take up a postdoctoral research fellowship at Tsinghua University,
China, where he worked until 1997. He was awarded a Queen Elizabeth II
fellowship in 1997 and a Professorial fellowship in 2002 at the University of
Sydney (where he stayed there until December 2003), both by the Australian
Research Council, and he is currently working as a professor in the Research
xi
xii About the authors
School of Electrical, Energy and Materials Engineering at the Australian

National University, Australia. He was appointed a guest professor at HUST in
2000. He has published more than 300 journal papers and 7 books in the field
of applied mechanics.
Preface
Since the basic concept behind the method of fundamental solutions (MFS)
was developed primarily by V. D. Kupradze and M. A. Alexidze in 1964, the
meshless MFS has become an effective tool for the solution of a large variety of
physical and engineering problems, such as potential problems, elastic problems,
crack problems, fluid problems, piezoelectric problems, antiplane problems,
inverse problems, and free-boundary problems. More recently, it has been
extended to deal with inhomogeneous partial differential equations, partial
differential equations with variable coefficients, and time-dependent problems,
by introducing radial basis function interpolation (RBF) for particular solutions
caused by inhomogeneous terms.
The great advantage of the MFS over other numerical methods is that it
can easily be implemented for physical and engineering problems in two- or
three-dimensional regular and irregular domains. This means that it can be
programmed with simple codes by users and no additional professional skills are
required. Clearly, there are still some limitations in the range of implementation
of the MFS, as pointed out in Chapter 1 of this book. However, the MFS has
sufficiently shown its success as an executable numerical technique in a simple
form via various engineering applications. Hence, it is warranted to present some
of the recent significant developments in the MFS for the further understanding
of the physical and mathematical characteristics of the procedures of MFS which
is the main objective of this book.
This book covers the fundamentals of continuum mechanics, the basic con-
cepts of the MFS, and its methodologies and extensive applications to various
engineering inhomogeneous problems. This book consists of eight chapters. In
Chapter 1, current meshless methods are reviewed, and the advantages and dis-
advantages of MFS are stressed. In Chapter 2, the basic knowledge involved in this
book is provided to give a complete description. In Chapter 3, the basic concepts
of fundamental solutions and RBF are presented. Starting from Chapter 4, some
engineering problems including EulereBernoulli beam bending, thin plate
bending, plane elasticity, piezoelectricity, and heat conduction are solved in turn
by combining the MFS and the RBF interpolation.
Hui Wang
Qing-Hua Qin
xiii
Acknowledgments
The motivation that led to the development of this book based on our extensive
research since 2001, in the context of the method of fundamental solutions
(MFS). Some of the research results presented in this book were obtained by the
authors at the Department of Engineering Mechanics of Henan University
of Technology, the Research School of Engineering of the Australian National
University, the Department of Mechanics of Tianjin University, and the
Department of Mechanics of Dalian University of Technology. Thus, support
from these universities is gratefully acknowledged.
Additionally, many people have been most generous in their support of this
writing effort. We would like especially to thank Professor Xingpei Liang of
Henan University of Technology for his meaningful discussions. Special thanks
go to Senior Editors Jianbo Liu and Chao Wang, Senior Copyright Manager
Xueying Zou of Higher Education Press as well as Glyn Jones, Naomi
Robertson and Sruthi Satheesh of Elsevier Inc. for their commitment to the
publication of this book. Finally, we are very grateful to the reviewers who made
suggestions and comments for improving the quality of the book.
xv
List of abbreviations
AEM Analog equation method

BEM Boundary element method
BVP Boundary value problem
DOF Degrees of freedom
FE Finite element
FEM Finite element method
FGM Functionally graded materials
FS Fundamental solution
MFS Method of fundamental solutions
MQ Multiquadric
PDE Partial differential equation
PS Power spline
PZT Lead zirconate titanate
RBF Radial basis function
TPS Thin plate spline
xvii
Chapter 1
Overview of meshless methods
Chapter outline
1.1 Why we need meshless methods 3 1.4.4.2 Interior region
1.2 Review of meshless methods 6 surrounded by a
1.3 Basic ideas of the method of complex curve 29
fundamental solutions 8 1.4.4.3 Biased
1.3.1 Weighted residual method 8 hollow circle 33
1.3.2 Method of fundamental 1.5 Some limitations for
solutions 10 implementing the method of
1.4 Application to the two- fundamental solutions 34
dimensional Laplace problem 13 1.5.1 Dependence of
1.4.1 Problem description 13 fundamental solutions 37
1.4.2 MFS formulation 14 1.5.2 Location of source points 37
1.4.3 Program structure and 1.5.3 Ill-conditioning treatments 39
source code 18 1.5.3.1 Tikhonov regulari-
1.4.3.1 Input data 19 zation method 39
1.4.3.2 Computation of 1.5.3.2 Singular value
coefficient matrix 19 decomposition 39
1.4.3.3 Solving the 1.5.4 Inhomogeneous problems 41
resulting system of 1.5.5 Multiple domain problems 41
linear equations 19 1.6 Extended method of fundamental
1.4.3.4 Source code 20 solutions 43
1.4.4 Numerical experiments 24 1.7 Outline of the book 47
1.4.4.1 Circular disk 24 References 48
1.1 Why we need meshless methods

Initial and/or boundary value problems such as heat transfer, wave propaga-
tion, elasticity, fluid flow, piezoelectricity, and electromagnetics can be found
in almost every field of science and engineering applications and are generally
modeled by partial differential equations (PDEs) with prescribed boundary
conditions and/or initial conditions in a given domain. Thus PDEs are
fundamental to the modeling of physical problems. Consequently, clear
understanding of the physical meaning of solutions of these equations has
become very important to engineers and mathematicians, so that the solutions
Methods of Fundamental Solutions in Solid Mechanics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818283-3.00001-4

© 2019 Higher Education Press. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 PART | I Fundamentals of meshless methods
can be used to explain natural phenomena or to design and develop new

structures and materials.
To this end, theoretical and experimental methods were first developed.
However, PDEs usually involve higher-order partial differentials to spatial or
time variables, but theoretical analysis is operable only for problems with simple
expressions of PDEs, simple domain shapes, and simple boundary conditions.
Most engineering problems cannot be solved analytically. Besides, due to
limitations to experimental conditions, most engineering problems cannot be
tested experimentally, and even if the problem can be tested, the process is time-
consuming and expensive; moreover, not all of the relevant information can be
measured experimentally. Hence, ways to find good approximate solutions using
numerical methods should be very interesting and helpful.
Currently, solutions of ordinary/boundary value problems can be computed
directly or iteratively using numerical methods, such as the finite element
method (FEM) [1e3], the hybrid finite element method (HFEM) [4e8], the
boundary element method (BEM) [9e12], the finite difference/volume method
(FDM/FVM) [2,13], and the meshless method [14,15], etc.
Among these methods, conventional element-dependent methods such as
the FEM, the HFEM, the BEM, and the FVM require domain or boundary
element partition to model complex multiphysics problems. For example, in
the classic FEM, which was originally developed by Richard Courant in 1943
for structural torsion analysis [16], a continuum with a complex boundary
shape can geometrically be divided into a finite number of elements, generally
termed finite elements. These individual finite elements are connected through
nodes to form a topological mesh. In each individual element, the proper
interpolating function is chosen to approximate the real distribution of the
physical field. Then all elements are integrated into a weak-form integral
functional to produce the solving system of equations, so that the nodal field as
the primary variable in the final solving system can be fully determined. Due to
such features as versatility of meshing for complex geometry and flexibility of
solving strategy for complex problems, the FEM has become one of the most
robust and well-developed procedures for boundary/ordinary value problems,
and it has been successfully applied in many engineering applications [1].
There are, however, some inherent limitations for use of the FEM. Firstly,
mesh generation is usually time-consuming in the FEM, and one must spend
much time and effort for complex data management and treatment. Secondly,
mesh generation involves complex algorithms, and this is not always possible
for problems with complex domains, especially three-dimensional geometri-
cally complex domains. In some cases, users must make partitions to create
relatively regular subdomains for applying mesh generation. Thirdly, as a
displacement-based numerical method, the FEM can relatively accurately
predict displacement, rather than stress that involves higher-order derivatives
of displacement to spatial variables. Moreover, stresses obtained in the FEM
are often discontinuous across the common interface of adjacent elements,
Overview of meshless methods Chapter | 1 5
because of the element-wise continuous nature of the displacement field

