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(Geography Model Answer)
UPSC Mains - English Medium

Indian Geography
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Theme: DRAINAGE & WATER MGMT
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By Sudarshan Gurjar
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

Indian Geography Theme:DRAINAGE & WATER MGMT
Q1. What are the environmental implications of the reclamation of water bodies
into urban land use? Explain with examples
2021
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks
Land reclamation means creating land either by removing water from muddy
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areas or raising the level of the land. Reclaimed land is most commonly found in
coastal cities to increase housing capacity and build ports. In more arid regions,
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unusable land is reclaimed to promote local agriculture and improve irrigation.
Their are serious consequences of reclamation of water bodies especially for
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urban land use -
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1. Changing face of India’s water bodies - Water bodies are being lost or
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altered because of the disruption of natural processes by intensification of
agriculture, urbanisation, and construction of dams. Creation of
restaurants and other commercial building is hampering the ecology of
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water bodies.
Ex - Dal Lake of Srinagar, Heavy exploitation of vegetation around Ansupa
lake, Orissa
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2. Encroachment - This is another major threat to urban water bodies. As

more people have been migrating to cities, availability of land has been
getting scarce.
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Ex - Charkop Lake in Maharashtra, Ousteri Lake in Puducherry, Deepor

beel in Guwahati are well-known examples of water bodies that were
encroached. Another interesting example of encroachment and pollution,
not by some private builder but the government itself, is Pallikarni
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marshland in Chennai.
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3. Increased Flooding - There has been large scale encroachments on the

natural drains and the river flood plains. Consequently, the capacity of
natural drains has decreased, resulting in flooding.
Ex - Mumbai’s present configuration has resulted from several projects of
reclamation of the sea and its inlets. It was achieved by distortion of
surface drainage, filling up of water bodies and marshes.
Encroachment of waterbodies has been identified as a major cause of
flash floods in Mumbai (2005), Uttarakhand (2013), Jammu and Kashmir

(2014) and Chennai (2015).
4. Effect on Biodiversity - Land reclamation of Hussain Sagar Lake in

Telangana, have increased the BOD to 116 mg/l. Guwahati’s Deepor beel, is
used by the municipal corporation to dump solid waste.
These are detrimental for aquatic as well as avian species.
5. Environmental Hazards - Water reclamation for urban land use and be

susceptible to land subsidence and earthquakes due to soil liquefaction
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and soil compaction.
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Urban expansion has swallowed a significant proportion of water bodies is the
country and is leaving an irreversible impact of them and the ecology. Moreover,
the quality of water is also deteriorating at an alarming rate. There is an ur-gent
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need to protect and preserve, the water bodies for future generations. These
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water bodies are precious because they are not only tourist attractions but they
also act as lifeline to the cities as they provide livelihood to a large population,
directly or indirectly
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India is urbanising at a phenomenal rate. This can only be sustained with its
water bodies. In order to achieve the goal of revival of waterbodies, it is
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important to take steps like conservation, waste water treatment, reduced
anthropogenic steps, etc. Depending on the purpose, ecological services,
livelihood and socio-cultural practices, the approach will vary from one
waterbody to another.
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2. The effective management of land and water resources will drastically reduce
the human miseries. Explain.
2016 12.5 marks
Land and water resources are central to the sustainable development of any
economy. It is important to note that since land and water-related ecosystems
are dynamic and interconnected, their carrying capacity also varies with the
other interventions we implicate on them.
Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population of various species that can
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be handled by an ecosystem without permanent degradation. According to UN,
at the present levels of consumption, Earth’s carrying capacity for humans is
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estimated to be 8 billion, which implies that humans have already exceeded the
maximum population that the planet can hold.
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Human miseries are related to ineffective management of land and water
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resources.
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How effective land management can control this -
1. Food insecurity - Diversion of agricultural land leads to displacement and
thus causes food security issues. A study indicates that investing in
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sustainable land management technologies and becoming agricultural
land degradation-neutral by 2030 would help countries reduce the poverty
gap to zero, increase the total per capita domestic food crop production to
and result in economic growth and expansion in the agricultural sector.
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2. Innovative land Acquisition - this can be used as a tool for protecting

sensitive areas by involving community leadership. India’s urban
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development seems to be becoming increasingly reliant on non-coercive

land pooling mechanisms.
For example, the Delhi Development Authority (DDA) introduced a land
pooling scheme for developing specific parts of Delhi in 2018.
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3. Cooperative Farming - Pooling of agricultural land would not only help

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farmers to reduce their cost of production but also reduce miseries of

small and marginal farmers by increasing their bargaining powers.
4. Reduced environmental degradation - When farmers and landowners take

proper care of their land via sustainable practices, it reduces soil erosion,
prevents deforestation, and conserves natural habitats. It leads to a
positive ripple effect in the surrounding ecosystems, improving water
quality, reducing air pollution, and enhancing biodiversity.

