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CHAPTER 17 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

CHAPTER 18 The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

vi BRIEF CONTENTS NEL

Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
 CONTENTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

PART 1: Our Environment . . . . 1

Age Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
CHAPTER 1 Environmental Change . . . . . . . 2
Future World Population Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Demographic Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Assessing Human Impacts on the Environment . . . . . 49
The Anthropocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Carrying Capacity and the Ecological Footprint . 49
Accelerating Rate of Environmental Change . . . . . . . 4
A Question of Balance: Recognizing Our
Exploring Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Dependence on Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Awakening Environmental Concern . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Development Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Rio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
After Rio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CHAPTER 3 Science and Environment . . . . 58
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Pathways to a Sustainable Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Sustainability Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Knowledge Systems: Multiple Ways of Knowing . . . 60
Personalizing Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Environmental Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Disciplines and Interdisciplinarity . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHAPTER 2 Human Relationships with

Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
World Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Early Human Culture and an
Agrarian World View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Religion and Environmental Attitudes . . . . . . . . . 26
Expansionist and Ecologic World Views . . . . . . . 28
Environmental Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Pavel Cheiko/Shutterstock

Science in Environmental Decision Making . . . . . 36

Integrated Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Unintended Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Population Growth and Environmental Impact . . . . 39
Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

NEL vii
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
 How Science Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Scientific Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . 69
Meta-analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Alternatives to Reductionist Science . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Weight of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Earth System Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Complex Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
How Research Becomes Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Peer Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Choosing a Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Journal and Author Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Open Access Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Misunderstandings about Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Use of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
False Equivalency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
CHAPTER 4 Our Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Matter and Energy: Basic Building Blocks of Nature . . 94
Matter and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Law of Conservation of Matter . . . . . . . . . . 96
First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Formation of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Calculating the Age of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Earth’s Structure and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Earth’s Major Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
The Biosphere: A Complex System . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Classifying Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Organisms in Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
viii CONTENTS
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Symbiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Environmental Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Energy Flow in Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Nutrient Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Responses to Environmental Stress . . . . . . . . . . 120
Humans in Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Working with Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
CHAPTER 5 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Canada’s Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Canada’s Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Canadian Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Canada’s Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Indigenous People of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
First Nations Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
First Nations Post-Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Inuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Métis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Constitutional Federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Environmental Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fiscal Federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
PART 2: Ecological
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
CHAPTER 6 Managing Ecological
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Development of Resource Management . . . . . . . . 178
Environmental Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Environmental Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
NEL

saul landell/mex/Getty Images
Ecosystem Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Origins of Ecosystem Management . . . . . . . . . 184
Co-management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Stewardship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Assessing Ecological Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Traditional Ecological Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . 191
Life-Cycle Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Placing an Economic Value on Nature . . . . . . . . . 193
Environmental Performance Indicator:
Canada and the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
CHAPTER 7 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
International Assessment of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . 204
Scientific Approaches to Understanding
Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Defining Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Measuring Biological Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Patterns of Biodiversity Across Space and Time . . . 209
The Importance of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Canada’s Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Human Activities and Impacts on Biodiversity . . . . 213
NEL
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Habitat Alteration Due to Human Activities . . . . 214
Habitat Alteration Due to Competition
from Non-native Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Habitat Alteration Due to Harvesting . . . . . . . . 218
Habitat Alteration Due to Toxic Contaminants . . 218
Habitat Alteration Due to Urbanization . . . . . . 219
Habitat Alteration Due to Cumulative
Agents of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Species at Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
In Situ Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Ex-Situ Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
International Strategies to Protect Biodiversity . . . . 234
Canadian Law, Policy, and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Protecting Canadian Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Future Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . 241
Environmental Performance Indicator:
Biodiversity and Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
CHAPTER 8 Agroecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Importance of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Canada’s Agricultural Land Base . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Canada’s Agricultural Production . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Agri-Food Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Biofuels: Non-Food Agricultural Production . . . . 255
Agricultural Activities and their Effects . . . . . . . . . 260
Effects on Soil Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Effects on Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Responses to Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . 285
International Policy Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Canada’s Agricultural Policy Framework . . . . . 287
Nontraditional Agricultural Activities . . . . . . . . 289
Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Environmental Performance Indicator:
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 9 Fresh Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Canada’s Freshwater Environments . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Freshwater Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
The Freshwater Fishery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Earth’s Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Water Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Other Important Water Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Water as a Source of Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Water as a Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Water for Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Water Legislation and Policy
Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Making a Difference Locally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Environmental Performance Indicator:
Water and Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
CHAPTER 10 Oceans and Fisheries . . . . . 328
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Canada’s Marine Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Canada’s Arctic Ocean Environment . . . . . . . . 330
Canada’s Pacific Ocean Environment . . . . . . . 340
Canada’s Atlantic Ocean Environment . . . . . . . 346
Summary of Concerns Facing Canada’s
Ocean Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Harvesting the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Canada’s Fishing Fleet: The Early History . . . . . 350
Era of Big Fishing Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
x CONTENTS
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Fish Stock Assessment: How Many Fish Should
Be Harvested? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Collapse of the Northern Cod Fishery . . . . . . . 354
Wild Pacific Salmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Environmental Performance Indicator:
Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
CHAPTER 11 Forests and Forestry . . . . . . . 372
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
The Earth’s Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Global Distribution of Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Drivers of Deforestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Old-Growth Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Temperate Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Boreal Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Harvesting Canadian Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Forest Ownership and Jurisdictions . . . . . . . . . 383
Forestry Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Forestry Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
The Need for Change in Forestry . . . . . . . . . . 397
Environmental and Social Sustainability of Forest
Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Standards and Codes of Practice . . . . . . . . . . 402
High Conservation Value and Community
Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Integrating Values into Sustainable Forest
Management: British Columbia’s Forest Practices
Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Forestry and Canada’s Aboriginal
People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Environmental Performance Indicator: Forests . . 413
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
NEL

CHAPTER 13 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Associated Press
PART 3: Commonly Held and
Legacy Resources:
The Overview . . . . . . . . . . . 419
CHAPTER 12 Atmosphere and Climate . . . 420
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Earth’s Natural Climate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Ocean-Atmosphere Coupling: Teleconnections . 429
Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Factors Involved in Climate Change . . . . . . . . . 431
Evidence of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
CHAPTER 14 Minerals and Mining . . . . . . 500
Significant Elements of Our Changing Climate . 434
Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions . . . . . . . 435
Predicting the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Climate Change Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Threats and Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation . . . . . 444
Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Stratospheric Ozone (O3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Changes in the Ozone Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Tropospheric Air Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
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Air Quality Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Tropospheric Ozone and Smog . . . . . . . . . . . 458
The Acid Rain Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Energy Supply and Demand in Canada . . . . . . . . 470
Uses of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Energy Resources and Environmental Impacts . . . . 472
Fossil Fuels: Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Fossil Fuels: Heavy Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Fossil Fuels: Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Fossil Fuels: Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Hydroelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Responses to Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . 486
Emerging Energy Resources and
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Incentives for Emerging Energy Resources . . . . 490
Energy Efficiency and Conservation . . . . . . . . . 491
Our Energy Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Environmental Performance Indicator: Energy . . 493
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Mineral Resource Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Mineral Resources in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Value of Canada’s Mineral Production . . . . . . . 505
Historical Overview of Mining in Canada . . . . 507
Canada’s First Diamond Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Environmental Impacts of Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Mineral Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Mine Development and Mineral Extraction . . . . 518
Processing of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
CONTENTS xi
 Mine Closure and Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Responses to Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . 523
Partnerships for Environmental Sustainability . . . 523
Stewardship and Reducing Waste . . . . . . . . . . 525
Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Further Sites of Mineral Extraction . . . . . . . . . . 528
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
PART 4: Getting to Tomorrow:
The Overview . . . . . . . . . . . 535
CHAPTER 15 Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Canada’s Waste Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Waste Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Air Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Emerging Substances of Concern (ESOC) . . . . . 552
Global Context of Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
jaroslava V/Shutterstock
xii CONTENTS
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Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
CHAPTER 16 Environmental Hazards and
Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Ways of Thinking about Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Social Determinants of Human Health . . . . . . . . . 562
Types of Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Non-communicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Communicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Chemical Threats to Our Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Air Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Toxic Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Chemical Management in Canada . . . . . . . . . 580
Risk Assessment for Toxic Chemicals . . . . . . . . 580
Risk Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
CHAPTER 17 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
An Urbanizing Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
Environment and Urbanization in Historical
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
The Rise of Megacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Urban Environmental Conditions and Trends . . . . . 598
The City and Food Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Atmosphere and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Water Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Sustainable Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Used Materials and Abandoned Sites . . . . . . . 613
Green Space in the City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
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CHAPTER 18 The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . 624 Toward Shared Governance for
Chapter Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634

Why It Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 The Importance of Individuals and

Collectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Toward Sustainable Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Taking Action: Canadian Models of Sustainability . . 638
Those Left Behind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Chapter Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Now for the Long Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Chapter Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
If Not Business as Usual, What? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Reconceptualizing Environmental Challenges . . . . 631
Measuring, Monitoring, and Reporting on
Environmental Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Science, Values, and Policy-Making . . . . . . . . . 632 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dianne Draper
University of Calgary
Dianne Draper is a full professor in the department of geography
at the University of Calgary, Alberta. She is the founding author
of Our Environment: A Canadian Perspective. She is r­ ecognized
for her research in sustainable tourism, ecotourism, and tourism
growth management, as well as planning and policy in water
resources and coastal zone management. Her current research
focuses on governance and quality of life issues in tourism and
other communities as they work toward sustainability, and on
managing growth and its impacts on communities, including
wildlife, water resources, and parks and protected areas.
Ann Zimmerman
University of Toronto
I started my academic career at the University of Toronto in
1976 in what was then the Department of Zoology. My first
assignment was to teach ZOO471: Limnology or the physics,
chemistry, and biology of freshwater ecosystems. The depart-
ment was an epicentre of freshwater research and I was soon
invited to join the Lake Ecosystems Working Group, which over
xiv
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the next decade focused on both basic and applied research
in Ontario lakes. The issue of acid rain quickly brought home
to me the interdisciplinary nature of this environmental issue.
My broadening interest in environment—writ larger than I
had previously recognized—brought me into contact with col-
leagues in departments as diverse as philosophy, economics,
and sociology, in addition to the science departments in our
faculty, and with individuals in the faculties of medicine, applied
sciences, forestry, and architecture.
The university was recognizing the desirability of finding
ways to work collaboratively across the disciplines inter-
ested in environment and I had the opportunity to work with
numerous colleagues as the founding director of the Division
of the Environment, a unit that has subsequently morphed into
the university’s School of Environment. One of the courses I had
already developed—ENV200 or Global Change: Science and
Environment—became the introductory course for the divi-
sion’s B.A. program. I was also able to contribute to ENV234:
Environmental Science, the ­foundation course for our B.Sc.
program.
These experiences culminated in my last administra-
tive position at the university: founding director of our newly
acquired research centre: the Koffler Scientific Reserve at Jokers
Hill. I retired after my term there but remain engaged with the
academic community as Professor Emerita, a position that has
afforded me the luxury of time to contribute to this edition of
Our Environment.
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The fifth edition of this book represents something of a depar-
ture from previous editions. I began using Our Environment in
my Global Change course in 1998, the first year it was published.
I had been relying on U.S. environmental texts up until then, and
while the science may be the same, the issues and our approaches
to them differ from those of our southern neighbours. I have
used all four editions since, and when I was presented with the
opportunity to collaborate with Dianne on this fifth edition, I
could not pass up the opportunity to tweak the text to better
serve my students—students interested in the environment, but
not intending to pursue environmental science.
Environmental problems are often first identified by sci-
entists who provide the data that can guide environmental
policy/management, so this fifth edition expands its coverage
of the scientific evidence underpinning environmental issues.
Nevertheless, a long time may elapse between the first obser-
vations of an issue and the emergence of an effective political
response. Consequently, the text continues to provide exam-
ples of successes and still covers barriers to effective policy
implementation.
Sometimes issues are resolved relatively quickly—removal of
phosphorus from various detergents or replacements for chlo-
rofluorocarbons, for example. Other issues such as acid rain can
take a decade or more to address. Highly complex issues—loss
of global biodiversity or global environmental change—remain
unresolved. Important in moving these issues forward has been
and will continue to be both environmental professionals and
an informed public.
This book is intended as an introduction. Whether students
are taking only one general course on environmental issues or
intend to specialize in this area, my hope is that you will find
this text helpful.
In addition to a richer explanation of the science that under-
pins many environmental issues, this edition adds a chapter on
Canada as well as chapters on managing resources, waste man-
agement, health and risk, and re-arranges others. Instructors will
note that there are now 18 shorter chapters organized into four
sections. Part I includes five chapters: Environmental Change,
Human Relationships with Nature, Science and Environment,
Our Planet, and the new chapter on Canada. This new chapter
includes information on our geography, geology, and climate;
our governance structure and its implications for environmental
responsibilities; and examples of special places in our country.
Part II contains six chapters on resources, including biodiver-
sity. Part III deals with legacy and common pool resources:
atmosphere, climate, energy, and mining. Part IV looks to the
future: managing wastes, hazards and health, and urbanization,
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PREFACE
culminating in the way forward. Detailed information on all the
chapters is included in the following section on Organization.
There are some new features in each chapter as well. Offsets,
quotations or explanations relevant to the chapter material, are
clearly demarked with a coloured stripe and a distinct typeface.
The Chapter Debate asks students to think about a controversial
issue attendant to the chapter’s topic. Why It Matters encapsulates
important questions characterizing a particular topic and why we
need to understand it. More information is available in the section
entitled ‘New in the Fifth Edition’.
Features
Our Environment, fifth edition, contains several special fea-
tures to help students. Each chapter begins with a list of
Chapter Learning Outcomes so that students are aware of the
concepts they will come to understand as they read and study
the chapter. Why It Matters raises important questions about
chapter topics and why we need to understand them. Offsets
appear throughout the chapters to provide additional explana-
tions or quotations relevant to the material. Key terms appear
in bold throughout the text; definitions for these terms are
found in the Glossary. Our Environment and the EnviroFocus
boxes identify a range of personal interest/impact issues, from
a list of Canada’s special places to proposals to re-wild North
American ecosystems, the challenges in managing the dis-
charge of municipal sewage, our ocean environment, and the
competition between wild species and humans for habitat.
Each chapter ends with a Making a Difference case study that
provides not only real illustrations of environmental problems but
also demonstrates how people have applied the principles and
concepts discussed in the text to the resolution of environmental
issues at various geographic scales. These cases are intended to
help students understand how economic, social, political, and
environmental elements interconnect, and how they relate to our
scientific and traditional ways of understanding our environment.
Finally, they graphically illustrate that individual actions matter.
Chapter Debates at the end of Chapters 2 through 18 ask students
to think critically about issues related to the chapter, and the
Chapter Questions at the end of each chapter will engage students
while developing observational and critical thinking skills. A list
of References containing research sources also appears at the end
of each chapter.
xv
Organization
Part I: Our Environment
Here we introduce the key concepts and processes funda-
mental to understanding our environment.
Chapter 1: Environmental Change discusses the accelerating
rate of environmental change and the important concept of
sustainability. It introduces students to the concept of the
Anthropocene, Paul Crutzen’s popularization of an approach
that discriminates between the early Holocene’s human
impacts—small scale and local—and the more recent massive
impacts of industrialized society. It discusses the differences
in Earth’s recovery from natural as opposed to anthropogenic
impacts. It then turns to a discussion of the nuances of “sus-
tainable development.” It starts with a history of awakening
environmental concerns, highlighting Canadian perspec-
tives—particularly our critical roles at the 1992 Earth Summit
and the opening of divergent perspectives among Canadians
by the time we reach Rio +20. Making a Difference 1 is a tribute
to the late Bob Hunter, a founding member and first president of
Greenpeace. EnviroFocus 1 proposes the need for a transforma-
tion of society, echoing ecotheologian Wendell Barry’s observa-
tion that you can’t have healthy humans on a sick planet.
Chapter 2, Human Relationships with Nature, suggests ways
humans are both a part of and apart from nature. It introduces
the concept of critical thinking, expands on world views, and dis-
cusses environmental decision making with its attendant risks
of unintended consequences. This chapter now also includes an
updated human demography section. EnviroFocus 2 addresses
the Earth Charter, while Making a Difference 2 features the work
of citizens’ panels. The Chapter Debate asks how environmental
policy and management are affected by world views.
Chapter 3, Science and Environment, discusses various “ways
of knowing.” It explains the positivist epistemology of science
and the misunderstandings that can occur when the differences
among the operational protocols of various disciplines are not
recognized. It briefly introduces Thomas Kuhn and the con-
cept of the scientific paradigm along with Karl Popper and the
falsifiable hypothesis. Other topics include scientific measure-
ment, statistical significance, significant figures, and inductive
and deductive reasoning. There are sections on meta-analysis,
weight of evidence, and the precautionary principle. The
chapter introduces complexity and general systems theory, non-
linearity, and chaos. It includes a section on how research
becomes knowledge: choosing a journal, peer review, open
access journals, and journal and author impacts. It closes with a
section on misunderstandings about science—particularly the
issue of false equivalency in the media. Making a Difference 3
features the partnership between David Suzuki and the NHL’s
Andrew Ference on energy conservation. EnviroFocus 3 dis-
cusses the value of long-term research. The Chapter Debate asks
about the balance between individual and group rights with
respect to voluntary versus mandatory vaccination.
xvi PREFACE
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Chapter 4, Our Planet, discusses matter and energy and
Earth’s formation. It then discusses Earth’s major compart-
ments: the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and bio-
sphere. The chapter includes energy flow, nutrient cycles, and
stress responses and introduces concepts of evolution, adap-
tation, natural selection, speciation, and extinction. It closes
with a section on working with nature. Making a Difference 4
features Buzz Holling and his work on adaptive management
and ecosystem resilience. EnviroFocus 4 discusses the role of
patch dynamics in ecological restoration. The Chapter Debate
asks whether the expense and risks from sudden sea level rise
warrant a more aggressive response than seen previously.
Chapter 5, Canada, is a new chapter. It opens with a discus-
sion of Canada’s climate, geology, and geography, and how our
current boundaries came to be established. This is followed by a
section highlighting special ecosystems from each province and
territory (EnviroFocus 5). It ends with a discussion of Canadian
governance structures, constitutional federalism, Indigenous
rights, environmental protection, and fiscal federalism, and
their impact on the environmental responsibilities of different
levels of government. Making a Difference 5 features the work of
the Group of Seven and its influence on development of a new
paradigm for Canadian art. The Chapter Debate asks how we
should proceed with exploitation of shale gas.
Part II: Ecological Resources
Here we introduce populations, habitats, their relationships to
each other, and the environment.
Chapter 6, Managing Ecological Resources, is a new chapter
that focuses on the assessment and sustainable management
of resources. It covers the history of resource management and
environmental assessment, including the implications of the
