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viii Contents
The neuropsychology of consciousness 385 Applications of hypnosis 400

Consciousness states 385 Linkages: Meditation, health and stress 401
8.2 Sleeping and dreaming 387 8.4 Psychoactive drugs 403
Stages of sleep 387 Psychopharmacology 403
Why do people sleep? 389 The varying effects of drugs 404
Sleep disorders 393 CNS depressant drugs 405
Dreams and dreaming 395 CNS stimulating drugs 408
8.3 Hypnosis 397 Hallucinogenic drugs 411
Experiencing hypnosis 398 Thinking critically: Is marijuana
Explaining hypnosis 399 dangerous? 412
9 COGNITIVE ABILITIES 430

9.1 Understanding intelligence 432 Linkages: Emotionality and the
The psychometric approach 432 measurement of cognitive abilities 448
The information-processing model 434 Innate and environmental inf luences on IQ 449
The triarchic theory of intelligence 434 Group differences in IQ 451
Multiple intelligences 435 Conditions that can raise IQ 453
IQ in the classroom 454
9.2 Testing for intelligence 438
A brief history of intelligence tests 438 Thinking critically: Are intelligence
tests unfairly biased against certain
Intelligence tests today 440
groups? 455
Aptitude and achievement measures 442
Focus on research methods:
9.3 Measuring the quality of tests 444 Tracking cognitive abilities over
Statistical reliability 444 the life span 456
Statistical validity 445 9.4 Diversity in cognitive abilities 459
Evaluating intelligence tests 446 Creativity 460
The statistical reliability and validity Unusual cognitive ability 461
of intelligence tests 446
10 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 476

10.1 Concepts and theories of motivation 478 Hunger and the brain 486
Sources of motivation 479 Flavour, sociocultural experience and
The instinct doctrine and its descendants 479 food selection 487
Drive reduction theory 481 Unhealthy eating 490
Arousal theory 482 10.3 Sexual behaviour 494
Incentive theory 483 Focus on research methods: A survey
of human sexual behaviour 495
10.2 Hunger and eating 485
The biology of sex 496
Biological signals for hunger and satiation 485
Social and cultural factors in sexuality 498
Contents ix
Sexual orientation 498 10.5 The nature of emotion 511

Thinking critically: What shapes sexual Defining characteristics 512
orientation? 499 The biology of emotion 513
10.4 Achievement motivation 502 10.6 Theories of emotion 516
Need for achievement 503 James’ peripheral theory 517
Goal setting and achievement motivation 505 Cannon’s central theory 520
Achievement and success in the workplace 506 Cognitive theories of emotion 521
Achievement and wellbeing 506 10.7 Communicating emotion 524
Relations and conflicts among motives 508 Innate expressions of emotion 524
Linkages: Conflicting motives and stress 509 Social and cultural influences
Opponent processes, motivation on emotional expression 525
and emotion 510
11 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 542

11.1 Exploring human development 544 Relationships with parents 570
Understanding genetic influence 546 Peer friendships and popularity 572
Prenatal development 546 Social skills and understanding 573
The newborn 549 Focus on research methods:
Exploring developing minds 574
11.2 Infancy and childhood:
cognitive development 552 Gender roles 575
Changes in the brain 552 Risk and resilience 577
The development of knowledge: 11.4 Adolescence 579
Piaget’s theory 552 Changes in body, brain and thinking 579
Modifying Piaget’s theory 557 Adolescent feelings and behaviour 580
Information processing during childhood 558 Identity and development of the self 583
Linkages: Development and memory 559 Moral development 584
Culture and cognitive development 560 Emerging adulthood 586
Improving or endangering cognitive 11.5 Adulthood 588
development 561 Physical changes 588
11.3 Infancy and childhood: social Cognitive changes 589
and emotional development 564 Social changes 591
Individual temperament 565 Death and dying 594
Attachment 566 Developmental trajectories 595
Thinking critically: Does day care Longevity: the length of life 595
harm the emotional development
of infants? 569
x Contents
12 HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING 614

12.1 Health psychology: stress Social support 630
and stressors 616 Stress, personality and gender 632
Health psychology 616 Focus on research methods: Personality
Understanding stress and stressors 617 and health 634
Psychological stressors 618 12.4 The physiology and psychology
Measuring stressors 619 of health and illness 636
12.2 Stress responses 621 Stress, illness and the immune system 636
Physical responses 621 Stress, illness and the cardiovascular system 638
Psychological responses 623 Thinking critically: Does hostility increase
the risk of heart disease? 638
Linkages: Stress and psychological
disorders 625 12.5 Promoting healthy behaviour 640
12.3 Stress mediators 627 Health beliefs and health behaviours 641
How stressors are perceived 627 Changing health behaviours: stages
of readiness 642
Predictability and control 628
Programs for coping with stress
Coping resources and coping methods 629
and promoting health 642
13 PERSONALITY 656
13.1 The psychodynamic approach 658 Prominent social-cognitive theories 674
The structure and development of personality 659 Evaluating the social-cognitive approach 677
Variations on Freud’s personality theory 662 13.4 The humanistic psychology approach 678
Contemporary psychodynamic theories 663 Prominent humanistic theories 679
Evaluating the psychodynamic approach 664 Evaluating the humanistic psychology
13.2 The trait approach 665 approach 681
Traits versus types 666 Linkages: Personality, culture and human
development 682
Allport’s trait theory 666
Focus on research methods: Longitudinal
The five-factor personality model 667
studies of temperament and personality 683
Biological trait theories 668
13.5 Assessing personality 685
Evaluating the trait approach 670
Projective personality measures 686
Thinking critically: Are personality traits
inherited? 671
Non-projective personality measures 687
Personality tests and employee selection 689
13.3 The social-cognitive approach 674
Historical basis of the social-cognitive
approach 674
Contents xi
14
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
AND TREATMENT 700
14.1 Defining and explaining psychological 14.3 Approaches to treatment of
disorders 703 psychological disorders 744
What is abnormal? 703 Basic features of treatment 744
Behaviour in context: a practical approach 704 Psychodynamic psychotherapy 745
Explaining psychological disorders 705 Humanistic psychotherapy 747
The biopsychosocial approach 705 Behaviour therapy 749
Diathesis-stress as an integrative explanation 708 Group, family and couples therapy 757
14.2 Classifying psychological disorders 709 Evaluating psychotherapy 758
A classification system: DSM-5 710 Thinking critically: Are all forms of
Thinking critically: Is psychological therapy equally effective? 759
diagnosis biased? 712 14.4 Biological treatments 764
Anxiety disorders 714 Psychosurgery 764
Linkages: Anxiety disorders and learning 718 Electroconvulsive therapy 765
Somatic symptom and related disorders 719 Psychoactive drugs 766
Dissociative disorders 721 Evaluating psychoactive drug treatments 770
Affective disorders 722 Linkages: Biological aspects
Schizophrenia 727 of psychology and the treatment
of psychological disorders 772
Personality disorders 733
Focus on research methods: Exploring 14.5 Community psychology: from
links between child abuse and antisocial treatment to prevention 773
personality disorder 735 Community mental health 773
A sampling of other psychological disorders 736 Other factors 774
Mental illness and the law 741
15 SOCIAL COGNITION AND INFLUENCE 800