5. Conservation of Tribes - These are often confronted with forced eviction
and other threats that affect their livelihood as well as the ecosystems
they helped preserve for so long. Effective implementation of legislations
guaranteeing tribal rights (such as India’s Forest Rights Act) will eliminate
the misery of the tribals.
6. Anthropogenic climate change - Increased se levels causing submersion

of coastal land, urban flooding, subsidence and other environmental
hazards that cause destruction of life and property can be controlled by
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effective management of land.
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How effective water management can reduce human misery -
1. Management of wastewater - Constructed wetlands, sludge or waste
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stabilization ponds (WSP) and up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket and soil
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aquifer treatment can reduce water availability issues.
Constructed wetland has been implemented successfully in
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semi-arid-tropic Kothapally village of Telangana while East Kolkata
wetlands are time-tested for waste stabilisation ponds which also promote
pisciculture.
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2. Inter linking of rivers - This can be used to transfer water from areas with
surplus to areas of deficit.
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3. Holistic management - Mapping of aquifers of ground and surface waters

can solve the water availability issues of urban areas. Recycling will also
reduce per capita need for water.
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4. Irrigation water management - Efficient crop planning and steps like crop
rotation, drip irrigation, proper tillage can not only conserve water but also
retain soil fertility and lead to effective land management.
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5. Collaborative action - It is one of the leading principles of Integrated Urban

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Water Management . It focuses on a collaborative approach involving all

stakeholders. While effective legislation will help guide local authorities,
engaging local communities will lead to faster solutions in water
management.
Sustainable land and water management are vital for achieving various
environmental, social, and economic goals. As the latest report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change says, land “provides the principal

basis for human livelihoods and well-being, including the supply of food,
freshwater and multiple other ecosystem services, as well as biodiversity.”
Sustainable development goals that set the agenda for 2015-2030 stress upon
issues of land and water management.
According to FAO “ Land and water institutions have not kept pace with the
growing intensity of agricultural development and the increasing degree of
interdependence and competition over land and water resources. Much more
adaptable and collaborative institutions are needed to respond effectively to
natural resource scarcity and market opportunities”
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3. The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional
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inter-related problems of droughts, floods and interrupted navigation. Critically
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examine. 2020
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River linking is a project of linking two or more rivers by creating a network of
manually created reservoirs and canals, and providing land areas that otherwise
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do not have river water access and reducing the flow of water to sea using this
means. It is based on the assumptions that surplus water in some rivers can be
diverted to deficit rivers by creating a network of canals to interconnect the
rivers.
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The summer monsoon accounts for more than 85% of the precipitation. The
uncertainty of rainfall marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations is a
serious problem India. Large parts of Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
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Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are not only in
deficit in rainfall but also subject to large variations, resulting in frequent
droughts and causing immense hardship to the population. On the other hand,
excess rainfall occurring in some parts of the country creates havoc due to
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floods.
Perennial rivers of Himalayas provide surplus water to the Northern region of
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India whereas Western and Southern India witness drought as they largely
depend on rivers fed by seasonal rainfall.
Interlinking of rivers in India has thus been proposed by the Union government
as the primary solution to its water woes.

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Benefits of Interlinking of Rivers -
1. Reduce Floods -
The Ganga Basin, Brahmaputra basin sees floods almost every year. In
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order to avoid this, the water from these areas has to be diverted to other
areas where there is scarcity of water. This can be achieved by linking the
rivers. There is a two way advantage with this – floods will be controlled
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and scarcity of water will be reduced.
2. Generation of Electricity -
With new canals built, feasibility of new dams to generate hydroelectric
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power becomes a possibility. The river linking project claims to generate

34 GW of total power.
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3. Better Navigational Channels -

As it will address the low levels of water in southern rivers, newly created
network of canals will open up new routes and ways of water navigation,
which is generally more efficient and cheaper compared to road transport.
15,000 km of river and 10,000 km of navigation will be developed, thereby
reducing the transportation cost.
It would also provide 1120 cumec to Calcutta Port thus providing
navigation facilities across the country.

4. Tackling the Drought Issue -
Surplus flows that will become available on account of inter-linking of the
Ganga and the Yamuna are proposed to be transferred to the drought
prone areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
5. Employment -
The interlinking of Himalayan rivers will will irrigate about 87 million acres
of farmland thus providing employment to farmers.
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The peninsular scheme is envisaged to provide additional irrigation
benefits of over 13 million ha.
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Addition to this, it will generate a path for aquatic ecosystems to migrate
which would create livelihood scenarios in fishing industry.
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Concerns with Interlining of Rivers -
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1. Massive Displacement -
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Since the Ganga basin’s topography is flat, building dams and transferring
enormous amounts of water will inundate forests and land for reservoirs,
and the weight of billions of litres of water may even have seismic
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implications in the Himalayan region.
Thus a considerable population living in these areas will have to be
rehabilitated to new areas.
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2. Federal Issue -
Water being a state subject in India, building consensus among states and
land acquisitions can create dissent among state governments.
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India has already been facing multiple such water disputes and thus has a
provision under The Interstate River Water Disputes Act, 1956 under
Article 262.
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3. Disputes with Neighboring countries -

Because of floods, erosion and seismic events rivers keep changing their
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course. The Teesta used to flow into the Ganga, but due to an earthquake
now joins the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. Thus the project would also
require India to enter into agreements with Nepal and Bangladesh, as
these countries share the basins of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river
systems. Where both these countries are apprehensive as they fear such
projects will directly threaten the livelihoods of people in their country as
well as its environment.