assumed in the FEM formulation. Special smoothed treatment techniques are
required in the postprocessing stage to recover stresses. Fourthly, numerical
accuracy in the FEM is significantly dependent on mesh density, so a
remeshing operation is usually required to achieve a desired accuracy. Mul-
tiple meshing trials may be needed for that purpose. More importantly, for
large deformation problems, adaptive mesh is required to avoid element
distortion during deformation. The remeshing process at each step often leads
to additional computational time as well as degradation of accuracy in the
solution. Finally, it is difficult for the FEM to effectively simulate crack
growth and material fracture because the continuous elements in the FEM
cannot easily model discontinuous fields. All these limitations can be attrib-
uted to the use of elements or mesh in the FEM formulation.
As an alternative to the FEM, the element-dependent BEM attempts to find
numerical solutions of boundary integral equations by incorporating element
discretization over the domain boundary [2,10,17,18]. In the BEM, the
boundary integral equation may be regarded as an exact solution of the gov-
erning partial differential equation of the problem, to which the fundamental
solution should be explicitly available, and it can be derived by introducing
the physical definition of fundamental solution to include boundary values in
the representation formula. Such distinguishing features give the BEM the
following advantages over the FEM: (1) Only the boundary of the domain
needs to be discretized; as a result, very simple data input and storage are
involved. (2) The solution in the interior of the domain is approximated with a
rather high convergence rate and accuracy. (3) Exterior problems with
unbounded domains are more properly solved by the BEM, because the remote
condition can be exactly satisfied. However, the BEM also experiences some
difficulties. For example, the BEM is greatly dependent of the fundamental
solution of the partial differential equation. So, problems with inhomogeneities
or nonlinear differential equations are in general not easily handled by pure
BEM. Additionally, the BEM requires more mathematical foundation,
compared to the FEM, to obtain the boundary integral equation and evaluate
boundary integrals, because the kernels in boundary integrals are in general
singular. All these disadvantages limit BEM applications, so sometimes
coupling of other methods must be implemented [19].
In contrast, meshless methods based on boundary and/or interior colloca-
tions in a domain can remove limitations such as in the FEM and BEM,
significantly reducing the effort of model discretization preparation. To
illustrate this, Fig. 1.1 displays domain discretization by elements and collo-
cations in the conventional FEM and the meshless method. In general, the term
“meshless method” refers to the class of numerical techniques that do not
require any predefined mesh information for domain discretization, relying
simply on either global or localized interpolation on nonordered spatial
points scattered within the problem domain as well as on its boundaries.
FIGURE 1.1 FEM and meshless discretization in a 2D domain.
These scattered points are not geometrically connected to form a mesh. Thus
meshless methods present great potential for engineering applications.
1.2 Review of meshless methods

Meshless methods are used to solve PDE in strong or weak form by arbitrarily
distributed collocations in the solution domain, and these points contribute to
the approximation by assumed global or local basis functions.
As in the classification of FEM and BEM, meshless methods may also be
divided into two categories: domain-type meshless methods and boundary-type
meshless methods. Domain-type meshless methods, as the name implies,
employ arbitrarily distributed interior and boundary collocations to represent the
problem domain and its boundary. Then the field variable (e.g., displacement,
temperature, pressure) at any field point within the problem domain is inter-
polated using function values at a local or global set of nodes around the field
point. Subsequently, a weak-form integral equation such as the Galerkin integral
equation or a strong-form collocation equation is introduced to include the
assumed field variables in producing a system of equations associated with the
variables. Strong-form domain-type meshless methods, include smoothed
particle hydrodynamics (SPH) [20], the finite point method (FPM) [21],
the point collocation method (PCM) [22], the Kansa collocation method [23],
and the least-squares collocation meshless method [24], etc. Weak-form domain-
type meshless methods include the diffuse element method (DEM) [25],
the element-free Galerkin method (EFGM) [26], the reproducing kernel particle
method (RKPM) [27], partition of unity finite element methods (PUFEM) [28],
the Hp-meshless clouds method [29], the meshless local Petrov-Galerkin method
(MLPG) [30], and the point interpolation method (PIM) [31], etc. In contrast to
the strong-from meshless methods, the meshless methods based on the weak
form are more robust and steady. However, the latter generally involve more
complex formulations.
Unlike domain-type meshless methods, boundary-type meshless methods
require only boundary collocation in the computation. In that case, the
T-complete function basis [5,6] or the fundamental solution basis [10] is
typically employed to approximate the field variable, so it can exactly satisfy
the governing equations of the problem. For example, Zhang et al. presented
the solution procedure of the hybrid boundary node method (BNM) [32] that
combines the modified variational functional and the moving least-square
(MLS) approximation based only on a group of arbitrarily distributed
boundary nodes. This method is a weak-form method and only involves
integration computation over the boundary. However, MLS interpolations lack
the delta function property, so it is difficult to satisfy the boundary conditions
accurately in the BNM. In an improvement over the BNM, the boundary point
interpolation method (BPIM) [33] employs shape functions having the
Kronecker delta function property, so boundary conditions can be enforced as
easily as in the conventional BEM.
Besides, some pure boundary collocation methods exist, including the
method of fundamental solutions (MFS) [14,34], boundary particle method
(BPM) [35,36], and Trefftz boundary collocation method (TBCM) [37,38].
Among these, the MFS is the most powerful and popular, when fundamental
solutions of a problem are explicitly defined. It was initially introduced by
Kupradze and Aleksidze in 1964 [39]. Over the past 30 years, MFS has been
widely used for the numerical approximation of a large variety of physical
problems [34]. The general concept of the MFS is that the solution (field
variable) approximated by a linear combination of fundamental solutions with
respect to source points located outside the solution domain can exactly satisfy
the governing partial differential equation of the problem, so only boundary
conditions at boundary collocations need to be satisfied. The MFS inherits all
the advantages of the BEM [10]; for example, it does not require discretization
over the domain, unlike domain mesh discretization methods such as the
FEM. Moreover, unlike the BEM, integrations over the domain boundary are
avoided. The solution in the interior of the domain is evaluated also without
any additional integration equation. Furthermore, the derivatives of the solu-
tion are calculated directly from the MFS representation. More importantly,
implementation of the MFS is very easy and direct, even for problems in
three-dimensional and irregular domains, and only a little data preparation is
required. Besides, high numerical accuracy and fast convergence has been
proven [40e42]. Thus, it is employed and discussed in this book.
1.3 Basic ideas of the method of fundamental solutions

To illustrate the basic concept of the MFS, the following two-dimensional
homogeneous partial differential equation is considered:
LuðxÞ ¼ 0; x˛U (1.1)
where L is a partial differential operator, x ¼ (x, y) is an arbitrary point in a
bounded domain U 3 ℝ2, ℝ2 denotes the Euclidean 2-space, and u is the
unknown field variable. It is noted that in the book we sometimes write
x ¼ (x1, x2) rather than x ¼ (x, y) for the sake of convenience.
For a complete boundary value problem, the proper boundary conditions
should be complemented, for example,
uðxÞ ¼ u; x ˛ G1
vuðxÞ (1.2)
¼ q; x ˛ G2
vn
where G1 W G2 ¼ vU, G1 X G2 ¼ B, u and q are given functions, and n is the
unit normal to the boundary vU, as indicated in Fig. 1.2.
1.3.1 Weighted residual method

The boundary value problem (BVP) described in the governing Eq. (1.1) and
the boundary conditions (1.2) can be solved in an approximate manner, by
which the field variable u is approximated in a general form by
X
m
uðxÞzuh ðxÞ ¼ ai fi ðxÞ (1.3)
i¼1
where fi(x) is the ith basis function term, ai is the unknown coefficient for the
ith basis function term, and m is the number of basis functions.
FIGURE 1.2 Schematic of boundary value problem.

In practice, the approximation function given in Eq. (1.3) cannot exactly

satisfy the governing equation and the boundary conditions, due to the trun-
cated approximation. Hence, substituting Eq. (1.3) into Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2), we
usually have
Luh ðxÞs0; x˛U (1.4)
and
uh ðxÞsu; x ˛ G1
vuh ðxÞ (1.5)
sq; x ˛ G2
vn
If the following residual functions can be defined,
Rg ðxÞ ¼ Luh ðxÞ; x˛U (1.6)
Rb1 ðxÞ ¼ uh ðxÞ u; x ˛ G1

vuh ðxÞ (1.7)
Rb2 ðxÞ ¼ q; x ˛ G2
vn
then Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) can be respectively rewritten as
Rg ðxÞs0; x˛U (1.8)
and
Rb1 ðxÞs0; x ˛ G1
(1.9)
Rb2 ðxÞs0; x ˛ G2
Theoretically, the proper approximate function should make the residuals
at each point x inside the domain or on the boundary as small as possible.
However, such strong-form satisfaction is difficult to derive. In the practical
operation, we usually force the residuals to zero in an averaged sense by
setting the so-called weighted integrals of the residuals to zero, i.e.,
Z Z Z
wi Rg ðxÞdU þ vi Rb1 ðxÞdG þ si Rb2 ðxÞdG ¼ 0 (1.10)
U G1 G2
where wi, vi, and si are a set of given weight functions corresponding to the ith
point, and i ¼ 1, 2, ., n.
In the weighted residual method, the selection of weight functions de-
termines the type and performance of numerical approximations. In this book,
the collocation-type meshless method is discussed. In the collocation method,
a set of points that are distributed in the domain are chosen for approximation,
and we can try to satisfy the BVP at only these points, rather than satisfying
the BVP in an integral form. To obtain the collocation solution, we select the
standard Dirac delta function as the weight functions in Eq. (1.10), i.e.,
wi ¼ dðx; xi Þ
vi ¼ dðx; xi Þ (1.11)
si ¼ dðx; xi Þ
where d(x, xi) is the Dirac delta function centered at the point xi and has the
following properties:

0; xsxi
dðx; xi Þ ¼ (1.12)
N; x ¼ xi
and
Z N
dðx; xi Þf ðxÞdU ¼ f ðxi Þ (1.13)
N
Thus, the collocation method can be derived from the weighted residual
formulation by substituting Eq. (1.11) into it:
Z Z Z
dðx; xi ÞRg ðxÞdU þ dðx; xi ÞRb1 ðxÞdG þ dðx; xi ÞRb2 ðxÞdG ¼ 0 (1.14)
U G1 G2
which results in
Rg ðxi Þ þ Rb1 ðxi Þ þ Rb2 ðxi Þ ¼ 0 (1.15)
Eq. (1.15) shows that the residuals are zero at n points chosen in the
problem domain. Specially, if the approximation can exactly satisfy the gov-
erning Eq. (1.1), i.e., the Trefftz approximation and fundamental solution
approximation taken into account in this book, the domain residual Rg should
be zero. In that case, Eq. (1.15) can be reduced to
Rb1 ðxi Þ þ Rb2 ðxi Þ ¼ 0; xi ˛ G (1.16)
which means that only boundary collocations can be chosen to force the
boundary residuals to zero at those collocations. This can be regarded as the
theoretical basis of the MFS described next.
1.3.2 Method of fundamental solutions

In the application of the MFS, the solution of problems governed by Eqs. (1.1)
and (1.2) is approximated as a linear combination of fundamental solutions:
X
N
uðxÞz aj G ðx; xsj Þ ¼ Ga; x ˛ U; xsj ;U (1.17)
j¼1
where N is the number of source points fxsj gNj¼1 located outside the domain,
G*(x, xsj) centered at xsj is the fundamental solution of the partial differential
Eq. (1.1) in the spatial coordinate x ¼ (x, y) [43,44], aj is the coefficient for
G*(x, xsj) that is yet to be determined, and
G ¼ ½ G ðx; xs1 Þ . G ðx; xsN Þ (1.18)
FIGURE 1.3 Collocations in the MFS.
23
a1
6 7
a¼4 « 5 (1.19)
aN
Obviously, the approximation (1.17) exactly satisfies the partial differential
Eq. (1.1) due to the nonoverlapping of the source points xsj ( j ¼ 1, 2, ., N )
and the field point x. Therefore, the approximation (1.17) just needs to satisfy
the specified boundary conditions (1.2). To determine all known coefficients
in Eq. (1.17), we collocate the approximate solution (1.17) on a finite set of
boundary points {xb1, xb2, ., xbM}˛G, as shown in Fig. 1.3. M is the total
number of boundary collocations. If M1 and M2 represent the number of collo-
cations on the boundaries G1 and G2, respectively, and M ¼ M1 þ M2, we have
8 N
> X
>
> G ðxbi ; xsj Þaj ¼ uðxbi Þ; i ¼ 1; .; M1
>
>
< j¼1
(1.20)
>
> X vG ðxbk ; xsj Þ
> N
>
> aj ¼ qðxbk Þ; k ¼ M1 þ 1; .; M
: vn
j¼1
where xbi and xbk are collocations on the boundary segment G1 and G2,
respectively.
Eq. (1.20) can be rewritten in the following matrix form:
(1.21)
where
8
>
< G ðxbi ; xsj Þ; i ¼ 1; .; M1 ; j ¼ 1; 2; .; N
Hij ¼ vG ðxbk ; xsj Þ (1.22)
>
: ; k ¼ M1 þ 1; .; M; j ¼ 1; 2; .; N
vn
and

uðxbi Þ; i ¼ 1; .; M1
bi ¼ (1.23)
qðxbk Þ; k ¼ M1 þ 1; .; M
Explicitly, this leads to an M N-dimensional collocation linear system of
equations that can generally be written as
X
N
Hij aj ¼ bi ; i ¼ 1; 2; .M (1.24)
j¼1
or in matrix form
HMN aN1 ¼ bM1 (1.25)
where H is the M N-dimensional collocation matrix with elements Hij, a is
the N 1 vector of unknowns, and b is the M 1 known vector.
To obtain a unique solution for the linear system of Eq. (1.25), we usually
require M N. If M ¼ N, the linear system of Eq. (1.25) can be solved directly
using the Gaussian elimination technique or a regularization technique such as
the Tichonov regularization or the truncated singular value decomposition if
the matrix H is ill-conditioned, whereas if M > N we must employ the linear
least-square technique to replace the rectangular M N overdetermined sys-
tem of Eq. (1.25) with a square N N determined system. For example,
minimization of the Euclidean error norm of Eq. (1.25)
0 12
XM XN
P¼ @ Hij aj bi A (1.26)
i¼1 j¼1
yields
vPðaÞ
¼ 0; j ¼ 1; 2; .; N (1.27)
vaj
from which we obtain
0 1
XM XN
@ Hij aj bi AHik ¼ 0; k ¼ 1; 2; .N (1.28)
i¼1 j¼1
Eq. (1.28) can be rewritten in matrix form as

ðHT HÞNN aN1 ¼ ðHT bÞN1 (1.29)
where the superscript “T” denotes the transpose of a matrix.
Solving Eq. (1.29) for the unknown coefficient vector a, we obtain
1
a ¼ ðHT HÞ ðHT bÞ (1.30)
and then the field variable at arbitrary point x˛U can be evaluated by Eq. (1.17).
One of the obvious advantages of such a method is the fact that there is no
need for any mesh generation at any function evaluation, and only boundary
collocations are required. This means that the computation is economical in
terms of time. Other advantages of the MFS include its simple formulation and
high precision that can be illustrated by its application to two-dimensional
Laplace problems.
1.4 Application to the two-dimensional Laplace problem

To illustrate the MFS solution procedure, we consider a Laplace problem given
in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate domain. The related source code is
provided to better understand the MFS implementation.
1.4.1 Problem description

We consider a bounded simply or multiply connected region U in the plane xy.
For the two-dimensional Laplace problem defined in the domain U, the
governing partial differential equation related to the potential function u can be
written as
V2 uðxÞ ¼ 0; x˛U (1.31)
where
v2 v2
V2 ¼ þ (1.32)
vx2 vy2
represents the two-dimensional Laplace operator, and x ¼ (x, y) is the arbitrary
point in the plane.
Moreover, the governing Eq. (1.31) should be complemented by the
following boundary conditions to form a well-defined BVP:
u¼f on G1
(1.33)
q¼g on G2
where q ¼ vu/vn denotes the outward normal derivative of u on the boundary
vU, and f and g are given values defined on G1 and G2, respectively. Here,
vU ¼ G1 W G2 and G1 X G2 ¼ B.
The MFS employs the fundamental solution of a problem to approximate

the unknown potential field u. Therefore, the fundamental solution of the
problem should be explicitly formulated. Here, the fundamental solution to the
two-dimensional Laplace operator in Eq. (1.31) can be given by
1
u ðx; xs Þ ¼ ln r (1.34)
2p
where
r ¼ kx xs k (1.35)
is the Euclidean distance, xs is a source point at which a unit source intensity is
applied, and x is an arbitrary field point in an infinite two-dimensional domain.
Correspondingly, the first-order derivatives of u* can be obtained as
vu ðx; xs Þ 1 vr x xs
¼ ¼
vx 2pr vx 2pr 2
(1.36)
vu ðx; xs Þ 1 vr y ys
¼ ¼
vy 2pr vy 2pr 2
Figs. 1.4e1.6 plot the variations of u* and its derivatives for the source
point xs ¼ (0, 0), respectively, from which it is observed that the fundamental
solution u* and its derivatives vu*/vx and vu*/vy show singularity at the source
point. Fortunately, the source point cannot overlap with the field point in the
theory of MFS, because it is arranged outside the domain of interest.
1.4.2 MFS formulation

Based on the fundamental solution of the problem given in Eq. (1.34), the
following scheme for the implementation of the MFS can be obtained.
Choosing the set of source points fxsk gNk¼1 outside the computing domain U,
FIGURE 1.4 Variation of u* for the two-dimensional Laplace operator at xs ¼ (0, 0).
FIGURE 1.5 Variation of vu*/vx for the two-dimensional Laplace operator at xs ¼ (0, 0).
FIGURE 1.6 Variation of vu*/vy for the two-dimensional Laplace operator at xs ¼ (0, 0).
we can construct the approximation for the solution u of Eqs. (1.31) and (1.33)
as follows:
X
N
uðxÞ ¼ ak u ðx; xsk Þ (1.37)
k¼1
or in matrix form:
u ¼ Ua (1.38)
with
U ¼ ½ u ðx; xs1 Þ u ðx; xs2 Þ . u ðx; xsN Þ 1N (1.39)
aT ¼ ½ a1 a2 . aN 1N (1.40)
Further, the first-order derivatives of u can be approximated as
vu XN
vu ðx; xsk Þ vU
qx ¼ ¼ ak ¼ a
vx k¼1 vx vx
(1.41)
vu XN
vu ðx; xsk Þ vU
qy ¼ ¼ ak ¼ a
vy k¼1 vy vy
Then, the outward normal derivative of u on G2 can be expressed as

