ACADEMIC REFERENCING

DEFINITION

When writing work such as an essay, dissertation, article etc, an academic is expected to make
reference to other people / scholars’ ideas or work. This is done in order to, among other things,
strengthen their piece of work. These ideas from other scholars should be acknowledged or
referenced.

A reference is a detailed bibliographic description of the item/ piece of work from which one
gained their information, e. g the author of the ideas and the year of publication of the
ideas/source. This is the brief citing, in –text and these should be given in full at the end of one’s
work in a reference list or end-text.

Academic referencing is acknowledgement that one has used other scholar’s ideas in one’s own
work. This should be done whenever one quotes, paraphrases or summarizes someone else’s
ideas, theories or data.

Thus, academic referencing is the practice of referring to other people’s work in the body of a
written text. Information from books, journals, magazines, the internet, newspapers, conference
papers, TV / radio programmes, dissertations / theses, should be acknowledged. These (books,
journals etc) are known as sources of information.

PURPOSES OF REFERENCING/ REASONS FOR REFERENCING

References to other people’s ideas are made and acknowledged in order:

1. To acknowledge authorship of the material in question.

2. To show evidence of background reading.
3. To support one’s arguments and to establish one’s position by showing it in the context
of other writers.
4. To give credit to the concepts and ideas of other authors.

1
 5. Academic referencing helps to authenticate the writer’s work.
6. Acknowledgement of other people’s ideas provides the reader with evidence of the
breadth and depth of one’s reading.
7. Referencing and acknowledgement of other people’s ideas is done to support
controversial issues.
8. Academic referencing shows academic maturity.
9. Referencing helps to criticize other scholar’s views.
10. It helps to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is the use of other people’s ideas without
acknowledgement or the passing off of the work of others as one’s own, among other
definitions.
11. It allows the reader to identify the source of a particular idea/ point in one’s work.
12. It allows the reader to trace and retrieve the cited sources.

PLAGIARISM

- Is defined by De Montfort University student regulations as “the significant use by a

student, of other people’s work and the submission of it as though it were his or her own,
directly or indirectly”.
- It is also copying and pasting of text and images without saying where they came from.
- Plagiarism is also not showing when a quotation is a quotation.
- It is also summarization of information without showing the original source.
- It is also changing of a few words in a section of text without acknowledging the original
author.

Soles (2010:48) says plagiarism is “… the failure on the part of the writer to recognize the work
of others”. The Anglia Ruskin University year book (2006) refers to it as the passing off of the
work of others as your own.

2
REFERENCING WAYS

There are two ways of bringing in / incorporating ideas from other scholars into one’s work
which are:

a) The direct quotation

The exact words used by the scholar being cited can be brought into one’s essay / assignment by
making use of the author / scholar’s surname, the year of publication and the page number where
the citation is found in brackets, followed by the words in quotation marks, e.g: Henderson
(2005:88) believes or asserts, or argues, or says, or is of the opinion/ view that “ the
acknowledgement of another person’s work in your work is called a citation”.

b) The paraphrase / indirect quotation

To paraphrase means to state another person’s words in your own words and style of writing.
Here the surname of the author of the ideas being quoted is used, followed by the year of
publication. Page number and quotation marks are not included, eg, According to Henderson
(2005) a citation is an acknowledgement by writers whenever they borrow ideas from some other
authors or Henderson (2005) indicates that… or says that… or argues that… or asserts that…etc.

REFERENCING MODELS / SYSTEMS / STYLES (Types) (REFERENCING

CONVENTIONS)

There are several referencing models (types) systems/styles which vary according to discipline.
These are:

1. The Harvard referencing model / system / style.

2. The American Psychological Association (APA) referencing model.
3. Chicago /Turabian/Cambridge referencing models.
4. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards (IEEES) referencing
model/ system/ style.
5. Vancouver referencing model/system/style.

3
THE HARVARD REFERENCING MODEL/ SYSTEM/ STYLE

The Harvard referencing model/ system/ style contains author- date references within the text
(in-text referencing). These are the references made to other scholars’ ideas (citations) inside the
paragraphs/ sentences of one’s text (research paper). This information in the text is supplemented
by a list of sources, normally listed at the end of the research paper with sufficient bibliographic
details to facilitate the identification of the works cited in the text. This list is referred to as End-
text references/ a list of references. So Harvard referencing is done in two ways-In-text (inside
the research paper) and End-text (after completing the research paper on a fresh page). The
Harvard referencing system / model or style is also known as the Alphabetical Name-date
system.

IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT REFERENCING USING HARVARD

In-text referencing is when the writer of an essay/ dissertation / article (Research Paper)
identifies the author (s) he/she uses in his/her research paper to support, among other reasons,
his/her own arguments. These citations (direct quotations and paraphrases) are placed within
sentences and paragraphs so that it is clear what information is being quoted and whose it is.

References cited in the text of a research paper must appear in a reference list (End-text). This
list provides the information necessary to identify and retrieve each source. The reference list is
made up of those sources actually referred to in the text. This is a single list of references which
should be given at the end of a research paper, alphabetically arranged by author’s surname,
initial (s) year of publication, source title, city (place) of publication and the publishing company
etc. Consistence is very essential in the use of punctuation marks.

RULES FOR END-TEXT REFERENCING (APPLIES TO ALL REFERENCING

MODELS)

1. End-text references are written on a fresh page.

2. End- text references are alphabetically ordered using surnames of the author (s)

3. End-text references are not numbered.

4. Skip a line after each complete reference.

4
 5. Do not write anything under the surname and initial (s) of the first author.

6. Underline book/ source title if you are handwriting and italicize/bold if you are typing.

7. Do not use author credentials such as “Doctor”, “Professor”, “Reverend” e.t.c when
referencing both in-text and end-text.

a) A book /source by one author

In-text-According to Agatha (2005:12) “Women work better than men” (Direct quotation) or
According to Agatha (2005) Women are better workers than men (Para phrase/Indirect
quotation).

End-Text- provide full details for the source/book:

e.g Agatha, S. (2005) Women on the job, Toronto: Heath and Company.

b) A book /source by two authors

In-Text- Write surnames of both authors as they appear on the source, e.g Chung and Ngara
(1985:90) assert that “…” or Chung and Ngara (1985) assert that…

End-Text e.g Chung, F. and Ngara, E. (1985) Socialism, Education and Development, Harare:

Zimbabwe Publishing House.

c) A book / source by 3 or more authors(Multiple authors)

In-Text-Write the surname of the first author on the source followed by the abbreviation et al
which means “and others”, then the year of publication and page number for a direct quotation or
just the year for a paraphrase, eg Mandiki et al (2007:7) argue that “…” or Mandiki et al (2007)
…

End-Text- Write surnames and initials of all the authors for the source in the order in which they
appear on the book/source:

e.g Mandiki, T. L.; Gumbo, L.; Moyo, M.; Shumba, S. and Zhou, Z. (1999) How students Fail,

5
 Gweru: Mambo Press.

d) An Edited book

In-text- Just use the surname(s) of the author(s) and year of publication and page number for a
direct quotation or just the surname(s) and year for a paraphrase, According to Shumba (1985)…
The abbreviation (Ed) is not indicated in-text. “Ed” is short for Editor.

End-Text- e.g Shumba, M.D. (Ed) (1985) How to write a good Assignment, Harare: Longman.

e) A chapter in an edited book which is also a revised edition

In-text- Use the surname(s) of the chapter writer and other necessary details, eg Moran (2005:
110) postulates that “…” or Moran (2005) postulates that…

End-text- again start with details of the chapter writer and the chapter title then details of the
Editors of the book which contains the chapter, together with the edition after book title:

e.g Moran, M.J. (2005) “Engineering Thermodynamics” in Kreith, F. and Goswami, D.Y. (Eds)
The Handbook of Mechanical Engineering: Second Edition,
London: Penguin Books, pp105-125.

IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT REFERENCING OF ARTICLES OTHER THAN BOOKS

USING HARVARD.

f) Journal Articles

In-text- Just use the surname(s) of the author(s) and year and page number for a direct quotation
or just the surname(s) and year for a paraphrase, eg- According to Mellers (1999:5) “…” or
According to Mellers (1999) ...

End-text- provide other necessary details-author surname and initials, article title (in quotation
marks), journal name, Volume number, Issue number, page numbers that are covered by the
article…

e.g Mellers, B.A. (1999) “Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences”, Psychological
Bulletin, 16 (5), pp 910-934.

6
g) Newspaper Articles/Reports

In-text- For a newspaper report written by a reporter using their real name just use the surname
of the author, year and page number for a direct quotation or just the surname and year for a
paraphrase, eg- According to Moyo (1998:2) “…” or According to Moyo (1998) …

Another scenario is for a reporter not using their real name but a by-line, job title or pseudonym,
in that case just use that title, by-line or pseudonym, eg The Sports Editor (2014:10) says “…” or
The Sports Editor (2014) says…

End-text- provide other details- author surname and initial(s), year, report title (Headline),
newspaper name, date and month, page number(s) where the report is found,

Eg- Moyo, L. (1998) “16000 Miners Killed in South Africa”, The Sunday Mail, 6 September, p9.

for one using a by-line, job title or pseudonym:

eg-The Sports Editor (2014) “World cup fever grips Nation” H-Metro, 6 June, pp 10-11.