4. High Environmental cost -
The interlining of rivers will not only create ecological imbalance like
formation of deltas and mangroves but also threaten the diversity and
general health of the species thriving in them.
Big dams, canals, and reservoirs which will be constructed will lead to
submergence of the surroundings. Lands will also become swampy and
will not be suitable for agriculture.
For example, one of the reasons why the Ken-Betwa link, which is now
receiving priority attention, has been stuck for several years is because it
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requires environmental clearance for diverting 5,500 hectares from the
Panna National Park, a tiger reserve.
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5. Economic Burden -
As per Geological Survey of India, this project requires massive cost. It was
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estimated that the cost of this project in 2001 was Rs 5,60,000 crore but in
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reality, there is a possibility that it will be more.
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Given the concerns and the massive investment required, perhaps the
government would do well to consider other interventions, both on the
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supply side and the demand side, such as conservation of water resources
and more efficient irrigation and agricultural practices, etc., to deal with
India’s looming water crisis.
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Q4. Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological,
economic and political implications in the context of changing bilateral relations.
2016 12.5 marks
The Indus Water Treaty is a bilateral water-sharing agreement signed between

India and Pakistan in 1960. It governs the use of the Indus River and its
tributaries, which are crucial water sources for both countries.
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Under the terms of the treaty, the Indus River and its tributaries are divided into
three Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej), which are allocated to India for
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unrestricted use, and three Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab), which
are allocated to Pakistan for unrestricted use, with some exceptions. The treaty
also establishes a mechanism for resolving disputes and provides for
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cooperation between the two countries on developing hydroelectric power and
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implementing irrigation projects.
This treaty was brokered by The World Bank.
Ecological Implications -
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1. According to the treaty, India received approximately 16% of the total
water of the Indus system, while Pakistan received 84%.
2. In June 2015 NASA ranked the Indus basin as the world’s second most
over-stressed aquifer. It said depleting groundwater in the Indus basin
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could worsen the water crisis in the subcontinent.

3. The treaty's storage capacity for establishing hydropower stations is much
less than the total annual silt that could fulfil the total hydro potential.
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Thus in order to keep its reservoirs operational, Jammu and Kashmir had
to resort to expensive de-silting.
4. Diverting channels of water as large as the Indus river basin could
potentially destroy the entire western region of Asia by flooding the Indian
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side and causing desertification in the Pakistani side.

5. Ecological dynamics in the region are also changing. Ecologists have
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identified that communities have been shifting to higher altitudes by a

certain amount every year. The huge hydroelectric projects are also
adversely affecting floodplains and riparian ecosystems of the region.

Economic Implications -
1. Agriculture, which is heavily dependent on the Indus system and uses a

preponderant amount of the countries’ freshwater resources, is an
economic bulwark for both nations, employing close to half their
workforces while also promoting important sectors like manufacturing.
South Asia as a region is particularly susceptible to global climate change,
whose effects could cost both economies billions
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2. IWT has enhanced opportunities in irrigation and other development
sectors
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3. Hydropower projects like Shahpurkandi Project for providing electricity to
Punjab and J&K, Ujh Multipurpose project to resolve shortage of water in
Ujh and other such economic projects are proving beneficial for India.
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Political Implications -
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Recently problems between India and Pakistan has been rising. After the
terrorist attacks in Uri, Jammu & Kashmir, emotions in India are running red.
According to reports India was forced to issue a notice to amned the Indus
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Water Treaty as Pakistan’s actions had “adversely impinged” on the provisions of
the treaty and their implementation.
In the recent review of the treaty between the two countries, Indian PM
Narendra Modi has been quoted as saying, “Blood and water can’t run at the
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same time.”
1. India can leverage the treaty to put diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to

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eradicate tourism.
2. But India can’t back down from the treaty because of the 1969 Vienna
Convention. It will also tarnish its image with other neighboring countries
which might become skeptical about similar treaties with them.
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3. Some experts on international affairs think that India should safeguard

bilateral treaties if it is aspiring for a permanent seat in the UNSC.
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4. Another angle is that of China. China, with its support to Pakistan, may
block the water from the Brahmaputra to Assam. It can also stop the
waters of the Indus which originate in Chinese territory.
The role of India, as a responsible upper riparian abiding by the provisions of the
treaty, has been remarkable but the country is under pressure to rethink the
extent to which it can remain committed to the provisions, as its overall political
relations with Pakistan becomes intractable. IWT is frequently cited as an

example of the peaceful coexistence possibilities that exist despite the troubled
relationship between the two neighbouring countries.
Q5. Enumerate the problems and prospects of inland water transport in India.
2016 12.5 marks
The inland water transport is a cheap, fuel-efficient, environment-friendly mode

