Groundwater Inflow to Tunnels

Breakthroughs in Tunneling
Boulder, Colorado

September 2016

www.jacobs.com | worldwide
Agenda

1. Nature of Inflows
2. Groundwater basics
– Conservation of Mass and Darcy’s Law

3. Practical formulas for calculating inflows

– Different formulas depending on the geology

4. The problem of permeability

– Estimating the permeability of a fractured rock mass

2
Open-Face Tunnels in Hard Rock

3
Inflows through Fractures

4
Rule of Uneven Inflow

1. Most of the inflow occurs in a few places

(from a few, well-connected, open fractures)

2. Some of the inflow occurs in many places

(from many smaller interconnected fractures)

3. Much of the tunnel is dry

(long reaches have no water-bearing fractures)

Total inflows accumulate at the large scale.

Individual inflows occur at medium scale.
Field tests occur at the small scale.
5
Key Question

How much water is my tunnel going to make?

1. What capacity for managing inflows?
• pumps, treatment plant, discharge options

2. Will inflows cause third party impacts?

• ground settlements, dry wells, dry streams

3. Do I need pre-excavation grouting?

• how big a program? what are its goals?

4. Is open-face tunneling even an option?

6
 Groundwater Basics
Inflow: 400 gpm (25 L/s) Resulting Problem:
Depth: 300 feet (90 m) Dry streams half a mile away(800 m)

7
Two Controlling Laws

1. Conservation of Mass (Continuity)

2. Darcy’s Law

Any valid approach to predicting inflows

must address both explicitly!

8
Three Key Issues

1. Source of the Water (Conservation of Mass)

– indicates which equation to use

2. Potential Energy Difference (Darcy’s Law)

– easy to estimate; average values work

3. Transmissivity of the Ground (Darcy’s Law)

– permeability integrated over a large thickness of ground

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Control Volume
• Conservation of Mass: inflows and
outflows must balance.
• Darcy’s Law: flow rate is limited by the
permeability of the ground

𝐿𝐿 = distance along the tunnel 𝑏𝑏

𝑥𝑥 = distance away from the tunnel

𝐿𝐿
𝑏𝑏 = height of the flow zone
𝑥𝑥

10
Darcy’s Law

Direction of flow
∆ℎ
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 ∆ℎ
𝑥𝑥
• 𝑄𝑄 is the flow rate
• ∆ℎ is the head difference over the
distance 𝑥𝑥
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
• 𝐾𝐾 is the average permeability 𝑏𝑏
over the control volume
• 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 is the transmissivity 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥

K is an average value over the whole control volume.

11
Conservation of Mass

∆𝑉𝑉
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑄𝑄1 + 𝑄𝑄2 + ⋯ +
Recharge,

𝑡𝑡 Leakage
𝑄𝑄2

• Flow going out must balance the ∆ℎ

sum of the flows coming in plus the ∆𝑉𝑉
change in storage
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄1
Downstream Upstream

• The change in storage is the

change in volume over time ∆𝑉𝑉⁄𝑡𝑡

• Water table decline is the most important

way to change the storage.

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Formulas for Calculating Inflow

1. Based on Conservation of Mass and Darcy’s Law

2. Some assume a declining water table

3. Some assume steady-state conditions

4. The formula depends on the hydrogeology

13
Concept of Inflow to a Tunnel
Actual Modeled

𝑏𝑏

2𝑏𝑏

• Tunnel is large relative to thickness of flow zone (𝑏𝑏).

• Flow is lateral toward the tunnel, not radial around it.
• Thickness (𝑏𝑏) of flow zone is important.
• Tunnel width is not important

14
Inflow Sketches Static
Water
Table

Unsaturated
Ground
ℎ0
Saturated 𝑏𝑏
Ground
Tunnel

Base of flow system PROFILE

ℎ0 Initial head (depth of tunnel below water table)

𝑏𝑏 Thickness of the flow zone prior to start of inflow

Flow is to one side of the tunnel only!

