Unit -2

Fire Safety: The fire triangle, Explosions, Distinction between fire and
explosions, Flammability characteristics of liquids and vapours, Fire
protection techniques, Fire extinguishers, Fire hazard and analysis,
Prevention of fire, Steps after occurrence of fire, Fire detection, Fire
alarmand firefighting systems, Explosion proof equipment and instruments

Fire Safety
Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire. Fire safety
measures include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those
that are used to limit the development and effects of a fire after it starts.

The Fire Triangle

The essential elements for combustion are fuel, an oxidizer, and an ignition source. These
elements are illustrated by the fire triangle shown in figure.

Fire, or burning, is the rapid exothermic oxidation of an ignited fuel. The fuel can be in solid,
liquid, or vapor form, but vapor and liquid fuels are generally easier to ignite. The
combustion always occurs in the vapor phase; liquids are volatized and solids are
decomposed into vapor before combustion.
When fuel, oxidizer, and an ignition source are present at the necessary levels, burning will
occur. This means a fire will not occur if (1) fuel is not present or is not present in sufficient
quantities, (2) an oxidizer is not present or is not present in sufficient quantities, and (3) the
ignition source is not energetic enough to initiate the fire.
Two common examples of the three components of the fire triangle are wood, air, and a
match; and gasoline, air, and a spark. However, other, less obvious combinations of
chemicals can lead to fires and explosions. Various fuels, oxidizers, and ignition sources
common in the industry are
Fuels
Liquids: gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane
Solids: plastics, wood dust, fibers, metal particles
Gases: acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
Oxidizers
Gases: oxygen, fluorine, chlorine
Liquids: hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, perchloric acid
Solids: metal peroxides, ammonium nitrite
Ignition sources
Sparks, flames, static electricity, heat
In the past the sole method for controlling fires and explosions was elimination of or
reduction in ignition sources. Practical experience has shown that this is not robust enough –
the ignition energies for most flammable materials are too low and ignition sources too
plentiful. As a result, current practice is to prevent fires and explosions by continuing to
eliminate ignition sources while focusing efforts strongly on preventing flammable mixtures.

Explosions
An explosion is a rapid expansion in volume associated with an extreme outward release
of energy, usually with the generation of high temperatures and release of high
pressure gases. Supersonic explosions created by high explosives are known as
detonations and travel through shock waves.

The most common artificial explosives are chemical explosives, usually involving a rapid and
violent oxidation reaction that produces large amounts of hot gas. Gunpowder was the first
explosive to be invented and put to use. Other notable early developments in chemical
explosive technology were Frederick Augustus Abel's development of nitrocellulose in 1865
and Alfred Nobel's invention of dynamite in 1866. Chemical explosions (both intentional and
accidental) are often initiated by an electric spark or flame in the presence of oxygen.
Accidental explosions may occur in fuel tanks, rocket engines, etc.

An explosion results from the rapid release of energy. The energy release must be sudden
enough to cause a local accumulation of energy at the site of the explosion. This energy is
then dissipated by a variety of mechanisms, including formation of a pressure wave,
projectiles, thermal radiation, and acoustic energy. The damage from an explosion is
caused by the dissipating energy.

If the explosion occurs in a gas, the energy causes the gas to expand rapidly, forcing back
the surrounding gas and initiating a pressure wave that moves rapidly outward from the
blast source. The pressure wave contains energy, which results in damage to the
surroundings. For chemical plants much of the damage from explosions is due to this
pressure wave. Thus, in order to understand explosion impacts, we must understand the
dynamics of the pressure wave.

A pressure wave propagating in air is called a blast wave because the pressure wave is
followed by a strong wind. A shock wave or shock front results if the pressure front has an
abrupt pressure change. A shock wave is expected from highly explosive materials, such
as TNT, but it can also occur from the sudden rupture of a pressure vessel. The maximum
pressure over ambient pressure is called the peak overpressure.
The damage effects from an explosion depend highly on whether the explosion results
from a detonation or a deflagration. The difference depends on whether the reaction front
propagates above or below the speed of sound in the unreacted gases. For ideal gases the
speed of sound or sonic velocity is a function of temperature only and has a value of 344
m/s (1129 ft/s) at 20°C. Fundamentally, the sonic velocity is the speed at which
information is transmitted through a gas.