status of the previous government’s changes to the Canadian
Environmental Assessment Act. (It is important to note that
the 2015 federal election came toward the end of the writing
of this fifth edition. Some things have already changed under
the new government and more changes will occur. Check out
the Twitter feed [https://twitter.com/DrZ_environment or @
DrZ_environment] for updates.) The chapter introduces the
concept of environmental risk assessment, ecosystem-based
management, and the increasing use of co-management and
reliance on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). Concepts
such as life-cycle assessment, economic valuation of nature,
and environmental performance indicators are also discussed.
Making a Difference 6 features Professor Emeritus Henry
Regier, a central figure in the development of ecosystem man-
agement. EnviroFocus 6 outlines the adoption of ecosystem
­management for the Great Bear Rain Forest. The Chapter
Debate asks whether we should place economic valuation on
ecosystem services.
Chapter 7, Biodiversity, covers both international and Canadian
biodiversity issues, discusses how biodiversity is assessed and
measured, and why it is important. It covers how humans impact
NEL
biodiversity and approaches to protecting it, both internationally
and specifically in the Canadian context. EnviroFocus 7 covers
Pleistocene re-wilding or the value in replacing the ecological
roles of long extinct species. Making a Difference 7 features the
Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding. The Chapter Debate asks
about the ethics of removing feral species from ecosystems.
Chapter 8, Agroecosystems, discusses Canada’s agricultural
land base and agricultural food and non-food production (e.g.,
biofuels). It covers the environmental impacts of conventional
agriculture, international and Canadian policy responses to
those environmental impacts, and what is needed to move
­agriculture to a more sustainable basis. Making a Difference
8 ­features the Canadian Young Farmers Forum (CYFF).
EnviroFocus 8 talks about genetically modified organisms
(GMOs). The Chapter Debate discusses the environmental
dilemma of locally versus globally sourced foods.
Chapter 9, Fresh Water, discusses the ecological behaviour and
natural capital value of freshwater ecosystems: lakes, rivers, wet-
lands, and groundwater, as well as freshwater fisheries. It then
moves to a discussion of fresh water as a resource: water supply,
usage, quality, quantity, and management. The chapter closes with
a discussion of other important water issues: water as a source of
conflict, water as a hazard, and water for recreation. EnviroFocus
9 features the rehabilitation of the Sydney, Nova Scotia, tar ponds.
Making a Difference 9 features Dr. David Manz, inventor of the
BioSand Water Filter (BSF). The Chapter Debate discusses how
scarce freshwater resources might be allocated.
Chapter 10, Oceans and Fisheries, covers Canada’s three
marine environments—Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans—
as well as issues particular to each system and Canada’s rights
and responsibilities under the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea. It then turns to marine fisheries, in both
international and Canadian contexts, and further highlights sig-
nificant environmental issues impacting ocean environments.
Our Environment 10-11 highlights Ron Sparrow and his ulti-
mately successful fight in the Supreme Court for recognition of
Aboriginal rights. The Sparrow decision means Aboriginal rights
with respect to natural resources supersede those of the prov-
inces, territories, and the federal government. EnviroFocus 10
discusses the Franklin Expedition and its implications for the
sovereignty of the Northwest Passage. Making a Difference 10
features Professor Daniel Pauly and his Sea Around Us Project,
which offers solutions to stakeholders on addressing the impact
of fisheries on the marine ecosystem. The Chapter Debate
asks whether we should eat farmed salmon. The issue of the
recent approval of GMO salmon—the first genetically modified
animal—can be accessed at the Twitter feed: https://twitter.
com/DrZ_environment or @DrZ_environment.
Chapter 11, Forests and Forestry, discusses the status of global
as well as Canadian forests and the importance of the natural
capital value of forests over and above timber harvest. It then
turns to forest harvest practices and the development of sus-
tainable approaches to that harvest. EnviroFocus 11 presents
NEL
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hemp as a sustainable alternative to wood. Making a Difference
11 highlights Merv Wilkinson and his stewardship of Wildwood
Forest, an internationally recognized model of sustainable for-
estry. The Chapter Debate features perspectives on managing
the boreal forest.
Part III: Commonly Held and Legacy Resources:
The Overview
Here we introduce issues around our atmosphere and climate,
energy, and mining. While different from the ecological systems
of Part II, each is nevertheless associated with significant envi-
ronmental issues, many of which are linked.
Chapter 12, Atmosphere and Climate, explains the organi-
zation and behaviour of the atmosphere, human impacts on
it (climate change, loss of stratospheric ozone, gains in tropo-
spheric ozone, and acid precipitation), and Canadian as well
as international responses to protect it. EnviroFocus 12 deals
with the implications of climate change for Canada’s Arctic.
Making a Difference 12 features Kali Taylor and the organiza-
tion StudentEnergy. The Chapter Debate asks whether geoengi-
neering the climate is a good policy choice, given the apparent
intractability of mitigation strategies.
Chapter 13, Energy, was written by Dr. Lucy Sportza,
Universities of Guelph and Toronto. It covers fossil fuels and
their environmental impacts, nuclear energy and its issues,
and hydro power. It then turns to new, renewable technologies
and incentives for their adoption. Our Environment 13-2 is a
snapshot of energy in Canada and around the world. Making a
Difference 13 features Thomas Berger and the MacKenzie River
Pipeline Inquiry. The Chapter Debate asks whether we should be
drilling for oil and gas in the Arctic.
Chapter 14, Minerals and Mining, was also written by
Dr. Sportza. The chapter covers the nature and distribution
of Canada’s non-fuel mineral resources, the impacts of their
extraction on the environment, current international and
Canadian responses to these impacts, and the challenges of
developing a sustainable approach to mining. EnviroFocus 14
discusses underground gardening in exhausted mineshafts.
Making a Difference 14 f­ eatures MiningWatch Canada, an ENGO
dedicated to ensuring mining practices support both sustain-
able communities and the health of ecosystems. The Chapter
Debate asks whether mining is a net benefit or loss for the
Northwest Territories.
Part IV: Getting to Tomorrow: The Overview
In this last part of the book, we look toward the future.
Chapter 15, Waste, is a new chapter that discusses Canadian
waste streams and their management. Given that everything
in nature is a resource for something else, the chapter asks
how humans could move to a zero waste society. EnviroFocus
15 describes how Nova Scotia attained a waste diversion rate
more than twice the national average. Making a Difference 15
highlights Nova Scotia and its energy reduction program, which
PREFACE xvii
is almost twice that of other provinces. The Chapter Debate asks
whether landfills or energy to waste incinerators are a better
choice for dealing with waste.
Chapter 16, Environmental Hazards and Human Health, is
also a new chapter. It introduces the social determinants of
health, causes of illness, acute and chronic disease, morbidity,
and mortality. It also addresses the health risks from exposure
to toxic chemicals and introduces the concepts of risk: assess-
ment, management, and perception. EnviroFocus 16 highlights
the emerging issue of Lyme disease. Making a Difference 16
­profiles Pierre Gosselin, lead author on the first Canadian
study of the health impacts of climate change. The Chapter
Debate asks whether actuarial risk assessment or risk percep-
tion lie at the heart of the failure to adopt the GMO golden rice.
Chapter 17, Cities, discusses our urbanizing world, its
environmental conditions and trends, and the implications
for cities as models of sustainability. EnviroFocus 17 fea-
tures urban agriculture. Making a Difference 17 profiles Peter
Halsall, CEO of the Canadian Urban Institute, and a leader
in the development of more sustainable urban environ-
ments. The Chapter Debate asks whether the “smart” city is
an over-hyped concept driven by our appetite for big data
and technology vendors with deliberate or unacknowledged/
unknown biases, or a better approach to engaging citizens
and managing issues like resource consumption, health care,
water, waste management, and transportation.
Chapter 18, The Way Forward, asks what kind of a world we want
to leave to future generations and how we get there. EnviroFocus
18 discusses the Talloires Declaration and its implication for the
role of universities in environmental education, research, policy
formation, and information exchange necessary to reach that
future world. Making a Difference 18 highlights the Co-operators
Youth Program for Sustainable Leadership and its goal of empow-
ering university and college students across Canada to be effective
agents for change. The Chapter Debate focuses on approaches to
sustainable management of common pool resources.
New in the Fifth Edition
The fifth edition of Our Environment contains significant changes
and updates throughout. This edition contains enhanced
­coverage of the science that underpins many environmental
issues. Often the historical backdrop to issues is included to help
students appreciate the political machinations that complicate
or even obstruct resolution of environmental issues. The text
now has 18 shorter chapters, grouped into four parts, including
four new chapters: Canada (Chapter 5), Managing Ecological
Resources (Chapter 6), Waste (Chapter 15), and Environmental
Hazards and Human Health (Chapter 16).
In addition to updating every chapter with current topics
and information, several new features have been added to help
students actively engage in their studies. The Why It Matters
­section at the beginning of every chapter summarizes important
xviii PREFACE
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
questions about the chapter topics and why we need to under-
stand them. Offsets offer explanations or quotations relevant to
the material under discussion, and the Chapter Debates at the end
of the chapters ask students to think about a controversial issue
related to chapter topics. Finally, the fifth edition contains all
new critical thinking Chapter Questions at the end of each chapter.
The Twitter feed hopes to keep students up to date.
The following list of specific chapter changes highlights some
of the new key and updated topics and examples that have been
included in the fifth edition.
Part I: Our Environment
Chapter 1 Environmental Change
• New coverage of the Anthropocene, the rate of environ-
mental change, sustainable development, Rio, and pathways
to a sustainable future.
• Added boxed features include the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Rio+10 the Kingston
Declaration, and a profile of Bob Hunter.
Chapter 2 Human Relationships with Nature
• New boxed features cover topics including land banking,
Europe’s old-age dependency and immigration, the Earth
Charter, and citizens’ panels.
Chapter 3 Science and Environment
• New coverage of alternatives to reductionist science, Earth
system science (complex systems, feedback, non-linearity,
emergence, chaos), and research and knowledge (peer
review, choosing a journal, journal and author impact, and
open-access journals).
• Added boxed features include Aldo Leopold’s “Land Ethic”;
Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper on the falsifiable hypoth-
esis and scientific prediction; Canadian Roger Tomlinson,
inventor of GIS; the acquisition of scientific knowledge; and
systems thinking.
Chapter 4 Our Planet
• New coverage of the formation of Earth (age calculation,
structure, and processes).
• Addition of numerous figures to illustrate the rock cycle,
mid-Atlantic Ridge, tectonic changes, compartments of the
hydrologic cycle, radiation budget, trophic pyramid, and
cladogram.
• New boxed features include entropy and time, a discus-
sion of Earth’s timeline, the Keystone Species concept, and
the biosphere.
Chapter 5 Canada
• New dedicated chapter covering Canada’s climate physiog-
raphy and special ecosystems in each province and territory.
It also discusses Canada’s Indigenous peoples, governance,
and resource revenues, as well as the role of the Supreme
Court in environmental issues.
NEL
• Hot topics such as the issue of exploitation of shale gas are
discussed in the Chapter Debate.
• New boxed features cover the Canadian court system, justi-
ciable issues and environmental law, and offshore resource
issues in Newfoundland and Labrador as precursors to the
Atlantic Accord.
Part II: Ecological Resources
Chapter 6 Managing Ecological Resources
• This new chapter focuses on the assessment and sustainable
management of resources. It covers important and timely
topics including environmental assessments, environmental
risk assessment, ecosystem management, co-management,
stewardship, assessing ecological resources, traditional eco-
logical knowledge (TEK), and life-cycle analysis.
Chapter 7 Biodiversity