X
vu N
vu ðx; xsk Þ vu ðx; xsk Þ
q¼ ¼ qx nx þ qy ny ¼ ak nx þ ny
vn k¼1
vx vy
(1.42)
X N
¼ ak q ðx; xsk Þ ¼ Qa
k¼1
where nx and ny are components of the outward normal vector n, and

vu ðx; xsk Þ vu ðx; xsk Þ
q ðx; xsk Þ ¼ nx þ ny (1.43)
vx vy
Q ¼ ½ q ðx; xs1 Þ q ðx; xs2 Þ . q ðx; xsN Þ 1N (1.44)
In the preceding approximations, the coefficients fak gNk¼1 can be deter-
mined by the satisfaction of these boundary conditions at collocation points on
the boundary vU; that is, if we take N collocations fxk gNk¼1 on vU and then
impose the given boundary conditions, we have
X
N
uðxk Þ ¼ ak u ðxk ; xsk Þ ¼ f ðxk Þ; xk ˛ G1 ; k ¼ 1; 2; .; N1
k¼1
(1.45)
X
N

qðxk Þ ¼ ak q ðxk ; xsk Þ ¼ gðxk Þ; xk ˛ G2 ; k ¼ 1; 2; .; N2
k¼1
where N1 and N2 are the number of collocations on G1 and G2, respectively,

and N ] N1 þ N2.
Eq. (1.45) can be rewritten in matrix notation as
(1.46)
or
Ha ¼ b (1.47)
from which the approximating coefficients can be solved and then the quan-
tities at any point in the domain can be evaluated by Eqs. (1.37) and (1.41) for
further plotting or analysis.
The unique existence of approximate solutions for Eqs. (1.31) and (1.33) of
the form (1.37) has been established theoretically. However, the locations of
source points fxsk gNk¼1 outside the computing domain cannot be explicitly
determined. In practical computation, we can usually employ the following
relation to generate the source point:
xs ¼ xb þ ðxb xc Þg (1.48)
where xs, xb, and xc represent the positions of source point, boundary point,
and center point, respectively. g denotes the nondimensional parameter used to
control the distance between the source point and the real boundary.
Obviously, Eq. (1.48) can be equally rewritten as
xs xc ¼ xb xc þ ðxb xc Þg ¼ ðxb xc Þð1 þ gÞ (1.49)
or
xs ¼ xc þ ðxb xc Þl (1.50)
where l ¼ 1 þ g > 0 is usually called the similarity ratio between the virtual
boundary source points located and the real physical boundary.
Eq. (1.50) means that the coordinates of the source point generated by the
relation (1.48) are scaled magnification or shrinkage of the coordinates of the
boundary collocation point. Theoretically, for the case of the interior domain
(see Fig. 1.7), the scaling factor g > 0, whereas for the case of the exterior
domain (see Fig. 1.8), the parameter g can be chosen in the range (1, 0). For
both the interior and external domain problems, it is found that the closer the
parameter g is to 0, the closer the virtual boundary connecting the source
points is to the physical boundary. However, from the computational point of
view, the numerical accuracy may decrease as the distance between the virtual
FIGURE 1.7 Illustration of the locations of source points for interior domain problems.
FIGURE 1.8 Illustration of the locations of source points for external domain problems.
and physical boundaries becomes too small, in which case the parameter g is
close to zero, and the problem becomes singular due to the singularity of the
fundamental solutions. In contrast, as the distance of source points from the
physical boundary increases, the conditioning number of the collocation
matrix of the linear solving system of equations increases, and the round-off
errors in floating-point arithmetic may become a concern. Typically, if the
parameter g becomes very large, the entries in the collocation matrix will be
close to zero. Therefore, to achieve a good balance for the conditioning
number and the numerical errors generated by the MFS in practical compu-
tation, the parameter g is generally selected to be in the range of 1.0e10.0 for
interior domain problems and 0.3w0.8 for external domain problems
[34,42,45,46]. In practice, we usually employ g ¼ 3 for the interior case and
g ¼ 0.5 for the exterior case.
1.4.3 Program structure and source code

Based on the MFS formulation described before, MATLAB code can be
programmed for the numerical analysis of two-dimensional Laplace problems.
The main solution procedures of the program include the following:
l Read input data and allocate proper array sizes.
l For each boundary collocation do:
l Compute coefficients;
l Assemble to form coefficient matrix.
l Solve the resulting matrix equation for the approximating coefficients.

l Compute results at test points.
l Output the potential and its derivative solutions.
1.4.3.1 Input data

The major input parameters needed for the implementation of MFS are these:
ND: number of dimensions of problem
NF: number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) per point
NR: number of boundary collocations on the real boundary
NV: number of virtual source points
NT: number of test points in the domain
RC: NR by ND matrix storing coordinates of each boundary collocation
RN: NR by ND matrix storing normals at each boundary collocation
BT: NR by NF matrix storing type of boundary condition at each boundary
collocation
BV: NR by NF matrix storing given value of boundary condition at each
boundary collocation
VC: NV by ND matrix storing coordinates of virtual source points
TC: NT by ND matrix storing coordinates of test points
Most of these parameters input from data files are associated with the
geometric information about the solution domain and its given boundary
conditions of a problem defined by a user. The boundary collocations can be
generated either manually or using an automatic boundary discretization
program (i.e., the preprocessor in the BEM), and they can then be used to
generate source points outside the domain using Eq. (1.48). Additionally, the
information for the given boundary condition at each boundary collocation
includes the type of boundary condition (BT) and the given constraint value
(BV). For the present problem, the degree of freedom of each boundary
collocation is NF ¼ 1, so the information for any constrained boundary
collocation i (i ¼ 1, 2, ., NR) is as follows:
BT[i,1] ¼ 0: specified potential
BT[i,1] ¼ 1: specified normal flux
BV[i,1] ¼ specified value
1.4.3.2 Computation of coefficient matrix

The resulting coefficient matrix H is expressed in Eq. (1.46). The size of the H
matrix is determined by the number of boundary collocations and source
points prepared in the input part, and each element in it is computed from the
fundamental solution u* or q* given in Eqs. (1.34) and (1.43) with the
coordinates of the specific boundary collocation and source point.
1.4.3.3 Solving the resulting system of linear equations

Once the system of linear equations is established, it can be solved for the
approximating coefficients ai, which are the primary unknowns in the MFS.
In the MATLAB program, such systems can be solved by the inbuilt function,
that is, the matrix left division,
a ¼ Hnb
Finally, the physical quantities at any point in the domain can be evaluated
with the solved coefficients ai.
1.4.3.4 Source code

Source code is written in M-function in MATLAB, and the main function
MFS_2DLaplace.m calls another M-function (subroutine) FDS2DLP.m that is
coded to evaluate the fundamental solution u* and its derivatives vu*/vx and
vu*/vy when the coordinates of source point and field point are input. The
flowchart of the program is given in Fig. 1.9.
FIGURE 1.9 Flowchart of the program of MFS_2DLaplace.m for solving two-dimensional

Laplace problems.
% ¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼
% Main program to solve 2D Laplace problem using the MFS
% ¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼¼
function MFS_2DLaplace
%
% **** Laplace equation:
% Uxx þ Uyy ¼ 0
% **** Boundary conditions
% ** Dirichlet: U¼U0
% ** Neumann: Q¼Q0
% where
% U is the sought potential function
% Q is the normal derivative of potential U, that is Q¼dU/dn
%
% **** Variable statements
% ND: Number of dimensions of problem
% NF: Number of DOFs of problem at every point
% NR: Number of boundary collocations on the real boundary
%
% NV: Number of virtual source points
% NT: Number of test points in the domain
%
% RC: NR by ND matrix of coordinates of boundary collocations
% RN: NR by ND matrix of normals at boundary collocations
% BT: NR by NF matrix of types of boundary conditions at boundary
collocations
% BV: NR by NF matrix of values of boundary conditions
% VC: NV by ND matrix of coordinates of virtual source points
% TC: NT by ND matrix of coordinates of test points
%
%---------------------------------------------------------------
% ** Open data file for input
fp¼fopen('Input.txt','rt');
dummy¼char(zeros(1,100));
% Test description
dummy¼fgets(fp);
% Basic parameters
dummy¼fgets(fp);
TMP¼str2num(fgets(fp));
[ND,NF,NR,NV,NT]¼deal(TMP(1),TMP(2),TMP(3),TMP(4),TMP(5));
% Initialization
RC¼zeros(NR,ND);
RN¼zeros(NR,ND);
TB¼zeros(NR,NF);
VB¼zeros(NR,NF);
VC¼zeros(NV,ND);
TC¼zeros(NT,ND);
% Boundary collocation coordinates and normals
dummy¼fgets(fp);
dummy¼fgets(fp);
for i¼1:NR
[NUM,RC(i,1:ND),RN(i,1:ND)]¼
deal(TMP(1),TMP(2:1þND),TMP(2þND:1þ2*ND));
end
% Type and value of boundary conditions
dummy¼fgets(fp);
dummy¼fgets(fp);
for i¼1:NR
[NUM,BT(i,1:NF),BV(i,1:NF)]¼
deal(TMP(1),TMP(2:1þNF),TMP(2þNF:1þ2*NF));
end
% Source points
dummy¼fgets(fp);
dummy¼fgets(fp);
for i¼1:NV
[NUM,VC(i,1:ND)]¼deal(TMP(1),TMP(2:1þND));
end
% Test points
dummy¼fgets(fp);
dummy¼fgets(fp);
for i¼1:NT
[NUM,TC(i,1:ND)]¼deal(TMP(1),TMP(2:1þND));
end
fclose(fp);
% ** Form the coefficient matrix H