with a higher employment generation potential and is suitable for heavy and
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bulky goods. But, the share of inland water transport in total transport in India is
only around 1 per cent.
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In India, 14,500 km of river channels are navigable. Along these Major Indian
waterways are constructed – NW1: Allahabad–Haldia
(Ganges–Bhagirathi–Hooghly river), NW2: Sadiya–Dhubri (River Brahmaputra);
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NW3: Kollam-Kozhikode (West coast canal); NW4: Kakinada–Pondicherry (River
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Krishna, R. Godavari).
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The reason behind low prospects of inland water ways are -
1. Availability of year-round depth for vessel navigation - The water levels in

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Indian rivers do not remain constant throughout the year. Almost all the
rivers in India get flooded during the monsoon. This leads to high levels of
sedimentation and requires dredging. While, during summers, the inland
waterways dry up.
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Ex - Bhagirathi-Hooghly and in the Buckingham Canal.
2. Standardization of inland waterway governance framework - Major

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National Waterway routes may cross multiple states. Like NW 1,

Allahabad-Haldia stretch of Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River system,
which is a major waterway in India. It crosses through four states, and not
all these states have identical inland waterways governance framework.
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Multiplicity of regulations and additional paperwork make it less attractive

for the big industries to move their goods through inland waterways.
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3. Operational Viability Cost - IWT is a capital-intensive industry. Significant

investment is required in vessels. Providing and maintaining the waterway
and terminals requires even higher investment. Operating costs can
involve vehicle costs, fuel costs, crew costs, maintenance costs, and
loading/unloading costs. This discourages their use.
4. Absence of SEZs and storage facilities along the waterways - At present,

the production and warehouse infrastructure in India is configured to take

the advantages of rail, road, and seaport infrastructure. To make the inland
waterways attractive to the industry, the government needs to become
more flexible with project clearances near the riverbeds. A right balance
between economic benefits and ecological impact must be sought.
5. Geographical constraints - There are problems in smooth navigation

because of waterfalls and cataracts, as in Narmada and Tapti.
6. Availability of Vessels and Associated Infrastructure - Private operators
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have a substantial fleet but have of late been scrapping vessels.
Governmental help may be required to encourage them to invest in fleet
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maintenance and growth. The role of government-owned shipyards is
important in this domain, including the Rajabagan Dock Yard in Kolkata
owned and operated by the Central Inland Water Transport Corporation.
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7. Environmental Impact - Dredging can damage river beds thus affecting
aquatic flora and fauna.
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Construction of river ports will lead to destruction of mangroves in the
area. This happened at Damodar Port at NW1O for construction of a jetty.
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8. Political challenges - Inter linking of rivers is a major issue which is yet to
materialize.
Policy Recommendations and Conclusion -

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The potential of inland water transport is sufficient to justify a national body

such as the Inland Waterways Authority of India with a sharp role in nurturing
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the sector, but its sustenance needs to be judged contextually for each
waterway or waterway system.
● Streamlining of this sector as recommended by NITI Aayog
● Adjustable subsidies on movements by IWT would be a better way to build
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traffic.
● Government should invest on new canal systems such as Narmada Canal.
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● IWAI needs to initiate a revenue model based on a combination of usage

fees, cess and explicit subsidy needs. The local revenue model in Goa
offers an example.
● In policy formulation and implementation, the following stakeholders
should also be taken along - barge operators, shippers, Bangladesh
operators, and state governments.
As per National Transport development policy committee every Rs 1 lac

investment would generate 33.6 person years of employment. Thus more

government initiatives like Sagarmala, Eastern and Western Dedicated Freight
Corridors, Jal Marg Vikas Project and a Maritime Development Fund can
holistically improve the potentials of Inland Waterways Transport of India.
Q6.In what way micro-watershed Development projects help in water

conservation in drought prone and semi-arid regions of India.
2016 12.5 marks
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India's water availability in the future is predicted to be bleak if proper steps are
not undertaken to deal with the management of the available water resources in
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the country. The report titled 'Watershed development in India - An approach
evolving through experience' by the World Bank, argues that according to
recent estimates, the rising demand for water along with further increase in
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population and economic growth can result in about half the demand for water
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in the country being unmet by 2030.
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MIcro watershed can be considered as one of the best programs in conservation
of drought prone and semi arid regions of India in terms of immediate and
targeted effects,
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Semi-arid regions receive very less rainfall annually and are affected by
deforestation and desertification. Such projects can prevent unwanted
evaporation by increasing the biomass components of the area.
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The strategies through which this can be achieved are -
1. Restoring natural resources of water collection like lakes and ponds.

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2. Building infrastructure like tanks, artificial ponds, check dams, etc to store
the rainwater and increase the moisture level of the soil.
● A similar micro watershed project in Maharashtra has put a stop to
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what was earlier an annual ritual of deserting the drought-prone

villages of Marathwada.
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● Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and

Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up
constructions of various water-harvesting structures such as
percolation tanks, dug out ponds (Jihad), check dams, etc., through
people’s participation
3. Improving water use efficiency of agriculture through rain water

harvesting, drip irrigation and sprinkle irrigation.