15.1 Social influences on the self 802 Forming attitudes 810
Social comparison 802 Changing attitudes 811
Social norms 803 Linkages: Biological and social
Linkages: Motivation and the presence psychology 814
of others 804 15.3 Prejudice and stereotypes 815
Social identity theory 805 Theories of prejudice and stereotyping 816
Social perception 805 Reducing prejudice 817
15.2 Attitudes 810 15.4 Interpersonal attraction 818
The structure of attitudes 810 Keys to attraction 818
Intimate relationships and love 820
xii Contents
15.5 Social influence 823 15.7 Altruism and helping behaviour 840
Role of social norms 823 Why do people help? 840
Why do people conform? 824 Focus on research methods: Does family
When do people conform? 825 matter? 844
Creating compliance 826 15.8 Cooperation, competition
Obedience 827 and conflict 846
15.6 Aggression 832 Social dilemmas 847
Why are people aggressive? 832 Promoting cooperation 848
When are people aggressive? 834 Interpersonal conflict 848
Thinking critically: Do violent video Group processes 849
games make people more aggressive? 835
16 CULTURE AND PSYCHOLOGY 864

16.1 What is culture? 866 16.3 Cultural contact 878
Dimensions of culture 866 Issues with cultural contact 880
Culture and identity 869 Thinking critically: Is ethnic prejudice too
16.2 Psychology, culture and health 873 ingrained ever to be eliminated? 882
Importance of culture to health 875 Consequences of cultural contact 883
Does ‘normal’ cross cultures? 876 16.4 Focus on cultural and cross-cultural
research methods 886
Cultural and cross-cultural researchers 887
17 INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY 896

17.1 What do we mean by 17.4 Working with indigenous peoples 918
indigenous peoples? 898 Developing indigenous cultural competence 919
Health and wellbeing of indigenous peoples 898 Psychological and mental health assessment
Why it is important to differentiate and indigenous peoples 922
indigenous peoples in the study of psychology 900 Focus on research methods: Strategies for
17.2 Indigenous peoples of Australia remembering in the Australian landscape 925
and New Zealand 901 17.5 A focus on indigenous research methods 927
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Decolonising Australian psychological
Australians 901 research 928
Māori peoples 910 Decolonising New Zealand psychological
17.3 What is indigenous psychology? 915 research 930
Indigenous psychology in Australia 916 An apology by the Australian Psychological
Society 933
Indigenous psychology in Aotearoa/
New Zealand 917
Contents xiii
18 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (ONLINE) 18-2

18.1 Foundations of neuropsychology 18-4 18.3 Neuropsychological disorders 18-13
A brief history of neuropsychology 18-5 Amnestic disorders 18-13
Modules and networks 18-6 Consciousness disturbances 18-15
Lesion analysis 18-7 Thinking critically: Can someone be
Neuropsychological assessment 18-8 partially paralysed and not know it? 18-17
Training for neuropsychology 18-9 Perceptual disturbances 18-19
18.2 Mechanisms of brain dysfunction 18-10 Focus on research methods:
Studying hemineglect 18-22
Cerebrovascular accidents 18-10
Linkages: Language disorders and
Traumatic brain injury 18-11
the brain 18-23
Neurodegenerative diseases 18-12
Movement disorders 18-25
Dementia 18-26
19 BEHAVIOURAL GENETICS (ONLINE) 19-2

19.1 The biology of genetics 19.4 The role of genetic factors
and heredity 19-3 in psychology 19-7
19.2 A brief history of genetic Genetic influences over the life span 19-7
research in psychology 19-5 Genes affecting multiple traits 19-7
19.3 The focus of research Identifying genes related to behaviour 19-7
in behavioural genetics 19-6 19.5 Behavioural genetics and environmental
influences 19-9
20 STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH (ONLINE) 20-2
20.1 Describing data 20-3 20.3 The normal distribution 20-6
The histogram 20-3 Correlation 20-7
20.2 Descriptive statistics 20-4 20.4 Inferential statistics 20-8
N 20-5 Differences between means: the t test 20-9
Measures of central tendency 20-5 Beyond the t test 20-11
Measures of variability 20-5
Appendix A: Careers for psychology graduates (online) 21-2

Appendix B: Searching psychology databases (online) 22-2
Answers to ‘In review’ and ‘Test your knowledge’ questions A-1
Name index N-1
Subject index and glossary S-1
xiv
FEATURES LIST
LINKAGES FOCUS ON RESEARCH THINKING CRITICALLY
●● Psychological research ●● Manipulating genes in animal ●● What can fMRI tell us
methods and behavioural models of human disease..........93 about behaviour and mental
genetics.......................................55 processes?.................................102
●● The case of the mysterious
●● Human development and the spells.......................................... 169 ●● Does acupuncture
changing brain...........................110 relieve pain?.............................. 165
●● An experiment on human
●● Sensation and biological helplessness.............................240 ●● Does watching violence
aspects of psychology.............. 135 on television make people more
●● Measuring the effect of
violent?.................................... 245
●● Perception and human context cues on recall............. 278
development.............................189 Can traumatic memories be
The mental representation
●●
●●
repressed and then

●● Neural networks and of language.............................. 355
recovered?...............................290
learning.....................................237
●● Subliminal messages in
Can non-humans use
Memory, perception popular music..........................384
●●
●●
language?.................................360
and eyewitness testimony......284
●● Tracking cognitive abilities
Is marijuana dangerous?..........412
Group processes in problem over the life span.....................456
●●
●●
solving and decision Are intelligence

A survey of human sexual
●●
●●
making......................................350 tests unfairly biased against

behaviour.................................495
certain groups?........................455
Meditation, health and
Exploring developing minds... 574
●●
●●
stress........................................ 401 ●● What shapes sexual

●● Personality and health............634 orientation?.............................499
●● Emotionality and the
measurement of cognitive ●● Longitudinal studies of ●● Does day care harm the
abilities....................................448 temperament and emotional development
personality...............................683 of infants?................................ 569
●● Conflicting motives and
stress........................................509 ●● Exploring links between ●● Does hostility increase
child abuse and antisocial the risk of heart disease?........638
Development and memory.... 559
personality disorder................ 735
●●
Are personality traits

Stress and psychological
●●
Does family matter?...............844

●●
●● inherited?................................. 671
disorders.................................. 625
●● Strategies for remembering Is psychological diagnosis
Personality, culture and
●●
in the Australian landscape.... 925

●●
biased?...................................... 712
human development............... 682
●● Studying hemineglect......... 18-22 Are all forms of therapy
Anxiety disorders
●●
●●
equally effective?.................... 759

and learning.............................. 718
Do violent video games make
Biological aspects
●●
●●
people more aggressive?........ 835

of psychology and the
treatment of psychological ●● Is ethnic prejudice too
disorders...................................772 ingrained ever to be
eliminated?..............................882
●● Motivation and the presence
of others................................. 804 ●● Can someone be
partially paralysed and
●● Biological and social
not know it?........................... 18-17
psychology................................814
●● Language disorders and
the brain................................18-23
xv
Guide to the text

As you read this text you will find a number of features in every chapter to enhance
your study of psychology, helping you to understand how the theory is applied in the
real world.
CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES
1 Gain an insight into how

CHAPTER the chapter will cover
1
psychological theories
and their relation to the
real world through the
introduction.
2 Identify the key concepts

INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY the chapter will cover,
Psychology as a discipline has changed immensely since its humble beginnings. There is an amazing array of
as listed in the learning
professional and applied areas that people with psychological training now work in. In this opening chapter, objectives.
1 we provide an overview of psychology as a discipline and many of the more specialised areas in which
psychologists work. However, the main focus is on providing an understanding of the theoretical and applied
work of the discipline of psychology. It is important to note that the knowledge that you will gain from using
this book underpins much of human behaviour, which is relevant and may be applied to many other disciplines 3 Examine how theoretical
and professions. We describe the linkages that tie these areas to one another and to other subjects, such concepts have been used
as economics and medicine, and how research in psychology is being applied in everyday life. We then tell the
story of how psychology developed and the various ways in which psychologists approach their work. in practice through the
Applying psychology
questions. Icons in the
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
chapter link to in-depth
1.1 define psychology 1.4 understand the diversity of psychology discussions about the
1.2 understand the history of psychology
1.3 describe the role of the scientific method in the study
1.5 develop an awareness of the knowledge, skills and values
that reflect the science and application of psychology,
research.
of psychology and the possible career pathways in psychology.
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY 3
1 Can studying psychology equip you with skills such as good oral and written communication skills and numeracy
skills, well-developed computer skills, the ability to find and research information, and environmental awareness?
2 What other settings, other than psychological practice, do psychologists work in?
Express Bring your learning to life with interactive study and exam preparation tools that support your textbook.
CourseMate Express includes quizzes, videos, concept maps and more.
Understand the skills required while studying psychology and how to master them
by reviewing the Graduate attributes and psychological literacy section.
xvi Guide to the text
5.4 Cognitive processes in learning 245
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