• This chapter is now earlier in the book and includes new
sections covering species at risk (in situ and ex situ conser-
vation), international strategies to protect biodiversity, and
Canadian law, policy, and practice. It discusses how humans
impact biodiversity and Canadian and international
approaches to protecting it.
Chapter 8 Agroecosystems
• New Our Environment boxes highlight important topics and
issues such the life-cycle analysis of corn ethanol, wind erosion,
dust bowls and Badlands, integrated pest management (IPM),
lab-cultured meat, prairie and ­heritage conservation areas, the
World Trade ­Organization, and agricultural reform.
Chapter 9 Fresh Water
• Expanded and updated coverage of ecological behaviour
and natural capital value of fresh water ecosystems and
important water issues related to water as a source of con-
flict, water as a hazard, and water for recreation.
• New maps of Canada’s heritage rivers, Canada’s five major
drainage systems, and the watershed of the Great Lakes and
the areas of concern.
• Updated figures of global sectoral trends in water use and
annual water use by country.
Chapter 10 Oceans and Fisheries
• Expanded and updated coverage throughout the chapter of
Canada’s three marine environments and the environmental
issues impacting ocean environments.
• New coverage of ocean geography, sewage treatment,
by-catch, the Pacific halibut fishery and ITQs, and the
Marine Stewardship Council can be found in the Our Envi-
ronment boxed features.
• New figures illustrate the principle of maximum sustain-
able yield, arrival of factory ships off the Grand Banks and
increased cod harvest, voluntary NAFO quotas for cod, and
the commercial extinction of the cod fishery.
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Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Chapter 11 Forests and Forestry
• New boxed features highlight important topics, including
temperate rainforests and the Acadian forest and private
woodlots in the Atlantic provinces.
• New section covering Forest 2020 and tree planta-
tions discusses the issue of meeting the world’s need
for wood and simultaneously managing forests for
­ecological sustainability.
• Several new or updated tables, including estimated defor-
estation in Canada by sector, harvested and ­regenerated
(2009–2011); Canada’s participation in international
and national forestry initiatives; and ­Canada’s EPI
performance.
• New maps and photos of tropical and temperate
rainforests, temperate deciduous forest and taiga forest,
the provincial and territorial forested areas, and the
Carolinian Forest.
Part III: Commonly Held and Legacy Resources: The
Overview
Chapter 12 Atmosphere and Climate
• More comprehensive coverage of the atmosphere,
human impacts on it (climate change, loss of
stratospheric ozone, gains in troposphere ozone, and
acid precipitation), and Canadian as well as ­international
responses to protect it.
• Added boxes on hot topics such as implications of
climate change for Canada’s Arctic and the Chapter Debate
asking whether geoengineering the climate is a good
policy choice.
• New figures and illustrations include estimates for seven
climatic forcing functions, Earth’s weather and climate, and
GHG emissions in Canada.
• Added maps of drought levels in B.C., world rainfall levels,
and air pollution issues.
Chapter 13 Energy
• New sections on offshore and northern oil and gas devel-
opment, fossil fuels and their environmental impacts, and
limited pipeline infrastructure in Canada including two
controversial proposals: Keystone Pipeline System and the
Energy East Pipeline. A new map of Canada’s oil and gas
transportation infrastructure is also provided.
Chapter 14 Minerals and Mining
• Updated coverage of the International Council on Mining
and Metals (ICMM) report outlining the issues the industry
must address in order to adapt to climate change.
• Expanded coverage of the impacts of Canada’s mineral
extraction on the environment and the associated futures
challenges of developing a sustainable approach to mining.
Making a Difference 14 discusses MiningWatch Canada,
an ENGO dedicated to ensuring mining practices support
PREFACE xix
 both sustainable communities and the health of ecosys-
tems. The Chapter Debate asks whether mining is a net ben-
efit or loss for the Northwest Territories.
• New maps and photos of clusters in the Canadian Mining
Industry, Slave Geological Province, and the Ring of Fire
mineral belts.
Part IV: Getting to Tomorrow: The Overview
Chapter 15 Waste
• New chapter that discusses Canadian waste streams and
their management and how humans could move to a zero
waste society.
• Our Environment boxed features cover hot topics such as
landfills, zero waste, electricity generation and waste water,
microbeads, the National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI),
e-waste, mercury poisoning, and dangerous dumpsites. Other
important topics covered include Nova Scotia’s waste diver-
sion rate and how the province’s successful energy reduction
program made it by far the most successful in Canada.
Chapter 16 Environmental Hazards and Human Health
• New chapter covering the social determinants of health,
causes of illness, acute and chronic disease, morbidity,
and mortality. Other important topics discussed are the
health risks from exposure to toxic chemicals; vacci-
nations; cholera; ecological medicine; risk assessment,
management, and perception; and Lyme disease.
• Important coverage of the first Canadian study by Pierre
Gosselin of the health impacts of climate change.
Chapter 17 Cities
• Expanded and updated discussion of urban environmental
conditions and trends, including topics such as 3D printers,
robots, and urban agriculture.
• New coverage profiling Peter Halsall, CEO of the Canadian
Urban Institute, and leader in the development of sustain-
able urban environments. The Chapter Debate asks whether
the “smart” city is an over-hyped concept driven by tech-
nology vendors.
Chapter 18 The Way Forward
• Current coverage of important issues such as the need
to reconceptualize environmental challenges, the deficit
equilibrium, sustainable communities, and the challenges
to sustainability.
• Updated coverage of the Talloires Declaration and its
implication for the role of universities in the education,
research, policy formation, and information exchange,
and new coverage of the four Es that foster sustainable
development.
• New boxed features include discussions of Co-­operators
Youth Program for Sustainable Leadership, the deficit
equilibrium, the bottom billion, and challenges
to sustainability.
xx PREFACE
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Instructor Resources
The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA)
program delivers research-based instructor resources that
­
promote student engagement and higher-order thinking to
enable the success of Canadian students and educators. Visit
Nelson Education’s Inspired Instruction website at http://
www.nelson.com/inspired/ to find out more about NETA.
The following instructor resources have been created for Our
Environment: A Canadian Perspective, fifth edition. Access these
ultimate tools for customizing lectures and presentations at
www.nelson.com/instructor.
NETA Test Bank
This includes over 600 multiple-choice questions written
according to NETA guidelines for effective construction and
development of higher-order questions. Also included are
true/false, completion, and short answer questions.
The NETA Test Bank is available in a new,
cloud-based ­platform. Nelson Testing Powered by Cognero® is
a secure online testing system that allows instructors to author,
edit, and manage test bank content from anywhere Internet
access is available. No special installations or downloads are
needed, and the desktop-inspired interface, with its drop-down
menus and familiar, intuitive tools, allows instructors to create
and manage tests with ease. Multiple test versions can be cre-
ated in an instant, and content can be imported or exported into
other systems. Tests can be delivered from a learning manage-
ment system, the classroom, or wherever an instructor chooses.
Nelson Testing Powered by Cognero for Our Environment can be
accessed through www.nelson.com/instructor.
NETA PowerPoint
Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for every chapter have
been created by Silvija Stefanovic, University of Toronto. There
is an average of 35 slides per chapter, many featuring key f­igures,
tables, and photographs from Our Environment. NETA princi-
ples of clear design and engaging content have been incorpo-
rated throughout, making it simple for instructors to customize
the deck for their courses.
Image Library
This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables,
and photographs used in the book. Instructors may use these
jpegs to customize the NETA PowerPoint or create their own
PowerPoint presentations.
Videos
Instructors can enhance the classroom experience with the
exciting and relevant videos provided directly to students
through MindTap. These videos have been selected to accom-
pany Our Environment.
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MindTap
Offering personalized paths of dynamic assignments and
applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution that turns
cookie-cutter into cutting-edge, apathy into engagement, and
memorizers into higher-level thinkers. MindTap enables stu-
dents to analyze and apply chapter concepts within relevant
assignments, and allows instructors to measure skills and
promote better outcomes with ease. A fully online learning
solution, MindTap combines all student learning tools—
readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments—into a single
Learning Path that guides the student through the curriculum.
Instructors personalize the experience by customizing the pre-
sentation of these learning tools to their students, even seam-
lessly introducing their own content into the Learning Path.
Student Resources 
MindTap
Stay organized and efficient with MindTap—a single destina-
tion with all the course material and study aids you need to suc-
ceed. Built-in apps leverage social media and the latest learning
technology. For example:
• ReadSpeaker will read the text to you.
• Flashcards are pre-populated to provide you with a jump
start for review—or you can create your own.
• You can highlight text and make notes in your MindTap
Reader. Your notes will flow into Evernote, the electronic
notebook app that you can access anywhere when it’s time
to study for the exam.
• Self-quizzing allows you to assess your understanding.
• Videos provide additional insights to topics discussed in the
textbook
Visit http://www.nelson.com/student to start using
MindTap. Enter the Online Access Code from the card included
with your text. If a code card is not provided, you can purchase
instant access at NELSONbrain.com.
Acknowledgments
The authors have benefited greatly from the assistance of many
people in preparing this edition of Our Environment. We would
like to extend special thanks to Vicky Falk and Kim Sanderson,
who provided effective research assistance on previous editions.
In particular, we acknowledge the essential research and writ-
ing contributions of Sharla Daviduik in bringing to fruition the
“Making a Difference” component.
NEL
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Ian Dawe, Lorn Fitch, Dave Irvine-Halliday, Wil Holden,
Lawrence Nkemdirim, and Kees Vanderheyden kindly took
the time to write specific materials for this edition; thank you
for your willingness to contribute your expertise. Many people
responded to requests for information and photographs and we
thank you for your contributions.
We are very grateful for the assistance of the talented mem-
bers of the editorial and production team at Nelson Education.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Jackie Wood,
Elke Price, Christine Gilbert, Carolyn Jongeward, and Bob Saigh.
Others helped in other ways, and we would like to thank them,
too: Deborah Crowle and the CrowleArt Group, Dave McKay,
and Ann Sanderson. We would like to acknowledge many others
who assisted in reviewing earlier editions of this textbook and
made important suggestions for improvements in this book.
Although remaining errors and deficiencies are ours, we extend
our thanks to the following for their useful suggestions and
thoughtful comments, which helped to shape this edition:
Darren R. Bardati, Bishop’s University
Ben Bradshaw, University of Guelph
H. Carolyn Peach Brown, University of Prince Edward Island
John Buschek, Carleton University
Tim Green, Georgian College
Lorelei Hanson, Athabasca University
Mark Hanson, University of Manitoba
Maxwell Ofosuhene, Trinity Western University
Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia
Roxanne Richardson, Saint Mary’s University
Silvija Stefanovic, University of Toronto
Barry Weaver, Camosun College
Michael Wilson, Douglas College.
Finally, we thank our families for the commitment and sup-
port they have given us during this project. We would like to
dedicate this edition to all who have nurtured our love for this
Earth and our place within it. We also would like to challenge
ourselves, and every reader of Our Environment, to examine our
motivations, beliefs, and behaviours with respect to the environ-
ments within which we live our everyday lives, and to take those
actions we can in moving our society and environment toward
a sustainable future.
Dianne Draper
Calgary, Alberta
Ann Zimmerman
Toronto, Ontario
PREFACE xxi
Copyright 2017 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
 PART I
Our Environment