● In Beed district of Maharashtra, micro-watershed projects have
effectively utilised rainwater resulting in an increased yield of kharif
crops.
4. Preventing soil erosion, planting trees in the wastelands, groundwater

reaching and conservation of soil moisture.
5. The inclusion, empowerment and mainstreaming of women, the poor and

vulnerable groups into the decision-making processes has been found to
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be crucial for the sustainability of such project.
● A similar project was taken up in Srikakulam District of Andhra
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Pradesh where participatory approach lead to restoration of natural
resources and agriculture.
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Micro Watershed Development can help with -
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1. Moisture conservation measures like the contour bunds to resist the
runoff flowing down the slope by an embankment and the overall land
development.
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2. Block plantations, horticultural development program will increase the
green cover of the region as well as enhance the groundwater recharge
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rate.
3. Help to hold the sloping land into different parts of the level to enable
cultivation.
4. Lead to restoration and the improvement of common property.
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5. Improve quality of life by the increased availability of water in drought

prone areas thus improving standard of living.
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Micro Watershed Development projects can result in phenomenal success in

regions like Vidarbha, Bundelkhand and Rajasthan. It aims for collection and
judicious use of groundwater and surface water to conserve the ecology of the
place along with overall economic development and improvement of the
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socio-economic conditions of the people living in drought prone and semi arid
regions of India.
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7.India is well endowed with fresh water resources. Critically examine why it still
suffers from water scarcity. 2015 12.5
marks
India has 18% of the world’s population but only 4% of its water resources,
making it amongst the most water stressed in the world. Surface water,
subterranean river flow, groundwater and frozen water are all-natural freshwater
sources in the country. But due to illegitimate use, unregulated management
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and changing monsoon patterns, India is suffering from water scarcity.
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1. Pollution - More than half of the rivers in India are highly polluted with
numerous others at levels considered unsafe by modern standards. The
waters of the Yamuna and Ganga flow the dirtiest with a deadly mix of
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pollutants both hazardous and organic.
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Aside from commonplace industrial pollution and waste, India’s rivers are
open use across much of the country. From dumping human waste to
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bathing and to washing clothes, the human element contributes to the
epidemic of health related concerns.
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2. Monsoon patterns - India receives an average rainfall of about 1170 mm
which corresponds to an annual precipitation of about 4000 BCM (Billion
Cubic Metre) including snowfall. But with increasing global warming and
unchecked deforestation, India has been seeing weakened monsoon
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circulations. This affects replenishment of reservoirs, rivers as well as

groundwater.
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3. Unequal distribution - Most of the rainfall that is received in India is

distributed over a specific time and area. The level of water table rises
during rainfall months but then decreases when there is no rainfall.
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4. Inefficient irrigation - Indiscriminate use of water for irrigation and

absence of conservation efforts have left over 10% of water bodies in rural
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areas redundant. Over-exploitation of groundwater has lowered the water

table, leading to conflict between the demands from industry, agriculture
and domestic sector.
5. Encroachment of Water Bodies - Provisional data from the country’s first

census of water bodies shows that 2% of them have been encroached. The
number is likely to be much higher as figures from states like UP,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP and Rajasthan are still not in.

6. Unregulated Concretization - The concretization in urban areas not only
prevents surface storage and groundwater recharge but also causes
disasters like floods. Guwahati’s Deepor Beel, for example, is used by the
municipal corporation to dump solid waste.
7. Lack of R3 - Low emphasis on reduction in usage, recycling and treatment

and reuse along with dumping of municipal and industrial waste in water
bodies has led to reduction in input to water sources. The water
harvesting and reuse technology is still a luxury in India. The people in
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rural and small towns face hardship for purchase, use, and repair because
of less motivation among both public officials and general public for use of
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these equipment.
Look to the Future -
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It may seem a foregone conclusion that the water will soon enough dry up and
along with it India as a whole. That need not be the case.
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There are even bright spots in the current environment. The Rivers
Narmada and Chamabal run clean with water fit for consumption. Several
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projects are currently underway that aim to move water to areas that need
it the most.
But it will take a long-term commitment of the Indian government not
previously shown and the heavy assistance of outside resources.
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● Common sense practices and training will also aid in reducing the damage
done to groundwater sources. Teaching farmers updated irrigation
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techniques, such as drip irrigation, and utilizing more rainwater harvesting

are small, effective steps in stemming the loss of freshwater sources.
Hiware Bazar Model like replication where villages very well manage the
300-400 millimeters (mm) of rainfall that they receive every year.
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● India will also need modern sanitation policies that both conserve and
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wisely utilize water sources. Recognizing physical and economic growth

directly ties to the amount of safe, usable water is another step in right
direction.
The Government needs to holistically handle the supply as well as the demand
side of water management. Citizen centric approach, awareness through NGOs
and companies might reverse the crisis of this magnitude. However daunting,

the goals are not unattainable. India is still a developing society, and there is
time to reverse the crisis that has been decades in the making.
Q8. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are
reaching the limits of their ecological carrying capacity due to tourism. Critically
evaluate.
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(2015) 12.5 marks
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Carrying capacity refers to the amount of natural resources that can be drawn
from the environment and the amount of pollutants that can be discharged into
it without causing a breakdown of the system. Once damaged and destroyed
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beyond repair it cannot be restored to its original, usable and harmless state.
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Tourism has emerged as a key driver of economic growth. It is one of the fastest
infrastructure, investment and social inclusion.

