PHILOSOFY OF PUBLIC POLICY

Theories, Models, & Approaches

Studying Public Policy

Dr. Budi Santosa, SE, M.Si, M.Phil

JAKARTA, 2023
 Models to Studying Public Policy

• These models look at how the policy process operates particularly who dominates the
process and who benefits most from it.
• There are several main versions:
1. Elite Theory (Policy as Elite Preference)
2. Group Theory (Policy as Equilibrium in the Group Struggle)
3. Corporatism (Policy as a Pattern of State-Group Relations)
4. Institutionalism (Policy as Institutional Output)
5. Political System (Policy as a Political System's Response to Demands)
6. Incrementalism (Policy as Variations on the Past)
7. Rational Choice (Policy as Maximum Social Gain)
8. Public Choice (Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self-Interested Individuals)
9. Cycle-process Approaches (Policy as Policy-Making Process) 2
 1. Elite Theory
(Policy as Elite Preference)

• It argues that policies are made by a small

group of influential leaders who share common
goals and outcomes.
• Public policy is determined by a minority who
have political and economic power.
https://triumphias.com/blog/the-elite-theory-of-power/
http://epecgroup.blogspot.com/2013/07/elites-power-and-pluralisms.html
https://haenfler.sites.grinnell.edu/elite-deviance-and-white-collar-crime/
 Negara:
Birokrasi
Parlemen/Partai
Organ lain
(termasuk militer)

Domain gabungan antara Domain gabungan antara

Unit-unit swadaya – Negara Bisnis – Negara

Unit-unit Masyarakat Sipil

Org. sosial Bisnis:
Org. Komunitas lokal Skala Kecil Lokal
Org. Non-profit Skala Menengah Nasional
Kekuatan sosial pra-politik/ Skala Besar Global
pra-diskursif Domain gabungan antara
Unit-unit Swadaya – Bisnis
Economic Society
Civil/Uncivil Society
 2. Group Theory
(Policy as Equilibrium in the Group Struggle)

• Public policy is the product of groups struggle

• Society is made up of well organized large number of social, ethnic
and economic groups.
• These groups compete to put pressure on the government to make
policies to favor them.
• It is out of the struggle and competition that the public interest
emerges.
• There are multiple centers of powers and optimum policy
development is achieved through competing interest.
 3. Corporatism
(Policy as a Pattern of State-Group Relations)

• It argues that contrary to the argument by group

theory that interest groups merely influence the
policy process, they themselves become part of the
policy-making and implementation system.
• In return to this participation, the groups through the
control of their members make society more
manageable and governable.
https://www.google.com/search?q=Corporatism+theory+of+public+policy&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj_rJH0gt3vAhVSSCsKHcICD80Q2-cCegQIABAA&oq=Corporatism+theory+of+public+policy&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQDFDkkBhY5JAYYN-
fGGgAcAB4AIABOIgBOJIBATGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=SbllYL_kKNKQrQHChbzoDA&bih=693&biw=1366&safe=strict#imgrc=f9vqdF-BhmNNTM
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/An-Exchange-Model-of-Corporatism_fig3_227693705
 4. Institutionalism
(Policy as Institutional Output)

• Policy is a product, authoritatively determined, implemented and evaluated by the

government institutions: Congress, presidency, and other elective officials and the
bureaucracies both local and national.
• In this model, a policy does not become a public policy until it is legitimized by
government entity concerned.
• Government policies provide legal powers that demand obligations from and command
loyalty of the citizens. This type of policy has its concomitant punitive components.
• The structure of the various government institutions contribute to the context of public
policy. The Constitution serves as the highest kind of policy to which all other policies
must subscribe. Laws passed by Congress, executive orders and judicial decisions come
second in terms of relevance and priority.
Institutionalism
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-anatomy-of-human-rights-in-israel/institutional-theory-and-social-choice
studies/1267DAC0572560DB0867C21C38CFEEFB
 5. Political System
(Policy as a Political System's Response
to Demands from its Environment)

• Public policy may be viewed as a political systems response to

demands arising from its environment.
• The political system, comprises those identifiable and interrelated
institutions and activities (what we usually think of as
governmental institutions and political processes) in a society that
make authoritative allocations of values (decisions) that are
binding on society (Easton, 1957; 1965)
 6. Incrementalism
(Policy as Variations on the Past)

• Under this model, policy is a continuation of

previous policy with minimum changes
• Existing programs, policies and expenditures
are considered as a base
• Policy makers accept the legitimacy of
previous policies because of uncertainty
about the consequences of new policies
 7. Rational Choice
(Policy as Maximum Social Gain)

• The concept of maximum social gains means no policy should be adopted if

its costs exceed its benefits and among policy alternatives, decision
makers should choose the policy that produces the greatest benefits over costs.
• So a policy is rational when the difference between the values it achieves
and the values it gets is positive and greater than any other policy
alternatives.
• Rationalism involves the calculation of all social political and economic
values sacrificed or achieved by a public policy. Not just those that can be
measured in terms of money.
• Government should choose policies resulting in gains to society that exceed
costs by greatest amount
 8. Public Choice
(Policy as Collective Decision Making
by Self-Interested Individuals)

• The Theory refers to policy as a collective decision making by self

interested individuals. Individuals come together in politics for their own
mutual benefits and by agreement (contract) among themselves they
can enhance their own well being. Therefore, people pursue their self
interest in politics but even with a selfish motives they can mutually
benefits through collective decision making.
• This model assumes that all political actors, voters, tax payers,
legislatures, bureaucrats, political parties, etc. seek to maximize their
personal benefits in politics as a market place. Individuals come
together in politics for their mutual benefit, just as they come together in a
market place
 Bibliography

• Thomas R. Dye. (1972). “Policy Analysis and Political Science: Some Problems at The Interface”, Policy
Studies Journal 1(2), 103–107. (doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.1972.tb00077.x)
• Anderson, J. E. (2003). Public Policymaking: An introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, pp.
1 – 34.
• Robert Eyeston. (1971). The Threads of Public Policy: A Study in Policy Leadership. Bobbs-Merrill
Co
• Theodore J. Lowi. (1972). “Four Systems of Policy, Politics and Choice”. Public Administration Review.
Vol. 32, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1972), pp. 298-310
• Theodore J. Lowi. (1964). "American Business, Public Policy, Case Studies and Political Theory“. World
Politics, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Jul., 1964), pp. 677-715
• David Easton, "An Approach to the Analysis of Political Systems," World Politics, IX (April 1957), pp. 383-400;
and Easton, A Systems Analysis of Political Life (New York: Wiley, 1965).
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