WORKPLACE INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

Objectives of I.R (Marchington and Wilkinson, 2003)

 Reducing labour costs
 Achieving better stability in employee relations by channeling discontent through agreed procedures.
 Increasing productivity and the utilization of labour
 Increase co operation and commitment to increase likely acceptance to change
 Increase control over labour process.
 Minimizing disruption of work

 Apart from the primary objective of bringing sound and healthy relations between employers and
employees, industrial relations aim at:
i) To facilitate production and productivity;
ii) To safe guard the rights and interest of both labour and management by enlisting their
cooperation;
iii) To achieve a sound, harmonious, and mutually beneficial labour management relations;
iv) To avoid unhealthy atmosphere in the industry, especially work stoppages, go-slow strikes,
lockouts; and
v) To establish and maintain industrial democracy.
 The objectives of an industrial organization may vary from purely economic to purely political ends.
The objectives of the industrial relations can be divided into four categories:
i) Improvement in the economic conditions of workers in the existing State of industrial
management and political government;
ii) Control exercised by the state over industrial undertaking with a view to regulating production
and promoting harmonious industrial relations;
iii) Socialization and rationalization of industries by making the sate itself a major employer; and
iv) Vesting of a proprietary interest of workers in the industries in which they are employed.

The context of Workplace industrial relations

Internal Factors
Blyton and Turnbull (1994) identified some of the following factors;
 Size of the organisation
 Structure of the organisation
 Technologies
 Patterns of ownership and control
 Character of the product market
 Strategy being pursued by the organisation
 Caliber of employees in terms of skills
 Leadership styles, etc
External Factors
 A variety of external factors which include growth in trade unionism, changing product and
employment market conditions, labour law and new technology :Marchington & Wilkinson (2004)
 We can summarize some of these factors as follows:
Legal factors - Employment legislation
 Any form of legislation imposes responsibilities on a firm
 It is likely to lead to increased costs in employing labour
 This is likely to make the labour market less flexible
 Some legislation could be aimed at improving information flows
 Look at the massive outcry by industry for reforms with specific emphasis on areas like
S12C(Retrenchment laws), S14 (Sick Leave), S12B (dismissal laws), Structure and operations of the
labour courts, especially delays, Part X (S74-82B on Collective Bargaining), strike laws, consultation
laws etc, also the indigenization legislation and its impacts especially with respect to issues such as
capacity utilization of industry, employment creation and economic control
 We also have international treaties such as ILO Conventions which impacts on our industrial
relations systems
 Law on discrimination, bringing such issues as HIV/AIDS in the workplace SI202/98
Labour Market Performance

 There
are
quite a
number
of
factors
that
impact
on
labour
market

performance, which, ultimately influences the management of industrial relations in the workplace.
These are highlighted on the diagram above.
Geographical Mobility
 The ease with which an individual is able to move from one region to another in search of work
 Job opportunities may arise in certain areas,
 Many things may prevent workers moving: Family ties, Different housing costs, Cultural differences,
Lack of re-location allowances, Cost of re-locating, Simple unwillingness of people to leave their
‘homes’
Occupational Mobility
 The ease with which an individual can move from one type of job to another
 Such ease will depend on:
– The differing skill levels of available jobs
– The location of the jobs available
– The willingness of an individual to change to a different job
– The age of the worker
– The qualifications of an individual
– The degree to which an individual has transferable skills
Education and Training
 Government policy on education and training aims to improve the ease with which people can access
work and move between jobs
Trade Unions
 Trade unions pose a significant influence on wage flexibility in industrial relations
 Batstone (1988) suggests power sources of unions lie in scarcity in the labour market, disruptive
capacity in the production process and political influence
 Union membership therefore becomes an indicator of trade union power
 In Zimbabwe they work with workers committees.
 “All trade unions are involved in political activity, by virtue of necessity” Crouch (1982)
 Union’s political activities take into account broad social issues such as housing, transport,
education and health care.
 Unions may decide to pool their resources for mutual advantage

Characteristics of a Sound IR

What are the features of a good industrial relations system?

Definitions of an IR System

 A sound industrial relations system is not capable of precise definition.

 However, there is a general conclusion that as a system, IR can be defined as comprising the totality
of the power interactions of participants in the workplace, when these interactions involve industrial
relations issues.
 It is viewed as an integral and non-separable part of the organizational structure and dynamics.
 The components of IR system are:
- Participants: The duly recognized representatives of the parties interacting in several roles
within the system.
- Issues: The power interaction of the participants in a workplace creates IR problems. These
issues and the consequences of the power interactions a find their expressions in a web of rules
governing the behaviour of the parties at a workplace.
- Structure: It consists of all form of institutional behaviour in system. The structure may include
the collective procedures, grievance settlements practices etc. legal enactments relevant to power
interactions may also be considered to be part of the structure.
- Boundaries: In systems analysis, it is possible to find issues which one participants is totally
indifferent to resolving while, at the same time, the other participants is highly concerned about
resolution of the same. These issues may serve to delimit systems boundaries.
- At least there are three marked features of this systems approach;
(i) Interdisciplinary in character: some theorist regards the system approach to be
universally applicable to all human relationships, in small or large units. Its flexibility of
application in the behavioural sciences has been aptly demonstrated.
(ii) Suitability to work organization and their sub-system: The adaptability of the systems
approach to organization is also a frequently discussed trait. This springs from the fact of
that organizations and to some extent their sub-systems, are rational and purposeful.
(iii) Dynamic approach: A system approach is oriented towards the study of interactions and
changing relations.
 The following are the some of the contributors to the systems approach in industrial relations:
 Robert Dubin: He used the concept such as inter-group (Union-Management) power interactions,
boundaries of the social system and functions performed by the system. According to him,union
militancy is greatest when the union bargains for the minimum sources of attachment to work, such
as wages, hours of work and working conditions.
 John T. Dunlop – introduces what he refers to a system of Industrial Relations applicable at once to
three broad areas of industrial relations experiences, namely:(i) industrial relations within an
enterprise, industry or other segment of a country and a comparison among such sectors, (ii) IR
within a country as a whole and a comparison among countries, and (iii) IR as a totality in the course
of economic development. He defined IR System as; “An IR System at any one time in its development
is regarded as comprised of certain actors, certain context, an ideology which binds the industrial
relations system together, and a body of rules created to govern the actors at the workplace and work
community. There are three sets of independent variables: The “actors”, the “context” and the
“ideology” of the system”.
 The Oxford approach: This approach is based on the Donovan Commission (1965–68). According to
this, the industrial relations system is a study of the institutions job regulations and the stress is on
the substantive and procedural rules as Dunlop’s model. it was also influenced by the works of Alan
Flanders
 The Industrial Sociology Approach: Mergenson hold the view of IR is the nature and development of
the conflict itself. Conflict is the basic concept that should form the basis of the study of IR. According
to this school of thought, there are two major conceptual levels of industrial relations. One is intra-
plant level where as situational factors, such as job content, work task and technology, and
interaction factors produce three types of conflict i.e., distributive, structural and human relations.
These conflicts are being resolved through collective bargaining, structural analysis of the socio-
technical systems and management analysis respectively. The second level is the outside the firm and,
in the main, concern with the conflict not resolved at the intra-organizational level. However, this
approach rejects the special emphasis given to rule determination by the ‘systems and oxford
models’. In its place, it suggests a method of inquiry, which attempts to develop sociological models
of conflicts.
 Fox (1973) and IR Frames of reference – brings three I.R perspectives, that is unitarism, pluralism
and Marxism to explain the frames of reference that are used to conceptualise and therefore manage
industrial relations.
 The Human Relations Approach: The Elton Mayo, the proponent of HR School and later
propagated by the Keith Davis, as “the integration of people into a work situation that motivates
them to work together productively, cooperatively and with economic, psychological and social
satisfaction”. This highlights certain policies and techniques to improve employee morale, efficiency
and job satisfaction. It encourages the small group to exercise considerable control over its
environment and in the process helps to remove a major instinct in labour—management relations.