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growing economic sectors with significant impacts on trade, job, recreation,
The North Indian Himalayan region comprising Jammu Kashmir, Himachal

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Pradesh and Uttarakhand attracts a large number of tourists because of its rich
biodiversity, glaciers, water resources and cultural diversity.
Adverse impacts of Tourism -

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1. Due to High degree of biodiversity and environmental sensitivity of

mountain regions they are more prone to destruction on local as well as
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global scales. Tourism creates a pressure on local resources.

2. Higher density of native and floating populations in a small area has
impacts like more generation of solid waste, ambient air pollution, water
pollution and deforestation.
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3. Excessive tourism leads to infrastructure development. The pristine

Himalayan region has been overburdened with forest clearances, road
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building and infrastructure constructions. Rivers beds have been

encroached upon and rivers polluted by waste disposal.
4. Jammu Kashmir witnessed major floods in 2014 in which encroachment of
natural water-bodies was a major factor. The Dal Lake has shrunk to half of
its original size due to tourism oriented construction
5. Himachal Pradesh witnesses kilometers long traffic jams along
Manali-Rohtang Pass route. The glaciers around the region have receded
due to deposition of black carbon from vehicle exhaust. ]

6. In Uttarakhand, religious tourism led to unregulated construction of hotels
alongside rivers which led to increased casualties during the floods of
2013.
But tourism is also an important source of income and livelihood for people
living in these states. The World Travel and Tourism Council's 2019 report ranks
India's tourism at 10th in terms of its contribution to World GDP. Thus ensuring
that these activities take place in a sustainable manner, from the grassroots to
the top levels, is not a difficult but certainly a challenging task. Over the last
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year, the Union government has laid emphasis on promoting sustainable tourism
in the Himalayan region.
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Steps to be taken to promote sustainable tourism activities -
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1. One way to reduce the threats of excessive tourism is by inculcating a
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spirit of conservation. Regional disparities can be minimised by promoting
ecotourism, alternative or green tourism. This includes decentralisation of
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tourism activities based on the available resources in any place.
2. Assessing carrying capacity prior to development works would go a long
way in reducing pressure on the environment, decreasing pollution,
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maintaining the pristine ecology and improving the quality of life of both
residents and visitors.
3. Studies by the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment,
indicates that in the hill spots, biodegradable solid waste comprises
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65-80% of the total waste, while non-biodegradable waste largely prevails

in trekking and expedition summits.To control this, hill spots can practice
microbial biocomposting, the best way of natural disintegration and
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decomposition of waste under aerobic process, with biodegradable waste

under controlled conditions,
4. Involving communities, visitors and other stakeholders by inculcating
good practices to be adopted while traveling through these areas and
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using its facilities and resources.

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To ensure the preservation of ecology of these areas, government should focus

on promotion of environmental, economic and socio-cultural sustainability,
protection of biodiversity, capacity-building and governance among other
aspects.
In June 2022, the Union Ministry of Tourism launched the National Strategy for
Sustainable Tourism and Responsible Traveller Campaign in a summit organized
in partnership with UNEP and the Responsible Tourism Society of India.
In July, guidelines released for Swadesh Darshan 2.0, a centrally sponsored
scheme for development of theme-based tourist circuits in the country, included

a vision to set up sustainable and responsible tourism in various projects and
initiatives in the Himalayan region.
More such steps in the right direction can not only diversify the tourist industry
but also conserve communities and resources of the Himalayan region.
9.. What is water stress? How and why does it differ regionally in India?
2019
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Water stress occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount
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during a certain period or when poor quality restricts its use. Water stress causes
deterioration of fresh water resources in terms of quantity (aquifer over
exploitation, dry rivers, etc.) and quality (eutrophication, organic matter
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pollution, saline intrusion).
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According to NITI Aayog, India has 18 percent of the world's population, but only
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4 percent of its water resources, making it among the most water-stressed in
the world.
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Water scarcity is often divided into two categories -
1. physical scarcity, when there is a shortage of water because of local
ecological conditions
2. economic scarcity, when there is inadequate water infrastructure.
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Why water stress differs regionally in India -

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1. Vast diverse Geography -

In Maharashtra, India’s third-largest state, the government estimated last
year that more than 19,000 villages had no access to water. And India is
again facing the threat of a drought this year, with monsoon rains
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expected to be weaker than average. Areas like Vidarbha and Marathwada

lie on the leeward side of the western ghats as well.
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2. Water Management Practices -