HH¼zeros(NR,NV);
% Satisfy boundary conditions at NR boundary collocations
for i¼1:NR
x¼RC(i,1);
y¼RC(i,2);
nx¼RN(i,1);
ny¼RN(i,2);
for j¼1:NV
vx¼VC(j,1);
vy¼VC(j,2);
[h,hx,hy]¼FDS2DLP(x,y,vx,vy);
q¼(hx*nxþhy*ny);
if BT(i,1)¼¼0 % Specified potential
HH(i,j)¼h;
else % Specified normal derivative
HH(i,j)¼q;
end
end
end
%---------------------------------------------------------------
% ** Solve the linear system of equations
BV¼HH\BV; % Solve Ax¼b using matrix left division
%---------------------------------------------------------------
% **Evaluate quantities at test points
UC¼zeros(NT,3);
for i¼1:NT
x¼TC(i,1);
y¼TC(i,2);
for j¼1:NV
vx¼VC(j,1);
vy¼VC(j,2);
[h,hx,hy]¼FDS2DLP(x,y,vx,vy);
UC(i,1)¼UC(i,1)þBV(j,1)*h;
UC(i,2)¼UC(i,2)þBV(j,1)*hx;
UC(i,3)¼UC(i,3)þBV(j,1)*hy;
end
end
%---------------------------------------------------------------
%**Output results in Cartesian coordinate system at test points
fp¼fopen('Results.txt','wt');
fprintf(fp,'No. x, y, U, Q1, Q2 \n');
for i¼1:NT
x¼TC(i,1);
y¼TC(i,2);
u ¼UC(i,1);
q1¼UC(i,2);
q2¼UC(i,3);
fprintf(fp,'%3d, %5.3e, %5.3e, %9.6e, %9.6e, %9.6e\n',i,x,y,u,
q1,q2);
end
fclose(fp);
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Ojeda and Pizarro, he was not altogether unfit to hold a Spanish
commission.
CHAPTER XIV.
DIFFICULTIES AND DISCOURAGEMENTS.
[Æt. 59; 1495]
MARGARITE and Father Boyle, as has been mentioned, had

sailed for Spain while Columbus was absent on his cruise in search
of China. Arriving in Spain, they told a series of able and effective
falsehoods, judiciously seasoned with a little genuine truth. They
said it gave them the greatest pain to speak in disparaging terms of
their superior officer, but a stern sense of duty compelled them to
say that the misguided man was a liar and a scoundrel. All the
Admiral’s stories of fertile islands, rich gold-mines, delightful climate,
and amiable heathens clamoring for conversion, were without any
foundation. Hispaniola was a wretched, fever-stricken place, wholly
unfit for colonization. As for Columbus and his brother Bartholomew,
they were cruel tyrants, who required Spanish gentlemen to work
and made sick men get out of their beds, where they were
comparatively comfortable, in order to engage in ridiculous
expeditions after gold that never existed. Of the two, Don
Bartholomew was perhaps the more objectionable, which was
unfortunate, inasmuch as the Admiral, having put to sea in search of
more of his worthless islands, had undoubtedly been drowned.
It must be confessed that, in one respect, Margarite and Boyle
did tell the truth. There were chills and fever in the new colony, and
when the King and Queen saw the returned colonists visibly shaking
before them, they believed in the unhealthfulness of Hispaniola and
all the accompanying lies told by the malicious and malarious
complainants. They therefore resolved to send one Diego Carillo to
Hispaniola as an investigating committee, to ascertain if there was
anybody capable of telling the exact truth about the state of affairs.
But before Carillo could sail, Don Diego Columbus arrived, and
as he brought considerable gold with him, the monarchs formed the
opinion that he had the air of a man of strict veracity. He admitted
that there was a part of the island of Hispaniola, a long distance from
the colony, where it was said that chills and fever prevailed, and he
was inclined to believe that the report was true. As for the climate of
Isabella and its vicinity, he regarded it as exceptionally healthful. He
reported that the Admiral had positively been to the mainland of
China, and regretted that he had thoughtlessly forgotten to bring
back confirmatory tea-chests.
Don Diego further assured the King and Queen that since the
fortunate departure from Hispaniola of two objectionable persons
whom he would not name, but who, he was informed, had recently
arrived in Spain with a full cargo of assorted falsehoods, the affairs
of the colony had been very prosperous. Of course, to bold and
restless spirits there was a certain monotony in swinging in
hammocks all day long, and eating delicious fruit, in a climate that
was really perfect, and there were men who even grew tired of
picking up nuggets of gold; but Don Diego was confident that, with a
very few exceptions, the colonists enjoyed their luxurious life and, on
the whole, preferred Hispaniola to Paradise.
Ferdinand and Isabella weighed the gold brought by Don Diego,
and decided to believe him. They thereupon cancelled Carillo’s
appointment, and appointed in his place Juan Aguado, a personal
friend of Columbus, who, it was understood, would go to Hispaniola
in the character of a visiting statesman, and, after examining such
witnesses as Columbus might introduce to him, would return home
and make a report that would completely satisfy the Admiral.
In spite of this apparently friendly action, they gave Columbus
just cause of complaint by throwing open the business of exploration,
the monopoly of which they had formally given to him. They
authorized any Spaniard to fit out exploring expeditions, under
certain restrictions, and to discover continents, islands, and seas,
without any limitation as to number; the discoverers to pay the
Crown one third of all the gold they might find. Columbus was greatly
grieved at this, not only because he feared that injudicious explorers
would discover unhealthy islands, and would thus bring exploration
into disrepute, but because it was a distinct breach of faith on the
part of the King and Queen. As for the gracious permission which
they gave him to freight a vessel to trade with the New World
whenever any other explorer should freight one for the like purpose,
he evidently did not trust himself to express his opinion of such a
hollow mockery of his rights.
In August, 1495, Don Juan Aguado sailed for Hispaniola with a
fleet loaded with supplies and a pocket filled with a royal decree,
written on the best of parchment and ordering that the colony of
Isabella should consist of not over five hundred people. The astute
monarchs had perceived that the larger the colony might be the
more numerous and contradictory would be the complaints which the
colonists would make, and hence they resolved to limit the
complaint-producing capacity of the colony, and to render it
impossible for more than five hundred distinct accounts of the infamy
of Columbus and the climate to be brought to their royal ears.
As Aguado was supposed to be a firm friend of the Admiral, Don
Diego Columbus decided to return with him to Isabella, which he
accordingly did, arriving some time in October. We can imagine how
glad Columbus must have been to find that his good though tedious
brother’s affection forbade him to desert his own dear Christopher.
The latter was in the interior when Aguado arrived, and that officer
immediately proceeded to astonish Don Bartholomew by putting on
what Bartholomew rightly characterized as airs. Aguado announced
that he had come to put things to rights, and that the colonists now
had a real friend to whom they could complain when insulted and
oppressed by domineering Italians. As Isabella was undoubtedly a
dull place, the colonists eagerly availed themselves of the new
occupation of making complaints against Columbus and his brother,
and displayed a promptness and industry of which they had never
before given any signs. Don Bartholomew instantly sent word to his
brother that a new and alarming kind of lunatic had arrived from
Spain, with a royal commission authorizing him to raise the great
adversary of mankind, and that the sooner the Admiral returned the
better.
Columbus hastened to Isabella, where he greeted Aguado with
such overwhelming politeness that the fellow became wretchedly
unhappy. He had hoped to be able to report that Columbus had
insulted him and treated the royal commission with contempt, but he
was disappointed. He was a little cheered up, however, by a
tremendous hurricane which wrecked all the Spanish ships except
one, and kept the air for a time full of Spanish colonists, natives, and
fragments of ruined buildings. This he thought would read very well
in his intended report on the general infamy of the climate, and,
despairing of obtaining anything better, he resolved to return to
Spain as soon as a new vessel could be built. The Admiral
announced that he intended to return with him, a piece of news that
greatly discontented Aguado, who foresaw that after he had made
his report concerning Columbus the latter would be entirely capable
of making a report concerning Aguado.
[Æt. 60; 1496]
About this time a young Spaniard arrived from the interior with a
most welcome story. He had run away from Isabella on account of
having nearly killed a fellow-colonist, and had met a beautiful female
cacique living on the river Ozema, near the present site of San
Domingo, who had fallen violently in love with him. From her he had
learned of rich gold-mines, and he humbly trusted that Columbus
would condescend to look at them and to overlook his little
indiscretion in the matter of his fellow-colonist. The Admiral, secretly
feeling that any man who killed one of his colonists was a benefactor
of the human race, kindly forgave him and went with him to inspect
the mines, which he found to be apparently so rich that he instantly
overhauled his Old Testament and his Geography, and decided that
he had found the original land of Ophir.
A new scientific person, who had been sent out to supersede the
worthless Fermin Cedo, was ordered to take his crucibles, transit
instruments, and other apparatus, and make a satisfactory assay of
the mines. He did so, and, being a clever man, reported to the
Admiral that the gold was unusually genuine, and that the ore would
probably average three hundred dollars to the ton. At least, that is
what he would have reported had he been a modern expert
investigating mining property in behalf of British capitalists, and we
need not suppose that there were no able assayers prior to the
discovery of silver in Colorado. Columbus read the report, expressed
a high opinion of the scientific abilities of the assayer, and ordered a
fort to be built in the neighborhood of the mines.
Carrying with him specimens of gold from the new mines, and
the report of the scientific person, Columbus sailed for Spain, in
company with Aguado, on the 10th of March, 1496. He left Don
Bartholomew as Governor during his absence, and took with him the
captive chief Caonabo, either as a specimen of the kind of heathen
produced by the island, or because he thought it might be possible to
convert the chief with the help of the many appliances in the
possession of the church at home. He wisely refrained from taking
any slaves, Don Diego having informed him that the Queen had
ordered his previous consignment of five hundred to be sent back to
Hispaniola and set at liberty.
The homeward-bound fleet consisted of only two vessels, but
they met with as much head-wind as if they had been a dozen ships
of the largest size, and on the 10th of April they were compelled to
stop at Guadaloupe for water and provisions. Here they were
attacked by armed women as well as men. Several of these early
American advocates of the equality of the sexes were captured, and
set at liberty again when the ships sailed. One of them, however,
improved the time by falling in love with Caonabo, whom she insisted
upon accompanying, and Columbus consented to carry her to Spain
as a beautiful illustration of the affectionate character of the Western
heathen.
It was the 20th of April when the fleet left Guadaloupe, and
Cadiz was not reached until the 11th of June. The provisions were so
nearly exhausted that during the latter part of the voyage the sailors
were almost in a state of starvation. Of course, when the provisions
were scarce and the men were put on short allowance, the prisoner
Caonabo and his affectionate female friend received their share of
food, for Columbus would never have permitted the unfortunate pair
to starve. Still, it did happen that Caonabo died on the voyage, and
history is silent as to what became of his companion.
[Æt. 60–62; 1496–98]
The returned colonists told dismal stories of their sufferings, but