Distinction Between Fire And Explosions

The major distinction between fires and explosions is the rate of energy release. Fires release
energy slowly, whereas explosions release energy rapidly, typically on the order of
microseconds.Fires can also result from explosions, and explosions can result from fires.

A good example of how the energy release rate affects the consequences of an accident is a
standard automobile tire. The compressed air within the tire contains energy. If the energy is
released slowly through the nozzle, the tire is harmlessly deflated. If the tire ruptures
suddenly and all the energy within the compressed tire releases rapidly, the result is a
dangerous explosion.

Definations
Combustion or fire: Combustion or fire is a chemical reaction in which a substance combines
with an oxidant and releases energy. Part of the energy released is used to sustain the
reaction.
Ignition: Ignition of a flammable mixture may be caused by a flammable mixture coming in
contact with a source of ignition with sufficient energy or the gas reaching a temperature high
enough to cause the gas to autoignite.

Figure 2 : Relationships between various flammability properties

Flash point (FP): The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it gives off
enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air. At the flash point the vapor will burn but
only briefly; inadequate vapor is produced to maintain combustion. The flash point generally
increases with increasing pressure.
Fire point: The fire point is the lowest temperature at which a vapor above a liquid will
continue to burn once ignited; the fire point temperature is higher than the flash point.
Autoignition temperature (AIT): A fixed temperature above which adequate energy is
available in the environment to provide an ignition source..
Flammability limits: Vapor-air mixtures will ignite and burn only over a well-specified range
of compositions. The mixture will not burn when the composition is lower than the lower
flammable limit (LFL); the mixture is too lean for combustion. The mixture is also not
combustible when the composition is too rich; that is, when it is above the upper flammable
limit (UFL). A mixture is flammable only when the composition is between the LFL and the
UFL. Commonly used units are volume percent fuel (percentage of fuel plus air).
Lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper explosion limit (UEL) are used interchangeably with
LFL and UFL.

Flammability Characteristics Of Liquids And Vapours

Flammable liquids are always covered with a layer of vapors. When mixed with air and
contacted by an ignition source, it is the vapor, not the liquid which burns. The fuel vapor and
oxygen provide two sides of the fire triangle. A flammable liquid is usually more dangerous
when temperatures are high because more vapors are generated.

Flammable and combustible liquids are liquids that can burn. They are classified, or grouped,
as either flammable or combustible by their flash points. Generally speaking, flammable
liquids will ignite (catch on fire) and burn easily at normal working temperatures.
Combustible liquids have the ability to burn at temperatures that are usually above working
temperatures.

There are several specific technical criteria and test methods for identifying flammable and
combustible liquids. Under the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
(WHMIS)1988, flammable liquids have a flash point below 37.8°C (100°F). Combustible
liquids have a flashpoint at or above 37.8°C (100°F) and below 93.3°C (200°F).

Flammable and combustible liquids are present in almost every workplace. Fuels and many
common products like solvents, thinners, cleaners, adhesives, paints, waxes and polishes may
be flammable or combustible liquids. Everyone who works with these liquids must be aware
of their hazards and how to work safely with them.

Flammable and combustible liquids themselves do not burn. It is the mixture of their vapours
and air that burns. Gasoline, with a flashpoint of -40°C (-40°F), is a flammable liquid. Even
at temperatures as low as -40°C (-40°F), it gives off enough vapour to form a burnable
mixture in air. Phenol is a combustible liquid. It has a flashpoint of 79°C (175°F), so it must
be heated above that temperature before it can be ignited in air.

At normal room temperatures, flammable liquids can give off enough vapour to form
burnable mixtures with air. As a result, they can be a serious fire hazard. Flammable liquid
fires burn very fast. They also give off a lot of heat and often clouds of thick, black, toxic
smoke.
Combustible liquids at temperatures above their flash point also release enough vapour to
form burnable mixtures with air. Hot combustible liquids can be as serious a fire hazard as
flammable liquids.
Spray mists of flammable and combustible liquids in air may burn at any temperature if an
ignition source is present. The vapours of flammable and combustible liquids are usually
invisible. They can be hard to detect unless special instruments are used.
Most flammable and combustible liquids flow easily. A small spill can cover a large area of
workbench or floor. Burning liquids can flow under doors, down stairs and even into
neighbouring buildings, spreading fire widely. Materials like wood, cardboard and cloth can
easily absorb flammable and combustible liquids. Even after a spill has been cleaned up, a
dangerous amount of liquid could still remain in surrounding materials or clothing, giving off
hazardous vapours.
Flammable gases are explosive when they are mixed with air or oxygen in the right
proportions. Examples of flammable gases are propane, hydrogen, butane, methane, ethylene,
acetylene, ammonia, ethane and silane.

