Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Recyclability of rubber in asphalt roadway systems: A review of applied T

research and advancement in technology
Vinay Hosahally Nanjegowda, Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri*
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517 506, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Recyclability of crumb rubber (CR) from end-of-life tires and its proven viability in asphalt paving applications
Recyclability calls for a critical review of various system boundaries. This paper reviews the technologies and state-of-the-art
Crumb rubber related to CR as a modifier in asphalt paving applications. Furthermore, the different facets of CR such as
Asphalt-rubber extraction techniques, source, physiognomy, physical, and chemical composition along with its effect on asphalt
Environmental impacts
materials properties and environment as reported in various investigations were reviewed. The two CR-modified
Resource and energy conservation
Green roadway
asphalt mixture blending methods: “wet” and “dry” were also documented with strong focus on their limitations
from engineering and environmental perspectives. The science behind the CR-asphalt binder reaction with
different parameters employed during processing in relation to rheological properties and storage stability were
reviewed in detail. Based on extensive search, it was found that there exist more dimensions to upgrade the
recyclable CR modifier product that has tremendous potential to conserve natural resources by means of re-
placing aggregates as well as reduce ecological footprint and promote sustainability in flexible pavements.
Despite the multitudinal benefits offered by CR, there still exists futuristic ways to improvize the current state-of-
the-art asphalt-rubber (AR) technology that would make the special material a promising green roadway product
capable of conserving resources and energy while promoting sustainability in infrastructure.

1. Introduction inventory (LCI) on European refinery units involving cradle-to-gate

The asphalt cement used in flexible hot-mix asphalt (HMA) pave-
ments is a hydrocarbon involving saturates, aromatics, resins, and as-
phaltenes (SARA) obtained either from naturally occurring oil sands or
through vacuum distillation of crude oils (Traxler, 1939; Corbett, 1969;
Alboudwarej et al., 2002; Fuhr et al., 2005; Kumbargeri and Biligiri,
2016a). During the early stages of 19th century, various researchers
compiled the phenomena of asphalt binder material behavior that af-
fected its very nature, origin, physical properties, and chemical nature
(Traxler, 1939; Saal and Labout, 1939; Romberg and Traxler, 1947).
The influence of different classes of compounds on the rheological
characteristics and durability of asphalt have been widely recorded
(Griffin et al., 1959; Simpson et al., 1961; Bell et al., 1994; Wallace
et al., 1987; Planche et al., 1998; Fuhr et al., 2005). A wealth of re-
search repository is available that describes aging phenomenon, factors
affecting aging, and its effect on the rheological and mechanical
properties due to changes in chemical composition (Chen and Huang,
2000; Woo et al., 2008; Lesueur, 2009; Singh et al., 2011; Steyn, 2011;
Baek et al., 2012; Kumbargeri and Biligiri, 2016a,b,c).
The European Bitumen Association conducted asphalt lifecycle
approach (Eurobitume, 2012; Farina et al., 2017). To produce 1 ton of
bitumen (asphalt cement), it requires 22.5 kg of natural gas, 50.5 kg of
crude oil, 10.9 kg of coal, 0.003 kg of uranium, and 1239 liters of water
as energy resources. Further, about 300 g of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions is released into the open atmosphere while 1800 g of various
compounds is disposed off into the sea in case of offshore production or
below the ground when asphalt is extracted onshore, and 155 g of hy-
drocarbons get leached into the soil. From the flexible pavement LCI
perspective, material production and construction stages have en-
ormous impacts on the ecological footprint. In general, the material
production stage encompasses (i) extraction and processing of raw /
recyclable / secondary materials at one single plant, (ii) transport of
processed materials to the production site, and (iii) manufacture of final
asphalt mixture, while construction stage includes laying of mixtures
and final composition (Huang et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2012).
To address the challenges pertinent to construction, performance,
and maintenance of a flexible pavement system; paving industries have
majorly focused on obtaining modified binders with enhanced rheolo-
gical properties. While doing so, the other challenges such as cost of
modifiers, GHG emissions, energy use, and environmental issues have