their stories were superfluous. Their wretched appearance; the way
in which they clung to the lamp-posts and shook them till the glass
rattled; and the promptness with which they rushed into the drug-
stores and demanded—each for himself, in a single breath—“Six-
dozen-two-grain-quinine-pills-and-be-quick-about-it!” furnished
sufficient evidence of the sort of climate in which they had lived. It
was useless for Columbus and his friends to say that the
appearance and conduct of the shaking colonists were due to sea-
sickness and long confinement on shipboard without proper
provisions. The incredulous public of Cadiz could not be thus
imposed upon, and the visible facts as to the colonists offset in the
popular mind the magnificent stories of the mines of Ophir which the
Admiral circulated as soon as he landed. The monarchs sent him a
courteous invitation to visit the court, but he was in great doubt as to
the kind of reception which Margarite, Father Boyle, and Aguado
would prepare for him. In order to show that he felt himself greatly
humiliated by the credence which had been given to the reports
against him, he dressed himself in a Franciscan’s coarse gown, and
let his beard grow. On his way to court he paraded some thirty
Indians whom he had brought with him, dressed principally in gold
bracelets, and thereby created the false and alarming impression on
the public mind that the Black Crook had broken out with much
violence.
The King and Queen, when they saw the gold that Columbus
had brought, and read the scientific person’s certificates that it was
genuine, decided to disregard all the complaints against the Admiral.
Aguado had nothing to repay him for his long voyage, and no one
would listen to his report. It is believed that he finally published it as
an advertisement at so much a line in the local Cadiz paper, and
sent marked copies to all his friends. If so, he benefited no one but
the printers, and did Columbus no apparent injury.
[Æt. 60; 1496–98]
Columbus was promised eight ships for a third exploring

expedition, but the money was not in the treasury, or, at all events,
the King and Queen could not make up their minds to spare it. They
were engaged in two or three expensive wars and one or two difficult
marriages, and were really quite pinched for money. At last, however,
they gave Columbus an order for the amount; but before it was paid,
Pedro Alonzo Niño, who had been sent with supplies to Hispaniola,
returned to Cadiz and announced that his ships were filled with gold.
The monarchs therefore recalled their order, and in its stead gave
Columbus a draft on Niño, to be paid from his cargo of gold. Further
investigation showed that Niño had spoken figuratively, and that he
had no actual gold, but only a cargo of slaves, who, he estimated,
would bring more or less gold if sold in the market.
Meanwhile the monarchs had appropriated all their ready money
for purposes of slaughter and matrimony, and so were compelled to
decline advancing funds for the new expedition until their business
should improve.
Columbus had already lost much of his original popularity, and
was daily losing what remained. That he had discovered new
countries nobody denied; but the complaint was that he had selected
cheap and undesirable countries. The Queen, however, still admired
and trusted him, for the Admiral was a man of remarkably fine
personal appearance. She confirmed all the previous honors and
privileges that had been promised to him, which looks as if in those
days a royal promise became outlawed, as the lawyers say, in one or
two years unless it was renewed—a rule which must have greatly
simplified the practice of diplomacy. Inasmuch as there had been a
vast excess of expenses over receipts in the exploration business,
Columbus was released from the obligation to pay an eighth of the
cost of every expedition, and was given a large tract of land in
Hispaniola, with the title of Duke, which title he refused, since it was
inferior in rank to his title of Admiral.
[Æt. 62; 1498]
While waiting for the expedition to be made ready, Columbus

improved the time by making his will. In this document he committed
the task of recovering the Holy Sepulchre to his son Diego, and
directed him to save up his money by putting it in the savings bank,
until he should have enough to pay for a crusade. Curiously enough,
Don Diego never was able to accumulate the necessary sum, and
the Holy Sepulchre is still waiting to be delivered. It was wise,
however, in the Admiral to delegate this great duty to his son, and
thus to free himself from an obligation which could not but interfere
with the business of exploration. The more we can shift our burdens
upon our descendants, the better time we shall have. This is the
great principle upon which all enlightened nations base their financial
policy.
Early in 1498 the royal business had so far improved that two
vessels loaded with supplies were sent to Hispaniola, and
preparations were made for fitting out a fleet of six ships and a force
of five hundred men. The five hundred men were not easily found. It
was the popular belief that chills and fever were not worth the trouble
of so long a voyage, and that there was little else to be got by
serving under Columbus. In this emergency, the sentences of
criminals in the Spanish jails were commuted to transportation to the
New World, and a pardon was offered to all persons for whom the
police were looking—with the exception of heretics and a few other
choice criminals—who should surrender themselves and volunteer to
join the fleet. In this way the required number of men was gradually
obtained. In point of moral character the expedition might have
competed with an equal number of Malay pirates or New York
plumbers. We are even told that some hardened and habitual
musicians were thus carried by Columbus to the once peaceful and
happy island of Hispaniola, taking with them their accordions and
guitars. This is a blot upon the Admiral’s character which his most
ardent admirers cannot overlook.
CHAPTER XV.
HIS THIRD EXPEDITION.
[Æt. 62; 1498]
THE perseverance of Columbus triumphed over all obstacles.