(Note that this should be incorporated in the alphabetically ordered references as normal,
use the letter ‘T’ on the word “The” in the alphabetical ordering)

h) Unpublished reports

In-text- These are Reports written by individuals, groups of people or Organisations

/Commissions etc. In-text just use the surname(s) of the report writers or the full names of the
Organisations or Commissions, eg, According to Zacquett (2000: 100) “…” or According to
Zacquett (2000) … or According to The Chidyausiku Commission (2013:90) “…” or According
to The Chidyausiku Commission (2013) …

End-text- Include other details- surname(s) and initials of the report writers or the name of the
Commission or Organisation, Report title in quotation marks, the word unpublished in quotation
marks, department etc:

7
e.g Zacquett, I. (2000) “The Human Rights Movement” (Unpublished) Department of Law
University of Zimbabwe, Harare.

Eg- The Chidyausiku Commission (2013) “Operation Murambatsvina” (Unpublished)

Government Printers, Harare.

i) Thesis/ Dissertation

In-Text- Just write the surname of the author, year and page number for a direct quotation or just
the surname and year for a paraphrase, eg Shumba (2003:50) contends that “…” or Shumba
(2003) contends that…

End-Text- Provide author surname and initial(s), dissertation/ Thesis title, word unpublished,
department for which dissertation/ thesis was written, institution name:

Eg-Shumba, N.Z. (2003) “An investigation into the problems faced by black women in schools”
(Unpublished Thesis) Department of Psychology, Midlands State
University.

j)Internet sources

In-Text- Where a work is published online, if the author and year of publication can be found on
the document itself, then the author’s surname and the year can be used as a reference in the
text the normal way, e.g: Ekudu (2004) states that….Where there is no author use the website
address, e.g http:// www.cs.bham.ac.uk/pxc/refs.html states that...

End-text- Internet sources that have authors and years of publication should fall within the other
alphabetically ordered references as normal:

Online Article:

e.g Ekudu, G. (2004) “Walking Made Easy,” at http://www.nhs.uk.walking (Accessed

31/08/12).

Online Journal:

8
Eg Chiber, P. (1999) “Foreign Ownership and Profitability”, Journal of Law, 42(2) pp209-238
@

http://www.home.process.com (Accessed 20/07/13).

Online Book:

Simons, N. (2007) A Short Course in Soil and Rock Slope Engineering, London: Thomas

Telford Publishers, @http://www.mylibrary.com (Accessed 25/07/12).

For internet sources with no author(s) write the website addresses in the order in which they
appear in the research paper. NB, these should be written last on the reference list after all
sources that have authors:

Eg- http:// www.cs.bham.ac.uk/pxc/refs.html

k) Sources that have no author

In-text-If a source has no author, use the title of the source, which should be underlined when
handwriting or italicized or written in bold when typing e.g The book College Bound Seniors
(2007) states that….

End-text-The word Anon (Short for anonymous) is used in place of author name

Eg: Anon (2007) College Bound Seniors: Third Edition, Accra: Scarlett Books.

NB- This reference should come last on the alphabetically ordered reference list just before
website addresses for internet sources with no authors. The letter ‘A’ on the word ‘Anon’ should
not be considered in the alphabetical ordering because Anon is not a surname.

l) Sources with no years of publication

In-text- For sources with no year of publication, write the surname of the author and the
abbreviation nd in brackets in place of the year. This means ‘no date’ e.g Piemonte (nd)
believes / says that……

End-text-The abbreviation ‘nd’, meaning ‘no date’ is used in place of year of publication,

9
e.g Piemonte, A.L. (nd) “Ebola Virus” in Angel, W. and Lorenzo, T.N. (Eds) The Deadly
diseases in the world: Third Edition, Chicago: Chicago University Press.

m) Secondary Sources

In-text-When an author quotes/ cites another author and you wish to cite the original author,
acknowledge both sources in the text but only include the item you actually read in the reference
list. e.g: if Asmah discusses the work of Hayfron it will be either: a) Hayfron (2005) as cited by
Asmah (2008) says / argues/ asserts… or Hayfron’s 2005 study (cited in Asmah 2008: 156)
shows that…

End-text- Asmah, J. (2008) The Importance of Trees, Kumasi: Longman.

n) If an author has published more documents in the same year on the same subject distinguish
between them by adding lower-case letters, e.g: in recent studies by Bekele (1999a, 1999b,
1999c) …

End-text- eg Bekele, P. (1999a) “Trees are Life”, Journal of Nature, 5 (2) pp123-140.

Bekele, P. (1999b) “Of Trees and Human Survival”, The Herald, 6 June, p9. Etc…

o) Citing information (almost the same / same) found in more than one source

In-text-If you find information in more than one source, you may want to include all the
references to strengthen your argument. In which case cite all the sources in the same brackets,
placing them in order of publication (earliest first). Separate the references using a semi colon (;)
e.g several writers (Jones 2004; Biggs 2006; Smith 2008) argue that…

End-text- Each source should have its own details and be incorporated in the other
alphabetically ordered sources making use of the surname of its author.

The end-text references should be arranged alphabetically, so supposing a writer made use of the
above sources in his/her research paper, the order would be: Agatha…..

Asmah…

Bekele…

10
Biggs…

Chiber….

Chung….

Ekudu……

Gumbo….

Jones…

Mandiki…

Mellers…

Moran….

Moyo….

Piemonte….

Shumba, M.D..

Shumba N.Z…..

Simons…

Smith…

The Chidyusiku commission….

The Sports Editor….

Zacquett……

Anon….. ( books/ sources with no authors come last)

http://www...

http://www.-

11
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) REFERENCING MODEL /
SYSTEM / SYLE

This refers to the rules and conventions established by the APA for documenting sources used in
writing a research paper. The APA is similar to the Harvard model save for two variations or
differences in the reference list where after writing the year of publication, one should put a full
stop and for books the publisher comes before city of publication e.g

Dietsch, B.M. (2006). Reasoning and writing well, McGraw Hill: New York.

e.g Ncube, C. (2013). “The Aids Pandemic,” The chronicle, 7 June, p.10.

e.g Anon (2014). “Violence”, Journal of war, 5 (1) pp 21-30.

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN ACADEMIC REF

1. Indention

This should be done when a direct quotation is more than four lines long. The writer has to leave
space on either side of the page and write the direct quotation in the middle of the page:

e.g

There is no use of quotation marks here

2. Ellipsis

These are three spaced dots …to indicate omission of certain words in a direct quotation.

3. Referencing models are categorized into Name-date/Author -date (Harvard, APA, IEEES,
Vacouver) and Numerical/ Notation models (Chicago, Turabian, Cambridge).

12
4. Referencing is done in two components-In-text and End-text.

END-TEXT REFERENCES OF VARIOUS SOURCES – HARVARD IMAGES (S) OR

DIAGRAM (S) WITHIN A BOOK

Where the image cited from a book is not the work of the author, additional reference to the
work should be made as follows:

Image: Artist (Yr), Title of the work, in (where found, e.g in a book/ museum) in: Author/ Editor
of book (Yr), Title, Place of Publication: Publisher e.g Masolino, T. (1427) “ The Temptation
of Adam and Eve” (Painting) in : Bruce- Mitford, M. (1996) The Illustrated Book of Signs and
Symbols, London: Dorling Kindersely OR

Diagram: Mintzberg, H. (1979) “The basic parts of organizations- Minzberg’s Model”

(Diagram) In: Cole, G.A. (2004) Management Theory and Practice: Sixth Edition, London:
Thomson

Conference papers e.g

Gibson, E.J. (1977). “The performance concept in building”, in: Proceedings of the 7 th CIB
Triennial Congress, Edinburgh September 1977, London:
Construction Research International, pp. 129-136.

Live performance a) Dance

e.g Composer/ choreographer (Yr of Premiere) Title, Company (optional) location and date
seen).

Ashton, F. (1948) “Cinderella”, Royal Opera, London, 13 Jan 2004.

Play

13
Title, Author (Yr of performance) directed by company (optional) (location, Date seen):

“An Inspector Calls”, by Priestley, J. B. (2009) Directed by Dalndry Stephen (Arts Theatre
Cambridge, 11 May).

Video/ film broadcast

Film: Title (Yr) of Media Originatot (e.g director) place of production: production co// e.g:

“Rebel without a cause” (1983) Film, Directed by Nicholas Ray<USA, Warner Brothers.

A television or radio broadcast should also include the date and time of broadcast and the
episode no// where possible:

Title (Yr) Type of media, Originator (e.g channel) exact date and time of broadcast

e.g “Dyslexic children” (1999) Tv Channel 4 , 24 July, 1900hrs

or Doctor Who (2008) Episode 8, “Silence in the library”, TV BBCI , 31 May , 1900hrs

or Book of the week (2008) Three Atlantic Ocean , Radio, BBC Radio 4, 21 July , 0945hrs

Individual contributors or interviewees:

e.g Brown, G. (2008) Interview in: Today Programme, Radio, BBC Radio 4,15 May , 0810hrs

Online Film

Screen Name (Yr) Title of film , available from: web address (Date Accessed)

e.g Los Angeles Opera (2008) “Tristan and Isolde”, podcast (online video) Available at: http://
www.youtube.com/watch = agqaail ( accessed 03/04/08).

Song(s)

e.g Matavire, P. (2003) “Ma U”, Matavire Mbune, Vol 1, Harare: Grammar Records.

That is, name and surname of the singer, year of release, Song name, album name, volume (if
necessary) and city of launch then recording studio.

14
CHICAGO/ TURABIAN/ CAMBRIDGE REFERENCING MODELS / SYSTEMS/
STYLES

These models make use of footnotes or endnotes for their in-text referencing. These are little
numbers that are inserted just above the last letter of the last word in a direct quotation or
paraphrase.