Characteristics of a Sound Industrial Relations System

 A sound industrial relations system is one in which relationships between management and
employees (and their representatives) on the one hand, and between them and the State on the other,
are more harmonious and cooperative than conflictual and creates an environment conducive to
economic efficiency and the motivation, productivity and development of the employee and
generates employee loyalty and mutual trust.
 Industrial relations itself may be described as being concerned with the rules, processes and
mechanisms (and the results emanating therefrom) through which the relationship between employers
and employees and their respective representatives, as well as between them on the one hand and the
State and its agencies on the other, is regulated.
 Industrial relations seek to balance the economic efficiency of organizations with equity, justice and
the development of the individual, to find ways of avoiding, minimizing and resolving disputes and
conflict and to promote harmonious relations between and among the actors directly involved, and
society as a whole.
 The rules, processes and mechanisms of an industrial relations system are found in sources such as
laws (legislative, judicial, quasi-judicial), practices, customs, agreements and arrangements arrived
at through a bipartite or tripartite process or through prescription by the State.
 At the industry level industrial relations often takes the form of collective bargaining between
employers' organizations and unions. This process may result in determining wages and other terms
and conditions of employment for an industry or sector. It may also result in arrangements on issues
which are of mutual concern such as training, ways of avoiding or settling disputes, etc.
 At the enterprise level the relationship between employers and workers is more direct, but the
interests of workers may be represented by unions. Employers' organizations, however, are not
usually involved (though sometimes they are when negotiations take place between them and unions
in respect of enterprise issues) at the enterprise level in representing the employers' interests with
workers or their union, but this does not mean that they do not have an important promotional role at
this level.
 Sound relations at the enterprise level build trust and confidence between workers and management,
which is the point at which the system must ultimately be effective. Effectiveness at one level would
naturally have some impact on the other.
 A sound industrial relations system requires a labour management relations policy (LMRP). There
are many specific objectives of such a policy, all of which go to make up the policy at the national
level, and may revolve around;
1) Employment and job security and increased employment opportunities.
2) Raising living standards through improved terms and conditions of employment.
3) Productivity improvement which enables employers to be more competitive and to increase their
financial capacity to raise the living standards of the employees.
4) Minimizing conflict, achieving harmonious relations, resolving conflicts through peaceful means
and establishing stable social relationships.
 The quality of relations between employers and employees in an enterprise largely depends on the
policies, practices and procedures which exist at the enterprise level to deal with both individual and
collective issues, and to promote labour-management cooperation.

Nature of IR Policies (Wright, 2000)

 May be defined as the institutions that are intended to govern the employment relationship, which can
encompass collective bargaining or individual contracts.

Corporate Management IR Policies revolve around 5 key variables

 Collective Bargaining – formal negotiations with trade unions to determine terms and conditions of
employment.
 Union involvement – the extent of union recognition in decision-making in organisations
(Torrington,2002)
Advantages Disadvantages

Stable structure for management of Perceptions that unions resisted change and take a long time
employees to get things done
Promotion of smooth IR Results in management not being able to respond quickly &
positively / flexibly to market pressures and opportunities

Provides mechanism of upward

communication

Cost effectiveness as a communication

tool compared to individual approach

 Consultation – management advocacy of an institutionalized form of information exchange with

employees, such as joint consultative committees or briefing groups
 Participation – systematic management support for a body aimed at promoting worker involvement in
the work process
 Individualization – management sponsorship of individualized forms of employee governance, such
as personal contracts, individual performance appraisal and reward, or piecework payment

The Necessity of Procedures (Wilkinson, 2003)

 A policy is normally accompanied by a procedure for putting it into action.

i. Procedures help to clarify relationships between employer and employees
ii. Identify who in the structure should take care of certain issues
iii. Help ensure greater consistency and promotes rules of natural justice (tribunal – arbitration
cases)
iv. Lead to systematic record keeping
 HR Specialists are often seen as the custodians to the procedures
 There are, therefore, numerous enterprise level mechanisms, whose effectiveness is to an extent
conditioned by the particular corporate culture or philosophy relating to the management of people.
 The development of enterprise level industrial relations facilitates adjustments to structural changes.
 Indeed, it is a way of reconciling the need for enhanced management flexibility with the need to
ensure that employees' concerns are taken account of and their cooperation obtained without which
successful change would hardly be possible.