The expedition was finally ready, and on the 30th of May, 1498, the
Admiral went on board the flag-ship and, after remarking “All ashore
that’s goin’!” and “All aboard!” rang the final bell and started once
more for the New World. Just as he was about to embark, one
Breviesca, a clerk in the Indian Agents’ Bureau, met him on the
wharf and told Columbus that he would never return.
“What, never?” exclaimed the astonished Admiral.
“Well, hardly ever,” replied the miscreant.
Of course Columbus instantly knocked him down, and went on
board his vessel in a just but tremendous rage. He wrote to the
Queen, informing her of the affair, and sincerely regretting that he
had lost his temper. Long afterwards his enemies were accustomed
to refer to the brutal way in which he had attacked an estimable and
inoffensive gentleman, as a proof of his ungovernable temper, his
Italian fondness for revenge, and his general unfitness for any post
of responsibility.
The fleet steered first for Madeira, and then for the Canary
Islands, touching at both places; and at the latter surprising—as
historians assure us—a French privateer with two Spanish prizes.
What there was about Columbus or his fleet that was so surprising,
has, of course, been left to our imagination, in accordance with the
habit of historians to omit mentioning details of real interest. The
Frenchman was attacked by the Spaniards, but managed to escape
together with one of his prizes. The other prize was retaken by the
Spanish prisoners on board of her, and given up to Columbus, who
turned the vessel over to the local authorities.
From the Canaries the fleet sailed to the Cape Verde Islands,
where the Admiral divided his forces. Three ships he sent direct to
Hispaniola, and with the other three he steered in a south-westerly
direction, to make new discoveries. He soon discovered the hottest
region in which he had ever yet been—the great champion belt of
equatorial calms. There was not a breath of wind, and the very
seams of the ships opened with the intense heat. It was evident to
the sailors that they must be very close to the region where,
according to the scientific persons of the period, the sea was
perpetually boiling, and they began to fear that they would be
roasted before the boiling process could begin. Luckily, a gentle
breeze finally sprung up, and Columbus, abandoning the rash
attempt to sail farther south, steered directly west, and soon passed
into a comforting, cool, and pleasant climate.
On the 31st of July he discovered the island of Trinidad, and in
view of the fact that his ships were leaky, his water almost gone, and
his body alternately shaken by fever and twisted by gout, it was high
time that land should have been found.
The following day the flag-ship was suddenly attacked by a
canoe full of fierce natives, who threw spears and other unpleasant
things at the Spaniards, and fought with great bravery. Columbus,
determined to strike terror into the enemy, ordered his musicians to
assemble on deck and play familiar airs—probably from “Pinafore.”
The result surpassed his most sanguine expectations. The unhappy
natives fled in wild dismay as soon as the music began, and yelled
with anguish when the first cornet blew a staccato note, and the man
with the bass trombone played half a tone flat. When we remember
that the good Queen Isabella had particularly ordered Columbus to
treat the natives kindly, we must earnestly hope that this cruel
incident never came to her presumably pretty ears.
The fleet was now off the south shore of Trinidad, and the
mainland was in plain sight farther west. Columbus at first supposed
that the mainland was only another island, and after taking in water
he sailed west, with the intention of sailing beyond it. Passing
through the narrow strait between Trinidad and the continent, he
entered the placid Gulf of Paria, where to his astonishment he found
that the water was fresh. Sailing along the shore, he landed here and
there and made friendly calls on the natives, whom he found to be a
pleasant, light-colored race, with a commendable fondness for
exchanging pearls for bits of broken china and glass beads. No
opening could be found through which to sail farther westward, and
Columbus soon came to the opinion that he had this time reached
the continent of Asia.
One thing greatly astonished him. He had been fully convinced
that the nearer he should approach the equator the blacker would be
the people and the hotter the climate. Yet the people of Paria were
light-colored, and the climate was vastly cooler than the scorching
regions of the equatorial calms. Remembering also the remarkable
conduct of the stars, which had materially altered their places since
he had left the Cape Verde Islands, and reflecting upon the unusual
force of the currents which had latterly interfered severely with the
progress of the ship, Columbus proceeded to elaborate a new and
attractive geographical theory. He wrote to Ferdinand and Isabella
that, in his opinion, the world was not exactly round, like a ball or an
orange, as he had hitherto maintained, but that it was shaped like a
large yellow pear. He assumed that the region which he had now
reached corresponded to the long neck of the pear, near the stem,
as it appears when the pear is resting on its larger end. He had
consequently sailed up a steep ascent since leaving Spain, and had
by this means reached a cool climate and found light-colored
heathen.
This was a very pretty theory, and one which ought to have
satisfied any reasonable inventor of geographical theories; but
Columbus, warming with his work, proceeded still further to
embellish it. He maintained that the highest point of the earth was
situated a short distance west of the coast of Paria, and that on its
apex the Garden of Eden could be found. He expressed the opinion
that the Garden was substantially in the same condition as when
Adam and Eve left it. Of course a few weeds might have sprung up
in the neglected flower-beds, but Columbus was confident that the
original tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and the
conversationally disposed animals, were all to be found in their
accustomed places. As for the angel with the two-edged sword, who
had been doing sentry duty at the gate for several thousand years,
there could be no doubt that should an explorer present to him a
written pass signed by the Pope, the angel would instantly admit him
into the Garden.
Columbus now felt that, whatever failures might seem to
characterize his new exploring expedition, he had forever secured
the gratitude and admiration of the pious Queen. To have almost
discovered the Garden of Eden in a nearly perfect state of repair was
certainly more satisfactory than the discovery of any amount of gold
would have been. Still, he thought it could do no harm to mention in
his letter to the Queen that pearls of enormous value abounded on
the coast, and that the land was fertile, full of excellent trees and
desirable fruits, and populous with parrots of most correct
conversational habits, and monkeys of unusual moral worth and
comic genius.
Although Columbus failed to visit the Garden of Eden, either
because he had no pass from the Pope or because he could not
spare the time, it must not be imagined that he did not believe his
new and surprising theory. In those happy days men had a capacity
for belief which they have since totally lost, and Columbus himself
was probably capable of honestly believing even wilder theories than
the one which gave to the earth the shape of a pear and perched the
Garden on the top of an imaginary South American mountain.
As the provisions were getting low, and the Admiral’s fever was
getting high—not to speak of his gout, which manifested a tendency
to rise to his stomach—he resolved to cease exploring for a time,
and to sail for Hispaniola. He arrived there on the 19th of August,
after discovering and naming a quantity of new islands. The currents
had drifted him so far out of his course, that he reached the coast of
Hispaniola a hundred and fifty miles west of Ozima, his port of
destination. Sending an Indian messenger to warn Bartholomew of
his approach, he sailed for Ozima, where he arrived on the 30th of
August, looking as worn out and haggard as if he had been engaged
in a prolonged pleasure-trip to the Fishing Banks.
Don Bartholomew received his brother with the utmost joy, and
proceeded to make him happy by telling him how badly affairs had
gone during his absence. Bartholomew had followed the Admiral’s
orders, and had proved himself a gallant and able commander. He
had built a fort and founded a city at the mouth of the Ozima, which
is now known as San Domingo. Leaving Don Diego Columbus in
command of the colony, he had marched to Xaragua, the western
part of the island, and induced the Cacique Behechio and his sister
Anacaona, the widow of Caonabo, to acknowledge the Spanish rule
and to pay tribute. He had also crushed a conspiracy of the natives,
which was due chiefly to the burning of several Indians at the stake
who had committed sacrilege by destroying a chapel. These were
the first Indians who were burnt for religious purposes, and it is a pity
that Father Boyle had not remained in Hispaniola long enough to
witness the ceremony which he had so often vainly urged the
Admiral to permit him to perform. Probably Don Bartholomew was
not responsible for the burning of the savages, for he evidently
sympathized with the revolted natives, and suppressed the
conspiracy with hardly any bloodshed.
[Æt. 62–64; 1498–1500]
The colonists, both old and new, were of course always