When direct quoting or paraphrasing using Chicago/ Turabian/ Cambridge one thus makes use of
the author (s) surname followed by the direct quotation/ paraphrase and the little number.

FOOTNOTES

When one decides to use footnotes one quotes, directly or indirectly putting the little numbers at
the end of each citation chronologically until there is just enough, space on the particular page
for the full publication details of the quoted document. Thus footnotes are written at the bottom
of the page where they appear as exemplified:

Banda states that violence is good…1

Njanji and Oferi on the other hand argue that violence is very bad for a country’s development…
2

These are supported by Richards who says “……………” 3

FOOTNOTES

1. J, Banda , “ Violence”, Journal of war 2 (1) 2010 p 10.

2. T, Njanji and W,Oferi, Strife, Mambo Press , Gweru, 2011, p 5.

15
 3. R,S, Richards, Conflict: Third Edition, College Press, Harare, 2012,p50.

Njanji and Oferi also say that……………………4 ……….. They go on to say……… 5

Saidi is of the opinion that…….6

……………………………………………… Zindi on the other hand asserts that……………7

FOOTNOTES

4. T,Njanji and W, Oferi, Strife , p6.

5. Ibid.(Meaning ‘as above’ -ie Njanji and Oferi quoted again)
6. U, Saidi, “ Violence is bad”, The Sunday Mail, 6 June , 2011 , pp 6-7.
7. Z, Zindi, “ Boter Apathy, “ in Bruno, D and Nicholas S,P (Eds) Elections in Zimbabwe,
Zimbabwe Publishing House, Harare, 2013, p10.

Continue quoting and numbering and writing full details of the footnotes at the bottom of the
page on which they appear until the essay / assignment/ document is finished, then on a fresh
page, compile the end-text referencing of the sources in the footnotes. These should be
alphabetically ordered starting with author surnames as follows:

References

Banda, J. “Violence”, Journal of war, 2 (1) 2010, p.10

Njanji, T and Oferi, W, Strife, Mambo Press, Gweru, 2011.

Richards, R, S, Conflict: Third Edition, College Press, Harare, 2012.

Saidi, U, “ Violence is bad”, The Sunday Mail, 6 June, 2011, pp 6-7.

Zindi, Z, “Voter Apathy, in Bruno, D and Nicholas S,P (Eds) Elections in Zimbabwe,
Zimbabwe Publishing House, Harare, 2013.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A SOURCE:

 Relevance
 Time of publication (Year)

16
  Authorship
 Publisher

ACADEMIC/ESSAY WRITING

Introduction

McNamara et al (2010:58) point out that “writing well is a significant challenge for students and
of critical importance for success in a wide variety of situations and professions”. Students are
expected to write well and it should be understood that:

Writing is a very complex skill. Reif-Lehrer (1992) observes that communication through
writing involves a very complex relationship between the writer and the reader who are each
trying to elicit something from each other.

 Lecturer/reader wants to gain information and understanding into the way of thinking and
level of understanding of the student/writer.
 He/ she is the authority and the professional reader of the academic document produced
by the student.
 Student/writer-has one chance, one impression to make the reader understand the
argument.

Characteristics of university writing

17
 It is generic, that is, what may be considered logical in one discipline may be illogical in
another both in terms of information presentation, style and content. This also explains
why different referencing conventions are prescribed.
 Essays might ask one to evaluate a quotation in light of what one has studied, analyse
and assess the significance of an event or theory and write about a particular theme on
aspects covered in a module.
 Essays also give one the opportunity to demonstrate the ability to think critically about
the themes and materials of the course
 They enable one to make one’s own assessments of those themes and conflicting
interpretations of them.

 The student – lecturer academic relationship is established through basic tools such as the
essay. The lecturer is able to assess whether the student has understood, whether the
student is following the course, whether the student has grasped the disciplinary content
of one’s studies.
 In essay writing one needs to support one’s assessments using evidence from the texts,
lectures and discussions.
 One also needs to show how well one can connect the various materials of the course to
the central themes of the course.

Definition: Essay

 Sinfield and Burns (2004) see the term ‘essay’ as having been derived from the Latin
word ‘exagium’ which means ‘presentation of a case’.
 Following the definition by Sinfield and Burns (2004) a student is expected to make a
case/present a case/ argument rather than make an assertion or assumption when
writing an essay.
 Payne and Whittaker (2006) define an essay as an argument /thesis for which students
adopt a particular stance and in support of which they present evidence. The
following is observed by Payne and Whittaker (2006:317)
…the objective when writing an essay is to convince

18
 your reader that your particular standpoint is valid by

presenting researched argument based on evidence from

authoritative sources.

 Presenting a case therefore requires academic evidence which the student gets from
various academic sources (and demonstrates through in-text referencing).
 When called to write an essay one selects what is permissible based on the demands of
the topic.
 Sinfield and Burns (2004:141) conclude by saying that ‘essay writing is designed to be
heuristic – you are supposed to learn through all the processes involved in the generation
of a written assignment”.

CHARACTERISTICS

Essays are:

 Made up of paragraphs
 Written in continuous form
 Have no sub-headings
 Are usually short and dealing with a very specific section, unit or topic area.

ESSAY STRUCTURE

An essay has five basic components. These components are: the Topic, the Introduction, the
Main Body, the Conclusion and Referencing.

The Pre-Writing Stage:

1.Essay Topic-Topic Analysis

 According to Dvorack (2007) the Topic is the initial TEXT that establishes or seeks
to establish semantic boundaries of disciplinary content signaled by context. Thus for

19
 one to be able to write a research paper, one needs to have a topic to work on
(working topic) first.
 It is a key to what one chooses/ selects from the researched ideas, facts etc, that is, it
gives one guidance on what sort of information can fully discuss the topic at hand.
 The topic allows the writer to gather ideas, i.e evidence from various sources.
 When one gets a topic one should break it up into key terms and phrases, define the
key terms, understand the demands of the Topic and figure out what sort of research
is required.
2.Brainstorming
 Brainstorming follows topic analysis. This is when one jots down as many points as
possible on the topic from one’s mind. These points from brainstorming usually make
up the topic sentences of each paragraph in the essay.

3.Research:

 One then carries out research using books and other credible academic sources, taking
note of the bibliographical details of the sources for referencing purposes. When
researching one goes through some processes (strategies/methods) of Reading- (1)
Background reading which is a quick run through of a topic to get a rough idea of
what it is all about. (2) Scanning and Skimming of the source’s cover page, contents
and index pages etc is done in order to ascertain if the source contains the topic (s)
one wants to focus on. (3) One then does a thorough reading of the source(s) using
the Intensive reading strategy under which the SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recall
and Recite) method falls. This is thorough reading for understanding of concepts in
order to be able to put forward balanced arguments in assignments/Essays,
Dissertations and Examinations.

4.Drafting

20
  One then writes several drafts, linking points from brainstorming with those from
research and arranging points in order of importance. The drafts will lead to the
writing of the final draft made up of the following components:

The Writing Stage

1.The Introduction

 This is the first paragraph of an essay.

 Here the student/ writer tells the professional reader HOW he/ she is going to tackle the
topic and how the essay is structured.
 The introduction tells the reader communicatively whether or not the subsequent essay
will answer the topic at hand.
 This is the paragraph which may stipulate what the writer wants to present/ argue on. One
can present ‘methodology’ or theories/ perspectives to be used to argue.
 The introduction establishes the context of situation as well as context of culture (what is
to be read in a text type).
 It allows reader to focus on specific issues in the presentation of argument.
 The last sentence of this paragraph should contain a transitional hook to link with the first
paragraph of the main body.
 The introduction should be brief but bringing out how the essay/research paper will
handle the topic.

2.The Main Body

 This section answers the topic by developing a discussion.

 It is made up of a series of paragraphs that carry different ideas all of which have the
same goal of answering the topic.
 It Consists of all sub ideas that prove the point of argument.
 It comprises of well –structured academic paragraphs.
 In the main body there is a demonstration of knowledge of the material read.

21
  There is also exposition and provision of evidence from authoritative sources (through
in-text referencing).
 The last sentence of each paragraph should contain a transitional hook to link to the next
paragraph.
 One paragraph should contain only one point expanded with evidence from research and
from brainstorming.

3.The Essay conclusion

 This paragraph rounds off the essay.

 It summarises the thesis developed in the introduction and body of the essay.
 In the conclusion the writer draws the essay together and proves that they have answered
the whole question.
 It is a paragraph in which the writer reiterates main arguments and restates main points
raised and discussed in the body.
 A final effort is made to convince the reader that the thesis has been established as a
reliable conclusion.
 No new ideas should be raised in the conclusion.
 It is a final statement at gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end. It
might be a ‘call to action’ in a persuasive paper.

4.Referencing

After concluding the research paper, in which references were made to ideas of other authors,
one compiles the list of references on a fresh page, following rules for end-text referencing.

5.Proof-Reading

After completing the final draft, proof reading of the whole document is imperative…
correcting spelling, spacing and grammar mistakes as well as checking on paragraphing
before printing and handing in the research paper.

Organizing information in an essay

22
Paragraphing

Essays (Research papers) are written in paragraph form. Paragraphing is therefore very
important. A paragraph is a group of related sentences that carry the same idea (Soles, 2007). A
paragraph has three basic components discussed below:

a. The Topic sentence (whose purpose is to introduce the main idea/ point to be discussed in
that particular paragraph).It is a general idea which will be supported by examples,
statistics, ideas from research etc.
b. Supporting sentences/Developers (whose aim is to support the introduced idea. These are
normally references, examples, statistics, visuals or diagrams etc)
c. Clincher or closing statement (this is a sentence with a dual role. It closes discussion of
the idea/ point at hand and prepares the reader for the forthcoming sub-idea or new idea
in the next paragraph.