Observational learning is one of the most powerful sources of the socialisation process through
which children learn about which behaviours are – and are not – appropriate in their cultures
(Bandura, 1999; Caldwell & Millen, 2009). Experiments show that children are more willing to help
and share after seeing a demonstration of helping by a friendly, impressive model – even after some
months have elapsed (Schroeder et al., 1995). Indeed, watching or even just hearing about the selfless
or heroic acts of others can inspire us to seek higher goals ourselves (Haidt, 2003). Fears, too, can be
THINKING CRITICALLY
learned partly by the sight of fearfulness in others (Askew & Field, 2008), and seeing other people
behave dishonestly may lead observers to do the same (Gino, Ayal & Ariely, 2009).
THINKING CRITICALLY Learn to analyse evidence and draw

Does watching violence on television make people more violent? conclusions using the five-question
If observational learning is important, then surely television –
and televised violence – must teach children a great deal. It is
What am I being asked to believe or accept?
Many theorists have argued that through one or more of
framework in the Thinking critically
estimated that the average child in the United States spends
about three hours each day watching television, either at
the mechanisms just listed, watching violence on television
causes violent behaviour in viewers (Anderson et al., 2003;
sections. Throughout the book,
home or in day care (Annenberg Public Policy Center, 2000;
Christakis & Garrison, 2009). Much of what children see is
Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Bushman & Huesmann,
2000; Eron et al., 1996; Huesmann, 1998). A 1993 psychological phenomena are described
violent. In addition to the real-life violence portrayed on the
news (van der Molen, 2004), prime-time entertainment
programs in the United States present an average of five acts of
report by the National Academy of Sciences concluded
that ‘overall, the vast majority of studies, whatever in a way that first reveals the logic
their methodology, showed that exposure to television
simulated violence per hour. Some Saturday morning cartoons
include more than 20 per hour (American Psychological
violence resulted in increased aggressive behaviour, both of the scientific enterprise, then
contemporaneously and over time’ (Reiss & Roth, 1993,
Association, 1993; Gerbner, Morgan & Signorielli, 1994). As a
result, the average American child will have witnessed at least
p. 371). The American Psychological Association Commission identifies possible flaws in design or
on Violence and Youth (1993) reached the same conclusion.
8000 murders and more than 100 000 other acts of televised
violence before finishing elementary school, and twice that What evidence is available to support the
implementation, and finally leaves room
number by age 18 (Annenberg Public Policy Center, 1999;
Parents Television Council, 2006).
assertion?
Three types of evidence support the claim that watching
for more questions and further research.
Psychologists have long speculated that watching so
violent television programs increases violent behaviour.
much violence might be emotionally arousing, making
First, there is evidence from anecdotes and case studies.
viewers more likely to react violently to frustration (Huston
Children have poked one another in the eye after watching
& Wright, 1989). In fact, there is evidence that exposure
The Three Stooges appear to do so on television, and adults
to media violence can trigger or amplify viewers’ aggressive
have claimed that watching TV shows prompted them to
thoughts and feelings, thus increasing the likelihood
commit murders or other violent acts matching those seen
that they will act aggressively (Anderson & Dill, 2000;
on the shows (Werner, 2003).
Bushman, 1998). Televised violence may also provide models
Second, many correlational studies have found a relationship
that viewers imitate, particularly if the violence is carried
between watching violent television programs and later acts of
out by attractive, impressive models – the ‘good guys’,
aggression and violence (Johnson et al., 2002). One such study
for example (Huesmann et al., 2003). Finally, prolonged
tracked people from the time they were six or seven (in 1977)
viewing of violent TV programs may ‘desensitise’ viewers,
until they reached their early twenties (in 1992). Those who had
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
making them less distressed when they see others suffer
240 and less
Chapter 5: Learning
disturbed about inflicting pain on others (Aronson,
watched more violent television as children were significantly
more aggressive as adults (Huesmann et al., 1997; Huesmann
1999; Donnerstein, Slaby & Eron, 1995). Concern over the
et al., 2003) and more likely to engage in criminal activity
influence of violence on television led to the development of
(Huesmann, 1995). TheyEthical
were alsoguidelines
more
148likely for
to use physical4: Sensation and
psychologists
Chapter 65 perception
a violence-blocking ‘V chip’ for television sets in the United
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS
States.
punishment on their own children, who themselves tended to
Examine the ways research methods have
participants, the committee members weigh its potential benefits in terms of knowledge and human
An experiment on human helplessness been applied
Focusing light to advance understanding of
welfare against its potential for harm. Standards set in Australia by organisations such as the National
Theand
Health results of animal
Medical studies on
Research learned helplessness
Council (NHMRC)ledand in Newwhether
psychologists to wonder whether learned helplessness
Zealandparticipants had experienced
by the Health control before, those
and Disability
who expected noise control to depend on their skill exerted
behaviour
Just and tomental
as sound energy is converted processes
nerve cell activity in the ear, light energythrough
is transduced into
nerve cell activity in the eye. Before this transduction process occurs, accessory structures in the
theeyeFocus onlightresearch sections. These
Ethics Committees also help psychologists think through the ethical implications of any research that
might also play a role in human psychological problems. control on significantly more trials than did those who human modify incoming rays.The light rays enter the eye by passing through a transparent,
might involve the slightest risk of harm to human participants.
But first they had to deal with a more basic question: Does expected chance to govern the outcome.cornea the curved, protective layer called the cornea (see Figure 4.7). Then the light passes through the pupil, the
Alack
setofofcontrol
Psychological
principles
humans, as itSociety
toenvironment
over the guide the lead
does in (2007),
conduct of psychologists
to helplessness in has been developed by the Australian
What
and a code of ethics for psychologists
other species? hasdo thedeveloped
been results mean? for Aotearoa/
transparent, protective layer
through which light rays
sections
opening just behind the arecornea. organised
The iris, which gives the around fivethe key
eye its colour, adjusts amount of light
These codes
results supported
provide aHiroto’s hypothesis that people, allowed into the eye by constricting to reduce the size of the pupil or relaxing to enlarge it. Directly
New Zealand (New Zealand Psychological Society, 2012). These
What was the researcher’s question?
Donald Hiroto (1974) conducted an experiment to test the
framework for
enter the eye
like other animals, tend to make less effort to control their
individual ethical behaviour when engaging in any professional interactions, as well as for the pupil
environment when prior experience leads theman to opening
expect in the
questions:
behind the pupil is the lens. The cornea and the lens of the human eye are both curved so that, like
the lens of a camera, they bend light rays. The light rays are focused into an image on the surface
at1the back
conduct of ethical research in psychology.
hypothesis that people would develop learned helplessness
after either experiencing lack of control or simply being told
eye, animals,
that their efforts will be in vain. Unlike other just behind the cornea,
though, people can develop expectationsthrough which light passes
of helplessness
What of the eye;was the
this surface researcher’s
is called the retina. Light rays from question?
the top of an object are
focused at the bottom of the image on the retinal surface. Light rays from the right side of the object
Ethical research with animals
that their control was limited. either by personally experiencing lack of iris control or by being
How did the researcher answer the question?

