Chapter II

1. PAPER (WRITING MATERIALS)

Paper is a sheet of interlaced fibers usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth
rags or other fibrous materials that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing them to felt, or mat, to
form a solid surface.

The Development of Paper Manufacture

The invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official CaiLun, in about 105
BCE, although the Chinese had probably made paper from silk fibers even earlier. CaiLun, however, was
the first to succeed in making a paper from vegetable fibers tree bark, rags, old fish netting. The art of
making paper was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it only in the 7th century and in 770
produced the first mass publication, a block-printed Buddhist prayer paper, of which 1,000,000 were
printed.

In 751 BCE the, then-Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese. Among the
Chinese prisoners taken during the attack were several skilled in the art of papermaking. They were
forced by the city's governor to build and operate a paper mill. Samarkand had an abundant supply of
water, flax, and hemp; it soon became the papermaking center of the Arab world.
Development of Paper Making Machinery
The first mechanical paper making process was, invented (1798) by Nicolas Louis Robert,
Frenchman who devised a machine with an endless wire-mesh web that, as it was turned by hand, dipped
into a vat of pulp, lifting out a pulp layer. The mesh vibrated to shake off the excess water and to lock the
fibers together; the pulp layer was then squeezed through rollers and dried. Robert traveled to England
seeking backers for his idea; eventually, a practicable, commercially successful machine was, built (1805)
by the Fourdrinier brothers, Henry (1766-1854), Sealy and Bryan Donkin (1768-1855).The screen end of
a modern papermaking machine is still called a Fourdrinier.
The Paper Making Process
Paper making is a continuous process, an unbroken line of production that begins with the tree and
ends with the cut sheet of paper.
Although wood fiber is the basic ingredient, only a little more than half of the fiber used comes
from trees cut specifically for paper manufacture. The remaining fiber is made up of secondary material
obtained by recycling used newsprint, spent packaging, and other waste paper. The waste residues of
lumber operations and wood chips from sawmills provide additional material. A small quantity of non-
wood fibers come from such sources as esparto grass, bagasse (the plant residue left after the juice has
been extracted from sugarcane),cereal and flax straws, reeds, cotton and linen rags, waste cotton from
cotton mills, and various other plant sources. The choice of materials depends on the intended end use of
the paper.

Pulp Processing
The principal functions of pulping are to dissolve the lining that holds the cellulose fibers
together and to separate the fibers. The logs that will be reduced to pulp go through one of two processes:
either they are mechanically ground into pulp, or they are reduced to a pulp by being chipped and then
cooked in a chemical solution. Cheaper grades of paper are generally produced from mechanically made
pulp, which often contains some unwanted residues. Chemical methods remove more of the residues. In
the chemical process, wood chips are first cooked in a digester, a closed tank operated at high temperature
and pressure. In the sulfite process, the chips are pulped under steam pressure in a solution of sulfite salts;
in the sulfate, or Kraft, process, the chemical solution consists of caustic soda and sodium sulfide. In both
processes, the lignin, the material that holds wood cells together, is dissolved, and the cellulose fibers
separate. Cooking time may be as long as 12 hours. The cooked pulp is then washed to remove the
chemicals and screened to separate out undigested wood knots and other unwanted materials. Combining
a brief chemical cook with mechanical treatment to separate the fibers produces a higher yield but
sacrifices of some of the quality of chemically pulped paper. Other machines used to clean the pulp
include the vortex machine, in which the pulp is whirled rapidly so that heavy pieces of foreign matter fall
to the bottom, and the centrifugal machine, in which the pulp is filtered by means of vacuum through a
wire drum that revolves in the pulp vat.
Paper Machines
The two most common machines in current use are the fourdrinier and the cylinder machine. Both
produce paper sheet from pulp in a continuous process at speeds that may reach more than 800m (880yd)
per minute. In the fourdrinier the pulp and water mixture flows at a controlled rate through a headbox and
onto a moving wire mesh screen. As the screen moves away from the head box, various suction devices
drain water from the pulp, leaving a sheet of matted pulp that is still very wet. A wire covered roll holding
a wire design, and called the dandy roll, may travel over the surface to impress a watermark. The sheet
then moves onto a woolen felt screen, which takes it through a series of presses, where more water is
removed. Finally the sheet passes over a number of heated drums that evaporate the remaining water.
Many new papermaking machines incorporate two moving wire mesh screens between which the pulp is
pumped, and water is extracted from both sides. The “twin-wire" machine produces a paper practically
identical on both sides, an important property in printing.