Classes of flammable liquids

a. Class I: flash points < 100°F (38 °C)

b. Class II: flash points ≥ 100°F (38 °C) but < 140 °F (60 °C)
c. Class III: flash points ≥ 140°F (60 °C)

Fire Extinguishers
Classification of fire

On the basis of the type of fuel, fires are classified into the following

a. Class A fires—Fires involving solid combustible materials of organic nature such as

wood, paper, rubber, plastics, etc,
b. Class B fires—Fires involving flammable liquids or liquefiable solids or the like
where a blanketing effect is essential.
c. Class C fires—Fires involving flammable gases under pressure including liquefied
gases.
d. Class D fires—Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, aluminium,
zinc, sodium, potassium, etc, when the burring metals are reactive to water and water
containing agents and in certain cases carbon dioxide, halogenated hydrocarbons and
ordinary dry powders.
There exist different kinds of fire extinguishers for extinguishing different classes. These can
be listed as:
1. ABC Pressurized type Fire Extinguishers: This type of fire extinguisher is
applicable for Class A, B & C type of fire. When extinguisher is squeezed, powder is
ejected from the extinguisher.
2. Foam type Extinguishers: Gas/ air bubbles are trapped by a foam binding solution in
water. These extinguishers are used for fire of Class A & B.
3. Dry chemical Powder (DCP) Extinguishers: Sodium based chemical powders are
usually used in these kinds of extinguishers. Fire belonging to Class B & C can be
extinguished using these extinguishers.
4. CO2 Fire Extinguishers: A cylinder is filled with CO2 gas under pressure which
when released displaces the air supporting and surrounding the combustion. These
extinguishers are applicable for Class B & C Fire.
5. Clean Agent: In this type of fire extinguisher, liquid is stored under pressure that
turns to gas on discharge to air. Clean Agent is effective on Class B and C fires
typically petrol, oil, etc.

Fire Hazard And Analysis

Fire hazard is the most frequent of the hazards however the consequences are generally
less. The effect of fire on people usually takes the form of skin burns and is usually
dependant on the exposure time and the intensity of the heat. Fire can also produce toxic
fumes like Acrolein, Carbon monoxide and Cyanides. Physical structures can be damaged
either by the intensity of the heat or combustion. It may also have an effect on essential
services like power and instrumentation which can cause an escalation of the incident.

Fire Hazard Analysis (FHA) aims to determine the adequacy of the fire protection measures
protecting the safety systems and equipment, which are required under all operational states
of the plant. Thus FHA ensures mainly three aspects i.e. the fire does not incapacitate the
safety systems, the compartment has been provided with adequate barrier rating and the
damage due to fire spread is minimized.

A detailed FHA is performed during three occasions at least, a) early in the design phase,
prior to initial commissioning for verification of initial analysis, whenever significant change
is made, e.g. when there is any addition to combustible material inventories; b) prior to and
immediately following major plant (building) modifications; c) major modifications to fire
protection systems including fire barriers, fixed suppression systems, fire detection systems
etc.

The fire hazard analysis should separately identify hazards and provide appropriate protection
in locations where safety related losses could occur as a result of: a) Concentrations of
combustible materials, including transient fire loads due to combustibles expected to be used
in normal operations; b) Configuration of combustible contents, furnishings, building
materials, or combinations thereof conducive to fire spread; c) Exposure to fire, heat, smoke,
steam that may necessitate evacuation from areas that are required to be attended for safety
functions; d) Fire in control rooms or other locations having critical safety related functions;
e) Lack of adequate access or of smoke removal facilities that impede fire extinguishment in
safety related areas; f) Lack of explosion prevention measures; g) Loss of electric power and
h) Inadvertent operation of fire suppression systems. The possibility of a fire spreading from
one unit to the other unit should be taken into account in the fire hazard analysis.