discontented, and cordially disliked the two brothers of the Admiral.
The chief judge of the colony, Francisco Roldan, undertook to
overthrow the authority of the Adelentado, and to make himself the
ruler of the island. After much preliminary rioting and strong
language Roldan openly rebelled, and with his followers besieged
Don Bartholomew in Fort Concepcion, in which he had taken refuge,
and from which he did not dare to sally, not feeling any confidence in
his men. Roldan was unable to capture the fort, but he instigated the
natives to throw off Bartholomew’s authority, and convinced them
that he, and not the Adelentado, was their real friend.
The opportune arrival of the two supply ships, which sailed from
Spain while Columbus was fitting out his third expedition, probably
saved the authority and the life of Don Bartholomew. He immediately
left the fort and, going to San Domingo, took command of the newly
arrived troops, and proclaimed Roldan a traitor, which greatly
relieved his mind. The traitor thereupon marched with his men to
Xaragua, where they led a simple and happy life of vice and
immorality. The discord among the Spaniards induced the natives to
make another attempt to gain their liberty, but the Adelentado, in a
brilliant campaign, once more reduced them to subjection. Two
native insurrections, a Spanish rebellion, and unusual discontent
were thus the chief features of the pleasant story with which
Columbus was welcomed to Hispaniola.
Before he could take any active measures against Roldan,
except to issue a proclamation expressly confirming Don
Bartholomew’s assertion that he was a traitor, the three ships which
he had sent direct to Hispaniola when he divided his fleet at the
Cape Verde Islands, arrived off the coast of Xaragua, and perceiving
Spaniards on the shore, imagined that they were respectable
colonists. Roldan fostered that delusion until he had obtained arms
and supplies, when he admitted that from the holiest motives he had
rebelled against the tyranny of the Adelentado.
The men of the fleet, learning that Roldan’s followers were a set
of reckless scoundrels, were inclined to think that perhaps
transportation was not such a terrible affair after all, and began to
desert with great alacrity, and to join the rebels. The ships therefore
put to sea, and their commander, on arriving at San Domingo,
informed Columbus that Roldan would probably surrender if it was
made an object to him to do so.
The Admiral was anxious to march on Xaragua, capture Roldan,
and make an example of him; but his unpopularity and that of his
brothers was so great that he did not dare to risk leaving San
Domingo, lest it should rebel as soon as his back was turned. In
order to rid himself of some of the malcontents, he fitted out five
vessels, and offered a free passage to Spain to every one who
wished to return. The ships sailed, carrying letters from both
Columbus and Roldan, in which each described the other in
uncomplimentary terms.
Columbus would now have marched against Roldan, but he
could not find more than seventy men who felt well enough to march
with him. The rest said they had headaches, or had sprained their
ankles, and really must be excused. There was nothing left to do but
to negotiate with the rebel leader, and compromise matters.
Columbus began by offering a free pardon to Roldan if he would
immediately surrender. Roldan, in his turn, offered to pardon
Columbus if he would agree to certain conditions. These
negotiations were continued for a long time, and after various
failures the Admiral succeeded in obtaining a compromise. He
agreed to reappoint Roldan Chief Judge of the colony; to grant him a
certificate that all the charges which had been made against him
were malicious lies; to give him and his followers back pay, slaves,
and compensation for their property which had been destroyed; to
send back to Spain such of the rebels as might wish to return, and to
give the remainder large grants of land. On these conditions Roldan
agreed to overlook what had passed and to rejoin the colony. This
successful compromise served years afterwards as a model for
Northern Americans when dealing with their dissatisfied brethren,
and entitles Columbus to the honor of being the first great American
compromiser.
Having thus settled the dispute, the Admiral wrote to Spain,
explaining that the conditions to which he had agreed had been
extorted by force and were therefore not binding, and that on
Roldan’s massive cheek deserved to be branded the legend Fraud
first triumphant in American History. He asked that a commissioner
should be sent out to arrest and punish the rebel chief, and to take
the place of Chief Judge now fraudulently held by Roldan.
There is of course no doubt that Columbus would have hung
Roldan with great pleasure had he been able to do so. He was
compelled by force of circumstances to yield to all the rebel’s
demands, but nevertheless it was hardly fair for him to claim that his
acts and promises were not binding. Still, it should be remembered
that he was suffering from malarial fever, and it is notorious that even
the best of men will tell lies without remorse if they live in a malarious
region and have houses for sale or to let.
The Admiral, having thus restored order, was about to return to
Spain to explain more fully his conduct and that of Don Bartholomew,
when he heard that four ships commanded by Alonzo de Ojeda had
arrived at Xaragua. He immediately suspected that something was
wrong, and that in Ojeda he would have a new and utterly
unscrupulous enemy to deal with. Foreseeing that an emergency
was about to occur in which a skilful scoundrel might be of great
assistance to him, he gave Roldan the command of two ships, and
sent him to ascertain what Ojeda intended to do. The wily Roldan
anchored just out of sight of Ojeda’s fleet, while the latter, with fifteen
men only, was on shore. Landing with a strong force, and placing
himself between Ojeda and his ships, he waited for the latter to meet
him and explain matters.
Ojeda soon appeared, and was delighted to see a gentleman of
whom he had heard such favorable reports. He said he was on his
way to San Domingo, and had merely landed for supplies. He had
been authorized to make discoveries by Fonseca, the Secretary of
Indian Affairs, and his expedition had been fitted out with the
assistance of Amerigo Vespucci and other enterprising merchants.
He had been cruising in the Gulf of Paria, and had his ships loaded
with slaves. As soon as he could he intended to visit Columbus, who,
he regretted to say, was probably the most unpopular man in Spain,
and would soon be removed from his command. Roldan returned to
San Domingo with this information, and both he and the Admiral
agreed that they did not believe anything that Ojeda had said.
Meanwhile Ojeda, having met with many of Roldan’s former
adherents, who still lingered in Xaragua, was informed by them that
Columbus had not given them their back pay. Ojeda said that such
injustice made his blood boil, and that if they would join him he would
march to San Domingo and put an end to the base Italian tyrant. The
new rebellion was prevented by the arrival of Roldan with a
respectable array of troops, and Ojeda promptly went on board his
flag-ship. Roldan wrote to him asking for an interview, and reminding
him that rebellion was a crime which every good man ought to abhor.
Ojeda, replied that such was precisely his opinion, and he must
refuse to have anything to do with a man who had lately been a
rebel.
Soon afterward Ojeda sailed away in a northerly direction,
keeping near the shore, and Roldan marched along the coast to
intercept him in case he should land. Arriving at a place called by the
natives Cahay, Ojeda sent a boat ashore, which was captured by
Roldan, and in order to regain it he was finally forced to consent to
parley with his antagonist. The result was that Ojeda promised to sail
immediately for Spain. Having made this promise he naturally landed
soon after on another part of the island, but being followed by
Roldan he finally abandoned Hispaniola and sailed for Cadiz with his
cargo of slaves.
The Admiral was greatly pleased at this signal illustration of the
wisdom of the proverb about setting a rogue to catch a rogue, and
writing Roldan a complimentary letter, requested him to remain for a
little while in Xaragua.
While Ojeda’s ships were at Xaragua, Columbus had passed
sentence of banishment on Hernando de Guevara, a dissolute young
Spaniard, and sent him to embark on board one of Ojeda’s vessels.
He arrived at Xaragua after the ships had left, and Roldan ordered
him to go into banishment at Cahay. Guevara, however, had fallen in
love with an Indian maid, the daughter of Anacaona, and wanted to
remain in Xaragua and marry her. Roldan would not listen to him,
and the unhappy youth went to Cahay, where he stayed three days
and then returned. There was a spirited quarrel between him and
Roldan, and the latter finally yielded and allowed Guevara to remain.
The grateful young man immediately conspired against Roldan
and the Admiral. He had a cousin, De Mexica, a former associate of
Roldan’s in rebellion, who immediately took up the cause of the
exile. De Mexica soon convinced his ex-rebel friends that the
spectacle of Roldan, as an upright, law-abiding man, was simply
revolting, and that he and Columbus ought to be killed. He had
gathered a small force together, when he and his chief associates
were suddenly surprised by the Admiral, arrested, tried, and hanged
before they had time to realize that anything was the matter.
Don Bartholomew was dispatched to Xaragua to aid Roldan, and
the two, after arresting Guevara, stamped out the new rebellion with
remorseless energy. This time there was no compromise, and a
suspicion began to prevail that rebellion was not so safe and
profitable an industry as it had been hitherto.
CHAPTER XVI.
HIS RETURN IN DISGRACE.
[Æt. 64; 1500]
ON the 23d of August, 1500, two ships arrived at San Domingo,

commanded by Don Francisco de Bobadilla, who had been sent out
by the Spanish monarchs as a commissioner to investigate the state
of the colony. The enemies of Columbus had at last succeeded in
prejudicing Ferdinand and Isabella against him. Ojeda, the returned
colonists, Roldan’s rebels, and the letters of Roldan himself, all
agreed in representing the Admiral as a new kind of fiend, with
Italian improvements, for whom no punishment could be sufficiently
severe.
Ferdinand calculated the total amount of gold which Columbus
had either carried or sent to Spain, and, finding it smaller than he
had expected, could no longer conceal his conviction that Columbus
was a cruel, tyrannical, and wicked man. Isabella had hitherto
believed in the Admiral, and had steadily stood by him while under
fire, but in face of the evidence which had latterly been submitted to
her, and in view of the cargo of slaves that had been sent from
Hispaniola to Spain in spite of her orders, she was compelled to
admit that an investigation should be made, and sanctioned the
appointment of Bobadilla, with the understanding that he would let
no guilty man escape.
The average historian is always very indignant with the
monarchs for sending Bobadilla to San Domingo, and regards that
act as a wanton persecution of a great and good man. But the cold
and sceptical inquirer will ask how it happened that every person
who came under the Admiral’s authority, with the exception of his two
brothers, invariably made complaints against him. It is true that the

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Methods of Fundamental Solutions in

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Mechanics of Materials in Modern Manufacturing Methods

Molecular Characterization of Polymers A Fundamental

Instructor’s Solutions Manual to Solid State Electronic

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Discrete Contact Mechanics with Applications in

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AEM Analog equation method

Overview of meshless methods

1.1 Why we need meshless methods

Methods of Fundamental Solutions in Solid Mechanics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818283-3.00001-4

can be used to explain natural phenomena or to design and develop new

because of the element-wise continuous nature of the displacement field

FIGURE 1.1 FEM and meshless discretization in a 2D domain.

1.2 Review of meshless methods

1.3 Basic ideas of the method of fundamental solutions

1.3.1 Weighted residual method

FIGURE 1.2 Schematic of boundary value problem.

In practice, the approximation function given in Eq. (1.3) cannot exactly

Rb1 ðxÞ ¼ uh ðxÞ u; x ˛ G1

1.3.2 Method of fundamental solutions

FIGURE 1.3 Collocations in the MFS.

Eq. (1.28) can be rewritten in matrix form as

1.4 Application to the two-dimensional Laplace problem

1.4.1 Problem description

The MFS employs the fundamental solution of a problem to approximate

1.4.2 MFS formulation

Then, the outward normal derivative of u on G2 can be expressed as

where nx and ny are components of the outward normal vector n, and

where N1 and N2 are the number of collocations on G1 and G2, respectively,

1.4.3 Program structure and source code

l Solve the resulting matrix equation for the approximating coefficients.

1.4.3.1 Input data

1.4.3.2 Computation of coefficient matrix

1.4.3.3 Solving the resulting system of linear equations

1.4.3.4 Source code

FIGURE 1.9 Flowchart of the program of MFS_2DLaplace.m for solving two-dimensional

% Main program to solve 2D Laplace problem using the MFS

% **** Laplace equation:

% ** Form the coefﬁcient matrix H

[Æt. 59; 1495]

MARGARITE and Father Boyle, as has been mentioned, had

The returned colonists told dismal stories of their sufferings, but

Columbus was promised eight ships for a third exploring

While waiting for the expedition to be made ready, Columbus

[Æt. 62; 1498]

THE perseverance of Columbus triumphed over all obstacles.

The colonists, both old and new, were of course always

[Æt. 64; 1500]

ON the 23d of August, 1500, two ships arrived at San Domingo,