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ce18d005@iittp.ac.in (V.H. Nanjegowda), bkp@iittp.ac.in (K.P. Biligiri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104655
Received 4 September 2019; Received in revised form 17 December 2019; Accepted 19 December 2019
0921-3449/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
been compromised (Rodriguez-alloza et al., 2015). Therefore, the best
strategies call for construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation of
flexible pavements in a sustainable way despite an increase in the cost
of asphalt binders and construction machineries (Giani et al., 2015).
The most commonly adopted temperature minimization technique has
been asphalt emulsion technology. However, recently developed tech-
nologies such as Warm-Mix Asphalt (WMA), recycled asphalt pavement
(RAP) materials, and cold mixes or cold in-place recycling (CIPR) have
made the production processes and rehabilitation more energy-efficient
by lowering emissions, specifically involving modified asphalts (Rubio
et al., 2012; Giani et al., 2015). Reduced temperature applications
during pavement construction and maintenance would help lower the
carbon footprint, minimize energy consumption, reduce aging, and
experience less exposure to occupational health risks (Salomon, 2006).
A comprehensive lifecycle analysis (LCA) was conducted by the
Swedish Environmental Research Institute, which included extraction,
production, construction, maintenance, operation, and disposal / reuse
phases of 1 km roadway stretch over a period of 40 years with three
different surface course materials such as HMA, cold mix asphalt, and
cement concrete (Stripple, 2001; Chiu et al., 2008). The study showed
that the reduction in total energy consumption was similar for both cold
mix and HMA, but was significantly higher for cement concrete.
The current scenario of depleting crude oil, reduced quarry zones,
and stringent environmental regulations has opened the window for use
of waste materials and by-products in pavement applications. The
hierarchical approach in waste material management involves recycl-
ability as top priority followed by incineration with energy recovery
and then landfilling in adverse conditions (Danish EPA, 1999;
Birgisdottir et al., 2007). One such recyclable material is the scrap tires
from automobiles. After fixed serviceable lives, tires are discarded. The
major hurdle for the tire industries is the absence of geographically
wide spread recycling chains, due to which scrap tires are stockpiled in
open atmosphere that lead to severe environmental implications.
In order to reduce stockpiling of discarded tires, many countries
have focused on recycling of tires in the form of granulates or crumb
rubber (CR) by various mechanical operations: punching, splitting,
chopping, grinding, and cutting (Epps, 1994; Wang et al., 2018). The
advantage of tire recycling is the recovery of steel and textiles apart
from rubber particles that could significantly reduce the environmental
burden. During the production of CR, the reduced magnitude of carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions due to recovery of steel was about 302 kgCO2
eq/t while that due to the recovery of textile was 39.6 kgCO2 eq/t
(Farina et al., 2014). Asphalt binder and corresponding mixtures denote
the most economical and techno-feasible alternative that could engulf a
significant portion of CR in different sizes (Dower et al., 1985). The first
application of CR modified asphalt was in the form of surface patch
maintenance developed by Charles McDonald in Arizona, USA
(Heitzman, 1993; Epps, 1994; Mikinis and Michon, 1998; Way et al.,
2012; Presti, 2013). The technology used by McDonald, popularly
known as “wet process” seized the valuable mechanical properties of
the ingredients and patented it as “Asphalt-Rubber or AR” (Way et al.,
2012).
Despite the visible advantages, the major problem associated with
the AR binder is the settling down of CR particles at the bottom of
storage tank even before mixing with the aggregate fractions, and in-
consistent dispersion of CR in the asphalt binder leading to raveling of
the AR mix (Memon, 1998a). AR modified dense-graded mixes have
exhibited failure due to insufficient voids in the mineral aggregates that
is essential to house CR inclusions in the dense matrix (Venudharan
et al., 2016). In the past, many of the road projects paved in California
(USA) that used AR mixes showed premature distresses due to lack of
quality construction practices related to rubber modified pavements
(State of California Department of Transportation, 2006). The AR pro-
duct can perform efficiently when the required materials are properly
selected, designed, processed, and constructed (Memon, 1998a; Way
et al., 2012; Presti, 2013). The production of AR product comes at the
2
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
cost of high capital investment in terms of specialized equipment and
high fuel energy consumption (Takallou and Sainton, 1992; State of
California Department of Transportation, 2006). Also, the high cost of
AR coupled with higher working temperatures as compared to con-
ventional asphalt concrete and RAP material has limited its extensive
application (State of California Department of Transportation, 2006;
Chiu et al., 2008). Further, the amount of concentrations of total par-
ticulate matter (PM), benzene soluble particulate (BSP), organic sulfur
containing compounds (OSCs), polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs),
and benzothiazole in air samples were higher during AR production and
paving than conventional asphalt paving (Burr et al., 2001).
There seems to be a very high interest in creating a sustainable CR-
asphalt product that promotes circular economy by reusing the scrap
tire resources. In this direction, a comprehensive collection of literature
related to recycled CR and treated CR additive based on cradle-to-gate
approach is absolutely essential. It is envisaged that this compilation
will help formulate a framework to develop the CR-asphalt composite.
Thus, the major purpose of this research review paper was to gather and
present the current state-of-the-art pertinent to rubberized asphalt
material with focus on rubber recycling techniques, rubberized asphalt
production methods, rubber-asphalt interaction as well as innovative
rubber paving products. Fig. 1 summarizes the review scope outline. As
observed, the review of cradle-to-gate approach covered: (1) recycling
techniques of CR with emphasis on physical nature and chemical
composition. Sections 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 discussed the advantages of
recycled rubber and the effects of its co-products on the environment.
Further, the requirements in terms of physical and chemical nature of
CR to develop effective rubber-asphalt mixtures were recorded, (2)
rubberized asphalt product manufacturing process and their limita-
tions, as described in Section 3.1 “wet process”, which covered the
advantages of blending rubber with binder in terms of energy con-
sumption, global warming, and material consumption as compared to
conventional HMA, and also the limitations of the technology. In Sec-
tion 3.2 “dry process”, the advantage of recycled rubber as replacement
to conventional fine-sized aggregates in terms of amount of energy
consumed during rubberized mixture production was collated. Further,
the limitations in practical applications of dry process were discussed,
(3) CR-asphalt reaction and their impact through internal and external
parameters. Sections 4.1–4.11 discussed how individual parameters of
CR and the blending environment affect the nature of modifications
quantified in terms of performance criterion, and (4) enhanced CR
modified products from engineering and environmental perspectives
(Sections 5.1, 5.2, and 6). A summary on future scope of research was
highlighted at the end of this review (Section 7) that could help in
improving existing rubberized asphalt technologies, while the tech-
nique also indicating a promising framework to conserve natural re-
sources, reduce GHG emissions, improve the safety of workers, and
most importantly eradicate land filling of scrap tires.
2. Crumb rubber modifier
2.1. CR production
Crumb Rubber Modifier (CRM) is the generic name used to identify
the introduction of scrap tire rubber in asphalt binder to enhance its
properties (Way et al., 2012; Presti, 2013). Scrap tire as a whole is
treated using processing methods / equipment such as cracker-mill,
granulator, micro-mill, and cryogenic (West et al., 1998). Each process
results in different CR size, surface texture, and gradation. Depending
on the type of equipment used, fraction sizes and application; pulver-
ized waste tires are classified as slit-tires, shredded / chipped tires,
ground tire rubber (GTR), and CR (Takallou and Sainton, 1992). Presti
(2013) elucidated several technologies available to reduce discarded
waste tires into CRM. The existing techniques include: ambient, cryo-
genic, wet, and hydro jet size grindings. Each of these processes ar-
ticulates different modes of operations with different temperature,
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
Fig. 1. Research review outline.
pressure, and milling equipment. Ambient grinding compared to cryo-
genic shredding produce rubber crumbs with characteristics such as
larger specific surface area, lower density, rough texture, irregular
shape and porous nature (Memon, 1998a; West et al., 1998; Presti,
2013). Additionally, the ambient method has been found to be cost
effective due to simple processing technique unlike the cryogenic one.
Recently, a thermomechanical extrusion process (tire-rubber recycling
method) involving twin-screw extruder was introduced to obtain highly
reclaimed rubber with low molecular weight rubber particles (Rasool
et al., 2017). The twin-screw extrusion technique offers high working
speeds, high working temperatures, continuous CR recovery, and high
efficiency. The results of a study indicate that the AR binder produced
with CR from different CRM processing units have substantial differ-
ences in properties and storage characteristics (West et al., 1998). The
success of CR modified asphalt product depends on the appropriate
selection of CRM process while also connected with the type of pave-
ment applications.
The amount of energy resources consumed to produce l ton of CR
from 1.45 tons of discarded tires include: 384 kW h of electric power,
2.99 liters of diesel oil, 0.22 m3 of water, 0.04 kg of lubricant oil and
various auxiliary materials (Farina et al., 2017). CR production ac-
counts for 10 % to the global warming potential (GWP), freshwater
toxicity, and terrestrial toxicity mid-point categories during environ-
mental impact assessment (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). GHG emissions and
energy consumption amount to about 307 kgCO2 eq/t and 5200 MJ/t
values, respectively, when the recycled co-products (steel and textile)
are neglected during CR production. While steel being high price
commodity, presumably undergoing recycling, and if textiles were
utilized as fuel resource in refractories then the overall environmental
burden of CR production assumes a negative value (Farina et al., 2014).
Further, it was noted that electric power used during shredding op-
eration was the major contributor (72–73 %) for both the inventories.
2.2. CR size, gradation, and concentration
The performance of asphalt pavements is affected by the viscoelastic
nature of asphalt binder at different environmental conditions. In order
to develop an efficient AR binder, it is necessary to characterize the
rheological behavior of CR modified binders considering CR additive as
an influential component. The rheological properties of CR modified
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
binders are greatly affected by CR processing technique, fraction size,
gradation, CR dosage, blending methods, processing time with asphalt,
and origin of vulcanized rubber (Navarro et al., 2006; Cetin, 2013). CR
consists of reclaimed rubber particles with size ranging from 4.75 to
0.075 mm and finer. ASTM D6114 standard (ASTM, 2009) recommends
that in any circumstances, the size of rubber particles should not be
greater than 2.36 mm sieve opening for AR paving applications. Most of
the countries have their own CR gradation specifications to produce AR
binders suiting local and regional conditions (Austroads, 2000; State of
California Department of Transportation, 2006; SABITA, 2015). The CR
gradation variants utilized by different State Departments of Trans-
portation (DOT) in the USA have been reported in many documents
(Heitzman, 1993; Hicks et al., 1995; Memon, 1998a, 1998b).
Many of the specifications do not stipulate the amount of CR passing
0.075 mm, which could play a major role in the creation of AR binder
matrix. It has been adjudged that different CR gradations with higher
amount of fine CR particles of size less than 0.150 mm (No. 100 mesh)
would result in AR binders that have high rut resistance and reduced
viscosity-temperature susceptibility (Venudharan and Biligiri, 2017).
The concentration of CR to be blended with asphalt depends on the type
of paving applications. In order to classify rubberized bitumen as AR,
the minimum amount of CR should be 15 % by total weight of the base
binder (ASTM, 2009). Different agencies / guidelines have specified
ranges of CR percentages depending on the type of aggregate gradation
as shown in Table 1. The results of a study with CR increasing from 5 to
40 % by total weight of the base binder resulted in improved rheology
and storage stability characteristics of AR binder (Navarro et al., 2005).
However, in case of unconventional porous asphalt mix, higher pro-
portion (with magnitude greater than 10 %) of CR particles of size 4.75
to 0.9 mm (No. 4 to No. 20 mesh) through dry process resulted in de-
creased performance characteristics (Cetin, 2013).
Other researchers highlighted the concept of average size over
Table 1
Summary of rubber percentages specified for CR-modified asphalt mixtures.
Agencies/ Arizona DOT Florida DOT Caltrans SABITA, Austroads,
Guidelines 2006 2015 2000
CR content ≥ 20 5-12 18-22 18-24 15-18
(%)
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655

maximum size of the CRM blends as a better approach to evaluate the

effect of CR size (Shen et al., 2009a, b). The scope of that study involved
two types of CRM blends with three sizes (#14, #30, and #40 meshes)
obtained from ambient and cryogenic methods. The average size of the
cryogenic CRM blends was about 15 % higher than that of the ambient
method. Further, the surface area (SA) of ambient and cryogenic CRM
blends was quantified using Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) tester
and was found that SA of ambient CRM blends was twice that of the
cryogenic one. Ambient milling produces granulated CR with large SA
and sponge-like surface texture, whereas cryogenic grinding results in
CR with clean flat smooth surface (Roberts et al., 1989). Larger SA of
CRM blends results in increased reaction rate with asphalt cement.
Oliver’s study reflected the importance of CRM processing methods on
CR morphology (Oliver, 1981). The CR particles produced by processes
such as grinding, drilling, and cryogenic methods indicated two surface
characteristics: one, the presence of porous “sponge-like” aggregation
and the other with glassy smooth surface. The angular smooth faced Fig. 3. CR composition and the average proportions of the components.
rubber particles were the results of the cryogenic method.
cause cancer in workers exposed to its fumes (Burr et al., 2001; SABITA,
2.3. CR type and chemical composition 2015). Samples of AR fumes collected and analyzed from the storage
tanks at the plant site and during paving of CR modified-HMA, in-
Siddique and Naik (2004) highlighted the typical materials utilized dicated the presence of OSCs and benzothiazole that have the potential
in manufacturing tires. CR product derived from scrap tires originates to cause respiratory irritation in human due to occupational exposure
from two sources: (1) passenger cars, and (2) trucks (Mikinis and (Burr et al., 2001). CR obtained from truck tires have higher percen-
Michon, 1998). Fig. 2 shows the percentages of major components in tages of NR compared to car tires (Heitzman, 1993; Airey et al., 2002;
automobile tires used across several regions of the world. Siddique and Naik, 2004; Presti, 2013). The presence of moisture
Note that the elastomer component accounts for about 40–45 % by content in CR should be less than 0.75 % to prevent foaming when
weight in both types of tires (passenger and truck). The second most added to asphalt (Chehovits, 1989; Shatanawi et al., 2013). From re-
important component is the carbon black in the range of 22–28 % by search point of view, it would be necessary to understand how CR types
weight. Carbon black imparts rigidity and flexibility to the treads and interact with different asphalts, and which of the components of CR
side walls of tires (Way et al., 2012). Next is the steel accounting for contributes to better rubber-bitumen interaction (Shen et al., 2009a).
about 12–18 % by weight, which imparts strength and rigidity. The
other components may include additives and fabrics in the range of
3. Crumb rubber modifier technology
5–10 % by weight. In general, CR is a concoction of natural rubber (NR)
or polyisoprene, synthetic rubber (SR) such as styrene-butadiene-rubber
In practice, the blending technique of CRM with asphalt cement is
(SBR), cross-linking agent (e.g. sulfur), metal oxides (e.g. Zinc oxide),
broadly classified as: (1) “wet process”, and (2) “dry process”
accelerant (e.g. fatty acids, amines), aging retardants (e.g. metal-
(Heitzman, 1993; Zanzotto and Kennepohl, 1996; Mikinis and Michon,
oxides), antioxidants, antiozonants, reinforcing agents such as stearic
1998; Memon, 1998a; Gawel et al., 2006; Presti, 2013).
acid, carbon black, process oils, plasticizer, fillers, fibers, steel, metal,
textiles (e.g. nylon, polyester) and rayon (Dower et al., 1985; Roberts
et al., 1989; Mikinis and Michon, 1998; Navarro et al., 2005, 2006; 3.1. Wet process
Siddique and Naik, 2004; Miskolczi et al., 2008; Way et al., 2012; Cetin,
2013; Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman, 2013; Presti, 2013). Fig. 3 dis- Any method that blends CRM with hot asphalt cement with the help
plays the average percentages of various components of CR chemical of specialized equipment a priori incorporation of the modified binder
composition, as a generic schematic. in paving applications relates to the wet process. According to ASTM D8
The physical composition of CR includes: 50 % recoverable rubber standard (ASTM, 2018), only those CR modified binders will be desig-
(elastomer), 32 % carbon black, 5 % ash and 13 % of various oils used nated as “AR”, if rubber content is at least 15 % by weight of the total
during the synthesis of tires (such as tetrahydrofuran). CR also contains asphalt cement, and designed using the wet process. Table 2 sum-
benzothiazole, which is a sulfur-based compound that works as an in- marizes the two different wet processing mechanisms. The AR binder
ducer in AR fumes creating carcinogenic compounds (Burr et al., 2001). obtained through the wet process has become a remedial solution for
The presence of low concentration Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons different pavement problems in the form of asphalt cement, crack
(PAHs) in crumb rubber modified binders (CRMB) has the potential to sealants, stress absorbing membrane interlayers (SAMI), and AR-HMA
mix (Heitzman, 1993; Presti, 2013). One of the tasks of this review

Table 2
Summary of AR production through wet process.
CR modified Wet process
binder
Wet process - high viscosity Wet process - no agitation

Viscosity ≥ 1500 cP < 1500 cP

CR content ≥ 15 % ≤ 15 %
CR size ≤ 600 μm ≤ 300 μm
Dispersion Needs to be agitated Needs to be circulated
continuously in the tank within the storage tank
Designation AR Terminal blend /
Rubberized asphalt
Fig. 2. Components of different types of tires.

4
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
paper was to highlight the limitations of AR production process and its
applications. For instance, Memon (1998a) noted that after addition of
CR to the binder through wet process, the matrix resulted in new mo-
lecular sized particulates, which tend to settle down at the bottom of
the tank before mixing with the aggregates. Further, poor CR dispersion
throughout the asphalt binder was observed. Due to inhomogeneity of
the AR binder, the AR modified mixture was embodied to ravel at the
earliest stage (Memon, 1998a, b). The reason for CR settlement was its
limited solubility in different virgin binders (Shatanawi et al., 2013).
AR binders were found to have poor storage stability at high tem-
peratures due to segregation (Navarro et al., 2006).
Furthermore, AR binder produced by existing technologies are re-
commended to be used within a short time since AR interaction could
reach the gel point quickly with the system losing its fluidity while the
binder gaining very high viscosity (Zanzotto and Kennepohl, 1996). The
reason was attributed to only a small proportion of CR depolymeriza-
tion and poor dispersion. From practical viewpoint, production of AR
requires onsite mobile mixing units, and utilization of the modified
binder within six hours from its production (Takallou and Sainton,
1992). The most important issue related to storage stability of modified
asphalt in the field include: (1) phase separation during high storage
temperature, and (2) degradation of additive caused by agitation (Bahia
et al., 1998; Bahia and Zhai, 2011). The results of the laboratory asphalt
stability test (LAST) method introduced by Bahia and co-workers in-
dicated that storage stability of modified binder depends on the time of
storage, modifier type, source of virgin asphalt, storage temperature,
and speed of the mechanical agitation (Bahia and Zhai, 2011). The
Asphalt-Rubber Standard Practice Guide (Way et al., 2012) highlights the
need for special pumping and flow-measuring equipment required for
the production of AR binder. Despite the specialized equipment;
pumping and metering the required proportion of unique AR binder
with proper consistency is a difficult task. Several agencies and re-
searchers have documented the various stages of AR production, sto-
rage, benefits, and limitations (Takallou and Sainton, 1992; Heitzman,
1993; Hicks, 2002; State of California Department of Transportation,
2006; Way et al., 2012; Presti, 2013). Practically, the requirement of
specialized blending units, storage tanks, and high initial cost have
restricted wider applications of AR paving procedures, specifically, in
major pavement construction work in some regions.
It requires about 18 liters of heavy diesel oil to produce 1 ton of AR
binder with Pen 50/70 asphalt and 20 % by weight of the base binder
(Bartolozzi et al., 2012). The amount of energy required to produce hot
mixes of AR and virgin binder would be 0.160 kW h/kg in a batch plant
equipped with a two-stage gas burner. However, a careful examination
of various phases of material production would showcase that the AR-
HMA has larger environmental impact (EI) than conventional HMA due
to the associated impacts coming from AR bitumen production stage. As
a rehabilitative material, the diesel consumed during the wet process
contributes to about 25 % of the overall global warming, eutrophica-
tion, and human toxicity categories over the entire lifecycle. The eco-
burden due to maintenance of 1 lane-kilometer of flexible pavements
using different materials such as traditional HMA, recycled HMA, AR
mix, and glassphalt mix of uniform thickness would be 3.45, 2.66, 4.00,
and 3.43 kPt, respectively (Chiu et al., 2008). The AR mixture pro-
duction activity in HMA plant consumes greater energy than traditional
HMA mix due to higher working temperatures (Farina et al., 2014,
2017). The Gross Energy Requirement (GER) and GWP values derived
during AR pavement construction and maintenance phases show 20 and
21 % reduction, respectively as a result of decreased wearing course
thickness and increased maintenance period, while at the same time the
environmental benefits that are achieved would be compromised
(Farina et al., 2014). Research also indicates that AR gap graded mix
seems to reduce the amount of CO2 emissions as well as energy con-
sumption by about 43–44 % compared to traditional HMA and dense
graded AR mixes as a result of reduced thickness and maintenance
frequency during construction and maintenance stages (Farina et al.,
5
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
2017). Thus, the advantage of the “wet” technology on environmental
performance is mainly in terms of saving energy and natural resources
subject to high quality delivery of unconventional and durable AR
mixes in flexible pavement system.
It is noteworthy that wet process technology is also widely used in
blending various types of polymers in asphalt cement. Thermoplastic
elastomers-modified asphalts by wet-process showcased improved
rheological and mechanical responses to both traffic and climatic con-
ditions but failed to overcome high temperature storage stability issues
(Ouyang et al., 2005, 2006a, b; Wang et al., 2006). Inorganic minerals
such as kaolinite, organobentonite and silica were preblended with
styrene-butadiene-styrene and low-density polyethylene at specific
material ratios, mixing temperatures, and durations to obtain enhanced
compatibilizers or cross-linking additives. A mixture of preblended
polymer-mineral composites with asphalt improved high-temperature
storage stability of modified asphalts by lowering the differences in
density of both polymer and asphalt cement. Polacco et al. (2015) re-
viewed and reported various aspects of polymer swelling / dissolution
mechanism, polymer-binder compatibility, storage stability of polymer
modified asphalt (PMA), and applications of polymers in pavements.
3.2. Dry process
The dry process is defined as any method that mixes CR with the
heated aggregates before blending the hot asphalt in the mixing
chamber (Way et al., 2012; Presti, 2013). This process is normally used
for the production of rubber-aggregate product (Hicks, 2002; Way
et al., 2012). At the developmental stage of dry process four decades
ago, coarse granulated CRM that had roughly cubical shape was utilized
for rubber-modified asphalt concrete production (Takallou and Hicks,
1988; Heitzman, 1993). The variants of CRM gradation ranged from 6
to 0.18 mm or below, depending on the requirement (Hicks, 2002; State
of California Department of Transportation, 2006). Generally, the
concentration of granulated CR used for dry processing varies from 1 to
4 % by weight of the aggregates in the rubber-modified HMA, as re-
ported by various researchers (Takallou and Hicks, 1988; Takallou and
Sainton, 1992; State of California Department of Transportation, 2006).
The rubber-aggregate conglomerate product is utilized majorly in HMA
production and has proven to be ineffective for surface treatments
(Heitzman, 1993).
Even recently, dry process technology was used to design a rub-
berized asphalt mixture having special gap aggregate structure with
nominal size of 13.2 mm so as to incorporate coarser rubber aggregates
ranging from 1 to 3 mm (Cao, 2007). The dynamic stability and fracture
stiffness modulus test results of rubberized mixture with rubber in
concentration of 1, 2, and 3 % indicated that inclusion of coarser rubber
by dry process at 3 % concentration could improve the resistance of
mixture to permanent deformation and cracking. Two identical field
asphalt mixtures with one of them encompassing 1 % coarser CR pro-
duced by dry process at the plant were tested in the laboratory at si-
milar compaction efforts with a residual void content of 6 % (Santagata
et al., 2013). Both the mixtures were tested for elastic stiffness, fracture
toughness, and rutting. Experimental results showed that the elastic
stiffness of rubber mixture was 2.5 times higher than the control mix at
a greater compaction effort. Further, stiffening of the rubberized mix-
ture due to partial digestion of rubber crumbs at elevated temperatures
improved the fracture toughness, ductility, and resistance to crack
propagation. However, the rubberized mixture showed reduced per-
formance in case of resistance to permanent deformation under
moisture condition (Santagata et al., 2013).
A new dry-hybrid technology was developed by a team of re-
searchers for the inclusion of CR in stone mastic asphalt (SMA) mixtures
produced with styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified binder
(Sangiorgi et al., 2018). The dry-hybrid operation involved partial re-
placement of lime filler in total aggregate by fine CR particulates before
blending with the SBS modified binder. The performance
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
Fig. 4. Various factors affecting CR-asphalt reaction.
characterization of two SMA mixtures having CR concentration of 0.75
and 1.2 % showed good mechanical properties that were comparable to
conventional SMA mixtures involving cellulose fibers. In another study,
the engineering properties of asphalt mixtures produced by dry tech-
nology with or without a rejuvenating agent for a dense aggregate
structure involving fine CR and recycled asphalt pavements (RAP) was
investigated (Eskandarsefat et al., 2018). The dense graded mixture
containing RAP, rejuvenator, and CR (DRRCr) required higher amount
(0.5 %) of bitumen content than mixtures without CR. Additionally, the
inclusion of fine CR through dry process resulted in a stiff and dry
DRRCr mixture having lower workability.
Some of the major limitations involved in the dry process tech-
nology are as follows: (1) due to physical nature of granulated CR, the
reaction between asphalt and CRM will be low in case of short-mixing
time. A research investigation claims that a maturation time of two
hours was required to achieve proper reaction between CR fractions
and asphalt binder by dry process before placing the rubber-aggregate
mix (Hernanadez-Olivares et al., 2009), (2) after blending the dry
rubber-aggregate mix with the binder, CR may swell and absorb the oily
components in asphalt that would leave behind low amount of binder to
coat the aggregates, thereby, significantly affecting the workability, (3)
requires higher amount of asphalt binder for maintaining consistency in
the mix, (4) requires unique aggregate gradations (Takallou and Hicks,
1988; Takallou and Sainton, 1992), (5) the low density of finely ground
rubber powder would present some difficulties in correct proportioning
at the feeding unit of the asphalt plant (Hernanadez-Olivares et al.,
2009), (6) due to shorter mixing time, expansion of layer takes place as
a result of swelling of rubber aggregates post compaction as reported by
(Soto and Di Mino, 2017), and (7) increased mixing temperatures
(Takallou and Hicks, 1988; Takallou and Sainton, 1992). The State
Departments of Transportation such as Arizona, Florida, and California
in the USA terminated the use of dry process technology due to in-
effective performance of HMA designs (Hicks et al., 1995).
Farina et al. (2017) indicated that construction of rubberized as-
phalt mixture wearing course produced using dry technology for a re-
habilitation work had an environmental burden equivalent to that of
standard HMA without rubber. For both types of mixes, the overall
energy spent (in terms of GER) was about 19,370 MJ/m, 18,851 MJ/m,
6
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
and CO2 emissions (in terms of GWP) was equal to 410 kg CO2 eq/m,
respectively. However, for a pavement with rubberized asphalt mixture
layer, the energy consumed during maintenance phase and the con-
centration of carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH4) emissions were
much lower than conventional HMA (Wang et al., 2018). An impact
assessment of fumes and dust particles emanated during the paving
operation of two CR modified SMA field mixtures was carried out to
obtain the environmental implications of a new dry-hybrid technology,
whose results depicted substantial reduction in emission of respirable
PM and benzo(a)pyrene (Sangiorgi et al., 2018).
4. Crumb rubber-asphalt binder reaction
The effective performance of AR binder depends on the molecular
interactions between CR and asphalt cement. The two major interaction
mechanisms affecting CRM binder properties through the wet process
are rubber swelling and rubber depolymerization (Abdelrahman and
Carpenter, 1999). CR-bitumen interaction is one such area wherein
several assumptions postulated by researchers have been accepted, but
not completely validated (Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006). Many re-
searchers believe that swelling of CR particles in asphalt medium is of
physical type (Gawel et al., 2006; Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006).
Various studies (Billiter et al., 1997a; Mikinis and Michon, 1998;
Frantzis, 2004) have established that lower molecular weight fractions
in virgin binder and oils in the comminuted CR interact resulting in
swelling of CRM controlled by the rate of diffusion. Swelling is due to
diffusion, resulting from movement of liquid into the internal matrix of
polymer, but not a chemical process (Stroup-gardiner et al., 1993).
Further, it is the digestion / dissolution of the CR particles by the
aromatic oils that help in achieving a homogeneous AR binder (Billiter
et al., 1997a).
A study on ambient ground coarser CR obtained from two different
plants was conducted by Santagata and colleagues to understand the
adsorption mechanism between CR-bitumen interaction for granulates
ranging from 1 to 4 mm utilized in rubberized asphalt mixture by dry
process (Santagata et al., 2016). The affinity between CR and bitumen
was investigated through volumetric expansion test (VET) on CR-bi-
tumen mastic prepared at three different binder contents for each CR
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
type and compared with those of coarse silica (CS) – bitumen matrix at
similar test conditions. The affinity index results showed that both type
of mastics experienced progressive stripping of coated bitumen film
from CR and CS. Albeit the CR - bitumen mastic showed signs of re-
sistance to stripping as a result of binder volume expansion. Fig. 4
shows the different parameters affecting CR-asphalt interaction.
Many researchers have extensively studied the effect of one or more
parameters on the nature of modification, quantified in terms of im-
proved rheological properties and storage stability of CR modified
binder (Oliver, 1981; Stroup-gardiner et al., 1993; Bahia and Davies,
1994; Zanzotto and Kennepohl, 1996; Billiter et al., 1997a;
Abdelrahman and Carpenter, 1999; Airey et al., 2002; Navarro et al.,
2002; Frantzis, 2004; Navarro et al., 2004, 2005; Gawel et al., 2006;
Navarro et al., 2006; Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006; Hernanadez-
Olivares et al., 2009; Shen et al., 2009a, b; Xiang et al., 2009; Gonzalez
et al., 2010; Cetin, 2013; Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman, 2013; Ibrahim
et al., 2013; Shatanawi et al., 2013; Venudharan and Biligiri, 2017). In
this review, the various factors were grouped into two major para-
meters: (1) internal, and (2) external. Internal parameters include the
materials involved in the production of CRM binder while external
parameters encompass the processing conditions such as mixing rate,
mixing time, and processing / curing temperature.
4.1. Binder source
Frantzis (2004) experimented with two binder sources: one base
binder from Venezuela and the other from Kuwait, and observed that
Venezuelan binder diffusion coefficient with two types of CR particles
was higher than the Kuwait binder. Another recent research study in-
volved binders from Venezuela, Middle East, and an unidentified binder
source, wherein it was found that the viscosity of the Venezuelan base
binder was highest amongst the three binders and also produced a
modified binder at different CR percentages with highest viscosities
(Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006). Further, it was inferred that the
binder source had the largest influence on swelling of CR particles due
to exchangeable oily fractions. Note that in the past, the binder source
was found to play an important role even on the storage stability of
modified binders (Bahia and Zhai, 2011).
4.2. Binder chemical composition
Studies have recorded that immersion of CRM into asphalt medium
results in absorption of lower molecular weight proportion into rubber
(Green and Tolonen, 1997; Chehovits, 1989; Mikinis and Michon, 1998;
Airey et al., 2002; Navarro et al., 2005). It is the chemical composition
of the virgin binder that determines the amount of solvent absorbed
until it reaches an equilibrium swell value (Stroup-gardiner et al., 1993;
Gawel et al., 2006). Since the interaction between asphalt and CR is a
physical one, their compatibility depends on the proximity of their
solubility parameters (Stroup-gardiner et al., 1993; Gawel et al., 2006).
Gawel et al. (2006) established from gel permeation chromatography
that the lighter fractions of asphalt penetrate readily into CR internal
matrix. Further, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry study allowed
to identify which of the components were exchanged between rubber
particles and asphalt during their physical interaction. Rubber crumbs
swelled up to 3–5 times their original size due to absorption of maltenes
of the base binder, leaving behind relatively higher proportion of as-
phaltenes, and subsequently increasing the viscosity of the modified
binder (Ibrahim et al., 2013). Chemical constituents of the base binder
were also found to affect the storage stability, wherein a source with
higher asphaltene content increased the separation potential than the
source with lower asphaltene content (Bahia and Zhai, 2011).
Billiter et al. (1997a) examined five types of asphalt cements clas-
sified in terms of SARA compositions and their effect on rubber dis-
solution. Binders with lower saturate and asphaltene contents resulted
in effecting quicker and higher dissolution of rubber. Abdelrahman and
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
Carpenter summarized that modification of the base binder is based on
exchange of constituents since rubber particles absorb lighter fractions
during swelling and release oil components during digestion
(Abdelrahman and Carpenter, 1999). A study conducted by Airey et al.
(2002) on bitumen-CR interaction blended in the ratio of 2:1 at three
different processing times (1, 6, and 24 h) and one test temperature
(155 °C) showed reduced saturates and aromatic contents but indicated
increased asphaltene and resin compounds. Green and Tolonen (1997)
highlighted the following factors that potentially affect the rate of
swelling: (1) interaction equilibrium between maltene fractions of as-
phalt and rubber, (2) activity of maltenes, and (3) absorption of oils by
the rubber particulates.
4.3. Base binder type and viscosity
If the ability of the asphalt to swell rubber particles is in question,
then viscosity measurement of the base binder can serve as one of the
screening methods. A base binder with higher viscosity will indicate
higher proportion of asphaltene, which would essentially result in low-
swelling volume of CR particles. However, for a given amount of CR
content, the base binder with highest viscosity will produce CR-mod-
ified binder having highest viscosity amongst the other lower viscosity
base binders (Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006). The study on absorp-
tion of asphalt components by CR particles conducted by Frantzis
(2004), with two penetration graded binders (Pen 50 and Pen 100)
showed that the binder with lower penetration had higher diffusion
coefficient and solubility rate compared to the binder with higher pe-
netration value, irrespective of the sources. Thus, it was inferred that
the grade of asphalt cement in AR binder plays a significant role in
characterizing rheological properties over a range of temperatures.
Since the interaction of asphalt with rubber particles results in an in-
creased high temperature modulus and stiffening effect, it would be
somewhat better to use softer binder to reduce the viscosity of the
manufactured AR binder (Chehovits, 1989). The experimental program
conducted by Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman (2013) with two perfor-
mance graded binders (PG 58-28 and PG 64-22) established that dis-
solution percentage of CR particles was higher in softer asphalt than
stiffer one. Studies conducted by (Billiter et al., 1997b; Leite and Soares,
1999; Shen et al., 2009a, b) have emphasized the importance of asphalt
type on the rheological properties of CRM binder. Divya et al. (2013)
attempted to understand the influence of the type of binder on me-
chanical response of CRM binder. The study included two different base
binders and their effects on creep and recovery of CR modified binders.
Also, the morphology study of modified base binders conducted
through environmental scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy
dispersive x-ray spectroscopy exhibited that the nature of binder in-
fluenced manifestation of mechanical response of the CR modified
binders.
The selection of AR over the conventional asphalt would increase
ecological footprint to about 16 % when the serviceable life was ex-
cluded from lifecycle assessment (Chiu et al., 2008). During the life-
cycle of AR mixture, the major contributing element to the environ-
mental impact was found to be asphalt binder source and type.
Moreover, both the technologies (“wet” and “dry”) consumed more
asphalt binder to produce rubberized asphalt as reported in (Farina
et al., 2014, 2017).
4.4. CR type
Amongst the several characteristics of CR: source (truck, passenger,
and industrial tires) of rubber and the dosage of polymers such as
synthetic rubber (SR) and natural rubber (NR) have been found to in-
fluence AR binder properties (Chehovits, 1989). Thodesen et al. (2009)
highlighted that AR produced from truck tire crumbs yielded higher
viscosity than passenger car tires. Viscoelastic analysis conducted by
Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman (2013) recorded that higher dissolution
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655

of crumbs from mixture of truck and car tires improved the properties
of asphalt binder better than higher dissolution of crumbs from truck
tires. Studies conducted on CRMB encompassing two CRM types at
different combinations of mixing temperature and mixing rate showed
similar viscoelastic properties at lower interaction conditions (160 °C
and 10 Hz), but at higher interaction conditions (200 °C and 30 Hz)
crumbs from a mixture of truck and car tires improved the stiffness of
the CRMB than those crumbs from truck tire.
In another study, Oliver (1981) observed strong dependency of
elastic properties on rubber particle morphology. A total of fifteen bulk
density values of two types of rubber polymers were used to char-
acterize particle morphology. The swelling potential of pieces of NR
and styrene-butadiene tire rubbers in asphalt were analyzed using nu-
clear magnetic resonance (NMR) (Mikinis and Michon, 1998). NMR
images of rubber pieces showed no attributes of swelling in the absence
of asphalt. The coefficients of diffusion and solubility of truck tire
rubber was higher than those of car tire rubber, irrespective of the
binder source used for blending (Frantzis, 2004). Stroup-gardiner et al.
(1993) examined the aging effect on the viscosity of CR modified bin-
ders and found that industrial tire rubbers had lower aging indices than
passenger tire rubber. CR types with different proportions of rubber
polymer was observed to have different interaction stages under similar
interaction conditions as recorded in the past (Abdelrahman and
Carpenter, 1999).
4.5. CR production and surface area
Studies (West et al., 1998; Shen and Amirkhanian, 2005; Shen et al.,
2009a) have reported that ambient ground CR have porous surface and
irregular shapes with more voids than cryogenically produced smooth
angular rubber particles. The surface area (SA) of wet- ambient
shredded CR normally varied from 1000−3000 cm2/g. In case of dry-
ambient ground CR, SA varied generally from 600−2200 cm2/g, while
for cryogenically milled CR the SA values typically ranged from
700−1600 cm2/g (West et al., 1998). Essentially, ambient ground CR
particles provided augmented performance in resisting binder drain
down than that of cryogenic rubber particles.
Other researchers found that the difference in the surface mor-
phology and size of CRM blends was highly dependent on the proces-
sing methods (Oliver, 1981; Shen et al., 2009b; Ibrahim et al., 2013).
Another study substantiated the importance of different operation units
in the production of rubber particles and its morphology (Oliver, 1981).
The specific SA of the CR particles increased as the particle size de-
creased (West et al., 1998; Shen et al., 2009a, b). Further, viscosity
analysis highlighted that CR materials with greater SA and lower bulk
densities produced AR binders with higher viscosities. The SA of porous
ambient shredded CR particles was twice that of cryogenic-grinded
CRM blends. SA was affected by the texture and size of rubber particles.
Navarro et al. (2004) found no correlation between viscosity and SA,
whereas particle size played a predominant role in modifying the
viscosity.
Bahia and Davies (1994) carried out testing on rubber crumbs ob-
tained from three different processing methods: (1) ambient shredding,
(2) cryogenic grinding, and (3) special extrusion process with some
additive. The effect of storage was very dramatic on the viscosity-
temperature profile at high temperatures for ambient and cryogenic
crumbs, but for extruded rubber no changes were observed. Thodesen
et al. (2009) conducted SEM analysis to confirm the effect of processing
procedure on the surface nature of CRM. Crumbs obtained from cryo-
genic method depicted smooth fractured edges while the rubber parti-
cles from ambient shredding exhibited rougher morphology. The am-
bient shred CRM provided consistently higher viscosity values than the
cryogenic one. Moreover, the elemental composition analysis indicated
higher oxygen levels in cryogenic rubber particles than those from
ambient fractions. Most of the experimental program (Stroup-gardiner
et al., 1993; Navarro et al., 2002, 2004; Navarro et al., 2005, 2006)
conducted preferred ambient ground rubber over cryogenic CR parti-
cles.
4.6. CR concentration
The amount of rubber crumbs in AR has been found to be governed
by pumping and mixing conditions while producing HMA for paving
applications (Chehovits, 1989). Increased rubber concentration pro-
vided increased elasticity at lower temperatures, better rutting re-
sistance, higher fatigue resistance, and lower aging index (Chehovits,
1989; Billiter et al., 1997a; Leite and Soares, 1999). Chehovits (1989)
showed that the viscosity of AR mixtures increased proportionally up to
15 %, whereas a small increment in CR content above 15 % would
rapidly increase the viscosity of AR mixtures. The elastic nature of as-
phalt binder, that is characterized by the phase angle parameter would
show a gradual shift from higher to lower value as CR concentration
increased in the virgin asphalt binder (Leite and Soares, 1999). En-
vironmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) images highlighted
the influence of rubber content on the network structure of modified
binders (Divya et al., 2013). The increase in the rubber content de-
creased the flow-index and the binder started to exhibit non-Newtonian
behavior (Stroup-gardiner et al., 1993). Studies conducted on air-blown
bitumen (Billiter et al., 1997a; Divya et al., 2013) showed changes in
strain values and increase in the elastic recovery of strain with in-
creasing rubber content.
An increase in the rubber concentration above 20 % resulted in
biphasic system having non-uniform temperature dependence (Navarro
et al., 2005). The introduction of CR into asphalt binder at different
dosages up to a maximum of 40 % would significantly reduce the sto-
rage modulus (Gʹ) and loss modulus (Gʹʹ) at lower temperature (-10 °C)
indicating greater flexibility. Conversely, at higher temperature (70 °C)
both the modulus parameters value increased with storage modulus
relatively higher than loss modulus indicating rut resistance potential
(Navarro et al., 2005). The various percentage of CR blended with as-
phalt binder to characterize its effect on different rheological para-
meters is summarized in Table 3.
4.7. CR gradation and size
As reported in one of the studies, the addition of very large rubber