Things to note

 Definition of key terms ( best handled in the second paragraph)

 Judgement ( paragraph (s) just before the conclusion)
 Edit work by considering the idea of DRAFTS i.e come up with 1 st Draft , 2nd Draft, Final
Draft
 Check with your respective lecturers whether essay should be typed or handwritten ( also
seek clarity on specifications e.g font type, size , spacing etc)
 REMEMBER TO MEET YOUR DUE DATES IN TERMS OF SUBMITTING THE
ESSAYS.
 Start working on your essays rather early; do not wait until the last minute.
 Engage your lecturers where you have no clarity on the topic.
 Go through all comments and seek the audience of your lecturer when your essay has
been marked and returned to you.

CONCLUSION

In this session we found as essay as a presentation of an argument in writing. We also discussed

its five basic components noting the three components of a paragraph as well. The five

23
components of an essay noted are the topic or question, introductory paragraph, body made up of
a series of related paragraphs, a concluding paragraph and lastly reference list. a paragraph it was
also established that is should have a topic sentence which introduces an idea to be discussed,
supporting sentences usually references, examples and visuals where applicable, and lastly the
closing statement has a dual role of closing the discussion of the idea at hand and prepares reader
for the forthcoming point. It is hoped that this session has provided a foundation on which you
are to develop your essay writing skills.

REPORT WRITING

Definition

 Reports are a standard part of business writing and are situationally defined, i.e what is
included in a report, the type of report written and the organization of a report is
determined by the situation that gives rise to the report. Despite their variety, however,
all reports have one thing in common, they are a description of a task, project or
research activity either at its completion or at some midpoint to recount and to
summarise one’s actions.
 Lesikar and Flatley (2003:273) say “a business report is an orderly and objective
communication of factual information that serves a business purpose.”
 Little (1997) says a report is a document providing an account of something witnessed
or examined or work carried out or an investigation together with conclusions.
 Business reports assess a situation, analyse and suggest ways of improving.
 Reports are a highly structured form of writing often following conventions that have
been laid to produce a common format.
 They vary in their purpose yet all of them will require a formal structure and careful
planning, presenting of material in a logical manner using clear and concise language.
They can be short or long, formal or informal.

24
PURPOSES OF REPORTS IN ORGANIZATIONS

 Reports are written in order to :

a. reflect, develop or introduce new systems
b. to recommend a course of action
c. for decision making
d. for accounting purposes
e. to assess performance
f. to participate in business endeavors
g. to inform
h. to ascertain why things happen as they do

Classification- reports on be classified by

a. content i.e subject matter and circumstances that prompt the report
b. medium of presentation i.e is it an oral or written report
c. frequency of production i.e is it weekly , monthly, quarterly , bi- annually or yearly.
d. Length – ( how long)
e. Form ( research)

TYPES OF REPORTS

1. General report
- Circumstances which give rise to a general report are usually general.
- They have no strict planning for them to happen.
- In the operations of organisations there are circumstances or situations pertinent to the
operations of the organization that may happen, as such the organisation will require
information on such happenings.
- A general report contains the following elements
a. The front matter which consists of the letter or memo of transmittal, title page or cover
sheet, table of contents and the executive summary or abstract

25
 b. Introduction
c. Methods or methodology
d. Facts and discussions including visuals
e. Conclusions
f. Recommendations

2. Progress reports
- This looks at the project either in the middle of the project or at any other relevant
stage in order to inform or provide the foundation for decisions
- It forces one to produce or establish a work schedule to work with or allow
evaluation.
- Progress reports are used in education to check leaner progress and by funders of
projects to assess how a grant was used or to evaluate the progress of a project
- A progress report contains the following elements:
a. Frontmatter which is made up of the letter or memo of transmittal, title page or cover
sheet, table of contents and the executive summary or abstract
b. Introduction
c. Methods or methodology
d. Facts and discussion which include past work, present stage and future work as well as
visuals
e. Conclusions
f. Recommendations

INFORMATION CONTAINED IN EACH OF THE ELEMENTS

1. The letter or memo of transmittal

- A report cannot contain both of these but a report that is to be sent outside a particular
organization will be accompanied by a letter of transmittal whereas a report that is to
be distributed within the company or organization will be accompanied by a memo of
transmittal.

26
 - Quite often reports have a memo or letter of transmittal which identifies the report and
explains the key points
- The memo or letter can also describe the situation at gave rise to the report.
- Do not worry about the report and the transmittal documents containing the same
information, they will because reports and their transmittal documents are often
separated as they move from reader to reader.
- In addition, the different sections of a report need to stand alone so the memo or the
letter will be on its own page which is the first page of the report.

2. Title page or coversheet

- It is the second page of the report
- It bears the title of a report, author’s names and designation, name of organization or
person for whom the report has been written.
- The title should be brief, straight forward and factual usually capturing the exact
issue it is addressing

3. Table of contents
- A report should be written making use of headings and sub-heading so this section
lists the different sections of the entire report
- It shows which information is on which page
- It serves to guide readers and direct them to the exact area where specific
information is located within the document
- It is compiled last even though it is page 3 of the report so leave page 3 blank and
fill it in after completing the report when you know what information is on each
page.

4. Executive summary or Abstract

- This is a brief summary of the entire report
- An Abstract should be one paragraph long while an Executive summary is made up of
quite a number of paragraphs

27
 - Both are summaries and serve the purpose of informing the reader on key factual
information contained in the report. As such only one of the two should be written per
report.
- They each include a short statement of the main task, methods used in collecting data,
conclusions reached and any major recommendations.
- They are usually written last after the conclusions and recommendations, just before
the contents page even though they are on page 4 of the report. So leave it blank and
fill it in after the other sections of the report.

NB: The 4 items described above form what is referred to as the Front matter of all
reports

THE REPORT MAIN BODY

5. Introduction
- This is just a paragraph giving background information or highlighting conditions
which gave rise to the report
- One might want to state the objectives of the report
- It may also explain why the report is needed including the terms of reference (what
the report is all about), aims, definitions of key terms etc.

6. Methods or Methodology
- In any investigation there are methods which are used to gather data.
- These should be listed without giving any further explanation as the explanation will
have been given in the Executive summary or Abstract.
- Methods usually enable the reader to determine the reliability of one’s facts and
conclusions
- These include questionnaires, interviews, visual observations, archival research etc.
7. Facts , discussions and visuals
- This section makes up the main body of the report
- Facts are the actual findings organized logically into sections or subsections. They are
the evidence of research

28
 - The discussion is the interpretation of the facts or findings from an author’s point of
view.
- At this point one seeks to explain why the situation was the way at was found
- Some of the facts are presented in word or text form and some in the form of visuals
- These are diagrams or graphics such as pie charts, line graphs, bar graphs , maps ,
pictures, histograms, gannt charts etc.
- These diagrams will show the part of the report which cannot be written in word or text
form.
- The visuals should be labeled (titled) and should have a key explaining what is what in
the visual.

Conclusions

- These arise naturally from evidence presented in the previous sections

- They are the convictions which one gets after interpretation of data one gathers
- This could also be viewed as one’s own opinion based on the discussion and all
statements must be substantiated by the given data.
- Conclusions here must not be understood in the same way as the conclusion in an essay
where a restating of a major point is done.
- Conclusions here are one’s convictions or understanding after an experience with the
data.
- They should link with findings and should flow naturally from evidence and arguments.

Recommendations

- This is a brief statement or a set of what should be done or should not be done next.
- It directs the reader on what course of action to take next.
- Be specific and present them in bullet form.

Appendix

- If the writer made use of certain information which is normally not found in standard
reports such should come under the appendix

29
 - That information is referred to as peripheral matter which should be properly numbered
and attached at the end of the report.

NB: If the report made use of secondary sources ( if some information was borrowed from other
sources) then a reference list should be compiled at the end.

Structure of a Memo
MEMORANDUM( For a Report that is to be circulated within a particular
organization/company)

To: the CEO (Mtilizisi Enterprises)

From: The Projects Manager (Mtikizizi Enterprises)

Date: 10 October 2016

Subject: Report on Mtikizizi dam construction

Body: Write what the report is all about. What has necessited the report ( e.g this should be abt
½ to ¾ to a fall page . Not more

Skip one line

Sign off e.g

Dobbie Maushe ( Projects Manager Mtikizizi)

30
Structure of a Letter of Transmittal

Letter of Transmittal (For a Report being sent outside one’s organization or company)

Sender’s Address
P.Bag 707
Mtikizizi
10 October 2016

Recipients title and address e.g

The manager
Kitsiyatota Enterprises
P.Bag 9020
Kitsiyatota

Salutation , e.g Dear Sir/ Madam

Re: Report on Mtikiziz dam construction
Body – Write what the report is about, that is, what has necessitated the report. Not more than 1
page long.
(Sign off)
Yours faithfully
Dobbie Maushe ( Projects manager Mtikizizi Enterprises)

Use of Visuals in Reports

Visual communication is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be seen.
Visual communication in part or whole relies on eyesight. Visual communication is a broad
spectrum that includes signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, industrial design,
advertising, animation, color, and electronic resources.These days it is unimaginable that a
technical report or article can be written without some form of graphic display to support the

31
text. With the advent of the digital age incorporating images in a written report is as easy as
clicking the mouse a few times.Visuals are used to illustrate what words would say; and as we all
know, "A picture is worth a thousand words" when the picture is relevant and well developed.