The available methods to estimate the potential impact of fire can be divided into two
categories: risk-based and hazard-based. Both types of methods estimate the potential
consequences of possible events. Risk-based methods also analyze the likelihood of scenarios
occurring, whereas hazard-based methods do not

Steps of a Fire Hazard Analysis

• Selecting a target outcome

• Determining the scenario(s) of concern that could result in that outcome

• Selecting an appropriate method(s) for prediction of growth rate of fire effects

• Calculating the time needed for occupants to move to a safe place

• Analyzing the impact of exposure of occupants or property to the effects of the fire

• Examining the uncertainty in the hazard analysis

 • Documentation of the fire hazard analysis process, including the basis for selection of
models and input data

Prevention Of Fire
Fire prevention is the elimination of the possibility of a fire being started. However, as the
risk cannot be completely eliminated, it is advisable to adapt/ implement optimum fire
prevention measures at the design stage itself. This design stage is not limited for industry
only, rather it is also applicable to cases like modification or construction of a new structure
be it a residential or commercial. Prevention can occur through successful action on the heat
source, the fuel source or the behavior that brings them together. Such actions involve regular
housekeeping, safe and appropriate disposal of waste, safe storage of combustibles e.g. LPG
cylinders, wooden waste etc.

To prevent fire the following principles should be followed:

 Internal combustion engine powered equipment must be located so that exhausts are
away from combustible materials.
 Smoking is prohibited at, or in the vicinity of operations which constitute a fire
hazard. Such operations must be conspicuously posted: ‘‘No Smoking or Open
Flame.’’
 Portable battery powered lighting equipment must be approved for the type of
hazardous locations encountered.
 Combustible materials must be piled no higher than 20 ft. Depending on the stability
of the material being piled, this height may be reduced.
 Keep driveways between and around combustible storage piles at least 15 ft wide and
free from accumulation of rubbish, equipment, or other materials.
 Portable fire extinguishing equipment, suitable for anticipated fire hazards on the
jobsite, must be provided at convenient, conspicuously accessible locations.
 Firefighting equipment must be kept free from obstacles, equipment, materials, and
debris that could delay emergency use of such equipment. Familiarize yourself with
the location and use of the project’s firefighting equipment.
 Discard and/or store all oily rags, waste, and similar combustible materials in metal
containers on a daily basis.
 Storage of flammable substances on equipment or vehicles is prohibited unless such a
unit has adequate storage area designed for such use.

Steps After Occurrence of Fire

 Actuate the manual fire alarm call point.
 Alert personnel nearby so that they can come to your help/inform security section.
 Determine what is burning.
 Use the right type of extinguisher for fighting the fire. Use the fire extinguisher only if
you have attended practical training.
 Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape behind you before you
attempt to use an extinguisher to put out a fire.
  If the person who notices the fire feels that it cannot be tackled by extinguishers, he
can directly inform the fire station without delay.
 On hearing the alarm evacuate the building and assemble at the designated assembly
point.
 As you evacuate close the doors of the rooms(do not lock) as this will slow down the
spread of smoke and fire.
 While moving out of the building always use stairways.
 Do not use lifts, they may fail mid way trapping people inside.

Precautions
 Keep fire doors of the staircase closed. If kept open, heat and smoke will enter the
staircase during fire and prevent escape of occupants.
 Do not obstruct emergency equipment. Fire extinguishers must be easily accessible.
 Materials must not be stored in front of exits or along stairways blocking them.
 Know the exits in the building.
 Display emergency contact numbers near the telephone

Fire Protection Techniques

Fire protection in land-based buildings, offshore construction or onboard ships is typically

achieved via all of the following:

» Passive fire protection

» Active fire protection
» Education

Passive fire protection

Passive measures are static measures that are designed to control the spread of fire and
withstand the effects of fire. These measures are the most frequently used methods of
protecting life and property in buildings from a fire.

This protection confines a fire to a limited area or ensures that the structure remains sound for
a designated period of fire exposure. Its popularity is based on the reliability of this type of
protection, since it does not require human intervention or equipment operation. Common
types of passive protection include fire-stopping, fire separations, equipment spacing, use of
noncombustible construction materials, use of low-flame-spread/low-smoke-development
rated materials, substation grading, provision of crushed rock around oil-filled equipment,
etc.

The degree of passive protection for a building structure would be based on the occupancy of
the area and the required structural integrity. The structural integrity of a building is critical in
order to preserve life and property. The premature structural failure of a building before the
occupants can evacuate or the fire department can suppress the fire is a major concern.
Building and electrical codes will provide some of the criteria for structural fire resistance.
Active fire protection

Active fire protection measures are automatic fire protection measures that warn occupants of
the existence of fire and extinguish or control the fire. These measures are designed to
automatically extinguish or control a fire at an earliest stage without risking life or sacrificing
property.