The five chapters in Part I of this book introduce the key concepts
and processes fundamental to understanding our environment.
Chapter 1 discusses the accelerating rate of environmental
change and the important concept of sustainability. Chapter 2
examines world views with respect to the relationship of humans
and nature, and also human population growth and Earth’s
carrying capacity. Understanding environment means learning
about science and its protocols for discovering new knowledge,
the subject of Chapter 3. Chapter 4 discusses the building
blocks of nature, the complex system of the biosphere, and
ecosystem responses to stress. In Chapter 5, the focus is on
Canadian issues with relevance to the environment.
Muskoka Stock Photos / Shutterstock.com

NEL 1
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Another random document with
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brought together, sometimes after a much longer separation than
that of the brothers. One would be some poor broken lad who
sometimes was a little bashful or shy about the meeting; the other
was Jesus of Nazareth, the Saviour of the world. Not many
concerned themselves about these meetings, but—there was “joy
among the angels.”
 Chapter XXXI
An Unexpected Turning

It was now November. The days were passing very quickly for I was
kept busy; convoys were coming daily. Passchendael was being
fought. I had to visit the D. I.’s and S. I.’s very often, for many were
being admitted. One morning I stopped just long enough to prepare
an Australian for death. He had been wounded through the throat
and could not swallow, so that it was impossible for me to give him
Holy Communion. I absolved him and anointed him quickly, then I
told him I must pass on as I had many more to visit. It was almost
impossible for him to speak, and he did so with great pain, but as he
gave me his hand and his dying eyes looked at me, he made a great
effort. “Cheerio,” he whispered. Truly these wonderful lads were not
downhearted!
During the month of November thousands of patients passed
through the hospital. Everybody was working extremely hard.
Sometimes during the night, convoys arrived. The anaesthetist, who
sat next me at mess, told me that he was beginning to feel that he
could not continue very much longer; for days he had been giving
chloroform almost steadily, as there were very many operations. We
were both longing for a little lull in the work so that we might get a
few hours’ rest.
There were many places where the officers of the hospitals used to
go. There was “The Blue Cat” at Paris Plage, a famous seaside
resort about three miles from Etaples, where they went to have tea
and bathe in the sea. There was the village of Frencq, where a little
old lady kept a small coffee house and made omelettes that were
famous. Then there were two officers’ clubs and an officers’
circulating library at Etaples. I had been to the library at different
times while at the base. There was a large reading-room
exceptionally well lighted, for it was a part of an old studio. Tea was
served every afternoon from 3:30 to 6:00 o’clock, at which a number
of old English officers assembled. It was very amusing to listen to
them relating past experiences, in which often a good dinner was not
forgotten. They treated the soldier-waiter as if he were one of their
own personal servants, calling him often; and although there was but
one syllable in his name (it was Brown) they managed to twist the
last letter into a rather complaining inflection. I watched Brown a
number of times, and although he came “on the double” and stood
head erect, looking at his nose, as all good butlers do, still I thought I
detected on more than one occasion a merry light in his bright brown
eyes, and he seemed to be exerting a little extra will power in
keeping his lips composed.
Then one day there came a lull in the rush of work, and being
advised by one of the officers to take a little recreation, I obeyed.
I recall that afternoon particularly. I went to the officers’ circulating
library, which was at the rear of the town hall, where I passed the
afternoon very pleasantly looking through a delightfully illustrated
edition of “Our Sentimental Garden,” by Agnes and Egerton Castle,
whose home I had visited while at Bramshott. The quarto volume
contained many drawings of their pretty garden from different angles.
It was very restful sitting in the quaint old studio, through the great
windowed wall of which streamed the autumn sunlight.
Towards five o’clock tea was served by my old friend, the butler
humorist. Then as the sun went quietly down into the sea, far out, I
walked back to No. 7, feeling very much benefited by my visit,
meeting hundreds of soldiers, nurses and civilians on the way.
It was dusk when I entered my little burlap hut. I lit the lamp, and as I
did, the light flashed over an open letter on my newspaper-covered
desk. All the feeling of exhilaration which had cheered my return
walk left me suddenly, and an overwhelming, foreboding cloud came
over my spirits; for the letter said: “Please come quickly, Padre, there
is one of your men dying in Ward 3, bed 17.” It was signed by the
adjutant of No. 1 hospital, and the hour of the day was marked on
the letter. It had been sent at 2:30. It was now 6:00 p. m. I turned
down the lamp and went quickly out of the little hut praying, as I ran
up the road, that the lad might be still alive. I walked down the ward,
not noticing the friendly faces that turned to greet me, as was their
custom. The red screens were around the bed. I moved them gently
and stood quietly by the lad’s bed. An orderly moved a little to one
side.
“He’s dead, sir,” said the orderly. “Died just a minute ago.”
I put on my purple stole, gave the lad conditional absolution and
anointed him conditionally. Then I stood for a long while looking on
his still white face, wishing with all my heart that I had not left the
hospital that day. Then the orderly made a little movement and I
turned and went down the aisle of the ward, repressing a great
desire to burst into tears; it was the first time, through my neglect,
that I had ever missed a call to the dying. In passing I talked to a few
patients, but there seemed to be a strange numbness in my brain, so
that I did not follow the words spoken by the occupants of different
beds where I stopped; one or two ceased speaking and looked at me
keenly.
Just as I was about to leave the ward little Sister Daughney came in.
She stopped and spoke to me, and her words were as sweetest
music to my ear.
“Ah, Father,” she said—Sister was from Ireland—“I sent for you this
afternoon for the lad who has just died. He would have been glad to
see you, Father, although there was no need; for he said he had
been anointed and prepared for death just six hours before up in the
C. C. S.”
I looked at the little sister talking so quietly and in such a matter-of-
fact way: while thundering in my ears was the desire to break forth
into a great Te Deum Laudamus. She spoke to me of two or three
new patients who might develop more serious symptoms, then
passed on to other duties, whilst I went up the lane to my little
marquee chapel to kneel before the tabernacle and make known to
God my fervent gratitude. And so, after all, I had passed a very
pleasant day.
 Chapter XXXII
Private Belair

The days passed quickly, for they were well filled, and sometimes at
night the call would come; my door would open quite abruptly,
awakening me, and the light from a small flash-light would dazzle my
surprised eyes, while a voice called, “R. C. chaplain?” I recall one
night in particular. I had been awakened by the orderly calling, to find
him standing at the head of my bed, his flash-light focused on a
message written on white interlined paper that he held before my
eyes. The words read: “Come quickly, Father, Wd 14, bed 7, Belair,
gassed.” It was signed Sister Kirky, who weighed almost 300
pounds. In twelve minutes I was dressed and standing in the ward by
Private Belair. I was a little surprised to find him sitting up with just
his tunic and boots removed. He sat in such a way that his arms
rested over the back of his chair which he faced. He was panting
terribly and was evidently suffering greatly. Every little while, when
he seemed to have sufficient strength, he would begin to pray in
whispered Latin, “O bone Jesu,” then his voice would die out in a
trembling whisper and the prayer would become inaudible.
“Oh, Father,” he whispered, “I am—so glad—you came. All my life—I
have prayed—to have the grace.” Then he began to pray again, and
I made ready to hear his confession. It did not take long for it cost
him terrible agony to speak. Then I anointed him. I had not brought
Holy Communion, being so eager to reach him that I had not taken
time to go up to the chapel called “Church of Our Lady, Help of
Christians.” My own marquee chapel had blown down a few days
previous and I had removed the Blessed Sacrament to the above-
mentioned church. I told the sick man I was going to bring our
Blessed Lord, but that it might take a little while, as very likely I
should find the church locked and should have to find the key.
Although the ward had been but dimly-lighted it was extremely dark
on coming out, for it was raining; and in my haste I tripped over a
tent guy-rope, taut by the rain, and fell on my hands and knees on
the cinder walk. Then I walked on more carefully, rubbing tiny
particles of cinders from my stinging hands. Just as I reached the
chapel I was challenged by the guard. This time I answered quickly:
“Friend. R. C. chaplain No. 7. Can. Gen. Hospital.” I stood to be
recognized. Then the guard spoke, but this time softly, and he
peered at my rain-wet face. “Ah, Father,” he said, “it’s you!” It was
one of the Irish lads from the Sixteenth Infantry Base Depot who was
one of the guards for the German prison camp opposite. He may
have seen me saying Mass at Oratory Hut, or perhaps he had spent
a few days at the segregation camp.
The door of the little church was locked, and I did not know where to
find the key. I knew that an English Redemptorist, Father Prime,
chaplain to No. 26 British General Hospital, said Mass here every
morning; perhaps he might know where the key was kept. It was half
a mile to Father Prime’s little hut at No. 26, and I went very quickly,
praying all the while for the poor gassed soldier that he might have
the great privilege for which he had prayed so much.
Father Prime was very easily awakened and seemed glad that it was
not a call for him to go out in the rain. He had the key, and presently I
was hurrying back to the little church.
The Irish lad, still on guard, as I returned bearing the Bread of Life to
the dying soldier in the hospital, knelt on the rainy ground, and I
could just tell that he was bowing his head as the Saviour passed.
The poor fellow was still alive, though panting in great pain. He
received Holy Communion most devoutly. I felt that I was in the
presence of an exceptionally good man. In the afternoon he died.
 Chapter XXXIII
A Little Nonsense