According to Boyle (2009), visuals can be used to represent real things such asphotographs,
drawingsand diagrams. They can also represent numbers in the form of tables, bar charts, pie
charts, and line graphs.Visuals can also represent instructionsfor example,when giving complex
instructions or explaining a process one can consider using a flowchart. It simplifies the process
and the understanding of the instructions. Visuals can also be used to represent
descriptions.When giving descriptions you would also want to use pictures or drawings. Simple
drawings (often called line drawings because they use just lines, without other details such as
shading) are the most common. They simplify the situation and the objects so that the reader can
focus on the key details (Wirth 2007).

Presentation of data can be done through charts. Common types of charts include title charts,
overview charts, bullet charts and flow charts.

Title charts

These are used to state the topic and its importance to the audience as below:

Figure 1: Showing a lecturer’s intention to teach students on Visual Communication

32
 What Is Visual

Communication

Overview charts

Overview charts are used to preview the contents of one’s presentation as shown below.

Figure 2: Showing the subject overview normally given at the beginning of a presentation

OVERVIEW

1. Definition

2. Different Types of Visuals

3. Diagrammatic Representations

Bullet Charts

Bullet charts are used to show lists of ideas to be covered in a presentation in bullet form as
shown below in Figure 3 where an instructor is lecturing on oral communication skills

Figure.3 The Physical Message

 Posture

33
 Eye Contact Gestures

 Voice inflection
Flow charts.

Flow charts are used to describe steps of an event or process as shown below:

Figure 4: showing the step by step process of registering on line with the Midlands State
University

Figure 4
Log onto the MSU
website
www.msu.ac.zw

Select on line
registration

Enter your full details

on spaces provided

Access your e-
learning account

34
GRAPHS

Any good analyst knows the importance of effectively communicating results. Graphs are a good
way to communicate results effectively.

Bar Graph

Bars (or columns) are the best types of graphs for presenting a single data series. Bar charts have
a much heavier weight to them so they really emphasize a point and stand out on the page. A bar
graph shows the differences between categories or trends over time using the length or height of
its bars. Bar Graphs can be either horizontal or vertical and can be stacked differently to show
different aspects and trends.

Vertical bar graph

The vertical bar graph below shows how children in a classroom setup will remember varying
percentages of what they hear in class depending on what mode of presentation the teacher uses.

Figure 5

35
Key: Y axis shows percentage of information remembered and the X axis shows method used in
delivering information

Figure 6: Horizontal bar graph showing recruitment levels for a private owned company
Servcor P/L from January – April 2018

Horizontal Graph

36
 SERVCOR P/L 2018 Recruitment Levels

April

March

February

January

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

General Staff Senior Managers Line Managers

Key:

Y-axis shows the months in which recruitment was done

X-axis shows the different categories of employees recruited.

Stacked Bar Chart or Relative Value Chart

A stacked bar chart allows you represent more complex relationships between data sets. A
stacked bar will let you place one or more sub-categories inside a bar while still showing the
total. The below chart shows the number of undergraduate students enrolled over a number of
years by an university (MSU)

MSU UNDERGRADUATE ENROLMENT

Figure 7

37
Key: The Y-axis shows the number of students enrolled throughout the different campuses
On the X-axis the red(lower part of bar) is the ladies while the blue(top part) is the males
enrolled per year.

Clustered Bar Chart

Clustered or grouped bar charts are similar to stacked bar graphs in that they let you show
subcategories in addition to regular categories on your chart. When the bars you want to group
are only loosely related, you will definitely want to use a clustered representation. Clustered bar
graphs are also useful when you have more than 3 subcategories that are part of a whole.

38
Figure 8

Key: X-axis

1st bar represents the production levels

2nd bar represents the export levels

3rd bar represents the total consumption levels

39
Y-axis is the number of pieces in billions.

Histogram

A histogram is similar in appearance to a bar chart, but instead of comparing categories or

looking for trends over time, each bar represents how data is distributed in a single category.
Each bar represents a continuous range of data or the number of frequencies for a specific data
point. The histogram example below shows the distribution of test scores in a class. We can see
at a glance that the distribution follows a traditional bell curve.

Figure 9

Line Graph

A line chart (also known as a line graph) plots a series of data points on a graph and connects
them with lines. A line chart is particularly useful when showing trend lines with subtle
differences, as shown in the example below.

40
Figure 10

Stephens Supermarkets Sales for the first quarter 2018

14

12

10

8
Fruits
Meat Products
6 Dry Groceries

0
January February March April

Key:

41
Y-axis shows quantities in 000s kgs sold

X- axis shows the month in which sales were made

Pie Chart

A pie chart is a graphic that shows the breakdown of items in a set as percentages by presenting
them as slices of a pie. The key to a pie chart is that all of the slices must equal 100% as shown
in the illustration below showing the consumption percentages of renewable energy in Australia.

Figure 11

42
Area Charts

An area chart functions similarly to a line chart, but with the areas below the lines filled in. This
can make the trends easier to see than in a traditional line chart. It works well for showing an
increasing trend line over time, such as in the example below, where each succeeding time
period reflects a higher price in each corresponding month.

Figure 12

43
Visuals can be used when one is using too many words to explain something. They are also used
as a representation of trends or a lot of numerical data. You can also use them when you are
doing a comparison over many categories. When you use visuals in a report you must include
titles. The titles of all the illustrations should be numbered. For example, Figure 1, Figure 2,
Table 1, Table 2 and so on.Labels are also important where illustrations that describe something
should contain labels. Keys should be included for illustrations like bar or pie charts which have
certain shadings, colors, or line styles, that have a special meaning. Illustrations should be placed
just after the point where they have been discussed and should normally be between a quarter to
half of a vertical size of the page. It is important that they fit with the text that discusses/
describes them and their main findings. Visuals should be as simple as possible as the course is
on report writing not on computer visuals or an arts course. Visuals are an excellent way to
highlight a message in workplace communications. Many companies depend upon visuals, such
as bar and line charts, photos, and multimedia presentations, in order to help create a memorable,
informative message.

44
Chiversand Shoolbred (2007), state that, when individuals need to show a pattern or relationship
of data, it is best to use visual graphics, such as bar, pie and line charts. These charts help
illustrate specific relationships and communicate a pattern as part of a message. Common visuals
used in report writing and presentations include tables. These are rows and columns of numbers
and, sometimes, words which allow rapid access to information and comparison of information.
A table can be as simple as one row and one column of data. It can also be very complex. At the
top of each column is a column heading which defines or identifies the contents of that column
(and usually it indicates the unit of measurement, for example, percentage or kilograms). On the
left edge of the table there are usually row headings. These define or identify the contents of
those rows. A table can be in the format below.

Figure 13

HCS 101 STUDENTS MARKS

EVANS 95

JOSHUA 90

FINANCE 10

GRACE 55

TAONA 50

GANTT CHARTS

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. This chart lists the tasks to
be performed on the vertical axis, and time intervals on the horizontal axis. The width of the
horizontal bars in the graph shows the duration of each activity. Gantt charts illustrate the start
and finish dates of the different elements of a project. Modern Gantt charts also show the
dependency (i.e., precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used

45
to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and will also show the current
position of the project.

Progress Gantt charts

In a progress Gantt chart, tasks are shaded in proportion to the degree of their completion. In
other words, a task that is 60% complete would be 60% shaded, starting from the left. A vertical
line is drawn at the time index when the progress Gantt chart is created, and this line can then be
compared with shaded tasks. If everything is on schedule, all task portions left of the line will be
shaded, and all task portions right of the line will not be shaded. This provides a visual
representation of how the project and its tasks are ahead or behind schedule.

In conclusion, visual communication is similar to how verbal or written language works.

However, visual language might not be as reliable or consistent as written language which has a
more formalized set of conventions and rules. It , undoubtedly confirms the meaning of written
text in memorable ways. People will remember more of what they saw visually than just what
they heard or read about.

46
References

Boyle, A.P. (2007) Using alignment and reflection to improve learning, London: UK Printers
.

Chivers, B. and Shoolbred, M.(2007) A student’s guide to presentations.London: Sage. [

Creative Commons.

Wirth, KRL. (2007) Teaching for deeper understanding and lifelong learning.London.

Imagine that you are the head of department in a troubled organisation. Using the following
notes and any of your own, write a general report to the company’s managing director;

47
 o Exodus of employees

o 45% drop in provision of services/products

o Losses

o Stakeholder and public mistrust

o Huge blow on the image of the organisation resulting from the industrial action

GUNDE FOODS UNLIMITED

MEMORANDUM

TO : THE GENERAL MANAGER (GUNDE FOODS UNLIMITED)

FROM : THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT (PRODUCTION)

DATE : 4 APRIL 2018

SUBJECT : REPORT ON THE INDUSTRIAL ACTION IN THE PRODUCTION

DEPARTMENT

This report covers the events of the unlawful industrial action that was instigated by members of
the Regional Workers’ Committee last week on the pretext of protesting against alleged unfair

48
labour practices by the Plant Manager. However an investigation carried out by the company’s
security consultant point to the fact that a rival competitor may have a hand in the disturbances

The industrial action has resulted in a major disruption resulting in a forty five percent drop in
production. An act of sabotage was also perpetrated and unfortified products were released into
the market where they decomposed on shop shelves and in customer’s homes. This has resulted
in a sudden drop in the demand of our products of up to thirty percent and the Ministry of Health
has since dispatched health officers to investigate the issue of the contaminated products.

More details are in the report attached.