The benefits of these systems have been universally identified and accepted by building and
insurance authorities. Insurance companies have found significant reduction in losses when
automatic suppression systems have been installed.

An automatic suppression system consists of an extinguishing agent supply, control valves, a

delivery system, and fire detection and control equipment. The agent supply may be virtually
unlimited (such as with a city water supply for a sprinkler system) or of limited quantity
(such as with a water tank supply for a sprinkler system). Typical examples of agent control
valves are deluge valves, sprinkler valves, and halon control valves. The agent delivery
systems are a configuration of piping, nozzles, or generators that apply the agent in a suitable
form and quantity to the hazard area (e.g., sprinkler piping and heads).

Fire detection and control equipment can be either mechanical or electrical in operation.
These systems can incorporate a fire detection means such as sprinkler heads, or they can use
a separate fire detection system as part of their operation. These active fire protection systems
detect a fire condition, signal its occurrence, and activate the delivery system. Active systems
include wet, dry, and pre-action sprinklers, deluge systems, foam systems, and gaseous
systems.

Education

The provision of information regarding passive and active fire protection systems to building
owners, operators, occupants, and emergency personnel so that they have a working
understanding of the intent of these systems and how they perform in the fire safety plan

Fire Detection and Fire Alarm

Fire detection systems are designed to discover fires early in their development when time
will still be available for the safe evacuation of occupants. Early detection also plays a
significant role in protecting the safety of emergency response personnel. Property loss can
be reduced and downtime for the operation minimized through early detection because
control efforts are started while the fire is still small. Most alarm systems provide information
to emergency responders on the location of the fire, speeding the process of fire control.

Addressable Fire Alarm System: In an analog Addressable system detectors are wired in a
loop around the buildings with each detector having its own identity. System may contain one
or more loops depending upon the size of the building. An addressable fire alarm system
provides an exact location of the fire. This minimizes the response time of emergency
services and first responder

Conventional Fire Alarm System: In conventional fire alarm system detectors give
information about specific circuits (zones). System is not applicable for large buildings
having too many rooms.

Photo electrical smoke detector: Photo electrical detectors are of two types:
A. Photoelectric Light Obscuration.
B. Photoelectric Light Scattering.

A. Photoelectric Light Obscuration Smoke Detection - The principle of using a light

source and a photosensitive sensor onto which the principal portion of the source emissions is
focused. When smoke particles enter the light path, some of the light is scattered and some is
absorbed, thereby reducing the light reaching the receiving sensor. The light reduction signal
is processed and used to convey an alarm condition

B. Photoelectric Light-Scattering Smoke Detection - The principle of using a light source

and a photosensitive sensor arranged in such a way that the rays from the light source do not
normally fall onto the photosensitive sensor. When smoke particles enter the Light path,
some of the light is scattered by reflection and refraction onto the sensor. The light signal is
processed and used to convey an alarm condition.

Linear Heat Sensing Cables: Linear heat sensing cables detect heat anywhere along the
length of the cable. The cable is comprised of two zinc-coated spring steel conductors,
individually coated with a heat-sensitive thermoplastic polymer engineered to melt at fixed
temperatures. Once the polymer melts, the conductors initiate contact with one another and
communicate with the control panel to sound alarms or activate suppressing systems. This
detector is suitable for cables galleries and conveyor system.
Auto dialer: An automatic device that can automatically dial telephone numbers to
communicate between any two points in the telephone, mobile phone networks. Once the call
has been established the auto dialer will announce verbal messages to the called party.

Fire Detectors Installation

The choice of the initiating devices shall be dictated by the application, type and
characteristics of fire risks in the protected area.