Human Resource Management Policies and Practices

 Sound industrial relations are closely linked to a progressive human resource management policy
translated into practice.
 Harmonious industrial relations are more likely to exist in an enterprise where human resource
management policies and practices are geared to proper recruitment and training, motivational
systems, two-way communication, career development, a people-oriented leadership and
management style, etc.
 Many of these human resource management activities have an impact on the overall industrial
relations climate in an enterprise.
 These policies and practices revolve around some of the following aspects;

Productivity
 Productivity - a key consideration of profitability, the ability of enterprises to grant better terms and
conditions of employment and for economic and social development - needs a sound labour relations
base.
 Current challenges in Zimbabwe according to Nguwi (2012) are that the general trend of wage
increase is PDL driven and not related to productivity improvement, Increments are given to all
workers regardless to the level of performance; Collective bargaining agreements tend to punish
struggling companies, Not easy to justify an exemption in cases where company cannot afford. Such a
situation kills an industrial relations system in organisations.
 It is generally argued that productivity does not depend on individual effort alone. Many mechanisms
which contribute towards productivity gains are workable only where there is teamwork and
cooperation e.g. small group activities, joint consultation mechanisms.
 Therefore a workplace IR System should be geared to creating the climate appropriate to securing
the cooperation necessary for productivity growth. This can closely be associated with High
Commitment IR Systems (HCIRs).
 Practices that support these include job security, staff retention; focus on getting employee
commitment, increased discretion given to employees in terms of decision making,
 In the long-term, productivity increases employment security. Concrete measures to enhance
productivity should be decided through labour management consultation which will be promoted.
 Productivity gains should then be distributed fairly among management, employees and customers.
 Another important link between labour management relations and productivity has arisen in
the context of recent events in many societies and major changes in industrial relations such
as the move towards labour market flexibility. The latter involves the need for employers to
adopt, in the interests of competitiveness, new working time and work arrangements, atypical
contracts of employment, new methods of pay and remuneration, and control over the size of
the labour force.
 These developments have partly resulted from intense competition, new technologies, shorter
product life and so on, all of which require flexibility in the use of resources if an enterprise
is to remain productive and competitive. (When employee remuneration is tied to
productivity, there is likely to be higher wages for workers and higher profits for companies,
which enhance greater competitiveness for companies, resulting in employment creation and
less retrenchments)
 These changes are more likely to achieve the objectives of increased productivity, if they are
introduced through cooperation and consensus at the enterprise level.
 Therefore labour management relations and cooperation have a vital role to play in
achieving, with the least possible conflict, the changes of the type referred to above which
are critical to productivity and competitiveness in the modern enterprise. A sound labour
management relations system is important to the removal of one of the main objections of
workers and unions to productivity drives by employers. Productivity increases have
sometimes been opposed by workers and unions on the grounds that they do not result in
equitable sharing of benefits to workers and that increased productivity may lead to
redundancy.
 A sound system, which focuses on developing understanding of basic productivity concepts
and of the methods of increasing productivity, as, well as of the formulation of equitable
productivity gain-sharing schemes help to dispel such suspicions. This task is easier where
there are mechanisms which provide for dialogue and two-way communication between
management and workers.
 Labour management relations therefore play a crucial role in securing acceptance by
workers and unions of the need for productivity improvement, and also in obtaining their
commitment to achieving it.

Worker Participation and Employee Involvement

 This is undertaken in pursuance of the labour act in terms of advancing social justice and
democratization of the workplace. It is argued that these have long term effects on employee
satisfaction and productivity.

Communication

 The starting point for any effective enterprise policy to install procedures and mechanisms to promote
sound labour relations is communication, because it is relevant to a whole range of issues and other
matters such as productivity, small group activities, joint consultation, performance appraisals, and
motivation, as well as to organizational performance.

Joint Consultation

 Joint consultation, on the other hand, is a voluntary system which is an outcome of arrangements
between the parties based on the mutual acceptance of the need to avoid conflict through strikes or
other actions.

Industrial Relations Climate

 A workplace may be seen as having a particular IR climate, defined as the degree to which relations
between management and employees are seen by participants as mutually trusting, respectful, and
cooperative (Hammer, Currall, and Stern 1991), or in terms of workplace norms and attitudes
concerning IR and union-management relations
 Workplace IR climate may also be seen as an outcome of the organizational context and structure,
human resource policies, and wider IR context, with climate mediating the relationship between these
and IR outcomes.
 A sound industrial relations climate in an enterprise is essential to a number of issues which are
critical to employers, employees and the community.
 The efficient production of goods and services depends to an extent on the existence of a harmonious
industrial relations climate.
 Efficiency and quality depend on a motivated workforce, for which a sound industrial relations
climate is necessary.
 There are various elements within an organisation that bring useful insights into what a sound
industrial relations climate looks like. Some of these revolve around the following;
 Employee Relations Climate aspects

- What is the percentage of employees whose performance improves as a result of HR's efforts?
- What is the percentage of employees with a poor/ great rating?
- In our employee pulse survey do employees rate HR as a contributor or a barrier to productivity?
- Do we "fix" our "problem" employees rapidly or get rid of them if they are too expensive to "fix"?
- What percentage of "poor" performers become "very good" performers within a year, as a result
of our employee relations efforts?
- Do we get rid of our poor performers that can't be "fixed" at a rate faster than our competitors?
- Is there evidence HR identifies and effectively "fixes"" bad" managers?
- Do we retain our key / most productive people at a higher rate than our best competitors?
- Do we show that our voluntary turnover rate is lower than our competitors for:
i) Key executives
ii) Top performers
iii) Individuals with "key" competencies and
iv) All individuals in hard to hire positions

Employee Relations Climate common indicators

- Number of complaints filed per employee per period of time

- Number of and percentage of turnover attributed to ER conflicts
- Number of Resignations/Total Headcount per year
- Average Length of Service per employee
- Rate of absenteeism
- Number of supervisors and managers per employee

INDUSTRIAL CONFLICT

 According to Weihrich (1992), conflict is a part of organizational life (since the goals of various
stakeholders are often incompatible) and may occur between individuals, between the individual and
the group, and between groups. While it is generally perceived as dysfunctional, it can also be
beneficial because it may cause an issue to be presented in different perspectives.
 It can be positive when it encourages creativity, new looks at old conditions, the clarification of
points of view, and the development of human capabilities to handle interpersonal differences.
However, conflict can be negative when it creates resistance to change, establishes turmoil in
organization or interpersonal relations fosters distrust, builds a feeling of defeat, or widens the
chasm of misunderstanding.
 Brown (1973) defines organizational conflict as a dispute that occurs when interests, goals or values
of different individuals or groups are incompatible with each other.
 According to Jones (2000), conflict is an unpleasant fact in any organization as long as people
compete for jobs, resources, power, recognition and security because it may result into a situation
whereby they frustrate each other in an attempt to achieve their objectives.