M. NYANDORO

PRODUCTION MANAGER

(i)

GUNDE FOODS UNLIMITED

REPORT ON AN UNLAWFUL INDUSTRIAL ACTION

49
(PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT)

For The Attention Of;

THE MANAGING DIRECTOR Gunde Foods Unlimited

THE FINANCE DIRECTOR Gunde Foods Unlimited

REGIONAL DIRECTOR Gunde Foods Unlimited

Compiled By: M. NYANDORO Head of Department (Production)

Mobile: 0772 549 764

Land: 262-777230/7

prod@gunde.co.zw

(ii)

Table of Contents

Page

Memorandum (i)

50
Title (ii)

Table of Contents (iii)

Executive Summary (iv)

Introduction 1

Methodology 1

Facts, Discussions, Visuals 2-6

Government Intervention 6

Conclusion 7

Recommendations 7

51
(iii)

Executive Summary

Following the sudden and unlawful strike action by plant operators in the regional plant on 23
March 2018 an investigation was launched to establish the root causes of the disturbances.
Information was gathered through interviews with both striking and non-striking employees and
an analysis of production and sales records was carried out. The company’s security consultant
was also tasked to carry out a further market intelligence investigation and to independently
gather further information from employees.

It has been established that at least twenty five employees from the production plant embarked
on the unlawful industrial action during the morning shift on the 23 rd March 2018 and caused a
forty five (45) drop in production and damage to goods worth twenty five thousand dollars that
were released from the plant into the market without adding preservatives. The decomposing
goods had to be recalled from shops and customers but the incident had already caused a big dent
in market confidence resulting in a drop in demand of up to 30% in the company’s various
products.

The ministry of health has also despatched health officers to inspect the production plant and
their report will determine whether production will continue or not.

The industrial action was sudden and unannounced hence no contingency measures could be
taken at the time the strike occurred. The reasons for the strike action proffered by the striking
workers include sexual harassment, non-payment of overtime and cruelty on the part of the Plant
Manager. However information has since emerged to the effect that a rival competitor may have
a hand in the disturbances and has since taken advantage of the situation to lure away key staff
and increase supply of their rival products on the market. The key figure in the disturbances is
the workers committee chairperson who is related to the owner of the rival competitor.

The industrial action stopped on 25 March 2018 after the organisation got a declaration from the
Ministry of Labour declaring the action to be unlawful.

52
(iv)

Introduction

This report outlines the events that transpired since Friday 23 March 2018 when an unlawful
industrial action was staged by a section of workers in the production plant. The report also gives
details of the investigations instituted and the measures taken to mitigate the effects of the
unlawful action together with recommendations to avoid similar situation in future.

Methodology

1. Interviews

2. Interrogation

3. Laboratory tests

4. Private investigation

5. Analysis of Tip-Off reports

Facts, Discussions and Visuals

On the morning of 23 March 2018 all employees reported for duty at the prescribed time but
twenty five employees did not go to their work stations. Rather they gathered in the employee
canteen and when the production supervisor Mr. Mundoringisa confronted them they demanded
to see the Head of Department (Production). As I, the writer, was outside of the country on other
business the production supervisor suggested that the disgruntled employees could speak to the
Plant Manager Mr. Gumbo. This offer was spurned and the employees indicated that they did not
want to even see Mr. Gumbo as he was the subject of their grievances.

53
According to Mr. Mundoringisa the striking workers were being led by the chairperson of the
regional workers committee Mr. Tinarwo who was acting as their spokesperson and was
directing all actions taken by the employees. During the discussions the employees revealed to
Mr. Mundoringisa that their grievances centred on the alleged unbecoming conduct of the Plant
manager as follows;

a) The Plant Manager was in the habit of sexually harassing female employees in the
production department taking advantage of his position and power over them. Some of
the concerned victims had written affidavits that were in the possession of the workers
committee chairperson. These are attached as Appendix 1.

b) The Plant Manager was refusing to book and authorised overtime worked by employees
for payment. The reason cited was that the Plant Manager was exploiting the plant
workers in order to increase the productivity margin for the plant and he would in turn
benefit as his remuneration is based on productivity levels.

c) The Plant Manager is also accused of having a cruel and vicious character such that his
continued presence in the production plant was no longer tenable. A litany of his acts of
cruelty was submitted to the plant supervisor and is attached as Appendix 2.

While the Plant Supervisor was carrying out the discussions in the canteen some of the striking
workers proceeded to lock out the Plant Manager from the factory threatening to violently evict
him.

According to Mr. Mundoringisa a resolution was agreed to at around ten o’clock in the morning
that all despatches to various shops for that day should go ahead. The understanding was that the
plant supervisor would forward the workers’ grievances to Head Office and the matter would be
resolved the following day. It is at this point that it is suspected that some of the workers caused
unfinished products to be packed and despatched without fortification. The fortification is
presided over in person by the Plant Manager and his absence due to the lock-out gave the
culprits an opportunity to perpetrate the sabotage while the Plant Supervisor was engaged in

54
negotiations in the canteen. The names of all the workers involved in despatching products on
that day are listed in Appendix 3.

On the following day (24 March 2018) the Head Office send a message to the striking workers
through the plant supervisor informing the workers that their concerns had been duly noted and
will be addressed. Head Office instructed that work should resume as normal and that the Plant
Manager should be allowed access into the plant. However the striking workers only resumed
work on a “go slow” and the Plant Manager was barred from entering the plant. Security records
show that unfortified products continued to be despatched on the 24 th of March and only stopped
on the 25th whereupon the Plant Supervisor started to receive complaints of decomposing goods.

Coincidentally the first exodus of six plant operators happened on the 24 th of March – the second
day of the strike. They suddenly tendered their immediate resignations without giving due notice
leaving the plant machinery without attention. Four more resigned on the 25 th. The investigation
report by SafeSecure Security Services confirms that all the ten are now working for Gutsa
Foods Limited and that their switch over was facilitated by the chairperson of the workers
committee who acted as the recruiting agent. Supporting statements from moles and anonymous
tip offs who divulged the information are attached as Appendix 4. The statements include those
by some artisans who were approached with job offers but refused to take up the new
employment due to commitments they currently have with the organisations such as outstanding
loans which would have become due for payment if they had left.

Investigations Results

Safesecure Security Services were asked to carry out an investigation into the disturbances and
their report (attached as Appendix 5) reveals the following;

1. Mr. Tinarwo is a cousin to a director of Gutsa Foods Limited a Mr. Gutsa. Their mothers are
sisters. Gutsa Foods recently set up a food processing plant in the Southern province and
produces similar goods to those of Gunde Foods and distributes them to the same shops that
we distribute to. However as the reports from the business development show the entrance of
Gutsa Foods had not affected our sales negatively as our sales continued to grow by an
average of 3% over the past twelve months due to the strong brand promotion and identity
achieved over the years.

55
The investigations report contains irrefutable evidence showing that Mr. Tinarwo facilitated the
crossover of artisans to Gutsa Foods. Although no evidence has been discovered linking him to
the sabotage in the production plant, circumstantial evidence points to that fact. It is not clear
whether the sabotage was instigated by Gutsa Foods but they are certainly getting mileage on the
market basing on the noticeable increased quantity of their goods in the shops and a drop in the
demand of our products.

Fig. 1 Chart showing the volume of Gunde Foods and competitor products on shop shelves

Fig. 1 above illustrates the changes in stocking volumes in shops noted between Gunde Foods,
Gutsa Foods and other suppliers during the past two weeks. The volume of peanut butter fell by
20% from 75% to 55% while the volume of Soup Mix fell by 30% from 82% to 52%. This is a
significant fall mostly attributed to the loss of market confidence caused by the release of
unfortified products onto the market.

56
2. The allegations of sexual harassment levelled against Mr. Gumbo are difficult to prove. What
is clear is that he has been engaging in improper relationships with subordinates including
married women. However the allegations of sexual harassment are difficult to sustain as all
the relationships appear to have been consensual. While there is a thin line between forced
consent and voluntary consent the matter is made difficult by the fact that the victims only
raised these allegations after the relationships had ended for various reasons.

3. The allegation that the Plant Manager is cruel cannot be sustained because all incidents of the
alleged cruelty cited in Appendix 2 pertain to company policies which the Plant Manager
implemented to the latter in all cases.

Losses

The direct losses incurred from the unlawful strike amount to one hundred and thirty thousand
dollars broken down as follows;

a) Good damaged due to sabotage $25 000.00.

b) Loss of business due to decreased demand $105 000.00.

The loss of reputation can be quantified through the decreased demand that ensued from the
negative publicity concerning the decomposing products. While it is too early to have a final
quantification of the losses it is expected that the loss is going to be much more than what has
been suffered so far unless if the company embarks on damage control initiatives as
recommended below.

In the event that the company fails to recover its market share the projection of the revenue trend
for the year is as follows;

57
Fig. 2 Line graph showing the projected revenue before and after the strike.

As shown in the line graph the revenue was expected to steadily grow at the rate of 0.5% per
month from $1,5 million in February to slightly above $1,6 million in December. However after
the contaminated products went into the market, revenue suffered a sudden drop from $1.5
million to $1.05 million within one week in February. If the current trend continues revenue is
expected to remain flat at $1,05 million per month. This calls for robust interventions as
recommended below.

Government Intervention

58
The Ministry Of Health showed great concern over the supply of unfortified products on the
market. A total ban on further distribution of the company products was only averted because the
health inspectors were satisfied with the corrective measures taken as explained below. However
there shall be monthly inspections until the ministry is satisfied that there will be no recurrence.

Conclusions

It is not far-fetched to conclude that the unlawful industrial action was an act of sabotage
orchestrated by Mr. Tinarwo who managed to convince other unwitting employees into
embarking on the industrial action. The Plant Supervisor made an error of judgement when he
allowed the striking employees to handle unfinished goods on the assemble line without
supervision. The best course of action was to use extra-stock to meet orders rather than goods
directly from the assembly line. The response from Head Office was also inadequate as it was
imperative to immediately send a senior person to replace the Plant Manager and supervise
operations on the ground.

Recommendations

The following actions should be taken

o A press statement should be issued informing the public of the unlawful action and sabotage.
The underhand influence of the competitor should also be revealed without mentioning
names but stating the hard facts in such a way that there would be no doubts on who was
responsible and why.

o All the striking workers should be suspended pending further investigations. Disciplinary
action for engaging in the unlawful strike should be preferred against them.

59
o The company should institute a court action to recover the losses from the responsible
employees.

o The sabotage should be reported to the Police and those responsible should face arrest and
prosecution. This will act as a deterrent.

o The Plant Manager should be suspended for engaging in improper relationships with
subordinates.

o The production plant should be sealed off from the goods despatch bay and should be
declared off limit to unauthorised personnel. In order to improve accountability a biometric
access control system should be installed.

o The security company should be asked to deploy undercover operatives amongst the plant
employees. These undercover operatives will be expected to warn the organisation of any
future planned unlawful actions beforehand.

o All future disturbances should be handled by a senior person at senior managerial level to
ensure that correct decisions are made.

M. Nyandoro

Production Manager

REPORT WRITING TOPICS

1. Midway through the implementation of a particular programme you are asked to report
on the progress. Write an appropriate report for your manager.
2. After completion of a particular project you are to account to your donors. Write an
appropriate summative report on the project.

60
 3. There was collective job action at your place of work. Property was damaged in the
strike. As the manager on the ground write an appropriate report for senior management.
4. You are the current SRC present at MSU. The students at MSU have many challenges,
chief among them accommodation. You carried out a survey to elicit the student’s views.
Write an appropriate rep3ort to be presented to the authorities.
5. You have been chairperson of the Medical Doctors Association for the past 10 years.
Women have been using the contraceptive pill. Cases of death and reproductive disorders
have been reported as side effects of the drug. The following are the statistics recorded:

Year No of deaths No of reproductive disorders

2000 50 210

2002 100 250

2004 120 300

2006 140 380

2008 200 420

2010 300 450

Using the above statistics, write a report to be presented to the National Medical Board and make
appropriate recommendations. The evidence provided by the statistics should be reflected in at
least 2 visuals which should complement your report.

6. You are an officer with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife and have been
asked to prepare an appropriate report for a national newspaper on how the department
is controlling the elephant population in one named national park through culling. Use the
following statistics as the basis of your report.

Year Population

1995 20 000

1998 1900

61
2003 1800

2007 1700

The target population is 1400 to 1600. The elephants produce successfully every year in the
event of no poaching.

7. Imagine that you are the head of department in a troubled organization. Using the
following notes and any of your own, write a general report to the company’s managing
director
 Exodus of the employees
 45% drop in provision of services / products
 Losses
 Stakeholders and public mistrust
 Huge blow on the image of the organization resulting from the industrial action
8. As the project manager of a hostel construction project, write a progress report on the
project.
9. Your organization is working on a project in one of the country’s rural areas. Write a
progress report on the project.
10. Your firm makes either sports equipment or cosmetics. Recently your company driver
was involved in a serious accident while delivering the largest stock you had to your
biggest client, resulting in loss of business for your organization. Write a suitable report
as requested by your executive director.
11. You are the representative for your visiting class. Write a report to the librarian on the
challenges that visiting students meet when visiting the library . Suggest ways of solving
the problems. (30 marks each).

62
CURRICULUM VITAE

What is Curriculum Vitae?

Latin word for ‘the course of one’s life’ usually shortened to CV.
This is a comprehensive statement of your biographical, professional, educational
background. It also includes other activities to denote character
It is extremely important that your CV effectively communicate the range and scope ,
highlighting areas of strength

PURPOSES OF A CV

This is a foundation of any application for employment, funding , awards, fellowships or

grants
Provides the basis for annual / or employment reviews by your employer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CV

Comprehensive
Neat formal
Customized
Lengthens as you establish yourself professionally ( e.g an undergraduate like you 2-4
paged document that grows as you progress along a chosen career path.
Information presented logically in sections

CV VS RESUME

Resume is not comprehensive , it is a snapshot ( usually two pages in length )

Focuses more on professional qualifications , achievements and projects done.

63
 Aims at demonstrating fitness for a particular position or type of work
Focuses on individual’s strongest selected professional qualifications.

DESIGNING YOUR CV

Project a trajectory of your professional life from the time you began your career
Arrange information in reverse chronological order i.e listing the most recent
accomplishments first in each section.
Tailor the CV to a particular purpose to highlight your strengths as they apply.
Be logical , precise and make readers screen you ‘in’
Rethink presentation and arrangement of information on your CV for each audience
Irrelevant text e.g vacation photos, personal narratives etc. may turn off your readers.

FORM AND STYLE

Content usually determines length however aim for a tightly constructed, succinct and
efficient presentation of your credentials
There is no excuse for typographical errors in your CV because careless errors send a
very bad message
Proofread and ask others to proof read for you
Be clear in both in form and content
Use unambiguous , concise descriptive language that facilitates speedy processing of
critical information
Create an organisational hierarchy and apply it consistently throughout your CV.

ELEMENTS OF A ‘GENERAL’ CV

By general, we mean that it is not tailored to a specific purpose

Title heading ‘curriculum vitae’ commonly used on front page.
Keep dates to the right as opposed to listing them first in your sections

64
Use boldface, italics and spacing to highlight information, but be consistent and sparing
in your use.
Your CV should be laser-printed in black on white bond paper.
NB: overuse distracts readers and defeats your purpose

65
 Oral Communication

Communication

The word communication was derived from the Latin word ‘communis’ which means common.
Pearson et al (2008:10) say the word Communication ‘…comes from the Latin word
‘communicare’ which means to make common or to share.” When we communicate we are
trying to establish commonness with one another. Communication occurs when a message has
been decoded and understood, that is, there should be some common ground/ experience (in
terms of language and culture) for the message to be understood.

Communication is the relaying of messages or ideas from the sender to the receiver through a
medium. It is exchange of information and understanding between the sender and the receiver
and the inference of meaning between the individuals involved. According to Pearson et al
(2008) communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning. It can only be said
to be successful when the reaction by the receiver is that which the communicator intended.
Effective communication takes place with shared meaning and understanding. It is a process by
which people create and manage meaning.

There are two major communication models: the Linear and Interactive models. Linear models
assume that language is simply a vehicle of sending messages. In Shannon and Weaver’s (1949)
Linear model there is transmission of information from the sender to the receiver.
Communication is controlled by the sender. Interactive models focus more on complex
communication processes. In this model both sender and receiver are important as they send
information back and forth. This Interactive model works better in Oral communication and Oral
presentations.

Oral Communication

It is communication by word of mouth and is face to face communication. Thus Oral

presentations are interactive face to face communication through the word of mouth by a group
of people.

66
Oral Presentations

An oral presentation is a formal talk delivered to an audience on a particular topic. It can be in

response to a topic or question or just imparting of knowledge to an audience on issues affecting
society both negatively and positively. There are a number of expectations when one is supposed
to give or is giving an Oral presentation. There are also things to be done by both the presenter
and the audience during and after the presentation. Of course research on the topic is also done
thoroughly so that one has relevant information. One may also anticipate questions that may
arise from one’s presentation and prepare answers beforehand.

What to do before carrying out an Oral Presentation-Audience

Analysis

A successful presentation should always be designed for a particular audience. Thus, when
making a presentation it is important to analyse the audience in terms of their social, political and
economic backgrounds. This is called Audience Analysis. One should find out the demographics
of the audience:

The number (size) of the audience

Finding out just how many people one is going to present to will help in fine-turning one’s voice
projection so that one will be audible, thus make an effective presentation with the audience
receiving the message clearly. Finding out the number of the listeners (audience) also helps in
the planning of the appropriate venue, big enough to accommodate the audience comfortably, the
adequate furniture and other equipment etc.

Find out the age (range) of the audience

Finding out the age-group of the audience one is presenting to aids in the decision of how the
presenter should be dressed eg if presenting to old, rural folk, one has to dress “decently” while
when presenting to teenagers one can dress in the decent but latest trends that will appeal to

67
them. Dressing in “offensive” styles may put off the audience so much so that they may not
welcome the messenger.

Finding out the audience age-range also helps in deciding the language to use-vernacular for
older, rural folk, formal language (English) for scholars etc. One may also be able to panel-beat
the topic in order to suit a particular age range as well as work on the time-frame for the
presentation because concentration spans differ.

Gender/ Sex of the audience

Are the people one will present to male, female or a mixed group? Finding out the gender of the
audience helps in infrastructure planning (ablution facilities) as well as in proper language
“terms” to use and the topic itself. One that suits either a particular gender or a mixed group
depending.

Level of Education (Intellect) of the audience

This helps presenter to know the proper language to use, the “acceptable terms” as well as the
“Topics” to be discussed as well as how much information the particular group can handle etc.

Cultural Background of the audience

Knowing an audience’s cultural (language and ethnic backgrounds) is imperative in oral

presentations. Consider what the audience values in their culture in terms of dress, language,
manner of address/conduct etc so that they will accept your presence amongst them as well as
your message.