Double the result to get flow to both sides

15
1: Declining Water Table

• Isotropic (non-stratified) flow system

• Water table draws down toward tunnel
• Water comes from existing storage ℎ0
𝑏𝑏
• Flow declines over time
• Flow can come from both sides (𝑄𝑄 × 2)
• Flow (𝑄𝑄) is proportional to 𝐾𝐾 PROFILE

𝑄𝑄 Inflow to one side of the tunnel

𝐿𝐿 ℎ02
𝐿𝐿 Length of tunnel (or reach) 𝑄𝑄 = ℎ0 − 𝑆𝑆𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝑏𝑏
𝐾𝐾 Average horizontal permeablity
Adapted from Lohman, 1972
𝑆𝑆 Specific yield (free-draining porosity)
𝑡𝑡 Elapsed time since start of inflow
16
2: Upland Recharge
Precipitation
• Flow through random fractures or soil
• Water table draws down toward tunnel
• Recharge is captured over large area ℎ0
𝑏𝑏
• Recharge is independent of drawdown
• Flow can come from both sides (𝑄𝑄 × 2)
• Flow (𝑄𝑄) is proportional to 𝐾𝐾 PROFILE

ℎ02
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐿𝐿 2𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 ℎ0 −
𝑄𝑄 Inflow to one side of the tunnel 2𝑏𝑏
𝐿𝐿 Length of tunnel (or reach)
Derived by Raymer from differential
𝐾𝐾 Average horizontal permeablity equations for continuity and Darcy’s Law

𝑅𝑅 Average groundwater recharge rate

17
3: Downward Leakage in Stratified Ground

• Horizontally stratified flow system

Water
• Lateral flow through permeable layer
ℎ0 Leaky Layer 𝑏𝑏𝑏
• Steady water source above tunnel
• Rate of leakage depends on drawdown Lateral Flow 𝑏𝑏
in main flow zone
• Flow can come from both sides (𝑄𝑄 × 2) PROFILE

• Flow (𝑄𝑄) is proportional to 𝐾𝐾

𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐿𝐿 ℎ0
𝑄𝑄 Inflow to one side of the tunnel 𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝐿𝐿 Length of tunnel (or reach)
Derived by Raymer from differential
𝐾𝐾 Average horizontal permeablity of flow zone equations for continuity and Darcy’s Law

𝐾𝐾𝐾 Vertical permeability of leaky layer

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4: Flow along Dipping Strata or Joints

• Dipping strata or joint set leads from Water

constant water source down to tunnel ℎ0 𝑏𝑏 Body
• Flow only comes from the updip side
𝑥𝑥
• Distance 𝑥𝑥 is along dip of strata or
joints; thickness (𝑏𝑏) is perpendicular
PROFILE
• Flow (𝑄𝑄) is proportional to 𝐾𝐾

ℎ𝑜𝑜
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
𝑄𝑄 Inflow to one side of the tunnel 𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿 Length of tunnel (or reach) Darcy’s Law

𝐾𝐾 Average horizontal permeablity

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Numerical Modeling

1. Does the same thing as these equations, but

with more detail

2. Highly advanced; requires much expertise

3. No better than the your understanding of the
ground or the data you collect.

The geologic and permeability models

are still the hard parts!
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Problem of Permeability

1. Range of test results is enormous

• six orders of magnitude: typically 10-7 to 10-1 cm/sec
• 100,000 times greater than the other parameters

2. Formulas require the average for the rock mass

3. Problem of Scale
Scale of the flow system
Scale of the tunnel
Scale of the tests

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Packer Tests

• Seal off an section of borehole

• Inject water, record flow rate 𝑄𝑄
and applied pressure ∆𝑝𝑝

𝑄𝑄 ln 𝐿𝐿�𝑟𝑟
𝐾𝐾 =
∆𝑝𝑝 2𝜋𝜋𝐿𝐿

𝐿𝐿 = length of interval
𝑟𝑟 = radius of borehole

22
Packer Tests – Scale

• Length
– distance between the packers

• Time (Radius of Influence)

– porosity and permeability
– borehole and pipe volume

Recommendations:
Standard length of about 20 ft (6 m)
Standard duration of about 10 minutes

23
Scale Effects

The estimated average can change greatly

depending on the number and scale of the tests.
1. Estimated average permeability tends to
increase as the number of tests increases
2. Estimated average permeability tends to
increase as the test zones become shorter
3. Estimated average permeability tends to
increase if tests are not run long enough

24
Testing High Permeability Zones

Transient solutions that require much expertise

1. High-rate packer tests
• Perform in existing core holes
• 4 to 6 hours, including injection and recovery
2. Pumping tests
• Requires specially designed well network
• Typically 24 to 72 hours continuous duration

Value:
• Permeability of highest yielding zones
• Insight into which formula to use

25
Testing Rules for Standard Packer Tests

1. Perform hundreds of tests

• many statistical problems are solved with quantity

2. Perform all tests identically

3. Longer vertical intervals produce better results
• 20 ft or 6 m is a good length.

4. Don’t skip any intervals

5. Use more sophisticated methods if necessary
• High-rate packer tests (for takes >10 to 30 gpm)
• Pumping tests in the most extreme circumstances

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Conclusions

1. Put a groundwater expert on your team

• from the beginning to plan the right investigation
• teach your expert about tunnels and fractured rock

2. Inflow formulas depend on the hydrogeology

• one formula does not fit all situations
• square-root of permeability usually controls inflow
• require a lot of geological judgement

3. Permeability is a problem
• average of the tests is not the average for the ground
• saving graces: lots of tests and the square root

27
Three Requirements for Inflow

1. Source
• what is the source of the water?
2. Potential Energy
• how much energy is available to drive the flow?
3. Pathway
• how much resistance will the rock mass create?
• will the pathway be circuitous?

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Source, Head, Pathway

Water Table
River
Soil

Head
Pathways
Fractured
Rock

Tunnel

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Five Hydrogeologic Conditions

1. Massive Rock
2. Blocky Rock
3. Horizontal Fractures
4. Dipping Fractures
5. Karstic Systems

Only the open, water-bearing fractures matter!

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Massive Rock

• No Significant Pathways = Dry Tunnel

Water Table
River
Soil

Fractured
Rock

31
Blocky Rock

• Multiple Open Fractures = flow in any direction

Water Table
River
Soil

Fractured
Rock

Tunnel

32
Horizontal Fractures

• Poor Vertical Connection to the Source

Water Table
River
Soil

Fractured
Rock

33
Dipping Rock

• Direct Connection between Source and Tunnel

Water Table
River
Soil

Fractured
Rock

34
Karstic Rock

• Pipelines to the Source

Water Table
River
Soil

Fractured
Rock

35
Relevant Publications
Jack Raymer, P.G., P.E. (Georgia and others)
jack.raymer@jacobs.com ; jack.raymer@gmail.com
Raymer, J., and Maerz, N. H., 2014, “Effect of Variability on Average Rock-Mass
Permeability,” Procedings of the the 48th Meeting of the American Rock Mechanics
Association, ARMA 14-149, (2nd edition available by email from the author includes post-
publication corrections.)
Raymer, J., 2010, “Geotechnical Variability and Uncertainty in Long Tunnels,” in North
American Tunneling 2010, in Eckert and others, [eds.], Society of Mining Metallurgy and
Exploration, Inc., Englewood, Colorado, pp. 316-322.
Raymer, J., 2005, “Groundwater Inflow into Hard Rock Tunnels: a New Look at Inflow
Equations,” in Proceedings of the Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conference, Society of
Mining Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Englewood, Colorado (2nd edition available by
email from the author includes post-publication corrections.

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September 2016 Jacobs www.jacobs.com | worldwide