TYPES OF DISPUTES

 Employment disputes may be divided into two categories, individual and collective disputes. Walton
and McKersie (1965) posit that, “as the term implies, individual disputes are those involving a single
 worker whereas collective disputes involve groups of workers – usually represented by a trade
union”.
 Disputes may also be distinguished on the basis of whether there are right disputes or interest
disputes. A rights dispute arises where there is disagreement over the implementation or
interpretation of statutory rights, or the rights set out in an existing collective agreement. According
to the Labour Act Section (2) “dispute of right” means any dispute involving legal rights and
obligations, including any dispute occasioned by an actual or alleged unfair labour practice, a
breach or alleged breach of this Act or of any regulations made under this Act, or a breach or alleged
breach of any of the terms of a collective bargaining agreement or contract of employment. By
contrast, an interest dispute concerns cases where there is disagreement over the determination of
rights and obligations, or the modification of those already in existence. Walton and McKersie (1965)
concurs that interest disputes typically arise in the context of collective bargaining where a collective
agreement does not exist or is being renegotiated.
 Interpersonal Conflicts and Intrapersonal Conflicts are also the other form of conflict in
organisations. According to Schieman and Reid (2008), Interpersonal Conflict at work involves
perceptions about exposure to negative forms of interaction that range from minor disagreements to
more severe altercations, including violations of and/or insults to the self; perceptions of injustice,
inequity, or unfairness; goal impediments or thwarted aims; incompetence; and being the target of
another person’s verbal or physical antagonism or aggression. Research across disciplines links
interpersonal conflict with an array of personal and organizational outcomes, including elevated
feelings of mistrust, anger, incivility, theft, violence, sabotage, absenteeism, intentions to quit and job
stability, and reduced levels of organizational commitment, citizenship behaviors among other things.
Intrapersonal conflict, on the other hand

EFFECTS OF CONFLICT

 Dowling et al, 2008 argues that some practicing managers view group conflict negatively and thus
seek to resolve or eliminate all types of disputes. These managers contend that conflicts disrupt the
organization and prevent optimal performance.
 As such, conflicts are a clear indication that something is wrong with the organization and that sound
principles are not being applied in managing the activities of the organization.
 On the other hand, Browarys & Price (2008) base their approaches on the principles of authority and
unity of command to eliminate conflict. They believe that conflicts could be eliminated or avoided by
recruiting the right people, carefully specifying job descriptions, structuring the organization in such
a way as to establish a clear chain of command, and establishing clear rules and procedures to meet
various contingencies.
 In pursuance of the foregoing, Rico (1964) argues that, unfortunately, the term "conflict" has only the
connotation of "bad" for many people, so much that they think principally in terms of suppression,
giving little or no attention to its more positive side. Though conflicts or disputes are said in part to
deserve a bad reputation as they can very much wreck havoc on relationships, individuals, and
organizations due to their negative effects in terms of litigation fees, damaged employee relations,
and increased labour costs, they can be highly constructive, indeed, essential to teamwork and
organizational effectiveness.
 Armstrong (2009) argues that conflict may have either a positive or a negative effect on
organizational performance, depending on the nature of the conflict and how it is managed.
 For every organization, an optimal level of conflict exists which is considered highly functional as it
helps to generate good performance.
 When the conflict level is too high (dysfunctional), performance suffers. Consequently, as Beardwell
and Claydon, (2007) argues, innovation and change may become unmanageable and the organization
may not adapt to change in its environment.
 Common negative effects of conflicts are explained by employee behaviors such as labour turnover,
sabotage, strikes and other forms of collective job action, absenteeism/presenteeism
 However, while conflict is generally perceived as dysfunctional, it can also be beneficial because it
may cause an issue to be presented in different perspectives.
 According to the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (2004) conflict can result in a
number of positive outcomes such as increased creativity, employee understanding, and improved
decision making.
 Brown (1973) posits that, it can be positive when it encourages creativity, new looks at old
conditions, the clarification of points of view, and the development of human capabilities to handle
interpersonal differences.
 According to Edwards (1986) the very rationale for an organization is to combine the energy, ideas,
and knowledge of diverse people. Combining this diversity requires ongoing conflict or dispute
management and that to work in an organization is to be in conflict. Conflicts or disputes pervades
all the functional areas in organizations and, when well-managed, promotes vital organizational
outcomes. Working with others and managing conflict are therefore inseparable and dealing with
conflict is not an activity separate from work.
 For an organisation to be effective, individual members need to be able to work in a conflict-positive
environment.
 Murthy, (2006) argues that if conflict is well managed, it adds to innovation and productivity
 Bricoe and Schuler (2004) have offered procedures for turning dysfunctional conflict into functional
conflict, stating that too many organizations tend to take a win-lose, competitive approach to conflict
or at worst avoid conflict altogether. Such a negative view of conflict ensures that a group is
ineffective and the activity within it becomes destructive. However, a positive view of conflict leads to
a win-win solution.
 Within a group, the member can take any one of the three views of conflict: dysfunctional conflict,
conflict avoidance and functional conflict.

Sources of Organizational Disputes

As argued by Butler (1973), there are six major sources;

(i) The interpersonal disagreements that arise when one person is experiencing individual stress;
(ii) The problems resulting from role conflict, a condition that occurs when there is a clash over
one's role in the organization;
(iii) The power struggles that put persons and groups against one another to achieve their own selfish
objectives;
(iv) The misunderstandings and disagreements from differentiation, i.e., the clashes that arise
because people approach common problems from very different orientations;
(v) The interdependence requirements for collaboration which, if not extensive and balanced
between the parties, cause communication and interaction breakdowns which, in turn, if critical,
lead to more intensive conflicts.
(vi) The external pressures from forces outside the enterprise that breed internal pressures as the
system seeks to adapt but not to disrupt its internal order. Bad working conditions.

What causes escalation of Conflicts in Organisations?