Eastern and North eastern regions of India including states of Assam,
West Bengal, and Odisha, experience high levels of rainfall, but still face
challenges due to inefficient water management practices, lack of proper
storage facilities, and inadequate distribution systems.
3. Climatic Patterns and Topography -

In Rajasthan, the scarcity of water is due to the arid climate and low
rainfall while southern state of Kerala receives one of the highest levels of
rainfall in the country, however, its undulating terrain drains most of the
rainwater into the sea. Rapid growth of built-up areas across the state has
led to depleting water sources.
4. Agricultural Patterns -
The northern region of India, including the states of Punjab, Haryana, and
Uttar Pradesh, are primarily agricultural areas that rely heavily on
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irrigation for farming. This has led to significant pressure on groundwater
resources, resulting in a high level of water stress in these regions.
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G
AN
SH
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How Water Stress varies across regions -

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1. Northern India / Himalayas -

The main source of water for these areas are the Himalayan rivers. But due
to global warming and changing climatic patterns, glaciers are melting at
an increasing rate. Increased urbanization, pollution due to tourism and
other anthropological activities and unplanned development is causing
stress on streams and rivers in an area which used to be a water ample
region.

2. South India - Erratic rainfall, pollution of rivers due to heavy development
activities, inadequate agricultural practices, over-dependence on
groundwater, and lack of conservation efforts are resulting in an acute
shortage of drinking water in many regions. Example: the recent water
crisis in Chennai.
3. Northeast: Despite being a region of high rainfall, received from both

orthographic and monsoon winds, NE is facing a water crisis due to
anthropogenic reasons such as mining, pollution and lack of water
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conservation strategies.
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4. Western India: Arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat face
water scarcity due to scanty rainfall and incorrect cropping patterns.
Uranium concentration in some wells in Rajasthan and Gujarat crossed the
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WHO permissible limit of uranium levels in groundwater.
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In regions of Maharashtra, the reason for the water crisis was incorrect
cropping patterns
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5. Coastal Plains - Rising sea level and overexploitation of groundwater are
leading to the ingress of saline water in the aquifers leading to water
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stress.
Way Forward -
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1. Sustainable water management

2. Revival of old traditional methods of water harvesting such as Johads,
wetlands, etc
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3. Recycling of wastewater like Chennai

4. Bringing in Municipal Services Improvement Projects like Punjab.
5. Better irrigation and flood management projects as launched by west
Bengal
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6. Better water resources monitoring system as deployed on the Indus,

Ganga, and Brahmaputra-Barak river basins.
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Steps By Central Government -
1. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) - The

Mission focuses on development of basic urban infrastructure in the
AMRUT cities, such as water supply, sewerage & septage management,
storm water drainage, green spaces & parks, and non-motorized urban
transport.

2. Atal Bhujal Yojana - To help improve groundwater management.
Implemented in 8,220 gram panchayats across seven Indian states, this is
the world’s largest community-led groundwater management program.
3. Jal Shakti Abhiyan - Launched in 2019 in 256 water stressed districts in the
country to improve water availability including ground water conditions in
these areas .It has special emphasis on creation of recharge structures,
rejuvenation of traditional water bodies, intensive afforestation etc.
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India was placed thirteenth among the world's 17 ‘extremely water-stressed’
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countries, according to the Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas released by the World
Resources Institute (WRI). Thus we need to come together as a community to
address this alarming situation. Proper governance, conservation efforts,
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controlled pollution, and increased investment in infrastructure to ensure a
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sustainable water supply for future is required.
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AN
SH
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10. In what way can flood be converted into a sustainable source of irrigation and
all-weather inland navigation in India? 2017
Water is necessary, both for sustainable human development and for the healthy
functioning of the planet’s ecosystem. Availability of freshwater globally
however, is limited. Although India has to support 16% of the world’s population
and 15% of livestock, we have only 4% of water resources. About 4000 km3 of
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precipitation in a year, comes as rainfall in a short monsoon period of three to
four months from June to September. The distribution of the water thus
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available is not uniform and is highly uneven in both space and time.
Floods are recurrent phenomena in India. Due to different climatic and rainfall
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patterns in different regions, it has been the experience that, while some parts
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are suffering devastating floods, another part is suffering drought at the same
time. The most affected regions due to floods in India include Kerala, Assam,
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West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, and
Gujarat
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But floods can be converted into a sustainable source of irrigation and
all-weather inland navigation in India through these ways -
1. Inter-basin transfer - Through this water is moved from a surplus area to a

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shortage area. India has been practicing the method for a long time.
Some of the examples in India are the Beas-Sutlej link project, Ken-Betwa
link project, Telugu Ganga Project, etc. It also helps in the development of
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inland navigation.
2. Construction of Barrages and Dams - Damodar Valley Corporation

reservoirs, the Bhakra-Nangal project, Hirakud dam, Nagarjuna Sagar
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project etc., have been constructed to increase food production, energy

generation, drinking-water supply, fisheries development, employment
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generation, flood moderation, etc. These large dams have played a

significant role in reducing damage by way of flood moderation.
3. River Management : Channelisation - Floods can be controlled by

redirecting excess water to purpose-built canals or floodways, which in
turn can divert the water to irrigation canals. Channelisation is an attempt
to alter the geometry of the river. This can be achieved by deepening and
widening the river. It will not only contain floods but also improve inland
waterways transport.