Fire Alarm Output Devices

Upon receiving an alarm notification, the fire alarm control panel must now tell someone that
an emergency is underway. This is the primary function of the alarm output aspect of a
system. Occupant signaling components include various audible and visual alerting
components, and are the primary alarm output devices. Bells are the most common and
familiar alarm sounding device, and are appropriate for most building applications. Horns are
another option, and are especially well suited to areas where a loud signal is needed such as
architecturally sensitive buildings where devices need partial concealment. Chimes may be
used where a soft alarm tone is preferred. Speakers are the fourth alarm sounding option,
which sound a reproducible signal such as a recorded voice message. They are often ideally
suited for large, multistory or other similar buildings where phased evacuation is preferred.
Speakers also offer the added flexibility of emergency public address announcements. With
respect to visual alert, there are a number of strobe and flashing light devices. Visual alerting
is required in spaces where ambient noise levels are high enough to preclude hearing
sounding equipment, and where hearing impaired occupants may be found

Another key function of the output function is emergency response notification. The most
common arrangement is an automatic telephone or radio signal that is communicated to a
constantly staffed monitoring center. Upon receiving the alert, the center will then contact the
appropriate fire department, providing information about the location of alarm. In some
instances, the monitoring station may be the police or fire departments.

Other output functions include shutting down electrical equipment such as computers,
shutting off air handling fans to prevent smoke migration, and shutting down operations such
as chemical movement through piping in the alarmed area. They may also activate fans to
extract smoke, which is a common function in large atria spaces. These systems can also
activate discharge of gaseous fire extinguishing systems, or preaction sprinkler systems.

Firefighting Systems
Fire fighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant
unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodlands, etc. Fire fighting system is a system of
equipment used to prevent, extinguish, localize, or block fires in enclosed spaces.

Manually Operated Fire Fighting Systems

The following type of fire fighting systems are manually operated fire fighting systems

 Hose reels

 Fire brigade

Hose reels

A fire hose is a high-pressure hose that carries water or other fire retardant (such as foam) to
a fire to extinguish it. Outdoors, it attaches either to a fire engine or a fire hydrant. Indoors, it
can permanently attach to a building's standpipe or plumbing system. Fire hose reel systems
consist of pumps, pipes, water supply and hose reels located strategically in a building,
ensuring proper coverage of water to combat a fire.

Fire Brigade

Fire Brigade an organized body of people trained and employed to extinguish fires.
A firefighter suppresses fires to protect lives, property and the environment Firefighters
typically undergo a high degree of technical training, This involves structural firefighting and
wildland firefighting. Specialized training includes aircraft firefighting, shipboard
firefighting, aerial firefighting, maritime firefighting, and proximity firefighting.
One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic environment
created by combustible materials. The four major risks are smoke, oxygen deficiency,
elevated temperatures, and poisonous atmospheres. Additional hazards
include falls and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems encountered in a toxic
environment. To combat some of these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing
equipment.

The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire
and to identify the specific risks. Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal,
or chemical flame inhibition.
Automatically Operated

• Automatic Sprinkler

• Drencher System

• Fixed Foam Installation

• Carbon dioxide System

• Halon System (outdated)

Automatic Sprinkler

A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection method, consisting of a water supply
system, providing adequate pressure and flowrate to a water distribution piping system, onto
which fire sprinklers are connected. Although historically only used in factories and large
commercial buildings, systems for homes and small buildings are now available at a cost-
effective price. Fire sprinkler systems are extensively used worldwide, with over 40 million
sprinkler heads fitted each year. In buildings completely protected by fire sprinkler systems,
over 96% of fires were controlled by fire sprinklers alone

Drencher System

Drenchers are a system of water heads that are used for the fire protection. In contrast
to sprinklers which are found internally, drenchers are normally found on the exterior of
a building to protect against a fire from a neighbouring building. They tend to be positioned
on roofs and over windows and external openings.

Another difference between sprinklers and drenchers is that all nozzles in

the drencher system are activated simultaneously, whereas individual nozzles in a sprinkler
system open when activated.

Fixed Foam Installation

Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids. The blanket
prevents flammable vapors from leaving the surface and prevents oxygen from reaching the
fuel. A fire cannot exist when the fuel and oxygen are separated, and therefore, a properly
placed foam blanket will smother the fire. In addition, the water in the foam also has a
cooling effect, which gives foam the ability to cool surrounding structure to help prevent
flash back.

The ideal foam should flow freely enough to cover a surface rapidly, yet have adequate
cohesive properties to stick together sufficiently to establish and maintain a vapor tight
blanket. In addition, the solution must retain enough water to provide a long-lasting seal.
Rapid loss of water would cause the foam to dry out and break down (wither) from the high
temperatures associated with fire. The foam should also be light enough to float on
flammable liquids, yet heavy enough to resist winds.