told that they are powerless. Hiroto’s (1974)
the colourful
results
the eye, appear
which
part of
constricts or 2 How did the researcher answer the
end up on the left side of the retinal image (see Figure 4.8). The brain rearranges this upside-down
and reversed image so that we can see the object as it is.
The obligation to protect participants’ welfare also extends to animals, to reflect a general
which are phenomenon:
used in 7–8 per whencent
people’s
relaxes toprior
adjust the amount
Hiroto assigned research participants to one of three
of psychological research
groups. One group studies
heard a series(American
of 30 random Psychological experience
bursts of Association
leads them
Committee onto believe that
Animal Researchof light
nothing entering
they do canthe eye
change their lives or control their destiny, they generally
question?
and loud,
Ethics, 2009). noise,
Psychologists study animals – mainly rats, mice and pigeons – partly because their lens the part of the eye
3As shown
obnoxious and like dogs receiving inescapable
behaviour is interesting
shock, they had no way and partly because
of stopping research
it. A second groupwith
stop trying (Faulkner, 2001; LoLordo, 2001;
animals can
could behind
provide information that would be to passively
Maier & Seligman, 1993). Instead, they tend
Peterson,
the pupil that bends
light rays, focusing them on
What did the researcher find?
FIGURE 4.7 Major structures of the eye
in this top view of the eye, light rays bent by the combined actions of the cornea and the lens
control or
impossible theunethical
noise by pressing a button
to collect fromtohumans.
turn it off.For
Theexample, researchers can randomly
endure distressing assign animals
situations.
4are
knownWhat
collectively as do
the opticthe
nerve exitresults
at the back of the mean?
focused on the retina, where the light energy is transduced into nerve cell activity. Nerve fibres
the retina
third
to live group
alone orheard
with no noiseand
others at all.then look at how these conditions affect later social interactions, but the
eye and continue to the brain.
After
same thing this preliminary
could not be donephase, all three
ethically groups
with were Animal studies
people. Whatsuchdoaswethisstill
canneed to clues
provide know? retina the surface at the
about
5 What do we still need to know?
exposed to 18 additional bursts of noise, each preceded by a Further research is needed on when and how back of the eye onto which
learned
how social isolation might affect humans (see Chapter 10, ‘Motivation and emotion’). the lens focuses light rays
red warning light. During this second phase, all participants helplessness affects people’s thoughts, feelings and actions.
could stop the noise by pushing a lever. However, they For example, could learned helplessness explain why some
Codes of whether
didn’t know practice
to push the lever to the left or the right battered women remain with abusive partners? We do know
on any given trial. Still, they could prevent the noise if they thatused
learned-helplessness experiences are are
associated with the Cornea
Contrary to the claims of some animal rights activists, animals in psychological research Iris
acted quickly enough. development of a generally pessimistic way of thinking that can
not routinely subjected to extreme pain, starvation or other inhumane conditions, as shown in Lens
Before these new trials began, the experimenter led produce depression and other disorders (Peterson & Seligman, Pupil
the Snapshot ‘Caring for animals in research’. Even in the small
half the participants in each group to expect that avoiding
proportion of studies that require
1984). People with this pessimistic explanatory style see the Muscle
the or
useescaping
of electric shock, the discomfort created to adjust
the noise depended on their skill. The other is mild, brief
goodand not
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techniques and howand toother negative outcomes
use new
Explore how psychology is applied in the Try out concepts discussed in the chapter,
to move
prior experience with noise (control, lack of control or no
technology. In those relatively rare studies that require animals (Bennett to undergo & Elliott, 2002; Seligman & Schulman, 1986; Taylor,
short-lived pain or other Fovea the eye
noise) and expectation (skill or chance) about the ability to 2002). The exact mechanisms responsible for this connection
world around you with the Snapshot boxes. signalled by the Try this icons.
forms of moderate stress, legal and ethical standards require that funding agencies – as well as local Optic nerve
influence the noise. are still unknown, but understanding how pessimistic (or
committees charged with monitoring animal research – first determine (to brain)
optimistic)that the discomfort
explanatory styles canislead
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What
by the did thebenefits
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to human consequences remains an important focus of research (for
On average, participants who had previously experienced example, Brennan & Charnetski, 2000).
lack of control now failed to control noise on almost four Does repeated success at controlling events create a
times asfor
many trials (50in perresearch
cent versus 13 per cent) as Snapshot The lens of the human eye bends light rays entering the eye from various angles so that they meet
Caring animals sense of ‘learned mastery’ or ‘learned resourcefulness’ that
on the retina (see Figure 4.8). If the rays meet either in front of the retina or behind it, the image
participants who had earlier been in control. Expectation supports efforts to exert control in new situations? Animal
Psychologists
of control also arehad
careful to protect
an effect the welfare
on behaviour. of of
Regardless will be out of focus. TRY THIS The muscles that hold the lens adjust its shape so that images of
animal participants in research. They do not wish experiments suggest that this is the case (Volpicelli et al.,
either near or far objects can be focused on the retina. To illustrate this for yourself, try reading the
to see animals suffer, and undue stress on animals
Will & Deni McIntyre/Science Source
next sentence while holding the book as close to your face as possible. To maintain a focused image
can provoke reactions that can act as confounds.
For example, in a study of how learning is affected
at close range, your muscles have to tighten your lenses, making them more curved. This ability to
ocular accommodation change the shape of the lens to bend light rays is called ocular accommodation. Over time, the lens
by food rewards, the researcher could starve
the ability of the lens to loses some of its flexibility, making accommodation more difficult. This is why older people become
animals to make them hungry enough to want
change its shape and bend
rewards. But this would introduce discomfort, light rays so that objects are
far-sighted, seeing distant objects clearly but having trouble with reading or close work. (For those
making it impossible to separate the effects of the in focus who want to avoid glasses, a mobile phone app has been developed with vision exercises that help
rewards from the effects of starvation. train a stiffened lens to become more flexible again; Kaplan, 2014.)
underestimate the frequency of theseonlybehaviours.
Muslims. ToFurthermore,
get a completesuppose
picture,you
you send
wouldout
have to survey people from all religious groups
a questionnaire
about increasing taxes. If those whoso that each group’s
are opposed opinions
to the could beare
tax increase fairly represented.
more likely to return their
questionnaire, you will probably get an inaccurate view of public opinion. That said, while issues
with how people respond to surveys Otherand howlimitations
data are collected do affect survey results, surveys
nonetheless do provide an efficientOther
way limitations of the
of gathering
be personally
beliefs or other characteristics (Fowler,
survey
large method
amounts of are
datamore difficult
about to avoid.
people’s
Guide to the text
For one thing, even if they can’t
attitudes,
2013). identified, people may be reluctant to admit undesirable or embarrassing things about
xvii
themselves. Or they might say what they think they should say about a survey question (Uziel, 2010).
The Food Safety Information Council in Australia (2002) reported a study conducted in Canberra
Correlational studies: looking for relationships
in which handwashing behaviour after a toilet visitation was observed, ranging in duration from
zero to 10 seconds, to over 10 seconds. The results suggested that only 20 per cent of the females
The data collected from naturalisticand 7 perobservations, case observed
cent of the males studies and surveys
followed provide
the ‘correct’ valuableof washing their hands for at
procedure
descriptions of behaviour and mental processes,
least 10 but that
seconds, and they8 can do more
per cent of the than
femalesthat.
andThese
29 perdata
cent can
of the males observed failed to
IN REVIEW also be examined to see what they KEY TERMS
washreveal aboutatthe
their hands relationships,
all after going to theor toilet.
correlations, between aone
If you conducted survey which asked the public
research variable and another. For whether
example,theyin some regions
wash their handsof after
the world, crime
using the statistics
toilet, are related
the percentage of people saying they did wash
to temperature. Specifically, over atheir handsperiod
62-year is likely
in to
thebecity
much higher (possibly
of Allahabad 80–90
in India, moreper murders
cent) than those reported through
Test your understanding as you go using Recognise and understand occurred in the hotter months of observation. So surveys
the year (Mishra,
while and
drunk,
2015).thatInterestingly,
ask people to in
or engage inresulted
other forms
sayBaltimore
whether they
of sociallycaseloads
cheat
in the
disapproved
on exams, use illegal drugs, drive
United
States, this relationship between crime temperature in increased fororhospitals
dangerous behaviours will probably
the In Review boxes, which summarise the key terms in underestimate the frequency of these behaviours. Furthermore, suppose you send out a questionnaire
(Kleinknecht, 1991; Michel et al., 2016). Correlational studies examine relationships between correlational study
about increasing taxes. If those who are opposed to the tax increase are more likely to return their
variables in order to describe research data more fully, test predictions, evaluate theories and suggest a research method that
information and provide self-test psychology with the new hypotheses about why peoplewith
questionnaire, you will probably get an inaccurate view of public opinion.examines
think and act as they do.
That said, while issues
relationships
how people respond to surveys and how data are collected do affectbetween survey variables
results, surveys
in order
questions to help you digest large chunks highlighted terms and Consider the question of how nonetheless
aggressive by seeing aggressiveness
aggression do develops.
inorothers.
provide One theoryway
an efficient
Psychologists
suggests that people
of gathering
have 2013).
learn toofbedata about
large amounts to analyse trendsattitudes,
people’s
tested this theory through test predictions, evaluate
in data,
beliefs other characteristics (Fowler,
of information. correlational studies that focus on margin definitions.
the relationship between children’s aggressiveness and the amount
Research methods in psychology 43
theories and suggest new
hypotheses
of television viewing. Just as the theory predicts, those who watch a lot of television do tend to be
Correlational studies: looking for relationships
The data collected from naturalistic observations, case studies and surveys provide valuable
IN REVIEW descriptions of behaviour and mental processes, but they can do more than that. These data can
Thinking critically about psychology also be examined to see what they reveal about the relationships, or correlations, between one
research variable and another. For example, in some regions of the world, crime statistics are related
CONCEPT CHARACTERISTICS EXPLANATION to temperature. Specifically, over a 62-year period in the city of Allahabad in India, more murders
1 What am I being asked to believe or accept? occurred in the hotter months of the year (Mishra, 2015). Interestingly, in Baltimore in the United
2 What evidence is available to support the assertion?
Critical thinking States, this relationship between crime and temperature resulted in increased caseloads for hospitals
Five questions 3 Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?
process
4 What additional evidence would help evaluate the alternatives? (Kleinknecht, 1991; Michel et al., 2016). Correlational studies examine relationships between correlational study
5 What conclusions are most reasonable?
variables in order to describe research data more fully, test predictions, evaluate theories and suggest a research method that
Hypothesis A specific, testable proposition about a phenomenon examines relationships
new hypotheses about why people think and act as they do.
Operational definition A statement that defines the exact operations or methods used in research between variables in order
Consider the question of how aggression develops. One theory suggests that people learn to be to analyse trends in data,
Variables A factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured in research
aggressive by seeing aggressiveness in others. Psychologists have tested this theory through test predictions, evaluate
Numbers that represent research findings and provide the basis for theories and suggest new
Data correlational studies that focus on the relationship between children’s aggressiveness and the amount
research conclusions – used in a data set
of television viewing. Just as the theory predicts, those who watch a lot of television do tend to be hypotheses
Scientific method
The degree to which evidence from a test or other research method
Statistical validity
measures what it is supposed to measure
The degree to which test results or other research evidence occurs
Statistical reliability
repeatedly
An integrated set of propositions that can be used to account for, predict
Theories
and even suggest ways of controlling certain phenomena
Check your understanding