4. Construction of Temporary Wetland and Buffer Zones - Wetlands along
with acting as a carbon sink also play a key role in absorbing rainwater
thus controlling floods. They are the connectors of land and sea. When
water comes into the wetlands, it slows down and this process in itself
serves several purposes such as groundwater recharge and flood
buffering. Increase in the level of groundwater can improve irrigation in
such regions.
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5. Diversion of Flood Waters - This takes a part of the flood discharge to
another basin or to the same basin downstream of the problem area or to
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a depression. Using the process of Inundation or Diversion Irrigation large
quantity of water flowing in the river during the flood is allowed to flood
or inundate the land to be cultivated.
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Important schemes under execution or under planning are the
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supplementary drain in Delhi, the Damodar in the lower reaches in West
Bengal, the Thottapally in Kerala, the Kolleru lake diversion into the sea in
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Andhra Pradesh, the Kama-Pahari drain in Rajasthan and the Hulwaa drain
in Uttar Pradesh.
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6. Watershed Management - Watershed management measures include
undertaking structural works like check-dams, detention basins, diversion
channels, etc. This will increase infiltration of water and enhance ground
water recharge.
SH
India is a developing country which needs to take a balanced view of

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development. It has a long history of irrigation development and at the

same time its striving hard to reduce its logistics cost.
By adopting measures stated, India can not only improve the overall
management of water resources in the country but also alleviate the
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harshest impacts of it.

By involving various central and state departments, Flood Advisory Boards
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and employing flood forecasting networks, India can make irrigation more
predictable for its global agricultural powerhouse and harness the
potential of its inland waterways.


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(Geography Model Answer)

UPSC Mains - English Medium

👉 Join Telegram - https://telegram.me/Sudarshan_Unacademy

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

Their are serious consequences of reclamation of water bodies especially for

2. Encroachment - This is another major threat to urban water bodies. As

Ex - Charkop Lake in Maharashtra, Ousteri Lake in Puducherry, Deepor

3. Increased Flooding - There has been large scale encroachments on the

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

4. Effect on Biodiversity - Land reclamation of Hussain Sagar Lake in

5. Environmental Hazards - Water reclamation for urban land use and be

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

2. Innovative land Acquisition - this can be used as a tool for protecting

development seems to be becoming increasingly reliant on non-coercive

3. Cooperative Farming - Pooling of agricultural land would not only help

farmers to reduce their cost of production but also reduce miseries of

4. Reduced environmental degradation - When farmers and landowners take

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

6. Anthropogenic climate change - Increased se levels causing submersion

1. Management of wastewater - Constructed wetlands, sludge or waste

3. Holistic management - Mapping of aquifers of ground and surface waters

5. Collaborative action - It is one of the leading principles of Integrated Urban

Water Management . It focuses on a collaborative approach involving all

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

and scarcity of water will be reduced.

power becomes a possibility. The river linking project claims to generate

3. Better Navigational Channels -

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

3. Disputes with Neighboring countries -

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

The Indus Water Treaty is a bilateral water-sharing agreement signed between

could worsen the water crisis in the subcontinent.

side and causing desertiﬁcation in the Pakistani side.

identiﬁed that communities have been shifting to higher altitudes by a

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

1. Agriculture, which is heavily dependent on the Indus system and uses a

1. India can leverage the treaty to put diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to

3. Some experts on international affairs think that India should safeguard

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

The inland water transport is a cheap, fuel-efﬁcient, environment-friendly mode

1. Availability of year-round depth for vessel navigation - The water levels in

Ex - Bhagirathi-Hooghly and in the Buckingham Canal.

2. Standardization of inland waterway governance framework - Major

National Waterway routes may cross multiple states. Like NW 1,

Multiplicity of regulations and additional paperwork make it less attractive

3. Operational Viability Cost - IWT is a capital-intensive industry. Signiﬁcant

4. Absence of SEZs and storage facilities along the waterways - At present,

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

5. Geographical constraints - There are problems in smooth navigation

6. Availability of Vessels and Associated Infrastructure - Private operators

Policy Recommendations and Conclusion -

The potential of inland water transport is sufﬁcient to justify a national body

● IWAI needs to initiate a revenue model based on a combination of usage

As per National Transport development policy committee every Rs 1 lac

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /

Q6.In what way micro-watershed Development projects help in water

The strategies through which this can be achieved are -

1. Restoring natural resources of water collection like lakes and ponds.

what was earlier an annual ritual of deserting the drought-prone

● Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and

3. Improving water use efﬁciency of agriculture through rain water

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium /