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Brief Contents
Preface xix
PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

1 The Communication Process: Perception, Meaning, and Identity 3
2 Communication Research and Inquiry 27
3 Verbal Communication 49
4 Nonverbal Communication 71
5 Listening 93
PART 2 COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

6 Relational and Conflict Communication 115
7 Communicating in Small Groups 143
8 Organizational Communication 165
9 Intercultural Communication 187
10 Mass Communication 209
11 Media Literacy 235
12 Social Media and Communication Technologies 259
13 Persuasion and Social Influence 285
14 Health Communication 311
15 Public Speaking: An Overview 339
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
vii
00-Beauchamp-FM.indd 7 20/11/15 5:49 pm

Contents
Preface xix
PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 1 The Communication Process: Perception,

Meaning, and Identity 3
The Process of Creating Meaning 4
The Evolution of Communication Models 5
Transmissional, Constitutive, and Ritual Views of Communication 7
The Power of Culture 9
Communication and Perception 11
Signs and Symbols 14
Communication and Identity 17
Symbolic Interaction and the Looking Glass 18
Frame Analysis 19
What Does Communication Give You the Power to Do? 22
Review of Learning Objectives 24
Key Terms 25
Questions for Review 25
Questions for Discussion 25
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Communicating Well to Land the Job 10
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION 13
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION 17
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION 22
CHAPTER 2 Communication Research and Inquiry 27

Theory and Scientific Inquiry 28
Defining Theory 28
Scientific Inquiry 31
ix

x CO N T E N T S
Three Philosophical Questions that Shape Scientific Inquiry 33

Traditions of Communication Inquiry 35
Postpositivist Theory and Research 35
Interpretive Theory and Research 37
Critical Theory and Research 37
Tools of Observation: Research Methods 39
Experiments 40
Surveys 41
Textual Analysis 43
Mixing Methods and Traditions 43
Key Terms 47
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: The Benefits of Critical Thinking 32
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Solving Not-So-Well-Posed
Problems 35
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Communication Inquiry Needs
to Be Bigger! 39
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Where Do You Draw the Line? 45
CHAPTER 3 Verbal Communication 49

The Structure of Language 50
Language and Thought 52
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis 53
Metaphor 54
The Ladder of Abstraction 56
The Functions of Language 58
Language and Meaning Making 62
Situational, Social, and Cultural Meaning 62
Syntactic Ambiguity 64
Euphemisms 65
Language and Protecting Self-Identity: Politeness Theory 66
Key Terms 69

CO N T E N T S xi
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: War! What Is It

Good For? 57
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Speaking Well to Do Well 59
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Lying 60
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Speaking Inclusively 67
CHAPTER 4 Nonverbal Communication 71

What Is Nonverbal Communication? 72
Similarities to Verbal Communication 73
Differences from Verbal Communication 74
Theory of Nonverbal Coding Systems 75
Types of Nonverbal Coding Systems 76
Proxemics 76
Haptics 78
Chronemics 81
Kinesics 82
Vocalics 84
Oculesics 84
Facial Expressions 85
Physical Appearance 86
Artifacts 86
Environmental Factors 88
Silence 89
The Role of Nonverbal Communication in Creating Meaning
and Identity 89
Key Terms 91
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Touching in the
Workplace 79
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: On-the-Job Nonverbal
Communication 81
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: How We Spend
Our Time 83
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Freedom of Expression versus Professional
Appearance 87

xii CO N T E N T S
CHAPTER 5 Listening 93
What is Listening? 94
Misconceptions About Listening 96
The Components of Effective Listening 100
Barriers to Effective Listening 101
Physical Noise 102
Psychological Noise 102
Physiological Noise 104
Semantic Noise 104
External Distractions 104
Counterproductive Listening Styles 105
Types of Listening 106
Becoming an Effective Listener 109
Key Terms 113
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: The 80/20 Rule 96
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Being an
Active Listener 102
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: The Ethics of Listening 107
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Questioning Our Cultural
Speakers 108
PART 2 COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS
CHAPTER 6 Relational and Conflict

Communication 115
The Value of Relationships 116
The Role of Interpersonal Communication 118
Developing and Maintaining Relationships 120
Uncertainty Reduction Theory 121
Social Penetration Theory 122
Social Exchange Theory 126
Relational Dialectics Theory 127

CO N T E N T S xiii
Interpersonal Communication and Conflict 129

Types of Conflict 131
Stages of Interpersonal Conflict 132
Conflict Management Styles 133
Resolving Conflict: What to Do and What Not to Do 135
What to Do 135
What Not to Do 137
Key Terms 140
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Mastering the Soft Skills 117
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: It Takes Two to Tango, but
Someone Has to Lead 119
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Beauty Is Only Screen Deep 123
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Sugar-Coated Hostility 138
CHAPTER 7 Communicating in Small Groups 143

Types of Groups 144
Dynamics of Group Structure 145
Informal and Formal Communication in Groups 148
Structuration Theory 148
The Five Stages of Group Development 149
Group Cohesion and Breakdown 152
Systems Theory 153
Leadership and Power 154
Styles of Leadership 155
Forms of Power 156
Improving Your Group Communication Skills 159
Key Terms 163
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Forming a Group 146
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: You Make the Rules 150
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Our Responsibility to the Group 155
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: 12 Cs for Successful Teamwork 160

xiv CO N T E N T S
CHAPTER 8 Organizational Communication 165

Defining Organizational Communication 166
Types and Movement of Organizational Messages 167
Upward Messages 168
Downward Messages 170
Horizontal Messages 170
The Organization as a System 173
Positive and Negative Organizational Communication Traits 175
Organizational Climate and Culture 177
Strong Organizational Cultures 181
Dealing with Diversity in an Organizational Culture 182
Key Terms 185
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Could You Blow the Whistle? 169
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Status Update: I’ve Just Been
Fired 172
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Dealing with On-the-Job
Conflict 178
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Doing Well by Doing Good 180
CHAPTER 9 Intercultural Communication 187

What Is Intercultural Communication? 188
Obstacles to Intercultural Communication 189
The “Naturalness” of Prejudice: Two Theories of Culture and Identity 192
Social Identity Theory 192
Identity Negotiation Theory 193
Accelerators of Intercultural Communication 194
How Cultural Values Shape Communication 197
Attitudes Toward Diversity and the Problem with Tolerance 202
Key Terms 207

CO N T E N T S xv
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Stereotyping versus

Generalizing 190
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Cultural
Participation 196
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: What Would You Say? 197
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Improving On-the-Job Intercultural
Communication 199
CHAPTER 10 Mass Communication 209

What Is Mass Communication? 210
Why Study Mass Communication? 211
Interpersonal Communication versus Mass Communication 212
Culture, Communication, and Mass Media 215
Characteristics of Media Consumers 219
Characteristics of Media Industries 221
Theories of Mass Communication 226
Key Terms 232
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: The Third-Person Effect 217
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: The Role of the Photojournalist 222
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Finding a Career in the Media 226
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Media Conduct 229
CHAPTER 11 Media Literacy 235

What Is Media Literacy? 236
Media Literacy Scholarship 238
Some Core Concepts of Media Literacy 242
Media Literacy Questions 244
What Does It Mean to Be Media Literate? 246
Characteristics of Media-Literate People 246
The Skill of Being Media Literate 251
Media Literacy and Meaning Making 253
Media Literacy and Identity 253
Media Literacy and Democracy 255

xvi CO N T E N T S

Key Terms 256
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Careers in Media Literacy 237
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Advertising to Children 240
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Being a Proactive Media
Consumer 252
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Countering the Kinderculture 254
CHAPTER 12 Social Media and Communication

Technologies 259
The Promise and Peril of New Communication Technologies 260
A Connected World 263
The Dark Side of New Communication Technologies 266
Addiction 267
Depression 269
Distraction 269
How Computer-Mediated Communication Affects Identity
and Relationships 271
Social Network Sites and Identity Construction and Maintenance 271
The Internet and Interpersonal Communication 275
Social Isolation 279
Shy and Popular Users 280
Facebook Envy and Our Sense of Well-Being 281
Self-Disclosure and Relational Development 281
Key Terms 283
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Social Media, Social Connection,
and Social Power 262
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Who Owns the Social Networking You? 265
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: E-mail versus Social Networking Sites 266
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Internet Addiction
Self-Diagnosis 268

CO N T E N T S xvii
CHAPTER 13 Persuasion and Social Influence 285

What Is Persuasion? 286
Values, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors 289
Balance Theory 291
Dissonance Theory 292
The Selective Processes 293
What Factors Infuence Persuasion? 294
Source Characteristics 295
Message Characteristics 299
Receiver Characteristics 300
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion 302
Processes of Attitude Change 305
Key Terms 309
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Four Dos and Four Don’ts of Workplace
Persuasion 288
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Would the Razor Switch Hands
Today? 295
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: The Federal Trade Commission and
Advertiser Credibility 297
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: The TARES Test 307
CHAPTER 14 Health Communication 311

Communication and a Long and Healthy Life 312
Health Communication in Provider-Client Settings 315
Health Communication Contexts 323
Friends and Family 323
Support Groups 325
Hospital Culture 325
Entertainment Mass Media 327
Health Communication and the Internet 330
Health Communication Campaigns 332

xviii CO N T E N T S

Key Terms 336
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Speak Up 321
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug
Advertising 329
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: The Health Belief Model 334
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: Getting Health Messages to
Employees 335
CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking: An Overview 339

The Importance of Public Speaking 340
Types of Speeches 344
A Crash Course in Public Speaking 346
Identifying the Steps of Speech Preparation 352
Overcoming Public Speaking Anxiety 355
Key Terms 360
COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: On-the-Job Public Speaking 342
SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Political Satire in Contemporary
Culture 343
PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Public Speaking
Self-Assessment 352
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION: Plagiarism and Public Speaking 354
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1

Preface
One of the great advantages of teaching Introduction to Communication is

that it allows instructors and their students to talk about everything because
every aspect of life—personal, social, political, cultural, relational, familial—
involves communication. But the nature of the course also presents some
challenges:
1. What gets covered and what gets left out? In other words, how does the
class cover all the important material in one semester?
2. Given everything the course is designed to cover, how does the material
connect with students’ everyday lives? Where is the balance between the
theoretical and what’s relevant to students?
3. What’s the best way to ensure that the course’s learning objectives
are met?
We have carefully designed this text in answer to these questions, drawing
on scores of surveys and reviews, along with our collective 60 years of university
teaching experience. Introduction to Communication: Perception, Meaning, and
Identity offers a comprehensive, readable, and balanced survey of the disci-
pline. Using vivid and contemporary examples, we cover the basics of commu-
nication theory and research and provide tools to help students become
more competent, confident, and ethical communicators. We show students
the relevance of communication in their daily lives so that they can apply their
newfound knowledge of the communication process in a variety of contexts.
The Philosophy of This Text

Communication is about mutual, transactional meaning making, working with
others to craft common understanding. It is also about how we perceive our
world and how we create our identity; we know ourselves and our world through
interaction with others. Helping students gain more effective control over
perception, meaning making, and identity is the story of this book.
How do we begin to understand this complex world and our place in it? Through
communication. The value of this course is in showing students how to think criti-
cally about themselves and the worlds they inhabit, negotiate, create, and recre-
ate—face-to-face and in front of screens—through communication. We do this, in
xix

xx PR E FAC E
Persuasion and
Public speaking
social influence
g B
in se usi
r tis m ne
in ss
ve ar
Ad s
Mass
Organizational
communication
Social Grapevine communication
Ph media comm. al t
ar
ma xu en
Se ssm ng
ad r a ini
s Interpersonal ha tra
communication
Health Intercultural
communication communication
Intersections of Communication Subfields
part, by emphasizing the interdisciplinary and overlapping nature of communica-

tion studies, encouraging students to make more connections, to expand the
breadth and depth of their knowledge, and to apply that knowledge in their lives.
Pedagogical Features
The pedagogical features we developed for this text reflect our philosophy and
emphasize applications, asking students to challenge assumptions about
themselves and their world.
• Ethical Communication boxes present ethical dilemmas that commu-
nicators face, on topics such as lying (Chapter 3), whistleblowing (Chap-
ter 8), and advertising to children (Chapter 11). These features prompt
students to examine complex situations and weigh their own choices.
• Personally Responsible Communication boxes remind students that
they are what they communicate, asking them to consider their responsi-
bility in personal communication situations. Topics include speaking in-
clusively (Chapter 3), practicing active listening (Chapter 5), and
self-diagnosing Internet addiction (Chapter 12).
• Socially Responsible Communication boxes ask students to consider
how much responsibility they have to the larger culture, encouraging
more thoughtful communication. Topics include stereotyping (Chapter
9), media conduct (Chapter 10), and the Speak Up program for patient
safety (Chapter 14).
• Communication in the Workplace boxes present direct, hands-on
advice for career success. Topics include dealing with on-the-job conflict
(Chapter 6), tips for successful teamwork (Chapter 7), and the dos and
don’ts of workplace persuasion (Chapter 13).
• Thumbnail Theory features appear in the margins to summarize the
core theories presented in the text. Our aim is to make theory accessible
and highlight why it matters in real life.

PR E FAC E xxi
In addition, several other features help students get the most from the book:
• Learning Objectives at the beginning of each chapter
• A Review of Learning Objectives at the end of each chapter, highlighting
key points
• A Running Glossary and a list of Key Terms
• Questions for Review
• Questions for Discussion.
Organization
In designing a survey text that is comprehensive yet concise, we had to make
some difficult decisions about what to include. We worked to offer the broad-
est, most contemporary overview of the discipline available, one tied to stu-
dents’ everyday realities and their career aspirations, regardless of major.
The text is organized into 15 chapters (to fit the typical semester) and di-
vided into two parts, Foundations of Communication and Communication Con-
texts, offering balanced coverage of the entire field of communication. Part I
includes a chapter on communication research and inquiry (Chapter 2) and
covers verbal communication (Chapter 3), nonverbal communication (Chapter
4), and listening (Chapter 5). Part II builds on this foundation to examine
communication in a wide variety of contexts. These chapters include rela-
tional and conflict communication (Chapter 6), communicating in small
groups (Chapter 7), organizational communication (Chapter 8), and intercul-
tural communication (Chapter 9), as well as mass communication (Chapter
10), media literacy (Chapter 11), social media and communication technolo-
gies (Chapter 12), persuasion and social influence (Chapter 13), and health
communication (Chapter 14). An optional crash-course on public speaking
(Chapter 15) gives students the basic skills and confidence to communicate
publicly.
Ancillary Package
A comprehensive set of ancillary materials for instructors and students ac-
companies Introduction to Human Communication.
Online Learning
• Dashboard delivers high-quality content, tools, and assessments to
track student progress in an intuitive, Web-based learning environment.
• Dashboard gives instructors the ability to manage digital content
from Introduction to Human Communication and its supplements in
order to create assignments, administer tests, and track student prog-
ress. Assessments are designed to accompany this text and are

xxii PR E FAC E
automatically graded so that instructors can check students’ progress

as they complete their assignments. The color-coded gradebook illus-
trates at a glance where students are succeeding and where they can
improve.
• With Dashboard, students have access to a variety of interactive study
tools designed to enhance their learning experience, including videos
and exercises, critical thinking activities and questions, and
multiple-choice pre- and post-tests to accompany each chapter.
• Dashboard is engineered to be simple, informative, and mobile. All
Dashboard content is engineered to work on mobile devices, including
iOS platforms.
• Course cartridges for a variety of Learning Management Systems, in-
cluding Blackboard Learn, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, and Angel, allow in-
structors to create their own course websites, integrating student and
instructor resources available on the Ancillary Resource Center and
Companion Website. Contact your Oxford University Press representa-
tive for access or for more information about these supplements or cus-
tomized options.
For Instructors
• Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup-arc.com. This conve-
nient, instructor-focused website provides access to all of the up-to-date
teaching resources for this text—at any time—while guaranteeing the
security of grade-significant resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep
instructors informed when new content becomes available. The following
items are available on the ARC:
• The Instructor’s Manual includes syllabus preparation tools, a
sample syllabus, chapter-based assignment ideas, and suggestions for
audiovisual materials.
• The comprehensive Computerized Test Bank offers over 900 exam
questions in multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay formats, with
each item classified according to Bloom’s taxonomy and tagged to page
and section references in the text.
• PowerPoint-based lecture slides highlight key concepts, terms, and
examples, and incorporate images from each chapter. With stream-
lined text, a focus on visual support, and lecture tips in the notes sec-
tion, these presentations are ready to use and fully editable to make
preparing for class faster and easier than ever.
• Now Playing, Instructor’s Edition, includes an introduction on
how to incorporate film and television clips in class, as well as even
more film e xamples, viewing guides and assignments, a complete set
of sample responses to the discussion questions in the student edi-
tion, a full list of r eferences, and an index by subject for ease of use.
Now Playing also has an accompanying companion website at

PR E FAC E xxiii
www.oup.com/us/nowplaying, which features descriptions of films from

previous editions and selected film clips.
• Two optional chapters for download: Public Speaking: Research,
Writing, and Delivery; and Persuasive, Informative, and Other
Types of Speaking.
• A downloadable guide to Interviewing.
For Students
• Now Playing (print), available free in a package with a new copy of the book,
looks at contemporary films and television shows through the lens of commu-
nication principles. Updated yearly, it illustrates how communication concepts
play out in a variety of situations, using mass media that are interactive, fa-
miliar, and easily accessible to students.
• The Companion Website at www.oup.com/us/beauchamp offers a wealth
of study and review resources, including learning objectives, summaries, chap-
ter quizzes, flashcards, activities, and links to a variety of media-related
websites.
Acknowledgments
We were fortunate to have had the assistance of many people in the writing of this
book. Most important, we have drawn on the research and thinking of a century’s
worth of communication thinkers and researchers, not to mention their colleagues
in the other social sciences and humanities. Their research and writing have in-
spired and guided the field’s contemporary thinking. It’s an exciting time to study
communication, and the work that has come before has made this book—and the
discipline itself—possible.
We relied, too, on the sharp eye and teaching experience of our reviewers, who
improved and enriched our work. In particular, we thank the following reviewers
commissioned by Oxford University Press:
Jerry L. Allen
University of New Haven
Carla Harrell
Old Dominion University
Andrew F. Herrmann
East Tennessee State University
Karen Isaacs
University of New Haven

xxiv PR E FAC E
Dan Kozlowski
Saint Louis University
Jennifer A. Marshall
California State University, Northridge
Kelly Odenweller
West Virginia University
William Price
Georgia Perimeter College
Greg Rickert
Bluegrass Community & Technical College
Jill Schiefelbein
Arizona State University
Bruce Wickelgren
Suffolk University
Thanks also to the team at Oxford University Press. Their professional-

ism, encouragement, and advice sustained us. This is an organization that
trusts its authors. For that we are especially grateful.
Our colleagues, students, friends, and extended family deserve our appre-
ciation as well. Not only did they let us bore them with our tales of writing
woe, but a few appear in photos in these pages. Finally, we are grateful to one
colleague in particular. Dr. Wendy Samter was our Chair and is now our Dean.
Several years ago, she gave us the task of evaluating all the Introduction to
Communication texts available for adoption. We took that job to heart, and
although not completely dissatisfied with the available options, we did dis-
cover that these books lacked sufficient attention to (1) the discipline as a
social science and (2) newer mediated forms of communication. As such,
Wendy initiated the journey that produced this book and encouraged and sup-
ported us at every step along the way.
We must also thank our immediate families. Our children, Jordan and
Matt, were the inspiration for many of our examples. Jordan is a recent grad-
uate who majored in Communication and is now in the midst of a burgeoning
career, and Matt is still in school and preparing to make his mark. They are
great kids; we are exceedingly proud of them.
We thank you for taking the time to read our thoughts on the course and
how we believe it should be taught. And we commend you for committing
yourself to this important and exciting discipline.
SRB & SJB

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of A history of
Vermont's maple sugar industry
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: A history of Vermont's maple sugar industry
Creator: Vermont Maple Sugar Makers Association
Contributor: E. Wellman Barnard

Will Carleton
Harvey Washington Wiley
Helen M. Winslow
Release date: December 28, 2023 [eBook #72529]
Language: English
Original publication: Vermont: Vermont Maple Sugar Makers

Association, 1912
Credits: Bob Taylor, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY

OF VERMONT'S MAPLE SUGAR INDUSTRY ***
A HISTORY OF
Vermont’s Maple Sugar
Industry
PUBLISHED BY
VERMONT MAPLE SUGAR MAKERS’
ASSOCIATION
PURE
VERMONT
Maple Maple
Sugar Syrup
Home of the Sugar Maple

History of the Maple Sugar Industry from the Indian Down
to the Present Time.
How Made and How to Procure That Which is Pure and Free
From Adulterations.
Recipes for its Use in Cooking and Making Candies, Etc.
PUBLISHED BY THE
VERMONT MAPLE SUGAR MAKERS’ ASSOCIATION,
December, 1912.
A SUGAR MAPLE TREE 125 YEARS OLD, GROWING IN
OPEN GROUND.
VERMONT:
HOME OF THE SUGAR MAPLE.
T O the Green Mountain State belongs the honor of furnishing the

Maple its safest refuge and best home. Here it grows in all its
beauty and luxury of foliage. Here too, as the frosts of fall settle upon
our maple forests has the painters tried to copy and place upon
canvas the picture as the glossy green leaves turn to red and gold.
Once it reigned supreme as King of the forests of Vermont.
Thousands of acres once occupied by the sugar maple have been
cleared for agriculture, and the maple like the dusky warrier has
gradually been driven back to the hills.
Sugar maples have been transplanted to some extent in France,
Germany, Austria and England, with a view to adding sugar making
to their many lines of industries, but without satisfactory results.
Of all the trees of the forest the maple was the most valuable to
the early settlers. Its wood furnished the best fuel for their greedy
fireplaces. Also in the early days a considerable income was derived
from the burning of charcoal, and the maple made the best of
material for this. But even more than for all these purposes it lost its
life in the manufacture of potash. Not alone was the settlers’ great
iron kettles used for boiling down the sap of the maple into sugar, but
were principally used for boiling down the lye leached from wood
ashes into potash thus deriving a large income, although it resulted
in the same old story of killing the goose that laid the golden egg. But
alas! Not alone did the people of years gone by destroy and lay
waste our maple groves. The maple worm for several years stripped
our trees of their foliage, and bid fair to make sugaring a thing of the
past. But worst of all at the present time are the veneer mills, which
pay large prices for maple logs. And unless some means be found to
induce the farmer to spare his maple grove, the maple Sugar
industry of Vermont, like the Indian Brave who roamed at will
beneath their shade will have passed from among us.
Well may we cherish this grand old tree and be proud of sending
forth to the world an article which in its purity and delicacy of flavor is
unsurpassed by any sweetness otherwise produced.
GATHERING MAPLE SAP WITH OXEN AFTER A SNOW STORM.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF MAPLE
SUGAR.
V ERMONT has an enviable world wide reputation for the

production of two things: men and maple sugar. The noble
record of the former as given to us in history and also records of the
present day are known to all. But that the latter also has a history of
much interest is little known.
Along with the maize and tobacco, maple sugar had its origin
among the Indians. For time unknown before the white man came to
this continent the aborigines drew the sap of the maple tree and
distilled therefrom a sweet syrup. The various tribes of Canada,
Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York,
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan all knew of this art. Where ever the
white people came in contact with the Indians in a region where the
maple tree grew they found them making this delicious sweet, and it
was from them the white man learned the process.
The probable way in which the Indians discovered this art is
contained in one of their Legends, as given by Rowland E. Robinson
in the Atlantic Monthly:
“While Woksis, the mighty hunter was out one day in search of
game, his diligent squaw Moqua busied herself embroidering him
some moccasins. For the evening meal of her lord she boiled some
moose meat in the sweet water from a maple tree just by the
wigwam. Becoming interested in her work, she forgot the moose
meat, and the sweet water boiled away to a thick brown syrup.”
“When Woksis returned he found such a dainty morsel ready for
his supper, as he had never before tasted. The great chief eagerly
devoured the viand, licked the kettle clean and then went out and
told his tribe that Kose-Kus-beh, a heaven sent instructor, had taught
Moqua how to make a delicious food by boiling the juice of the
maple. And the discovery soon became known among all the
Indians.” To get the sap the Indians with their tomahawks cut a long
slanting gash in the tree, below the lower end of this gash a notch
was cut to hold a chip along which the sap would flow. The sap was
caught in birch bark dishes and boiled in earthen kettles. The small
quantity of dark syrup thus produced was the Indians only supply of
sugar. Imagine ourselves limited in this necessity of life to a little
taste each spring, and we can think what a delicacy their maple
sugar must have been to the Indian. We fondly anticipate the coming
of this season of the year, either for pleasure or profit. How long
these anticipations have existed in the hearts of men we know not,
but we do know that long before the foot of white man touched the
virgin soil of New England, long before the woodman’s axe echoed
among our hills and valleys, the dusky race, who freely roamed the
primeval forest gathered the maple sap in the primative way. It is not
improbable that the young braves and dusky maidens of the tribe,
had sugar parties, ate sugar upon snow and became sweet with
each as do the boys and girls at sugar parties today.
THE PRIMATIVE METHOD, OF BOILING MAPLE SAP.
The first white people to make maple sugar were the Canadians.
The manufacture of maple sugar in Vermont dates back to a very
early day; the first settlers like their neighbors in Canada first learned
the art of making it from the Indian, who they observed notching the
trees in the springtime.
For a hundred years or more the methods of production remained
without material change, save the substitution of iron or copper
kettles for vessels of clay or bark, and the use of better utensils. The
sugar was made merely for home use; cane sugar was a luxury and
often unobtainable by the pioneer farmer at any cost.
The trees were tapped with axes in the Indian way, the sap caught
in wooden troughs and gathered to some central place in buckets,
carried on the shoulders with a sap yoke; and if the snow was deep,
snow shoes were used to travel on; the boiling was done in large
iron kettles swung upon a pole in the open woods in some hollow
sheltered from the wind, with no protection from the sun, rain or
snow, and the numerous impurities of charcoal, ashes and leaves.
Although this was greatly in advance of the primative methods of
sugar making by the Indians, the product thus secured was dark in
color, strong in flavor, not altogether the flavor of the maple, and
quite variable in quality. This method with slight improvements and
modifications was principally used in the state until within the past 50
years; since that time great improvements have been made. But the
boys and girls of today can scarcely realize the conditions incident to
the sugar season even 40 or 50 years ago, nor can they fully realize
the pleasures which this season brought to the young people of
those times, more especially the boys. In those days it was no small
matter to get ready for sugaring. Each wooden hoop on the buckets
must be tightened, with new hoops to replace the broken ones. It
required several days to soak the buckets and make them hold the
sap. The kettle, holders and buckets must then be taken to the sugar
orchard.
The boiling place must be shovelled out, and perhaps new posts
set for the lug pole on which to hang the kettles. Then the big back
logs must be hauled and some wood cut to start the boiling. A few
new sap spouts were needed each year, and these were made from
green sumac trees of proper size, and whittled to fit the auger hole;
the small pith being burned out with a redhot iron. With the inch or
three-fourths inch auger, one man could tap about 50 trees in a day
if he did not bore more than three inches deep, which was the rule. If
a new sap yoke was needed, a small basswood tree of right size
was cut, and the proper length for a yoke, halved, dug out to fit the
neck and shoulders, and the ends shaved to right dimensions. To
make “the yoke easy and the burden light” required a good fitting sap
yoke.
Thus it will be seen that in the days gone by much work, and some
ingenuity were needed to get ready for sugaring. In those days the
sugar season called for hard work from the men and boys also who
were always required to do their part in gathering the nearby sap and
tending the fires. But there were two sources of intense enjoyment
for the boys which largely compensated for the tired legs in carrying
the sap, and burnt faces and hands in tending fires.
SUGAR HOUSE INTERIOR. BOILING SAP WITH PANS AND

HEATER; NOW SLIGHTLY OUT OF DATE.
These were sugaring off times, one of which came any day
towards night, when the sap was gathered in, and father gave
permission to take some of the sweetest boiling from the big syrup
kettle, and sugar off in the little four quart kettle, which mother would
kindly let us take to the boiling place for that purpose. Some live
coals were raked from the big fire and the little kettle with its precious
sweet was placed thereon, and carefully watched until the sugar
would blow through a twig loop or lay on snow. The sugar was very
dark and often contained bits of charcoal that had fallen into the big
kettles in boiling, but that did not matter; it was sweet and the feast
always a delightful one. The other occasion was, in a measure, a
sort of state performance and generally occurred at the close of a
good run of sap, with fifteen or twenty buckets of syrup on hand.
Early in the morning the biggest kettle was taken from the boiling
place, carefully washed and set on three large stones. It was then
filled about two-thirds full of syrup and a fire started. When milk
warm, six or eight quarts of milk, with half a dozen well beaten eggs
were added to the syrup to “cleanse it.” Just before boiling was the
skimming time, when a pailful or more of dark thick scum would be
taken from the top of the syrup. About noon the boys, and oftentimes
the girls also would gather around the kettle to see it boil and taste
the sweet as it slowly thickened to sugar; but not until about two
o’clock in the afternoon would it be thick enough to lay on snow. In
sugaring off with the little kettle we did not always have as much
sugar as we wanted, but when the big kettle was on, we ate grained
or waxed sugar, and hot sugar and doughnuts, until we wanted no
more. Only those who have had these experiences can realize the
intense enjoyments of the sugar seasons of the years gone by.
MODERN SAP EVAPORATOR IN OPERATION.

Within the past 40 or 50 years, great improvements have been
made along the line of sugar implements; first the crude sugar shed
was built and the kettles were incased in an arch; then came the
large smooth bottom pans which were considered the height of
perfection. But the ever restless Yankee was not content with this.
First came the heater which heated the sap before it went into the
pans; next the crude form of evaporator, with wooden sides and
corrugations running across the pans but no opening beneath. Then
the evaporator of the present day of which there are many kinds, all
of which are good and capable of converting from twenty-five to a
hundred gallons of sap into syrup in an hour; this will be explained
later.
The bit of small size has taken the place of the axe, tapping iron
and large auger. The tin bucket with covers have placed in the
background the old troughs and wooden buckets. The team and
lines of piping have lightened the burden of the man with a sap yoke
and snow shoes, and instead of boiling out of doors or in the old
shed a comfortable, convenient plank floor sugar house is now used.
Thus we see the change which has taken place along the different
lines of the industry. It has worked itself into a trade or science and
men make a study of it. Therefore instead of the dark colored article
containing numerous flavors, the present product with the modern
methods is light in color, flavored only with the aroma of the maple,
and the fine qualities possessed by this article has already won for
itself a reputation far beyond the limits of our state. It has already
passed the point of being considered a necessity and its use is now
limited to those who can afford it as a luxury; even the poorest
quality the price per pound will purchase several pounds of cane
sugar for home use. Thus the poor farmer cannot use it except as a
delicacy. The total product of maple sugar in the United States as
stated in our census is about 50,000,000 pounds. Of this Vermont is
credited with about one-fourth of the entire output. We do not wish to
be misunderstood; all the pure maple sugar is not of this fine quality;
only the best grade which is a small percent of the amount
manufactured is entitled to the high prices received. The small
quantity of the so-called first class goods have led the producers to
grade their product, so that we have the first, second and third
grades with prices to compare with the quality; the reason of these
numerous grades are several. First, the chemical changes which
take place with the sap being exposed to the weather, the advance
of the season and last but not least, the many sugar makers who do
not take the care they should and who do not have the suitable
machines and utensils for making a No. 1 article.
MAPLE SUGAR CAMP EARLY IN THE SEASON; GROUND

COVERED WITH SNOW.
The ever increasing demand for pure, genuine, first class maple
goods at a high price as compared to other sugars has led to the
making and placing upon the market numerous imitations of our
maple product, in which the poorer grade of maple sugar is used as
a flavoring. These goods often bear fraudulent labels in which it is
represented that they were manufactured in Vermont, though with
the exception of a few pounds used as flavoring, the stuff
manufactured of glucose and other compounds, never saw a maple
tree in Vermont or any other state.
This is the article placed upon the market in January and
February, marked “Vermont New Maple Sugar”. You may ask, how
may we get this best grade of maple sugar and be sure of its purity
and quality. By corresponding with any member of the Vermont
Maple Sugar Makers’ Association, whose names appear at the back
of this booklet. Get your goods direct from the producers.
MAPLE SWEETS AND HOW TO GET
THE PURE GOODS.
I F Vermont is noted as being the home of any industry, that

industry is the production of maple sugar and syrup, and in this
booklet we will tell you something of the process of manufacture and
of whom you can procure this delicious luxury in all its purity.
The producer must first have a grove of maple trees of the sugar
maple variety. These groves Vermont has in abundance. They are
on the hillside and in the valley; yet a grove of sugar maples that can
be utilized for sugar making cannot be produced in a few years, as
the tree is comparatively of slow growth and lives to a good old age.
Not many trees are used for sugar making until they are 40 years
old, and have a diameter of a foot or more. These are called second
growth. Then there are others, two, three or even four feet in
diameter; sturdy old trees that have withstood the storms of many
winters. Some of the trees used for sugar making purposes have
been growing since the Pilgrim Fathers landed in 1620.
Along in March of each year, the farmer begins to watch the
weather for signs of spring and conditions favorable to a flow of sap.
It can only be obtained for a period of a few weeks in the spring, and
on certain days when the weather conditions are favorable. Snow
usually lays on the ground when the sugarmaker begins his
operations in the sugar camp. The first step is to break roads in the
soft and thawing snow, so that the teams can get about and gather
the sap. This breaking roads is often no light task as the snow
oftentimes has icy crusts beneath the surface. After the oxen or
horses have been over the road several times and they have
become somewhat passable, the buckets are distributed one or two
to a tree and the sugar maker goes about his grove tapping them by
boring a hole with a bit three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter and
two or three feet from the ground as the snow will permit; in this hole
he drives a spout that conveys the sap to the bucket, and on which
the bucket usually hangs.
TAPPING THE GROVE.

When the sugar maker has finished tapping his trees he is ready
for a flow of sap. Sometimes it comes at once and then again the
weather may turn suddenly cold and for a week or ten days there is
nothing doing in the sugar camp; meantime he can get his boiling
apparatus in readiness and perhaps get a little more wood.
But spring will come sooner or later and there is bound to be a
rush of sap. Then comes the busy time in the camp; the men and
boys gather the sap with oxen and horses. This is usually done with
a tank holding from 20 to 40 pails on a sled and drawn to the sugar
house and stored in tanks from which in turn it flows to the boiling
pan or evaporator; the flow from the storage tank being regulated by
feeders which keeps the boiling sap in the evaporator constantly at

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PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

PART 2 COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

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PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 1 The Communication Process: Perception,

CHAPTER 2 Communication Research and Inquiry 27

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Three Philosophical Questions that Shape Scientific Inquiry 33

CHAPTER 3 Verbal Communication 49

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SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: War! What Is It

CHAPTER 4 Nonverbal Communication 71

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PART 2 COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

CHAPTER 6 Relational and Conflict

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Interpersonal Communication and Conflict 129

CHAPTER 7 Communicating in Small Groups 143

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CHAPTER 8 Organizational Communication 165

CHAPTER 9 Intercultural Communication 187

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SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMMUNICATION: Stereotyping versus

CHAPTER 10 Mass Communication 209

CHAPTER 11 Media Literacy 235

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Review of Learning Objectives 255

CHAPTER 12 Social Media and Communication

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CHAPTER 13 Persuasion and Social Influence 285

CHAPTER 14 Health Communication 311

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Review of Learning Objectives 335

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking: An Overview 339

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One of the great advantages of teaching Introduction to Communication is

The Philosophy of This Text

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Intersections of Communication Subfields

part, by emphasizing the interdisciplinary and overlapping nature of communica-

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automatically graded so that instructors can check students’ progress

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www.oup.com/us/nowplaying, which features descriptions of films from

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Thanks also to the team at Oxford University Press. Their professional-

SRB & SJB

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Title: A history of Vermont's maple sugar industry

CHAPTER 1 The Communication Process: Perception,

CHAPTER 6 Relational and Conflict

CHAPTER 12 Social Media and Communication