Language

Find out the audience’s language so that you can use that for better understanding of each other.
Using a language that is understood by the audience will ensure effective reception of the
message and the audience’s attention will remain focussed on you as they fully absorb the
message/presentation.

Status of the audience

68
Are you going to present fellow students or lecturers, Professors, CEOs or other company
executives etc? Are they ordinary villagers, village Heads or chiefs? Finding out the audience’s
position or designations helps in dress, language, conduct etc and prevents unnecessary friction
and criticism between the presenter and the audience.

Political Affiliation

Knowing the political affiliation of the audience helps one to plan on dress (regalia) among other
issues, the gestures to make as well as the terminology to use.

- One also needs to ensure that they have all the necessary equipment for a successful
presentation beforehand instead of running around on the day of the presentation. The
equipment one needs to gather also depends on the above considerations- age, cultural
background, level of education of the audience etc.

- Knowing the venue of the presentation also helps on the sitting arrangements if there are
some protocols to be followed. The venue and seating arrangements work hand in glove
with the non-verbal element of proxemics (proximity) or space/distance between people
when communicating.

What to do during the Oral Presentation

Before the presentation starts the presenter should make sure all arrangements (seating and
equipment etc) are in order. He/she should be at the venue even before the arrival of the guests in
order to avoid panicking and getting flustered and feeling intimidated by arriving late, to an
already full venue. If made to wait longer than expected, some audiences may also become
hostile and challenge the presenter in certain ways that impact negatively on the presentation.

When the presentation starts, one needs to first greet the audience, introduce oneself by name,
company (or whatever) affiliation and designation in an open, friendly manner that relaxes the
audience. Introduce the topic of discussion and establish (without boasting or intimidating) one’s
authority on the subject/topic.

Speak clearly and audibly, politely using appropriate register (choice of words) and eloquently,
maintaining eye-contact with the audience without making them feel intimidated by staring

69
continuously at a particular section of the audience. Avoid distractions and focus intently on the
audience, monitoring their reactions and understanding these as signals/regulators of the
“acceptance” of the presentation, as well as guidance to your voice projection etc.

Non-Verbal Communication and Oral Presentations

What is Non-Verbal Communication?

In Oral Communication there is monitoring of the Non-verbal. There is no way people can
communicate orally without exhibiting Non-verbal cues. Thus Oral Communication and Non-
verbal communication work hand in glove.

Non-Verbal Communication is the use of wordless messages to convey meaning. Defleur

(1992:69) defines it as “the deliberate or unintentional use of objects, actions, sound, time and
space so as to arouse meanings in others”. Farrant (1982) calls it body language. It is any
message sent or received independent of the written or spoken word. It includes such factors as
use of time, space and distance between persons when conversing, use of colour, dress, walking
behaviour, posture, sitting position, seating arrangements, office location and furnishings.
Experts say Non-verbal communication is responsible for up to 60% of a message being
conveyed. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, Non- verbal details reveal who we are and
impact on how we relate with other people. However Non-verbal behaviour varies between
cultures. Human beings tend to rely more on Non-verbal cues when communicating.

Non- verbal Cues and Oral Communication (Functions of Non-verbal cues in Oral
Communication/Presentations)

Non-verbal cues play an essential role in Oral communication/presentations. Non-verbal

communication can reiterate the spoken word, contradict the message, accent or emphasize,
substitute and complement the spoken word. Good speakers use these Non- verbal elements to
their advantage in interpersonal conversations and public or mass communication.
Contradictions usually happen accidentally when what you are saying is not in agreement with
your Non-verbal reaction eg saying ‘ I am really interested in this topic whilst yawning.”
Sending contradictory messages can make the speaker seem untrustworthy.

70
Non-verbal communication reinforces verbal messages through accenting whereby a verbal
message is cemented or emphasized with a Non-verbal element. This can create trust and
credibility between the presenter and the audience. Non-verbal communication can even replace
words. This is when we substitute the verbal message with Non-verbal elements, e.g waving
instead of saying good-bye and nodding one’s head in agreement. It also complements, repeats
and regulates verbal messages. When Non- verbal cues and verbal messages complement, they
add meaning to each other. This is when the two are used hand in hand to clarify meaning.
Almost everything we say is accompanied by Non-verbal actions, expressions and other
behaviors that supplement or reinforce the meanings contained in our talk. For example when
making presentations presenters often accompany their words with body movements.

Non-Verbal Elements to be employed during Oral Presentations

a) Eye-Contact

Maintaining proper eye-contact with the audience helps to keep their attention focussed on the
presenter and what he/she is saying. This also makes the audience to give the presenter
credibility. The presenter may also be able to persuade the audience to believe as he/she does by
the eye-contact. One needs to embrace the audience with one’s eyes.

b) Dress

The Non –verbal element of dress is important in Oral presentations. The way one dresses points
to whether one will be accepted by a particular audience or not. In most oral presentations one is
expected to dress formally if the topic is a serious lecture-type one or business-oriented one. If
one to present at an informal event one should also dress to suit the occasion. Dress also works
hand in glove with the age group one is presenting to-the type of dress, the colours etc are
influenced by audience age group as well as cultural background.

c) Posture/Stance

The Non-verbal element of posture /stance plays an important role during Oral presentations.
Standing upright, with straight shoulders communicates confidence by the presenter, as
compared to one standing bent forward with slouching shoulders. This may be interpreted as lack

71
of confidence in one’s presentation or fear of the audience etc. Thus, the presenter needs to
maintain the posture/stance of one who is sure of their presentation, confident of one’s message.

d) Facial Expressions

The face exhibits several expressions which can denote anger, fear, disgust, happiness, boredom,
irritation etc. Thus when making an Oral presentation one should know the right facial
expressions to make in order to accommodate and make the audience feel welcome, relaxed and
persuade them to listen to the presentation. As such one’s expressions should show happiness,
confidence and interest in the listeners (the audience). In such cases one should smile and not
frown at the audience for instance.

e) Gestures

Gestures are deliberate movements and signals made by body limbs such as arms, legs, hands.
The head can also make gestures. These gestures include pointing and other movements by arms
and hands, the legs can pace up and down the venue to keep audience’s attention. Gesturing can
be used to emphasize certain points. The head can nod for “yes” or shake for “no” as well as
bobbing up and down for affirmation of certain points. Fingers can gesture numbers and other
figures etc.

f) Proxemics/Distance

The non-verbal element of Proxemics is important in Oral presentations. This is the treatment of
space/distance between people when conversing. So in Oral presentations the size of the venue is
important for this Non-verbal element to be realized. The public distance of more than 25 feet
between the presenter and the audience is recommended here.

g) Paralanguage

This is the vocal but Non-verbal dimension of speech. This includes things like volume, pitch,
tone, timbre of the voice etc. One needs to “tune” one’s voice projection to suit the “size” of the
audience and of the venue. One should also take note of the proper tone to use as well as the
pitch of one’s voice so that it will not seem as if one is angry at the audience and shouting. One

72
thus has to use tone, pitch and voice projection that keeps the audience focussed on them without
being intimated or bored enough to lose concentration.

h) Time/Chronemics

Remaining within the time limit of one’s presentation is of utmost importance. Chronemics is
related to one’s management and treatment of time. Maintaining or beating the specified time
frame for the presentation ensures that the audience does not get bored with a long-winding
presentation and end-up losing concentration. A short but powerful presentation, capturing all
major/important points is more effective in keeping audience concentration and interest. It is thus
imperative that one keeps track of time, allowing a good presentation and leaving time for
questions, additions to the points as well as general comments and clarifications. Time also
works hand in glove with the age ranges of the audience. The very young and very old audiences
have shorter concentration spans and one should keep this in mind.

*The above are non-verbal elements that can make or break Oral presentations. Thus, it is
evident that one cannot make an Oral presentation that is independent of the Non-verbal.

The roles(s) of the Audience during Oral presentations.

The audience should be seated comfortably and listen to the presentation actively. That is also
maintaining eye-contact with the presenter and displaying a posture/stance of attentiveness.

The Audience should avoid paying attention to distractions known as Barriers to listening
because the main role of the Audience is to listen to the presentation and benefit from it as well
as be able to seek clarification afterwards.

A barrier is anything unwanted in the flow of a message from the speaker (presenter) to the
listener (s) (Audience) and back to the speaker (afterwards) as feedback. The barriers are also
referred to as distractions

Distractions have been divided into two by Eales and Whitehead (1997). That is internal
Distractions (IDs) and External Distractions (EDs). The Audience should avoid both in order to
benefit from the presentation. The IDs that can hinder the listening process include tiredness of
the listener/ audience, sickness, hunger, anxiety, stress, day-dreaming e.t.c. The audience should

73
get solutions for these IDs before attending the presentation. IDs are the things that happen
within a person that hinder the listening process such as those listed above.

EDs are those factors that may not be in the immediate control of the listener/Audience such as
the weather patterns, physical noise, lack of privacy, cultural differences, language difference
etc. Noise interferes with the transmission and comprehension of messages. For each of the IDs
and EDs, the audience /listeners should find solutions so that listening to the presentation can be
effective.

Role (s) of the Presenter (s) and the Audience / listener (s) after the
Presentation

After the presentation the presenter should thank the audience for listening and allow them to ask
him/her questions or to add onto the presentation.

He/she should maintain composure and not show any other adverse reactions depending on the
questions or comments from the audience. He/she should answer questions with confidence.

On the other hand the audience should show that they were listening attentively to the
presentation through being able to ask questions, seek clarification or add onto the presentation.
They should ask in a tactful manner without belittling/dismissing the presentation.

74