It was hard work visiting the wounded, listening time after time to
each one as he described the nature and history of his wounds,
which in many cases were so similar. Often on leaving one hut only
to enter another, I have paused to look longingly out to the estuary of
the Canche, where the sun would be sinking slowly, and breathe the
strong, aromatic air coming from the sea and the marshes that grew
from the river mud; then in again to great wards of poor broken lads
and the antiseptic odors of the hospital.
Although the spirits of the lads, on the whole, were bright and merry,
and those who nursed them brought sunshine to their work, still one
would scarcely think of entering any one ward with the intention of
being entertained. Yet frequently I have gone into a certain ward of
No. 7, Canadian General, with no other intention than that of being
amused. For in this ward were the malingerers, that is, the men who
were trying to “put one over” on the doctors. The soldiers called them
“lead swingers.” The ingenuity of some of these men was really
extraordinary. I have seen a case come through three or four
different posts, diagnosed as measles, until finally the doctor in the
stationary hospital saw that the man had used a preparation of some
oil to bring out the rash, and had raised his temperature with cordite.
The first day I went into Wd. —, I was somewhat puzzled. I had not
known that this was the ward of malingerers, and so was surprised
to find so many healthy looking men in hospital. The nurse in charge
looked a little surprised when I entered and said smilingly: “Well,
Padre, what are you doing here? Nobody ever dies in this ward.”
“Well, Sister,” I said, “as far as I can see now, every one has the
appearance of being quite spruce.” Then she said quietly: “P. U. O.,”
nodding her head a little after pronouncing each letter. Then she
went into her cubicle to continue her work.
That evening at dinner I asked the doctor who sat nearest me what
was meant by “P. U. O.” He smiled, then said: “It means, Padre,
‘Praxis of Unknown Origin’,” and kept smiling as he continued: “We
sometimes meet a case which really puzzles us, but nearly always,
when you see ‘P. U. O.’ on a medical history sheet you can count on
its being a case of malingering.” He did not say very much till we had
nearly finished our meal, then he said: “Wait, Padre, after dinner and
we’ll see ‘Boots’.”
This was a nickname for the doctor in charge of Ward —, one of the
jolliest M. O.’s in the mess. We found him in the ante-room, three or
four others grouped around him; but instead of the customary broad
smile on his good-natured fat face, there was a look of real
indignation. He was explaining to his smiling listeners something
about a few cases that had been sent to him; and as we drew near I
caught these words: “Dey had da hitch,”—the doctor was a French
Canadian—“and dey were sent to my ward—height of dem! Sent to
me, and dem wit da hitch!” Every one was laughing and trying
unsuccessfully to suppress it.
Then a young doctor interposed: “And what did you do, Boots?”
“Do?” echoed the other. “What did I do? I just took dare papers and
sent dem up to the skin disease hospital. Dere’s no room for men wit
da hitch in my ward.”
The mere thought of the indignity seemed almost too much for the
good doctor, so he paused for a little and his face grew red as he
looked around on his smiling audience. Then he said: “Da idea of
sending men wit da hitch to me!” He had closed his lips tightly and
was nodding to himself at the insult that had been offered his ward
by having men with the itch sent to it, when the doctor who had
spoken previously spoke again: “Yes, ‘Boots,’ the idea of sending
sick men to your ward!”
“Boots” looked at him quickly, and suddenly the dark clouds were
dispersed and the light of his broad, sunny smile spread over his
good-natured face. “Dat’s hit,” he said. “What do dey want to send
sick people to me for?”
The others laughed and moved on, and presently I found myself
making arrangements with Captain “Boots” to visit his ward when his
“patients” would be undergoing treatment the following morning. The
only condition the good doctor imposed was that I would not laugh.
This I promised.
The following day, as I walked down the aisle of No. —, I realized
how hard it would be to fulfill the condition the doctor had made for
my visit. The men were undergoing “treatment”; some held the
handles of a galvanic battery in their hands, while their bodies
squirmed and twisted, but never for one instant did they drop the
handles; others had their feet on steel discs in tubs of water, while
others underwent electrical treatment in different ways. The doctor
moved from bed to bed, inquiring with simulated solicitude as to the
state of each patient, offering a word of encouragement to some
poor fellow who writhed under the current that passed through hands
and feet.
“Dat’s right, my lad,” the doctor would say encouragingly, “just keep
your feet on de disc.” Perhaps it did not occur to the good doctor that
the man was powerless to take his feet off the disc! To another he
would say: “Dere, now, my lad, we’ll soon have you in perfec health
again”—and I would wonder how the strong, rosy-cheeked lad would
look when in perfect health.
I was not surprised to hear two or three lads inform the doctor that
they thought they felt well enough to go back to their battalions
again. The doctor would always agree with them. One fellow said,
within my hearing: “He might as well give us the chair at once!”
I remember coming out of the ward that first day, and when I was out
of view, I stood in the lane and laughed and laughed. The fat doctor
had been so funny, and also the poor fellows, squirming and twisting
under treatment that was not at all necessary for them.
I made many subsequent visits to No. —. Whenever I would feel
tired out from the more serious work of visiting the wounded, I would
step down the lane and listen for awhile to Doctor “Boots” passing up
and down the aisle giving his electrical treatment.
 Chapter XXXIV
Transfusion

Although the little wooden chapel called Church of Our Lady, Help of
Christians was nearer No. 7, I always said Mass in the chapel at No.
1. It was wonderfully edifying there in that little marquee chapel. I
don’t know who had had it erected, for it was standing when I went to
No. 1, but I do recall the devout congregations of walking wounded
in their hospital suits of light-blue fleeced wool; the hospital orderlies
who came so reverently; the white-veiled blue-clad nurses who came
in large numbers. Two Masses were said on Sunday so as to
accommodate the different shifts of Sisters, and every Sunday
evening there was Benediction and a short sermon.
I remember one morning noticing that the hospital orderly who
served the Mass trembled while answering the opening responses.
He was a tall, well-built young fellow with light hair, and usually his
face had the glow of excellent health; but when he passed me the
cruets, I noticed that his face had almost the pallor of death, and that
although it was a cold morning in early autumn little beads of
perspiration stood out on his white forehead.
After Mass I asked him if he were not well. Then he told me quietly
that he felt extremely weak, having given a quantity of his blood just
a few days before to save the life of a wounded soldier who was
dying from loss of blood. The wounded man was now recovering. It
was not the first time he had given his blood, and, he said, as he
smiled painfully and with the appearance of great weakness, he felt
that it would not be the last time.
As he moved about slowly and wearily, extinguishing the candles
and covering the altar, I felt a great admiration for this generous lad,
and I thought truly there are other heroic ways of giving one’s blood
than shedding it on the battlefield! It was quite a common occurrence
in different hospitals to go through the process of transfusion of
blood. The most necessary condition was that the blood of the donor
be adaptable to the system of the patient.
 Chapter XXXV
The Ministering Angels

The nurses—“sisters” we called them—throughout all the base

hospitals were most attentive to the wounded, without the slightest
display of any maudlin sympathy; but they worked hard and long and
one never heard the least complaint from their lips. It was a common
occurrence at No. 7 to see a nurse being ordered away for a
complete rest, made necessary by the terrific strain of her work.
The Catholic nurses were, on the whole, very faithful in the practice
of their religious duties, many being weekly communicants. To
communicate daily was not practicable for many, as they were on
duty during morning Mass. Often I have seen a nurse come with five
or six of her patients to Holy Communion: some back-sliders that she
had rounded up.
Often, while giving Holy Communion to a soldier in the ward of a
non-Catholic nurse, I had been annoyed by the lack of any special
preparations on the part of the sister for the administration of the
Sacrament. But one morning I found a spotlessly white cloth spread
over the small locker, a clean graduate glass of fresh water and a
spoon. There was also on the locker a folded white towel for the lad
to hold when receiving Holy Communion.
It pleased me very much to see such care taken to prepare for the
coming of Jesus, and it was with deep gratitude that I went to thank
the sister in charge, after I had given the lad Holy Communion.
“Sister,” I said, “how did you know how to prepare everything so
well? It was so clean, and everything necessary was there.”
The good little sister seemed pleased that I had even noticed the
preparations. Then she said: “Well, Padre, I knew just what was
needed for I studied nursing in a Catholic hospital.”
As I went out of the ward the thought struck me how fine it would be
if only all the non-Catholic sisters would prepare for the Saviour’s
coming as had their sister nurse, and as I thought I formed a little
plan.
The following day I was notified by a non-Catholic sister to bring
Communion to a boy in her ward; and there and then I tried out my
plan. “Sister,” I said, “yesterday morning I was called to Sister ——’s
ward to administer one of my lads who is dangerously ill, and I was
very much surprised to find the table arranged as if it had been done
by an R. C. Sister.”
“How did she have it arranged, Padre?” she asked. Then I told her
just how things had been prepared. The following morning when I
brought the “Bread of the Strong” to the poor wounded lad, I found,
as on the previous day, everything spotlessly arranged for the visit of
the Guest.
After that, whenever a non-Catholic sister told me that a Catholic lad
had need of my ministrations in her ward, I told her how well the last
sister had prepared locker, etc., and invariably the following morning,
when I went in silence to the bedside, I found that all things had
been made ready.
 Chapter XXXVI
More Orders