The cylinder machine differs from the fourdrinier principally in the “wet end", or forming operation.
Instead of the moving wire screen, a screen covered rotary cylinder is half submerged in the pulp vat. As
the cylinder rotates, a sheet of matted pulp is formed on its exterior surface and is then picked up by a
moving belt, where it is treated to remove the remaining water, as in the fourdrinier process. A series of
cylinders may be used, each one depositing an additional layer of pulp on the belt, so that multilayer
sheets are built up. Cylinder machines are used for making thicker papers and paperboard.
Finishing
As it leaves the paper forming machine, the dried paper is wound onto large reels. The rolled paper
may be slit to the widths required, cut into sheets, trimmed, and packaged. Other finishing operations
include calendaring, or passing the paper through a series of steel rolls that impart one of a number of
finishes; coating, where one or both sides of the paper are glazed with a mixture of pigment, dispersant,
and adhesive to produce a glossy finish or improve smoothness or opacity; and operations that convert the
paper roll into bags, boxes, corrugated shipping paper, and other products.
Acidic Paper
Many of the sizing's used to improve the “feel” and printability of paper are acidic and over time
cause the cellulose fibers that constitute paper to degenerate. Books made in the last 150 years have been
particularly affected by acidic deterioration. Alkaline sizing agents have been developed and are now in
use by many U.S. paper manufacturers. These new sizing require less fiber and water and produce a
white, strong paper with fewer polluting wastes.
Watermarking
Watermarking is a technique used to create a pattern or mark in a sheet of paper that is visible when
the sheet is held to a light. The marking is made by wires woven into the surface of a mold, in the
production of handmade papers, or into a revolving cylinder for machine made papers. The thickness of
the wire creates a corresponding displacement of fiber in the wet sheet during its formation, so that when
dried the pattern is easily visible.

The watermark has a long history as a maker's trademark and as a guarantee of quality; the first
recorded trade watermark appeared during the 13th century. In paper used for currency the watermark
serves as a guarantee of authenticity. Watermarking is a costly procedure, however, and is used today
only for specialty and currency papers.

The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacturer of the paper is by the watermark. This is a
brand put on the paper by the manufacturers. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers that
make the paper. These designs are changed from time to time. All paper manufacturers keep careful
records of changes in their watermarks. If the watermarks of the suspected document and of other papers
genuinely prepared at the same time are not the same, an inquiry should be made to the paper
manufacturer. Wrong watermarks are one of the most common mistakes of a forger. Another valuable
kind of evidence obtained from paper is the presence of official watermarks belonging to government
agencies.

What can be determined from Watermarks?

 Determination of time period paper was made.
  Determination where paper was made.

 Trace unusual papers.

KINDS OF PAPER
a. Papyrus
From about 2400 BCE or earlier, the people of Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and southern Europe used
the pith of the sedge “Cyperus papyrus" to make a writing material known as papyrus. The material
continued to be regularly used during the time of the Roman Empire but began to be replaced by the
cheaper parchment in the late Empire. Official documents were frequently made of papyrus for several
centuries thereafter.
To make papyrus, moistened strips of thinly sliced pith with the rough outer covering removed were
laid side by side on a board, and another layer was superimposed at right angles to the first layer. The two
layers were then pressed and carefully beaten with hammers until the plant tissue ruptured; the exuding
sap glued the strips together as papyrus was dried in the sun. The resulting sheet, which was very strong,
was rubbed with polished, flats tones until the surface was smooth. To make a scroll, many sheets were
joined together and rolled on a wooden rod. In Latin, such as scroll was called a “volumen” (from
voluere, “to roll”).
As shown in Figure 1 is the grass family called “reeds” used in making a papyrus paper.
Steps in Making Papyrus Paper
1. Harvesting and Preparation. First off, you need to get yourself a genuine Papyrus plant. Before
you harvest the stalks, it is recommended of giving the plant a nice soak of about 60 minutes
prior. This will make sure that the stalks are firm and won't crumple. Try to cut as close to the
base as possible. Cut off the tops.
2. Making the Strips. Make sure that the hand planer (usually for woodworking) has a very sharp
blade. The sharper the blade, the easier the cutting. Place the planer upside down and secure it in
a bench vice. Place the blade of the planer to about 2 mm. You don't have to be exact, so long as
you get a strip of papyrus that will not break due to being too thin.

3. Soaking the Strips. Once your strips are de-barked, soak them in a tub/bucket of water for
3days. This step is essential because it activates the natural glue in the plant which makes this
paper possible.
4. Laying Out the Strips. After 3 days of soaking, the natural glue in the papyrus is ready. Layout
some paper towels and put some of the papyrus strips on it. Place another layer of paper towels
on top of this and use the rolling pin to squeeze out the water. Repeat this for all the strips.
Papyrus has a distinct look because of its layout pattern. There is no need to weave the strips
together because of the natural glue. For the bottom, place the strips all going one direction while
overlapping about 1/3 of the strip. Repeat the process for the top layer, but facing perpendicular
to the bottom layer. Overlapping the strips is important because the strips shrink as they dry. Do
not overlap enough, and so the paper has some small square gaps.
5. Compress and Dry. Take two wooden boards that are roughly as big or bigger than the papyrus
sheet. On each board, put an old dish cloth followed by some paper towels. Place a papyrus in
between both sheets to make a nice papyrus sandwich. Using clamps, or a giant vice if you have
one, clamp it down tight. The drying process now will take about a week. You should replace the
paper towels every day. Patience is the key here.
6.Removal.After a week of compressing and drying of papyrus remove the clamp, wooden boards, old
dish cloth and paper towels.
7. Smoothing. When the papyrus is finished drying, you'll notice that it isn't very smooth. So, in keeping
with old school tradition use a smooth rock to polish the paper. To do this, take the rock and rub it against
the paper along the grain (in the direction of the strips). Do this until you think it is smooth enough to
write on. Now you can write on your newly made papyrus paper. It is recommended using some sort of
dip ink pen. The gel pens are probably the most “modern” you can use without tearing up the paper.
b. Parchment

A writing material made from the skins primarily of sheep, calves, or goats, parchment was
probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. The material came
into wide use; however, only in the 2nd century when in the City of Pergamum in Anatolia, a method was
perfected for making a parchment that could be used on both sides. Skins were depilated, scraped and
polished, stretched, and then rubbed with chalk and pumice.
Early parchments were yellow and were often tinted with a purple dye to point up the silver and gold inks
used in lettering. Later, techniques were developed for whitening the skins. Fine skins from young calves
or kids were called "vellum",and the name was often used for all parchment manuscripts. The use of
parchment grew gradually supplanting papyrus until it became the most important writing material in the
Western world. Even after the invention of printing made paper a more economical material for book
making, parchment continued in use for special manuscripts. It is still used today for certain documents,
in bookbinding, for lampshades, and for drum and banjo heads. As shown in Figure19 is the finished
product of paper called parchment.
Steps in Making Parchment
1. The first step in making a medieval book is gathering the pages to write upon. These were usually
made from parchment, and later paper. The parchment is made from the skins of goats, sheep, and calves.
Shows below is a pool of a dozen and a half goat and sheep skins soaking after being flayed. Then
remove the dirt, feces and blood from the pelts before to process them.
2. Scraped the raw flesh from the inside of a skin. The next stage will be to soak it in a lime water
solution for over a week, then scrape off the hair, and then soak it a second time in lime water solution.
2.INK
Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an
image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, or quill. Thicker inks, inpaste
form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink can be a complex medium,
composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate
matter ,fluorescents, and other materials. The components of inks serve many purposes; the ink's carrier,
colorants, and other additives affect the flow and thickness of the ink and its dry appearance
Types of Ink
1.Pigment Ink. It is essentially a waterproof ink that makes it “stick" permanently to paper and run very
little. Sometimes used by amateur tattoo artists, India ink is a popular type of pigment ink and one of the
oldest kinds of ink in the world. While very water resistant, pigment ink shave some downsides. For one,
pigment inks are more difficult to print and write with because they don't dissolve completely in water.
Pigment inks are also very expensive and don't offer the same brightness and color vibrancy as other
types of ink.
2.Dye Ink. It is another type of ink that is usually used in fountain pens and gel ink pens. While dye ink
has been around for about as long as pigment ink, dye has a few differences and benefits. Pigment vs dye
ink is a huge debate among graphic artists trying to decide what kind of ink is best for their next big
project. In fact, the dye vs pigment ink argument is very similar to the inkjet vs laser jet printer argument
in the computer world. Not as permanent as pigment ink, dye ink is easily smeared when wet with water
and usually fades over time. Dye ink is generally cheaper than pigment ink and produces brighter colors,
but many artists prefer pigment ink because it fades less easily.
3.Carbon Inks. These were commonly made from lampblack or soot and a binding agent such as gum
Arabic or animal glue. The binding agent keeps carbon particles in suspension and adhered to paper.
4.Iron Gall Ink. It became prominent in the early 12 th century; they were used for centuries and were
widely thought to be the best type of ink. However, iron gall ink is corrosive and damages the paper it is
written on items containing this ink can become brittle and the writing fades to brown.
5.Indellible Ink. Indelible means “irremovable”. Some types of indelible ink have a very short shelf life
because of the quickly evaporating solvents used. India, Mexico, Indonesia, Malaysia and other
developing countries have used indelible ink in the form of electoral stain to prevent electoral fraud.
6.Invisible Ink. Also known as security ink is a substance used for writing, which is invisible either on
application or soon thereafter, and can later be made visible by some means. Invisible ink is one form or
stenography.
What can be determined from Ink Examination?
 Determine if two inks are similar or different
 Determine the age of ink deposited on the paper
3. WRITING INSTRUMENTS
A pen is derived from the Latin word “penna” means feather. It is a writing implement used to
apply ink to a surface, such as paper, for writing or drawing. Historically, reed pen, quill pen and dip pen
were used, with a nib dipped in ink. Ruling pen allow precise adjustment of line width, and still find a few
specialized uses, but technical pen such as the Rapido graph are more commonly used. Modern types also
include ballpoint, rollerball, fountain and felt or ceramic tip pen.
TYPES OF PENS
Modern
1. Ballpoint Pen. Also known as a “biro” or ball pen, is a pen that dispenses ink over a metal ball
at its point, i.e. over a “ball point”. The metal commonly used is steel, brass, or tungsten carbide.
It was conceived and developed as a cleaner and more reliable alternative to dip pens and
fountain pens, and it is now the world’s most used writing instrument.

2. Roller Ball Pen. It dispenses a water-based liquid or gel ink through a ball tip similar to that of a
ball point pen. The less-viscous ink is more easily absorbed by paper than oil-based ink, and the
pen moves more easily across a writing surface. The roller ball pen was initially designed to
combine the convenience of a ballpoint pen with the smooth “wet ink” effect of a fountain pen.
Gel inks are available in a range of colors, including metallic paint colors, glitter effects, neon,
blurred effects, saturated colors, pastel tones, vibrant shades, shady colors, invisible ink, see-
through effect, shiny colors, and glow in the dark effects.
3. Fountain Pen. It uses water-based liquid ink delivered through a nib. The ink flows from a
reservoir through a “feed” to the nib, then through the nib, due to capillary action and gravity.
The nib has no moving parts and delivers ink through a thin slit to the writing surface.

 A fountain pen can be used with permanent or non-permanent inks. The Romanian
inventor Petrache Poenaru received a French patent on May 25, 1827, for the invention of
the first fountain pen with a barrel made from a large swan quill.
4. Felt-Tip Pen. It has a porous tip of fibrous material. The smallest, finest-tipped felt-tip pens are
used for writing on paper. Medium-tipped felt-tip is often used by children for coloring and
drawing. Larger types, often called “markers”, are used for writing in larger sizes, often on other
surfaces such as corrugated boxes, whiteboards and for chalkboards, often called “liquid chalk”
or “chalkboard markers”. Marker with wide tips and bright but transparent ink, called
highlighters, are used to highlight text that has already been written or printed. Pens designed for
children or for temporary writing (as with a whiteboard or overhead projector) typically use non-
permanent inks. Large markers used to label shipping cases or other packages are usually
permanent markers.