Carbon dioxide System

Carbon dioxide or CO2 is a colorless, odorless, electrically non-conductive gas that is highly
efficient as a fire suppression agent. Carbon Dioxide fire protection systems use intelligent,
reliable and fast-acting control panels to quickly sense a fire before it can cause damage to
property. Carbon dioxide gas has a high rate of expansion, which allows a CO2 fire
protection system to work fast.

When applied to a fire, CO2 provides a heavy blanket of gas that reduces the oxygen level to
a point where combustion cannot occur. Since carbon dioxide is a gas, there is no clean-up
associated with a CO2 fire suppression system discharge. That means minimal interruption to
industrail business. In fact, the cost of clean-up and peripheral damage associated with water
sprinkler systems, foam systems and dry chemical agents can exceed the costs associated
with the actual fire damage. With a Carbon Dioxide system, clean-up costs and downtime
associated with a CO2 discharge are negligible.

CO2 fire suppression system is extremely versatile and effective on a wide range of
flammable and combustible materials and approved for Class A, B and C hazards. Carbon
Dioxide fire protection systems are available for use in total flooding or local fire protection
applications – making it an effective fire protection system for a wide variety of hazards.

Halon System

Halon 1301 (BTM) and Halon 1211 (BCF) are two halogenated hydrocarbon gases with
special fire extinguishing properties. Unlike other extinguishing agents which cool the fire or
displace oxygen the Halon gases inhibit the actual flame reaction. As a result of its low
vapour pressure when liquefied Halon can be stored in low-pressure containers. Alternatively
if a standard carbon dioxide cylinder is used then approximately three times as much gas can
be stored. An additional advantage is that the atmosphere in a Halon flooded space is not
toxic, although some highly irritant gases are produced in the extinguishing process.

A Halon storage system would be very similar to one using carbon dioxide except that fewer
cylinders would be required. The liquefied Halon is usually pressurised in the cylinders with
nitrogen in order to increase the speed of discharge. Bulk storage tanks of Halon gas are also
used with cylinders of carbon dioxide and compressed air being used to operate the control
system and expel the gas.

Explosion proof equipment and instruments

All electrical devices are inherent ignition sources. Special design features are required to
prevent the ignition of flammable vapors and dusts. The fire and explosion hazard is
directly proportional to the number and type of electrically powered devices in a process
area.

Process areas are divided into two major types of environments: XP and non-XP. XP, for
explosion proof, means flammable materials (particularly vapors) might be present at
certain times. Non-XP means that flammable materials are not present, even under
abnormal conditions. For non-XP designated areas open flames, heated elements, and
other sources of ignition may be present.

Explosion-Proof Housings

In an XP area the electrical equipment and some instrumentation must have special
explosion-proof housings. The housings are not designed to prevent flammable vapors and
gases from entering but are designed to withstand an internal explosion and prevent the
combustion from spreading beyond the inside of the enclosure. A motor starter, for
example, is enclosed in a heavy cast walled box with the strength needed to withstand
explosive pressures.

The explosion-proof design includes the use of conduit with special sealed connections
around all junction boxes

Area and Material Classification

The design of electrical equipment and instrumentation is based on the nature of the
process hazards or specific process classifications. The classification is a function of the
nature and degree of the process hazards within a particular area. The rating method includes
Classes I, II, and III, Groups A-G, and Divisions 1 or 2.

The classes are related to the nature of the flammable material:

Class I: Locations where flammable gases or vapors are present.

Class II: Same for combustible dusts.
Class III: Hazard locations where combustible fibers or dusts are present but not likely to be
in suspension.

The groups designate the presence of specific chemical types. Chemicals that are grouped
have equivalent hazards:
Group A: acetylene
Group B: hydrogen, ethylene
Group C: carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide
Group D: butane, ethane, ethyl alcohol
Group E: aluminum dust
Group F: carbon black
Group G: flour

Division designations are categorized in relationship to the probability of the material being
within the flammable or explosive regions:

Division 1: Probability of ignition is high; that is, flammable concentrations are normally
present.
Division 2: Hazardous only under abnormal conditions. Flammable materials are
normally contained in closed containers or systems.

Design of an XP Area

When designing an XP area, all pieces of electrical equipment and instrumentation are
specified for the class, group, and division, as discussed previously. All pieces of
equipment and instrumentation within an area must be appropriately specified and
installed. The overall classification is only as good as the piece of equipment in an area
with the lowest classification