December came. During the first week of that month I prepared my

hut to stand the cold of the winter months and began to look forward
to a time of relative repose after the past five months of strenuous
work. The fighting was not to be so intense during the winter,
therefore there would not be so many casualties. I had been given a
fine little coal stove, and I was beginning to enjoy coming into the hut
at night to be greeted by its cheerful red glow. There were worse
places to dwell in, I told myself, than a burlap hut with a coal fire
burning in it. I was looking forward to peaceful winter evenings with
books to read, or perhaps a few hours writing, when one evening just
before dinner a knock sounded on the door and an officer stepped
into my hut. I had never seen him before. He looked at me
somewhat strangely for a second or two, then asked if I had not
been expecting him, “for,” he said, “I am Captain Hawke, the new R.
C. chaplain to No. 7 Canadian General Hospital. You are to go up
the line.”
For just a second a faint dizziness came over me, and the vision of
bright coal fires faded from before my mind and I thought, with
considerable falling of spirits, of winter in the trenches.
I shook hands with the new chaplain and then I told him I had not
been expecting him, and that so far no orders had come to me to
report at the front. Just as I spoke, however, another knock sounded
on the door, and before I had time to open it an orderly entered and
passed me a D. R. L. S. letter: I was to report at the Seventy-fifth
Battalion the following day.
So on the morning of December 11th, 1917, I left No. 7 with real
regret. I had always found the doctors very friendly and they had
shown me many kindnesses. I had grown to love my work in the
hospital, and the peace and quiet of the little marquee chapel at No.
1 Can. Gen. after the day’s work was done. Now, I must break new
ground!
It was a cold morning when I took my place on the seat of the
ambulance alongside the driver. The waiters crowded about the door
of the mess—the doctors had not yet come from their huts—and one
of them, an old Scotchman wearing a glengarry, who had already
seen service up the line, stepped forward and patted me on the back
and wished me “guid luck.” Then the ambulance leaped into high
gear and we were off to the station.
There were certain formalities to be gone through at the military
station at Etaples: certain papers had to be shown to the R. T. O.
and instructions received from him. It did not take long to give my
instructions. I was to take the train on No. 9 track. I was to detrain at
Calonne-Ricouart; there I would receive further instructions.
There was a great crowd of troopers on my train who leaned from
car windows and sang merrily as the train passed through French
villages. Then, I remember, as we stopped at one village, I heard in
the distance the sound of the guns, and always as we advanced
came clearer and clearer the deep booming. For the first time I heard
sounds of the actual conflict of the World War.
An officer whom I had met on the train accompanied me to the
staging camp, which was but a short distance from the station at
Calonne-Ricouart. I presented my papers at the little office. The
orderly room clerk looked at me quickly. “Why, sir,” he said, “you’re in
luck! The Seventy-fifth Battalion is just a few yards up the road.
Better stay here for lunch, then I’ll send a runner with you.”
I may have been lucky in finding the Seventy-fifth but there my luck
ended for a few days: for when I entered headquarters of the
Seventy-fifth, which was in an old chateau, I was told that there had
been some mistake. They had a chaplain, a Presbyterian, who was
then away on leave. The R. C. chaplain of the brigade was quartered
with the Eighty-seventh. The adjutant treated me politely, but with a
little suspicion. He asked me for my papers. Then he requested me
to be seated. I did so, but with a feeling of vague uneasiness; now
and then an orderly clerk looked at me quietly though searchingly
and then continued his writing.
I wondered where the mistake had been, and where I was really to
go; but most of all I wondered at the suspicious glances that were
flashed at me by different ones who came into the room. I waited for
a long time, almost two hours; once or twice I was questioned by the
adjutant, and after each visit I wondered why he was questioning me
so. Then the colonel came in, and he had not questioned me very
long till I became aware that I had been suspected as a spy. I was
asked to remain in the orderly room till more word might be received.
I felt very much like laughing at my predicament, for I knew that it
would not be very long before headquarters would learn my history.
In about an hour I was told that I might take the battalion chaplain’s
billet and that I was to stay with the Seventy-fifth till orders would
come. There had been some misdirection of orders.
 Chapter XXXVII
Held For Orders

I remained a week with the Seventy-fifth before any further orders

came. The battalion was resting after the terrible fighting at
Paschendale. After dinner in the evenings we would gather before
the little open coal fire in our mess: the second in command, who
was a lieutenant-colonel, the doctor, the quartermaster, transport
officer, and chat pleasantly. They were very friendly, though at times
experiences were related; I think, for no other end than—in the
language of the army—to put my “wind up.” I tried not to let them see
how well they were succeeding. I found the medical officer, Dr.
Hutchinson, to be the friendliest of the officers. He was an American,
a young man with grey hair, whose home town was not very far from
that of Irvin Cobb. The way he came to talk of Cobb was on account
of one of his stories that he happened to be reading. I learned
through the papers later on, that Dr. Hutchinson had won the Victoria
Cross.
There was another officer in the mess with which I was quartered,
who kept us all in a continual state of anxiety. He was a light-
hearted, merry, boyish fellow and just a wee bit reckless. It was on
account of the cane he carried. Of course, all commissioned officers
in the British army are supposed to carry a cane or a hunting crop,
but not the kind of cane the young officer in question carried. The
cane was in reality a miniature breech-loading shot-gun which took a
very small cartridge of very small shot. He had already wounded one
man slightly.
One day while taking a walk out through the country from Calonne-
Ricouart I saw for the first time the transport section of a battalion of
the French army. It was drawn up on the roadside, all the wagons,
limbers, etc., were painted a grayish-blue color. The horses were
busy with their nose-bags, and the soldiers, in blue uniform, were
standing in little groups about limbers taking their dinner, which
consisted of cold beef, white bread and red wine. They were all small
men, most of them with long black, silky beards. They chatted
among themselves, and all along the village street French women
and children looked out from windows; I noticed tears in the eyes of
some of the women.
It was a scene that had been enacted many times in the history of
France. It was very interesting to watch those blue-clad soldiers of
the Old World standing in small groups in the little lane. Perhaps, I
thought, in the many wars of France there have been many such
halts in this tiny village.
I was walking along musing so, when for one reason or another I
turned my eyes from the transport column and looked down the
road. Coming towards me on horse-back was a trooper of the
Canadian Light Horse. He was a large, clean-shaven man under his
wide-brimmed hat. He sat with perfect ease in the saddle, and
looked quietly over the French transport section as he went. There
seemed to be some indefinable atmosphere about the man that
made one think of great, illimitable spaces, of unrestricted freedom
of movement. A few seconds previous I had been thinking of the
romance of old France, but I had not been prepared for this inset. A
breath, strong and clear, of my homeland came to me, and I felt
proud of my countryman.
I used to say Mass every morning in the little church of the village,
the pastor of which was a very delicate looking young French curé.
Two black-bearded French soldier-priests said Mass before me.
Then at 7:30, when the Masses were finished, the parish priest
taught catechism to the children of his parish. Later, in many places
where we came to rest, I saw early in the morning little children
assembled in their parish churches for catechism.
 Chapter XXXVIII
The Front at Last

I had been with the Seventy-fifth Battalion about six days when one
evening the adjutant gave me a letter which contained orders to
proceed the following morning to Camblain L’Abbey. It was well on
towards evening when the large motor lorry, on the seat of which I
sat next the driver, pulled into the village of Camblain L’Abbey. The
old stone church stood on a hill, looking down over the town, and at
the base of the hill in a long, level field stood row upon row of one-
story Nissen huts, in which were the headquarters of different
branches of service of the Canadian Corps.
The lorry stopped at the end of a large plank walk, down which I was
directed to walk till I should come to the headquarters of chaplain
service. This did not take very long, for presently I was standing
before one of the huts, on the door of which appeared the letters C.
A. C. S. (Canadian Army Chaplain Service). I knocked on the door
and stepped in.
Three military chaplains were sitting in the office; one who bore the
insignia of lieutenant-colonel, was signing some papers for a young
chaplain who was a captain. The third chaplain, a major, sat in a far
corner eating nut-chocolate bars. I looked from one to another. I did
not know any of them. I had been expecting to meet Father French,
who was the senior Catholic chaplain of the Canadians in France. I
made myself known, only to find that all the chaplains were
Anglicans, and that Father French was absent on duty and would not
be home for two or three days.
That night I dined with many of the staff officers of the Canadian
Corps, and slept in the quaint little presbytery of the French curé on
the hill. The following evening towards sundown, in company with Lt.
Colonel McGrear, chief chaplain for the Church of England, I went to