1 As theories are tentative explanations, they must be subjected to scientific examination based on .
2 Scientists evaluate and
3 The KISS principle relates to the .
in considering the value of the evidence they collect.
PSYCHOLOGY LINKAGES
2.2 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Understand the network of relationships between psychology’s subfields through the
Like other scientists, psychologists strive to achieve four main goals in their research:
1 to describe behaviour and mental processes
2 to make accurate predictions about them
Linkages features throughout this book.

1103 to demonstrate
Chaptersome
3: Biological aspects of psychology
control over them
4 ultimately, to explain how and why behaviour and mental processes occur.
Consider depression, for example. Researchers in clinical psychology and other subfields have
been involved in describing the stroke
nature, intensity
and spinal andcord
duration
injuryof depressive symptoms,
patients, thus as well
reversing as forms of paralysis and improving some
some
the various kinds of depressive disorders that commonly appear in various cultures around the
sensory and cognitive abilities (Sandrow-Feinber & Houlé, 2015); see the Snapshot ‘He was a
world. They are also studying the genetic characteristics, personality traits, life situations and other
super
factors that allow better predictions aboutman’.
those who are at the greatest risk of developing depressive
disorders. In addition, clinical researchers have developed and tested a whole range of treatments
250 Chapter 5: Learning
designed to control depressive symptoms and even to prevent them. Finally, they have proposed a
LINKAGES
number of theories to explain depression, including why and how it occurs, why it is more common Linkages sections take an in-depth
in women than in men, and why particular treatment methods are (or are not) likely to be effective.
CHAPTER
Human REVIEW
Certain research methods are especially useful for reaching certain of these goals. Psychologists
development and the changing brain
tend to use naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys and correlational studies to describe and predict
look at topics that feature interrelated
Fortunately,
356 most7:ofCognition
Chapter the changes
and that take place in the
language from birth to 12 months of fields of psychology.
brain throughout life are not the kind associated with age (Huttenlocher, 1990). By LINKAGES
LINKAGES
damage and disease. Let’s consider these changes and
how they are linked to the growth of sensory and motor
the time children are six or
seven years old, their brains
How do our brains
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capabilities,
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pairs that and other
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pattern may be related to the way newborns move: they we develop more brainpower with less brain.
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FIGURE 7.14 Which is the correct egg?
legs, much like adults who have a hyperactive thalamus and
The image striatum
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raised with interesting toys and stimulating playmates. The as studies
that have shown the same motor regions of the brain being
the prefrontal
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effect: involved in
participants cerebral cortex of those from the enriched environment
responded
CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 11 regardless of whether someone
activated CHAPTER 14 an
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matched
Memory Human development
action themselves or watches Psychological disorders
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(Asato et al., than
2010). when they researchers
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sensory barren,
motorindividual
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is represented.
that many teenagers have in resisting dangerous peer 1999). Furthermore, the number of cortical synapses
influences and foreseeing the negative consequences of increased when isolated animals were moved to an enriched
Linkages icons are a quick reminder

certain actions (Grosbras et al., 2007). environment. To the extent that these ideas and research
The development of language
The changes we have described mainly reflect changes in findings apply to humans, they hold obvious implications for
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neural connections, not the appearance of new cells. After how people raise children and treat
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Children
and synapses
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to speak? (a link to to produce and understand sentences. Psychologists who study the development of language have
The CourseMateExpress
Chapter 11, ‘Human website
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the process begins in the earliest days of a child’s life and follows some predictable steps
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Within the first few months after they are born, babies can tell the difference between the sounds of
their native language and those of other languages (Gerken, 1994; Peña, Pittaluga & Mehler, 2010),
and by 10 months of age, they pay closer attention to speech in their native language (Werker
xviii Guide to the text 250 Chapter 5: Learning Chapter review 307
CHAPTER REVIEW
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES
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CHAPTER 6 Memory
CHAPTER 5 Learning
LINKAGES
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Where are memories stored? How accurate is Why does memory improve
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teaches boys to be men during childhood?
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CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 11

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resources and study tools for this use the access code that comes with this book for 12 months access
to the resources and study tools for this chapter.
The CourseMateExpress website contains:
The CourseMateExpress website contains:
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308 ● Chapter 6: Memory

videos
SUMMARY
THE NATURE OF MEMORY
● Human memory depends on a complex mental system. Five theoretical models of memory have guided most
●
● There are three basic memory processes. Encoding transforms research. According to the levels-of-processing model of
information into some type of mental representation. Codes memory, the most important determinant of memory is how
for auditory (or acoustic) memory represent information extensively information is encoded or processed when it is first
as sounds, codes for visual memory represent information received. In general, elaborative rehearsal is more effective
as images, and codes for semantic memory represent than maintenance rehearsal in learning new information
310 Chapter 6: Memory
information as general meanings. Storage maintains because it represents a deeper level of processing. According
information in the memory system over time. Retrieval is the to the transfer-appropriate processing model of memory, the
process of gaining access to previously stored information. critical determinant of memory is not how deeply information
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
NEW
● Most psychologists agree that there are at least three types is encoded, but whether processes used during retrieval match
of memory. Episodic memory contains information about those used during encoding. Parallel distributed processing
Select the best answer for each of the following
specific events in a person’s life. Semantic memory contains questions, then check your responses
(PDP) modelsagainst the ‘Answer
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FURTHER READING
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E. Sue Blume, Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and Its Aftereffects in Women (Ballantine, Kathryn Lyon, Witch Hunt (Avon, 1998) – documents how hysteria in Washington state
cues follows the encoding specificity principle: cues help which
the exactit was
words learned;
is this isdue
probably called
to context-specific
the fact that memory,
encoding in
a elaborative rehearsal
1998) – presents the position of some therapists who believe in the validity of all in the 1990s led to dozens of false convictions for sexual abuse.
retrieval
reports only ifmemories.
of recovered they match some feature of the information or context-specific learning. When a person’s physiological
RECOMMENDED
bthat maintenance rehearsalBOOKS Paul long-term
McHugh, Try to memory
Rememberis usually
(Dana .
Press, 2009) – an account of the roles of
Susan wasAbducted:
Clancy, originallyHow encoded.
People Come to Believe They Were Kidnapped by Aliens or mood state
psychotherapy can aid or impede
and psychotherapists in reports retrieval, therecovered
of repressed and personmemories
is
(Harvard ofaabuse.
acoustic
E. Sue theUniversity
c Blume, method
Secret Press, 2006)
of loci
Survivors: – a fascinating
Uncovering summary
Incest and Its of research
Aftereffects in Women on (Ballantine,
this topic. Kathryn Lyon, Witch Hunt (Avon, 1998) – documents how hysteria in Washington state
1998)
Moira – presents
Johnson, the position
Spectral Evidenceof(Westview,
some therapists
1997) –who believe
traces the in the Ramona
Gary validity of all in
case, in b
WalterthePauk
1990sandled
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Ross Owens,ofHow
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Study in College abuse. 2010) – effective
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found liable for inducing false memories of sexual abuse. Paulstudy
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Remember resultsPress,
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2009)research.
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study,
In Search People
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students
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Science bytold
of Mind Aliens
to
(Norton, psychotherapy
Daniel and The
Schacter, psychotherapists
Seven Sins ofinMemory:
reports ofHow
repressed andForgets
the Mind recoveredandmemories
(Harvard
2007) – University
the biologyPress, 2006) – a fascinating summary of research on this topic. of
of memory.
expect multiple-choice questions on their upcoming exam and dabuse.state(Mariner
Remembers dependent Books, 2002) – an overview of memory and memory
Moira Johnson,
Elizabeth Spectral
Loftus, Evidence
Eyewitness (Westview,
Testimony 1997)
(Harvard – tracesPress,
University the Gary Ramona
1996) case, in
– summarises research.
Walter Pauk and Ross Owens, How to Study in College (Wadsworth, 2010) – effective
the aother
which
research on thehalf
therapist waswere
limitations told
found of
liable toinducing
for expect
eyewitness essay
false
testimony. questions.
memories of sexualStudents
abuse. 10 Sally
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Satan: Case oftest
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Eric didKandell,
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LoftusInand they
Search got theThetype
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Ketcham, of exam
Emergence
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Memoryof (St.
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(Norton,
Martin’s is
Press, strong
(Vintage,
Daniel caffeinated
1994) The
L. Schacter, – how
Sevencoffee.
false
Sins A friend
memories led to
of Memory: tells
How theSally
a man’s Mind that her
conviction
Forgetsfor test
andsexual
2007)
1996) the biology
– describes of memory.
research abuse.
Remembers (Mariner Books, 2002) – an overview of memory and memory
consistent with thecasting doubt on the validity
model ofofmemory.
some recovered memories. score can
research.
be improved if she takes advantage of state-
Elizabeth Loftus, Eyewitness Testimony (Harvard University Press, 1996) – summarises
a levels-of-processing
research on the limitations of eyewitness testimony. dependent memory by .
Lawrence Wright, Remembering Satan: A Tragic Case of Recovered Memory
CHAPTER REFERENCES
Elizabeth
b Loftus and Katherine Ketcham,
transfer-appropriate The Myth of Repressed Memory (St. Martin’s Press,
processing
(Vintage, 1994) –strong,
a drinking how falsecaffeinated
memories ledcoffee
to a man’s
justconviction
before for thesexual
test
1996) – describes research casting doubt on the validity of some recovered memories. abuse.
c parallel
Abraham, distributed
W. C. (2006). processingThe changing nature of neural
Memory maintenance: b D.
Amodio, doing the rest of her
M., Harmon-Jones, studying
E., Devine, where
P. G., Curtin,the
J. J.,test
et al.will be given
(2004). Neural
xix
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xxi
PREFACE
Welcome to Psychology: An International Discipline in Context ●● focus on developing your psychological literacy, to
(Australia and New Zealand edition). This is an adaptation enable you to better understand and evaluate presented
of Douglas Bernstein et al.’s successful text Psychology (9th evidence.
edition). Preparing this edition provided us with the opportunity to
Studying psychology is both exciting and rewarding – adapt the information presented to ensure its relevance to our
it’s the beginning of a journey which may take you down lives.The book includes regional examples to highlight many of
diverse pathways. In our experience, most students enter the the psychological principles explained.We worked collaboratively
introductory course thinking that psychology concerns itself and sought regional representation, including consulting with
mainly with personality, psychological testing, mental disorders, Indigenous Australian and New Zealand academics, to ensure
psychotherapy and other aspects of clinical psychology. substantial coverage of the material presented.
They have little or no idea of how broad and multifaceted
psychology can be. So many students are surprised when we CHAPTER ORGANISATION
ask them to read about neuroanatomy, neural communication, We have designed each chapter to be a freestanding unit so
the endocrine system, sensory and perceptual processes and that your instructors may assign chapters in any order desired.
principles, prenatal risk factors and many other topics that they For example, many instructors prefer to teach the material
tend to associate with disciplines other than psychology. on human development relatively late in the course, which is
Introductory texts in psychology present an opportunity why it appears as Chapter 12. However, that chapter can be
to discover the reasons behind human behaviour and to comfortably assigned earlier in the course as well.
address the issues which impact upon this behaviour. As you
work your way through this text, you will not only gain Linkages
psychological knowledge but also develop skills with which Many students decide to study psychology through a personal
to evaluate human behaviour. We build on the Bernstein desire to help people.While this is one aspect of the profession,
tradition; specifically, we endeavour to: psychology is much broader and more multifaceted. This
●● explore the full range of psychology, from cell to society, introductory course in psychology will raise your awareness of
in a manner as free as possible of theoretical bias the many different fields of psychology and provide examples
●● balance our need to explain the content of psychology of where psychological knowledge has been of assistance to
with an emphasis on the doing of psychology, through other disciplines. To help you see these relationships, we have
a blend of conceptual discussion and description of built into the book an integrated ‘Linkages’ tool.
research studies
Thinking critically
●● foster scientific attitudes and help you to learn to think
We describe research on psychological phenomena in a way that
critically by examining the ways in which psychologists
reveals the logic of the scientific enterprise, identifies possible
have solved, or failed to solve, fascinating puzzles of
flaws in design or interpretation, and leaves room for more
behaviour and mental processes
questions and further research. We try to display these critical
●● produce a text that, without oversimplifying psychology,
thinking processes in ‘Thinking critically’ and ‘Focus on research
is clear, accessible and enjoyable to read
methods’ sections, as well as throughout the main text.The ability
●● demonstrate that, in spite of its breadth and diversity,
to think critically is both a graduate attribute and a fundamental
psychology is an integrated discipline in which each
component of psychological literacy. As first-year psychology
subfield is linked to other subfields by common interests
students, you will have the opportunity to substantially develop
and overarching research questions – the connection
this capacity, which should serve you well throughout your
between social, clinical, biological and cultural
lifetime in personal, professional and global contexts.
psychologists in researching health and illness is just one
example of how psychologists from different subfields An emphasis on active learning
benefit from and build on one another’s work The many figure and photo ‘Try this’ symbols help you
●● focus learning within the context of graduate attributes to understand and remember a psychological principle
as accepted by the discipline in Australia and New or phenomenon by suggesting ways in which you can
Zealand as well as internationally demonstrate it for yourself. In Chapter 6 (‘Memory’), for
xxii
example, a ‘Snapshot’ caption suggests that students show a Institute on the Teaching of Psychology (NITOP) and is
photo to a friend and then ask the friend questions about it to the Founder of the Association for Psychological Science’s
illustrate the operation of constructive memory. Preconference Institute on the Teaching of Psychology. In
‘Try this’ symbols also appear in page margins at the 2002 he received the American Psychological Foundation’s
many places throughout the book where active learning is award for Distinguished Teaching in Psychology.
encouraged. At these points, we ask you to stop reading and
actually do something to illustrate the psychological principle Julie Ann Pooley is a Professor of Psychology at Edith
or phenomenon under discussion. For example, in Chapter 4 Cowan University, in the School of Arts and Humanities. Julie
(‘Sensation and perception’) we ask you to focus attention on Ann is a passionate educator who was awarded an Australian
various targets as a way of appreciating the difference between Award for University Teaching in 2003 and a Citation for
overt and covert shifts in attention. Outstanding Contributions to Student Learning in 2011 from
the Australian Learning and Teaching Council. Currently, Julie
ONLINE MATERIAL Ann is also the Associate Dean Psychology and Criminology.
An additional chapter on neuropsychology is available online She has published and presented her research work at the local,
through CourseMateExpress, as is an expanded appendix on national and international levels. Julie Ann is also the research
careers in psychology.The decision to include a comprehensive Leader of the Lifespan Resilience Research Group. The focus
guide to careers in psychology was taken because of the of the research group is on developing an understanding of
wide-ranging opportunities available to students studying resilience in different contexts for different populations.
psychology, depending on the level of qualification attained.
We recognise that, today, students may choose to continue Lynne Cohen AM is an Australian Learning and Teaching
their studies at different points in their life. This appendix Council Fellow with an interest in developing leadership in
provides an understanding of the current status of education undergraduate students. She has received numerous awards for
and training for psychology. learning and teaching. Currently, she is Dean of the School
Also available online through CourseMateExpress is of Education and Professor of Psychology at Edith Cowan
a chapter on behavioural genetics, which is designed to University. Lynne is a community psychologist and brings many
amplify the coverage of behavioural genetics methodology years of experience in resiliency research with children and
that is introduced in Chapter 2 (‘Research in psychology’). university students. She has successfully developed transition
The chapter includes a discussion of the impact of the programs which empower students and positively impact
Human Genome Project, a section on the basic principles on their experience and outcomes. She has led a number
of genetics and heredity, a brief history of genetic research of interdisciplinary research teams and is committed to a
in psychology, a discussion of what it means to say that genes collaborative model involving community organisations. Lynne
influence behaviour, and an analysis of what behavioural developed and implemented a literacy program for children
genetics research can and cannot tell us about the origins with learning difficulties and has trained a team of teachers to
of such human attributes as intelligence, personality and provide a service for students with learning difficulties.Together
mental disorders. An online chapter dealing with statistics in with colleagues, she was instrumental in establishing the Lifespan
psychological research and an online appendix on searching Resilience Research Group at Edith Cowan University.
psychology databases are also provided.
Bethanie Gouldthorp is a Lecturer at Murdoch University
where she coordinates and lectures in several undergraduate
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

units in introductory psychology and biological psychology.
Her cohort includes students from Australia as well as offshore
Douglas A. Bernstein is Professor Emeritus at the University students in Singapore. Bethanie has been nominated for
of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, where he served for many several teaching and research awards, including the Murdoch
years as director of the introductory psychology program. He University Vice Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching
is currently affiliated as Courtesy Professor of Psychology at and the Vice Chancellor’s Excellence in Research Award for
the University of South Florida and a Visiting Professor of Early Career Development and Achievement, and has served
Psychology at the University of Southampton in the UK. Dr in a number of roles such as Postgraduate Research Director
Bernstein chairs the Program Committee of the National for Health Sciences. She is dedicated to engaging students
xxiii
of psychology, from first-year level through to postgraduates, head and co-founder of the Aboriginal Youth and Community
through innovative teaching techniques that ensure a high- Wellbeing Program, which promotes wellness and suicide
quality learning experience. Bethanie is also an active prevention with young Aboriginal people in the East Kimberley
researcher, with interests primarily in the cognitive processes region of Western Australia. As head of that program, Professor
and neurobiology that underlie language processing. Drew has lived in East Kimberley Aboriginal communities for
two months each year over the past eight years.
Stephen Provost has been a psychology educator in a variety
of institutions for more than 30 years. He has taught learning, Graeme Gower is a Senior Lecturer and Senior Research
memory, perception, psychopharmacology, statistics and a Fellow, Edith Cowan Institute for Education Research at Edith
variety of topics in experimental psychology. He has a strong Cowan University. Graeme is a descendant of the Yawuru
interest in the appropriate use of technology in teaching. He people of Broome, Western Australia and has been involved in
held grants from the Committee for the Advancement of Indigenous education for 37 years – eight years as a primary
University Teaching in 1993 and 1995, the first relating to school teacher and 29 years in higher education. He is actively
the development of courseware/simulation software, and the involved in teaching and research, and is particularly interested
second relating to the use of hypertext in teaching. He has in Indigenous cultural competency and Indigenous research
been involved in a number of projects funded by the Australian methodologies. He is a strong advocate of cultural competency
Universities Teaching Committee and the Australian Learning training for researchers who engage in Indigenous research to
and Teaching Council, including acting as the Project Officer strengthen ethical practices and effective communication among
for the Disciplinary Review of Psychology (Lipp, O., Terry, participants and Indigenous communities.
D., Chalmers, D., Bath, D., Hannan, G., Martin, F., … Provost,
S. [2007]. Learning Outcomes and Curriculum Development
in Psychology. Sydney: Carrick Institute for Learning and
Teaching in Higher Education. Retrieved from http://
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
www.olt.gov.au/resource-learning-outcomes-psychology- The authors and Cengage Learning would like to thank the
uq-2006). He received the Australian Psychological Society following reviewers for their incisive and helpful feedback:
Award for Distinguished Contribution to Psychological ●● Tom Beesley, University of New South Wales
Education in 2010. Steve is a founding member of the ●● Dimity Crisp, University of Canberra
Australian Psychology Educators Network (APEN). ●● Amanda George, University of Canberra
●● Trevor Hine, Griffith University
Jacquelyn Cranney is an Australian Learning and Teaching ●● Rabiul Islam, Charles Sturt University
Council National Teaching Fellow who has a special interest ●● Mervyn Jackson, RMIT University
in undergraduate psychology education. She has served on a ●● Linda Jones, Massey University
number of national committees concerned with the quality of ●● Diana Karamacoska, University of Wollongong
education and training, and has contributed to reviews on the ●● Evita March, Federation University
aims of undergraduate psychology education in the United ●● Mariann Martsin, Queensland University of Technology
States and Britain. Jacquelyn is a well-recognised educator in ●● Kimberley Norris, University of Tasmania
psychology. She has been instrumental in the development ●● Tania Signal, Central Queensland University.
of the graduate attributes for the four-year Australian Thank you to all the numerous contributors and reviewers
undergraduate psychology program. who assisted in this publication. We would also like to thank
the following authors of Appendix B (‘Searching psychology
CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS databases’):
Neil Drew is Director of Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet at ●● Alfred Allan, Edith Cowan University
Edith Cowan University. Neil has more than 30 years’ experience ●● Paul Chang, Edith Cowan University
working with a diverse range of Aboriginal and Torres Strait ●● Justin Gaetano, Southern Cross University
Islander communities and groups, initially in Queensland and ●● Jann Small, Southern Cross University
more recently in Western Australia. Neil has performed doctoral ●● Craig Speelman, Edith Cowan University
studies in community psychology. His long-term involvement to ●● Mark Stoney, Edith Cowan University
the discipline has been of enormous value in his role as program ●● Margie Wallin, Southern Cross University.
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a discipline has changed immensely since its humble beginnings. There is an amazing array of
professional and applied areas that people with psychological training now work in. In this opening chapter,
we provide an overview of psychology as a discipline and many of the more specialised areas in which
psychologists work. However, the main focus is on providing an understanding of the theoretical and applied
work of the discipline of psychology. It is important to note that the knowledge that you will gain from using
this book underpins much of human behaviour, which is relevant and may be applied to many other disciplines
and professions. We describe the linkages that tie these areas to one another and to other subjects, such
as economics and medicine, and how research in psychology is being applied in everyday life. We then tell the
story of how psychology developed and the various ways in which psychologists approach their work.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1 define psychology 1.4 understand the diversity of psychology
1.2 understand the history of psychology 1.5 develop an awareness of the knowledge, skills and values
1.3 describe the role of the scientific method in the study that reflect the science and application of psychology,
of psychology and the possible career pathways in psychology.
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY
1 Can studying psychology equip you with skills such as good oral and written communication skills and numeracy
skills, well-developed computer skills, the ability to find and research information, and environmental awareness?
2 What other settings, other than psychological practice, do psychologists work in?
Express Bring your learning to life with interactive study and exam preparation tools that support your textbook.
CourseMate Express includes quizzes, videos, concept maps and more.
Introduction 3
INTRODUCTION
A diverse range of employment opportunities is on offer when you study psychology. Studying
psychology at an undergraduate level provides you with a range of skills and competencies that CHAPTER
enable you to work in many different fields. In addition, some people choose to pursue postgraduate OUTLINE
studies and become registered psychologists. In this book, we endeavour to provide you with the ●● The world of
knowledge to consider different pathways for your future studies and employment. psychology: an
Here are a number of people who have used the skills and knowledge gained in their study in overview
psychology: ●● A brief history of
1 Nadine completed an undergraduate degree in psychology and then decided to seek psychology
employment before pursuing further studies. She worked in events management, where she ●● Approaches to
was able to effectively use her excellent oral and written communication skills, knowledge of the science of
human behaviour, and problem-solving ability in a timely and ethical manner. After a year in psychology
the workforce, Nadine decided to study counselling at a postgraduate level. ●● Human diversity
2 Michelle found her dream job working as a regional training coordinator after completing her and psychology
undergraduate degree in psychology. She works in a remote location assisting people as part of ●● Studying and
a mental health and drug service. Her teamwork and oral communication skills are invaluable working in
to her role. psychology in
3 After completing a four-year degree in psychology, Frank went on to complete a Graduate Australia and
Training Program in the public service. After developing his skills in human resources, Frank New Zealand
now manages a human resources department within a university.
4 Donna received an honours degree in psychology and was able to apply her high-level research
skills when she started work in a large metropolitan hospital’s sleep clinic. Using her knowledge
and understanding of psychological theories related to sleep, Donna has progressed in her place
of employment and now coordinates the sleep clinic.
5 Gerry completed a Master of Applied Psychology degree where he focused on community
psychology. He sought employment in a non-government organisation in a regional
location, where his role involves working with families to support children with learning
difficulties.
6 As a graduate with a Master of Applied Psychology with a clinical focus, Josey completed
supervised practice that enabled her to establish her own private clinical practice, which now
employs three clinical staff.
7 Following completion of her honours degree in psychology, Eleanor went on to do a PhD
during which she completed groundbreaking research into effective behavioural interventions
for children with autism spectrum disorder. She now works as an academic in a university and
also consults privately with other organisations.
The people described above are doing fascinating work in different areas, and some are employed
as psychologists in one or more of psychology’s many specialty areas, or subfields. Most of these
people took their first psychology course without realising how many of these subfields there are, or
how many different kinds of jobs are open to people who study psychology. But each of these people
found something in psychology – perhaps something unexpected – that captured their interest, and
they were intrigued. And who knows? By the time you have finished this book and your course, you
may have found some aspect of psychology so compelling that you will want to make it your life’s
work too. At the very least, we hope you enjoy learning about psychology, the work of psychologists,
and how that work benefits people everywhere.
There are a number of perspectives that underpin the structure of this book. In each chapter, we
will highlight the application of psychological knowledge and skills through the appropriate Graduate
Attributes of the Australian Undergraduate Psychology Program: knowledge and its application,
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The neuropsychology of consciousness 385 Applications of hypnosis 400

9 COGNITIVE ABILITIES 430

10 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 476

Sexual orientation 498 10.5 The nature of emotion 511

11 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 542

12 HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING 614

15 SOCIAL COGNITION AND INFLUENCE 800

16 CULTURE AND PSYCHOLOGY 864

17 INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY 896

18 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (ONLINE) 18-2

19 BEHAVIOURAL GENETICS (ONLINE) 19-2

Appendix A: Careers for psychology graduates (online) 21-2

repressed and then

solving and decision Are intelligence

making......................................350 tests unfairly biased against

stress........................................ 401 ●● What shapes sexual

Are personality traits

Does family matter?...............844

in the Australian landscape.... 925

equally effective?.................... 759

people more aggressive?........ 835

Guide to the text

1 Gain an insight into how

2 Identify the key concepts

5.4 Cognitive processes in learning 245

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

THINKING CRITICALLY Learn to analyse evidence and draw

How did the researcher answer the question?

Check your understanding

Linkages features throughout this book.

Linkages diagrams at the end

of every chapter present a set of

Linkages icons are a quick reminder

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 11

308 ● Chapter 6: Memory

b the Brown–Peterson distractor technique

Guide to the online resources

MINDTAP COURSEMATE EXPRESS WEBSITE

WORD-BASED TEST BANK

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

FOR THE STUDENT

COURSEMATE EXPRESS FOR MINDTAP

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