 Some of the reasons that justify conflict escalation according to Ikeda et al (2005) are:
(i) As departments grow, people lose contact with other departments, or yet, members of a department
start to think differently from other areas.
(i) The increase of emphasis in the financial measures as a tool for motivation for managers and the
establishment of different profit centers inside an integrated business system end up creating many
conflicts.
(ii) The increasing rise of emphasis in functional specialization, politics of promotion and recruiting
reinforce the isolation of departments, generating conflicts.
(iii) Today there is more room for workers to show criticism among each other, while this freedom of
speech can be beneficial for society as a whole, in organizational context can be transformed into
conflicts and;
(iv) Consumers demand lower prices, better quality in products and services, creating pressures so that
departments work more effectively which can result in conflicts among departments.
 Kumar (1995) points to the asymmetric degree of interdependence that affects the level of trust and
commitment of the groups. Asymmetric interdependence occurs when parties have different levels of
dependence among each other. That is, in one same group some individuals can depend on people
that, in turn, show independence in relation to them. In total interdependence, on the other hand,
individuals are totally dependent on one another. Kumar et al (1995) states those relationships with
total interdependence have less conflict than the ones with asymmetric interdependence.
 According to Jung (2003), conflict is smaller in highly dependent relationships because, in general,
the dependent party conforms itself that it cannot alter the situation and accepts the leader’s power.
 Employee Dissatisfaction can also be cited as a factor that increases the escalation of disputes in
organisations
- Some of the causes of employee dissatisfaction, according to Rothwell and Kazanas (2003) may
include;
1) Inequitable treatment on wages, salaries, and/or benefits.
2) Treatment in recruitment and promotion practices.
3) Unfair treatment.
4) Working conditions are not acceptable.

DISPUTE MANAGEMENT

 Labour Dispute Management is an essential part of any well-functioning labour market and
industrial relations system.
 Where there are labour relations one inevitably finds labour conflicts also known as disputes and the
need to manage and resolve them efficiently, effectively and equitably for the benefit of all the parties
involved and the economy at large.
 The framework put in place to deal with such disputes is a crucial component of any country’s
industrial relations system. The options or systems available to the social partners and to
governments are numerous and range from informal negotiations all the way to formal litigation and
may even include government intervention to resolve certain labour disputes in the public interest.
 Disputes can be managed in different ways using different dispute management systems, some
focusing on interpersonal relationships and others on structural changes.
 Robinson et al (1974) advocates that managing conflict toward constructive action is the best
approach in resolving conflict in organization.
 When disputes arise, there is need to be able to manage them properly, so that it becomes a positive
force, rather than a negative force, which would threaten the individual or group.
 Parker (1974) argued that if disputes arise and are not managed properly, it will lead to delays of
work, disinterest and lack of action and in extreme cases it might lead to complete breakdown of the
group.
 Unmanaged conflict may result in withdrawal of individuals and unwillingness on their part to
participate in other groups or assist with various group action programs in the organization.

Common Approaches in Labor Dispute Management

 Robert (1965) provides 4 common approaches to conflict management, which include;

1) Avoidance of the situation that causes the conflict, which is an example of an interpersonal
approach. Where one part avoids e conflict to sustain the relationship.
2) Smoothing, that is, emphasizing the areas of agreement and common goals and de-emphasizing
disagreements. Process were e parties focus on areas of mutual interest
3) Forcing, which is concerned with pushing one’s own view on others, and this, of course, will cause
overt or covert resistance. One is using his power to win ova e wiker part
4) Compromise, e conflict is viewed from a pluralist perspective so they 4go some benefits for both 2
benefit which is argued by Knippen and Green (1999) to be a traditional way of coping with conflict,
agreeing in part with the other person’s view or demand.
 In the same vein, Baillien et al (2010) talk about;
1) Yielding (with high concern for the other, low concern for self),
2) Problem Solving (high concern for the other, high concern for self),
3) Guidance (low concern for the other, low concern for self), and
4) Forcing (high concern for self, low concern for the other)
 1 and 4 represent distributive dimension of conflict management whereas 2 and 3 represent the
integrative dimension, which is most desirable.
 The biggest problem in developing the institutions of conflict control in organization is to develop an
action of plan to identify conflicts at its initial stage.
 Knippen and Green (1999) cited in Henry (2009) argued that the best way to handle conflicts
objectively is to follow six process that involves;
1) Describing the conflict situation to the other person,
2) Asking the other person how he sees the conflict situation, responding the way the other person sees
the situation,
3) Jointly deciding how to resolve the conflict,
4) Making commitment to resolve the conflicts, and
5) Promising to be committed in future to continue resolving conflicts which might arise.
 Another way of coping with organizational conflicts is to make structural changes. This means
modifying and integrating the objectives of groups with different viewpoints.
 Derr (1975) stated that there are three major conflict management approaches from which intervener
can draw to formulate an approach appropriate for resolving a dispute; Collaboration, Bargaining
and Power play. The appropriate use of these methods depends on the individual and organizational
state. Noteworthy is that Collaboration and Bargaining are part and parcel of the Negotiation
process.
1) Collaboration involves people surfacing their differences (get them out in the open) and then work on
the problems until they have attained mutually satisfactory solutions. This approach assumes that
people will be motivated to expend the time and energy for such problem-solving activity.
2) Bargaining on the other hand assumes that neither party will emerge satisfied from the confrontation
but that both, through negotiation, can get something they do not have at the start, or more of
something they need, usually by giving up something of lesser importance. One party generally wins
more than the other; by the skilful use of tactical trades, he can get the maximum possible from the
other side. In this regard this is where negotiation, conciliation and arbitration are involved.
3) Power Play, which differs from the other two approaches because its emphasis is on self-interest.
Whereas, in collaboration and bargaining the two sides come together to try to resolve their
problems, when power is the dominant mode, the actions are unilateral or in coalitions acting
unilaterally.

DISPUTE RESOLUTION MECHANISMS USED BY ORGANISATIONS

 Normally, the method of conflict resolution depends on the nature of the dispute, and there are
significant differences between individual and collective legal disputes.
 all conflicts in the workplace are ‘collective’ or ‘social’ in nature, insofar as they are all ultimately
influenced by the social role and position of the parties to the dispute.
 However, ‘collective’ legal disputes are distinguished from individual ones by the participation of
‘collective representatives’ such as trade unions or works councils which represent employees'
interests rather than their own. It is precisely in the case of collective legal disputes that Zimbabwean
labour law provides for an extensive infrastructure of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms such
as arbitration and conciliation, including out-of-court ones.

Litigation

 These includes the use of Codes of Conduct, normally referred to as Disciplinary and Grievance
procedures, and have been traditionally used as a domestic remedy for the handling of disputes in
organisations.
 These are provided for on Section 101 of the Labor Act
 Normally codes of conduct may provide for appeals procedures that extend to conciliation and
arbitration, or straight to the Labour Court
Alternative Dispute Resolution

 In the context of Zimbabwe, ADR includes conciliation (Section 93), Arbitration (Section 98)
 Conciliation - Edwards (1986) defines it as, the process of adjusting or settling disputes in a friendly
manner through extra judicial means. Conciliation means bringing two opposing sides together to
reach a compromise in an attempt to avoid taking a case to trial.
 Arbitration - Brown (1973) has it that, it is a process in which a disagreement between two or more
parties is resolved by impartial individuals, called arbitrators, in order to avoid costly and lengthy
litigation in the courts. Arbitration is a legal technique for the resolution of disputes outside the
courts, wherein the parties to a dispute refer it to one or more persons (the ''arbitrators'', ''arbiters''
or ''arbitral tribunal''); by whose decision (the ''award'') they agree to be bound.

Collective Bargaining

 It is defined as a process of negotiation between management and union representatives for the
purpose of arriving at mutually acceptable wages and working conditions for employees. (Boone and
Kurtz, 1999 p 424 – 425)
 The Labour Act [Chapter 28:01] provides the right to collective bargaining, according to Section 74
(2) and 24 (1) (b) of the Act.
 Collective bargaining may be statutory or non – statutory at workplace level or industry level.
 In terms of section 62 of the Act an employment council for an undertaking may assist parties to
reach an agreement known as collective bargaining agreement.
 Broader aspects of Collective Bargaining are covered by Part X of the Act (Sections 74-82b)
 One key feature of Collective bargaining, which is critical in conflict management, according to
Grogan (2000), is that it assumes willingness on each side not only to listen to the representations of
the other but to abandon fixed positions where possible in order to find common ground.
 The principle of free collective bargaining extends to the procedure for arriving at collective
agreements, stipulating that they should be freely negotiated and may, if necessary, be ‘supported’
and accompanied by industrial action (this withdrawal of Labour as the only solution now has
mutated to a higher complex level) and voluntary conciliation and arbitration.

Other mechanisms may include;

Managing Industrial Disputes: The Case of Union Avoidance

 Two ways of avoiding unionization are typically used; a genuine human resources philosophy, and a
human relations philosophy.
 In the first approach, company managers provide benefits and programs otherwise sought by unions
because they genuinely believe the employees deserve them. The second approach is used solely to
avoid unions.
 When union avoidance efforts fail or are unsuccessful, managers have several options in response to
a union:
1. Hostility. Management tries to “break” the union.
2. Controlled conflict. Management tries to limit union influence.
 3. Tolerance. Management accepts the reality of the union and shows a willingness to engage in
collective bargaining.
4. Acceptance. Management and labor actually work together on some issues.
5. Cronyism. Management and union officials work together to their benefit and to the detriment of
employees.

How do employees use their own tactics to manage conflict in organisations?

 Whilst emphasis on dispute management/ conflict management in organisations has focused on

formalized procedures, it is argued that more often than not, when management actions fail to satisfy
employees, they develop their own mechanisms of resolving conflicts.
 Some2` of the behaviors may be functional copying mechanisms, or in other circumstances so
damaging to management-employee relations but generally, the rationale for employees is to create
leverage.
 Fotardo (2001) summarizes some of the behaviors exhibited by employees to include;

Pressure Tactics

 Pressure tactics encompasses the means that subordinates can employ to forcibly compel their
superiors to make adjustments.
 This may include flooding the grievance procedure to divert management’s time towards handling
these, which ultimately forces them to change
 Kuhn (1961) coined the term ‘fractional bargaining’ to describe how favorably situated work groups
would use tactics such as work slowdowns, orchestrated absences, doing poor work and refusing to
work outside of classifications, to achieve their ends. When one group can choke off the output of
many others, the stoppages that occur have been called ‘bottleneck strikes’.
 Persistent harassment or varying productivity markedly from one day to the next may compel
management to address employee concerns to avoid continued disruptions.
 On the other hand, employees may whistle blow by persistently lodging complaints, eve trivial, which
ultimately causes management to respond
 Alternatively, employees may be manipulative in terms of causing unnecessary delays, withholding
information so that the other party suffers, persistent minor errors, or trained incapacity, where they
deliberately resist new procedures and follow their habitual ways of doing things even though they
know these should change.

Acts of Retribution

 Contains the means by which subordinates can exact revenge upon their distasteful superiors. In
contrast to the bilateral negotiation tactics, acts of retribution are largely unilateral.
 Actions associated with this include Breaking machinery, vandalism, turning the employer in for
minor health and safety violations, ridiculing, pro-management employees, and defacing, destroying
or otherwise ruining the operation’s products are all potential tactics, employing shortcuts in doing
work, sabotage etc
 Normally these behaviors are associated with employees that were once committed and loyal, but
who are fed up with management not responding to their needs so they are in essence teaching
management a lesson, or revenging
 At times they can even engage in exchanging words with management

Compensation Actions

 Compensatory acts cover the social and psychological coping mechanisms subordinates employ to
alleviate the frustrations that stem from being inequitably treated.
 They normally create communities of understanding that are at odds with those of their superiors.
This factor has been commonly associated with the rise of trade unions, which in some instances is
understood in the context of unification by common exploitation
 Embittered employees continually find creative ways of defying authority and ridiculing distasteful
managers
 some employees may start to engage in behaviors as moonlighting, fabricated sick leave, delays in
coming to work, or from lunches, temporary absenteeism, running personal businesses etc

Review Questions

1) What is an industrial dispute? What are the causes of industrial disputes?

2) What are the forms of industrial disputes?
3) Explain various machineries for settlement of industrial disputes.

EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION AND INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY

Objectives
– Definitions of Employee Participation, Industrial Democracy, Employee involvement, Employee
Voice, Employee empowerment, Joint Consultation
– Rationale behind Worker Participation in organisations
– Forms of Worker Participation (direct & indirect, individual &group)
– Levels of Worker Participation
– Types of Worker Participation (the coming in of financial participation, e.g. employee share
ownership schemes; non financial e.g. works councils, workers committees, SHE Committees, etc.
– Legal provisions of Worker Participation in Zimbabwe
Why Employee Involvement?
– Employees want to be involved
– Improve organisational commitment
– Makes change easier to accept
– Increases levels of job satisfaction
– Associated with lower staff turnover
Employee Involvement (EI): Culley et al (1998)
– Employee involvement may take various forms that may include;
1) Downward communication, whose main purpose is to inform employees; includes team briefings,
notice boards, departmental meetings etc
2) Upward problem solving ; designed to tap into employee knowledge
3) Task Participation and team work; employees expected to extend the range of type tasks at work
 4) Financial Involvement; linking part of an individuals’ reward to the success of the unit or
enterprise
– Bratton and Gold (2003) also argue that Employee Involvement initiatives transform the nature of
Employee Relations because they lead to long terms changes in workers attitudes.
– It has traditionally been associated with shaping employee organisational citizenship behaviors.
– It also implies commonality of interests between employees and management, which is deemed
fundamental in promoting industrial harmony in organisations.
– Another argument is that Employee Involvement promotes individual employees rather than
employees collectively undermine the power of trade unions, normally organisations use it as an
approach to deal with trade union avoidance.
Questions To Ask Before Employee Involvement (Torrington Et Al 2002)
– How far should employees be involved in decision making?
– Should their involvement be direct or through representatives such as unions?
– What form should the involvement take?
– At what organisational level should involvement take place?
– Which issues should be subject of the involvement?
Discussion
– “Employee involvement in decision making leads to higher quality decisions “Critically evaluate this
statement. Give evidence using any organisation of your choice.

EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION
– Employee participation describes the processes that lead to a greater degree of employee influence
and is an essential part of the process for achieving industrial democracy. Employee participation
means employees having the opportunity to have a genuine say and influence on decision making
(DEIR, 1986, p.4).
– According to Salamon (1987),worker participation is defined as, “a philosophy or style of
organizational management which recognizes the need and rights of employees, individually or
collectively, to be involved with management in areas of the organization’s decision making beyond
that normally covered by collective bargaining”. When employees involved in decision making they
feel that they are part and parcel of the organization since their concern is considered.
– According to Bendix (2001:656), “...a system of workers’ participation in the decision making
function presupposes that the right of employees to share in the decision making process is
accepted...”
– Allen (1986) in Salamon (1987) describes worker participation to imply the mental and emotional
involvement of workers in the management of enterprise and therefore considered as a mechanism
where workers have a say in the decision-making.
– Blyton and Turnbull (1994) asserted that, “for managers, support for participation stems largely
from the principles of Human Relations management, which draws attention to the importance of
social aspects of the organization in general, and the connection between, on the one hand,
communication and consultation between management and workforce, and on the other, increased
worker commitment, higher job satisfaction and motivation and reduced resistance to change.”
– These forms now ranges from collective bargaining, regarding issues over which the interests of
workers and management are competitive such as employment conditions, wage rates, working hours
and the number of holidays are usual areas for collective bargaining, joint administration, joint
 decision-making or consultation on issues over which parties are equally concerned such as fund
money, canteen, annual sports, workers welfare facilities, informative and associative participation
that is right to receive information, discuss and give suggestions on the general economic situation of
the concern, consultative participation which involves a high degree of sharing of views of the
members and giving them an opportunity to express their feelings, administrative participation which
involves a greater degree of sharing of authority and responsibility of the management functions.
– The highly ranked form of participation is the decision participation which involves the delegation of
authority and responsibility of managerial function in matters like, economic, financial and
administrative policies where the decisions are mutually taken.
– By introducing worker participation platforms management have the objectives of securing the
mutual co-operation of employees and employers in achieving industrial peace; industrial harmony,
productivity, innovation and quality, a device for developing social education for promoting
solidarity among workers and for tapping human talents; a humanitarian act, elevating the status of a
worker in the society; to improve the quality of working life (QWL) by allowing the workers greater
influence and involvement in work and satisfaction obtained from work; the assumption here is that
workers have ideas which can be useful and thus they may work more intelligently if they are
informed about the reasons for and the intention of decisions that are taken in a participative
atmosphere.

Forms of Employee Participation

– In discussing the objective of worker’ participation, literature usually makes a distinction between
two tendencies;
1) where workers participation is considered as a medium to humanize and de-alienate social
relations at the place of work and;
2) Worker participation as a technique to make optimal use of Human Resources which would
increase productivity and efficiency, to enhance worker motivation and commitment.
– Workers’ participation is viewed as a principle, medium and a goal all at the same time.
– Its ultimate goal is to transform power relations and economic distribution not only at the level of the
enterprise, but also at societal levels.
– Employee participation is regarded as a form of societal conflict regulation which prevents disputes
and is a vehicle for conflict prevention and regulation. In this sense, it may be seen as a technique to
reduce or share the prerogatives of management in the workplace (Employer's or management's
unqualified-authority to exercise its discretion in certain areas without discussions with or the
agreement of a union. Also called management rights, they are not subject to negotiations and may be
expressly stated as such in a collective bargaining agreement. They include the rights to (1) assign
and direct work-force, (2) determine the method to discipline employees for just cause (Legally
acceptable or sufficient reason. It is incumbent upon the party requesting a certain action from a
court to establish the just cause for the request. Also called good cause) , (3) increase and reduce the
workforce according to the demand for firm's outputs or availability of money, (4) decide what
products are offered for sale, at what price, and by which method)
– Beinstein’s (1976) model identifies six components necessary to assess whether or not a particular
form of workers participation sets into motion a process of democratization of the workplace.
– He argues that if democratization is not objective at all, the participation becomes a managerial
technique to achieve higher productivity, also referred to as “pseudo” participation or manipulative
participation.
– The six necessary components according to Bernstein’s are;
1) Participation in decision making,
2) Frequent feedback of economic results to all employees,
3) Full information sharing,
4) Guaranteed individual rights,
5) An independent board of appeal and
6) A particular set of attitudes.
Bernstein’s (1976) propose to study actual workers’ participation along three lines which are’
1) The degree of control worker enjoys over decisions- The structure of participants varies from
information sharing at the bottom via consultation, to cooperate, co-determination and finally to
full workers’ control at the top. This is supported by Allen (1987) when he proposes
arrangements for consultation in organisations;
Process Committee How decisions are made Employee
Informal Consultation None By the manager influence and
Joint Advisory By a manager who is not a decisions
Joint Recommendation
committee member of the committee
Joint consultative By a manager who is a member
Joint Consultation
committee of the committee Increasing
Joint decision By the committee influence
Joint Decision Making
making committee
Source (Allen, 1987)
2) The second line is that the range of issues is also is also presented hierarchy, ranging from the
shop floor level issues, executive management, boardroom or at the level of ownership.
3) The third level is the level within the organization at which the control is exercised
– Walker (1974) adds another assumption.
4) The forth level works at whether or not certain categories of workers are excluded.
5) Moreover, the extent of participation directly (participative democracy) or through worker
representation (representative democracy)
– Beinstein also talks about the issue of frequent economic return. Here he is concerned about “a
monetary feedback to the employee; the surplus that they themselves have produced”. He argues that
if this return is regulated in production (as contrasted to the whole workforce) it will on the one hand
show workers the result of their participatory input and this in turn will enhance worked motivation.
Lastly, he looked at managerial information to which workers should have guaranteed access if
workers participation is buttress a process of democratization.

REFERENCES

Books
Armstrong, M. (2009), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, 10th Ed. Kogan Page Limited,
London.
Beardwell, J and Claydon, T. (2007), Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach,
Pearson Education, Harlow
Brown, L. D. (2002). Managing Conflict of Organizational Interface Addison-Wesley
DeBono, E. (1986), Conflicts – A Better Way to Resolve Them, Penguin, London.
Derr GB, (1975), Major causes of organizational conflict: Diagnosis for action, Working Paper, Naval
Postgraduate School, Monterey, California.
Dowling, P. J. Et al (2008). International Human Resource Management, 5th edition. Thomson Learning,
London.
Gwisai M (2006), Labour and Employment Law in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe labour centre, Mt Pleasant,
Harare.

Ikeda AA, et al, (2005). Organizational conflicts perceived by marketing executives Electronic Journal of
Business and Organization Studies.

Rothwell W.J and Kazanas H.C (2003), Planning and Managing HR, HRD Press, Inc, Massachusetts

Walton R. E and R B McKersie. 1965. A Behavioral theory of labour negotiation. York: McGraw Hill
Labour Relations Act; Chapter 28; 01
Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (2004), Discipline at Work: ACAS Advisory Handbook 1,
London: ACAS

Journal Articles

Butler AG, (1973) Project Management: A Study in Organizational Conflict. Academy of Management
Journal, 16: 84-101.

Duke C (1999), Organisational Conflicts affecting Technology Commercialization from non-profit

laboratories. Journal of Product Brand Management, 4(5): 5-15.

Fortado B, (2001), The Metamorphosis of Workplace Conflict, Human Relations, Volume 54(9), SAGE
Publications, London,

Rico L, (1964). Organizational Conflict: A Framework for Reappraisal. Industrial Management Review,
6 (1): p 67.
Schieman S, Reid S, (2008) Job Authority and Interpersonal Conflict in the Workplace, Work and
Occupations, Volume 35 Number 3, August 2008 296-326
Human Relations
H.R.M 210 ESSAY QUESTIONS
 The root cause of conflict between the employers and employees is not to be found within the narrow
confines of the employment relationship, but in the widersocial, political and legal structures which
favour employers. Discuss this view and its implications to an I.R Manager of a Company of your
choice. (20 marks)
 a) Discuss the merits in having an Industrial Relations policy in an organization giving practical
examples. (10 marks)
b) You are appointed an Industrial Relations Manager of Sunnyside Inc. (Pty) Ltd and have been
asked to develop a policy which addresses the issues of discipline among the workforce. What
procedures are you going to follow in developing such a policy? (10 marks)
 Discuss the roles of Line Management and the Industrial Relations Manager in the implementation of
I.R policies and procedures in any organization of your choice. (20 marks)
 a) Describe the rationale behind the establishment of a Grievance and Disciplinary Handling
Procedure in an enterprise. (10 marks)
b) Briefly explain the principles on which a Disciplinary Code and Procedure should be based. (10
marks)
 Critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages for the workers and management of an
organization of your choice for operating through a trade union for worker representation purposes.
(20 marks)
 Discuss the factors that are likely to influence the management of industrial relations at an enterprise
level of the organization. (20 marks)
 a) Discuss the various forms and scope of worker participation in Industrial Relations prevalent to an
organisation of your choice. (10 marks)
b) What impact does worker participation have on addressing elements of productivity and
industrial harmony in industrial relations? (10 marks)
 Discuss the various forms of employee involvement and participation in organisations and their
impacts to both the employer and the employees. (20 marks)
 a) Discuss the difference between a Workers Committee and a Works Council. (10 marks)
b) Provide an analysis of the power of a Workers Committee to negotiate a Collective Bargaining
Agreement S25. (10 marks)
 “…the value of H.R/I.R Managers in business is measured by the extent to which they make
themselves redundant. Swanepoel et al (2004). Discuss this statement with regards to the roles played
by line management and H.R/I.R Managers in labour relations. (20 marks)
 a) Describe the background to the establishment of a grievance procedure and disciplinary code in
an enterprise. (10 marks)
b) Provide guidelines for the establishment of a disciplinary and grievance handling procedure in a
Company. (10 marks)
 a) With reference to the law on discrimination, identify areas of remuneration that may cause unfair
discrimination and make proposals on possible measures to prevent these. (10 marks)
b) Give advice on designing a recruitment procedure for an organization that will prevent
discrimination. (10 marks)
 Discuss the importance of culture in the management of Industrial Relations. (20 marks)
 a) Discuss the role of communication in the management of Industrial Relations in an
enterprise. (5 marks)
b) What factors are likely to affect the effectiveness of communication in an organization. (5 marks)
c) How can you, as an Industrial Relations Manager improve the communication systems in an
organization? (10 marks)
 a) Discuss the difference between a Workers Committee and a Works Council. Outline the
aims and objectives of each.
b) Provide an analysis of the power of a Works Council to negotiate a Collective
Bargaining Agreement.
 Outline the factors which give rise to conflict situations within an organization. Which factors do you
think have been most prominent in organisations in the new dollarized Zimbabwe? Support your
answer using relevant examples.
 Briefly discuss the following ingredients of employment dynamics; -
- Justice and Justice Perceptions
- Conflict
- Power
- Cooperation and participation
 Discuss the interplay between employment relations and the environment in which it manifest.
 Discuss with the aid of practical examples the various forms of worker participation in organisations.
What benefits are accrued by the organization in operating these forms of participation.
 “…areas such as induction, job design and enrichment, performance management, communication,
and the management of HR related information systems are totally unrelated to the notions of
fairness, justice or equity in employment relations…” discuss this statement.
 “…when employees strike, it is for respect…” Discuss this statement with reference to factors
surrounding strike action in Zimbabwean Industrial Relations. As an H.R Manager, what steps can
you undertake in order to ensure that employee relations are managed in a productive and yet
harmonious environment?
 Discuss and justify the roles of H.R and Line Managers in Industrial Relations.
 In the current dollarized economy, and with huge competition from neighboring countries esp. South
Africa, simple survival is the fundamental concern for large numbers of organisations. Under the
circumstances, and using relevant examples of your choice, which crucial labour relations issues do
you think should be addressed most urgently and why?

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