Table 3
. Summary of CR concentration by weight of virgin asphalt binder.
Source Rubber content Conclusion

Takallou and Sainton (1992)
Stroup-gardiner et al. (1993)
Billiter et al. (1997a)
Putman and Amirkhanian (2006)
Shen et al. (2009a)
Thodesen et al. (2009)
Cetin (2013)
8, 9, and 10 % Optimum thermo-rheological properties could be derived at 10 %
10, 15, and 20 % Viscosity increases with increasing percentage of CR, regardless of rubber type
10 and 20 % Increased rubber content increased complex viscosity |G*| and lowered phase angle (δ)
10 and 15 % The particle effect (PE) is significantly affected by CRM content, while the interaction effect (IE) increases as
concentration of CR increases
10 and 15 % High percentage of CRM results in increased rate of viscosity
5, 10, 15, and 20 % The particle effect (PE) and the interaction effect (IE) increases as concentration of CR increases
10, 15, and 20 % Porous asphalt mixtures permeability decreased with increase in rubber content

8
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
sizes is expected to create compaction problems and the mixes could act
spongy after compaction during HMA application process (Chehovits,
1989). Various CR gradations were established for different mixture
types. CR fragments were grouped into four sizes, all based on several
studies: (1) coarse ranging from 9.5 to 6.2 mm (No. 3/8 to 1/4), (2)
medium ranging from 2 to 0.6 mm (No. 10 to 30), (3) fine ranging from
0.425 to 0.18 mm (No. 40 to 80), and (4) superfine ranging from 0.15 to
0.075 mm (No. 100 to 200) (Shen and Amirkhanian, 2005; Ibrahim
et al., 2013). Fine-sized GTR particles contributed to reduced curing
time and mixing temperature (Leite and Soares, 1999). The fibril dia-
meter of blended bitumen visualized through ESEM was greatly influ-
enced by CRM gradation (Divya et al., 2013). The decrease in the
particle size by a factor of 2 decreased the swelling time by four, as
documented several decades ago (Green and Tolonen, 1997). CR par-
ticle size control and modification of the virgin binder are accomplished
in two ways: (1) binder matrix, and (2) binder liquid phase
(Abdelrahman and Carpenter, 1999). The fine particles of a CR grada-
tion achieve maximum swelling at a faster rate than coarse particles
resulting in different interaction levels in the binder matrix. Ad-
ditionally, due to the large surface area of fine particles the diffusion of
oily fractions of asphalt is much quicker than in coarse particles ren-
dering stiffness to the liquid phase of the binder. At high temperatures,
fine fractions provided stiffer binder with augmented elastic property,
while the coarse particles provided higher complex modulus |G*| due to
their resistance to flow.
Similar observations were noticed by Putman and Amirkhanian
(2006), wherein viscosity of the modified binder increased with finer
CR proportions, but showed lower |G*|. Gawel et al. (2006) concluded
that rate and extent of rubber swelling in asphalt was controlled by CR
particle size. Tire rubber of thickness 0.5 mm swelled twice than that of
0.85 mm thick. Shen et al. (2009b) investigated the effect of average
size of three different CRM gradations with maximum sizes of 1.35 mm
(# 14 mesh), 0.60 mm (# 30 mesh), and 0.425 mm (# 40 mesh). The
increased average size resulted in decreased phase angle (δ), and higher
|G*|, indicating that a blend with larger CR sizes (# 14 mesh) would
produce rut-resistant and resilient modified binder.
Venudharan and Biligiri (2017) investigated the effect of nine dif-
ferent CR gradations and particle size on AR binder performance im-
provement. The results of temperature-frequency oscillation test and
multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) test showed that fine CR
gradations improved resistance to deformation parameter (higher |G*|)
and increased the elastic recovery component (lower δ). West et al.
(1998) utilized CRM gradations: coarse, fine, and superfine based on
Florida DOT type-B gradation, and found that as the particle size de-
creased specific SA increased across all the individual size fractions.
Billiter et al. (1997b) concluded that particle size had little influence on
endured performance of AR, but smaller rubber size could potentially
improve low temperature rheological properties better than larger
rubber sizes. In summary, few studies (Stroup-gardiner et al., 1993;
West et al., 1998; Thodesen et al., 2009; Divya et al., 2013; Rodriguez-
alloza et al., 2015; Venudharan and Biligiri, 2017) used different CR
gradation, whereas others (Bahia and Davies, 1994; Abdelerahman and
Carpenter, 1999; Navarro et al., 2005; Gawel et al., 2006; Ghavibazoo
and Abdelrahman, 2013; Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006) focused on
different individual size fractions to quantify the effect of particle size
on AR binder.
4.8. CR chemical composition
Rubber samples when heated in asphalt resulted in the release of
additives, extender oils, and plasticizers (Mikinis and Michon, 1998;
Navarro et al., 2004). The exchange of oils present in tire rubber with
the oil in asphalt cement during CR-asphalt interaction were con-
sequential of swelling of rubber (Mikinis and Michon, 1998). Rubber
chemical composition had a significant influence on the CR texture and
also on the digestion conditions (Oliver, 1981). Thermogravimetric
9
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
analysis conducted by Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman (2013) on two
different CRM binders reported that at low interaction temperatures, it
is only the oily fractions that get released into the matrix but not the
dissolution of polymer network. However, at high temperatures both
the polymer components NR and SR underwent digestion in the binder
matrix. Amongst all the polymeric contents, NR had more sensitivity to
curing conditions.
The rheological properties of AR binder were influenced by both
soluble and insoluble components of GTR (Navarro et al., 2002, 2004).
The modification effect on a virgin binder with insoluble components of
CR on Gʹ and Gʹʹ of the binder has been found to be significant than the
soluble components, particularly at high temperatures. Saturates in the
asphalt were found to easily penetrate into the internal network of
polymer as the solubility parameter of saturates is compatible with that
of synthetic and natural rubber components present in CR (Gawel et al.,
2006). In exchange, fatty acids of the rubber polymer were released into
the binder matrix. The phase separation in CRM binder during storage
was influenced by the presence of carbon black and nonreactive com-
ponents in CRM (Zanzotto and Kennepohl, 1996). At high temperatures,
the CR-asphalt interaction was controlled by depolymerization and
devulcanization processes. All types of rubber particles underwent di-
gestion at high temperatures but the rate and magnitude were different
depending upon the composition of rubber (Abdelrahman and
Carpenter, 1999). Amongst the four types of CRM used in one of the
studies, the source with maximum percentage of NR yielded the highest
viscosity, irrespective of rubber concentration (Thodesen et al., 2009).
Since CR-asphalt interaction is highly complex with each of the
internal parameters emanating their individual effect, it becomes a
challenging task to choose the optimum blending variables to deliver a
well-performing AR binder. Due to unique and delicate reaction me-
chanisms, it is imperative that the blending of virgin binder with CRM
be handled cautiously as reported in an investigation (Ibrahim et al.,
2013). Amongst the three external parameters, temperature has been
found to be the most significant factor controlling the CR-asphalt in-
teraction, and effectiveness of the other two factors (mixing time and
mixing rate) are dependent on the interaction temperature.
4.9. Mixing rate
In order to deliver a homogenous AR binder, both asphalt binder
and rubber crumbs are mixed and agitated in a blending tank con-
taining rotating blades (Way et al., 2012). The complexity of AR binder
increases when both the materials move against gravity and centrifugal
force during agitation (Green and Tolonen, 1997). Care should be taken
not to apply excessive amounts of shear, which could quicken the
rubber devulcanization process, as reported by experts (Chehovits,
1989).
Ibrahim et al. (2013) believe that high shear mixing would reduce
the size of coarser rubber particles, leading to reduced blending time.
The AR blends produced at 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm) and the
blends produced at 8000 rpm with a high shear mixer had similar high
temperature viscosities (Billiter et al., 1997a). Abdelrahman and
Carpenter (1999) used three blade propellers without shear mechanism
at two rotating speeds. A speed of 200 rpm was maintained initially for
three minutes and was then lowered to 80 rpm for the interaction
period of three hours. However, no conclusion was drawn on the curing
rate variable as it was thought that interaction begins after three min-
utes. Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman (2013) highlighted that the dis-
solution of loose fractions of CR during the initial period of blending
(10 min) was dependent on the mixing shear rate.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) study conducted by Aflaki and
Memarzadeh (2011) showed that dynamic viscosity of CRM binder was
less sensitive to blending conditions (two mixing rates and one mixing
temperature). Table 4 summarizes the various studies that investigated
the effect of mixing rate on CR-asphalt interaction mechanism. Studies
(Bahia and Davies, 1994; Shen and Amirkhanian, 2005; Putman and
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655

Table 4
Summary of mixing shear rates on rubber-asphalt interaction.
Source Mixing rate Mixing temperature Conclusion

Billiter et al. (1997a) 4000 and 8000 rpm 232 and 260 °C Increased rate of mixing decreased the rate of rubber fraction settling in a binder
Billiter et al. (1997b) 500 rpm 177 °C Degree of rubber dissolution may not be optimum at lower shear speed
Leite and Soares (1999) 4000 rpm 180 to 200 °C Higher mixing rate tend to produce homogeneous CRMB with better compaction
properties and storage stability
Navarro et al. (2004) 1200 rpm 180 °C Recommended to use higher mixing rate
Navarro et al. (2006) 8200, 1200, and 100 rpm using 90, 120, 180, 210, and blending device and impeller geometry have negligible influence on rheology of
two blending devices 250 °C CRMB
Li and Liao (2009). 7000 rpm 180 °C At high shearing rate asphalt flows into CR to form uniform mixture with
improved penetration and softening values.
Aflaki and Memarzadeh (2011). 5500 and 600 rpm 170 °C High shearing rate had significant effect on low temperature performance, while
low shear mixing improved intermediate and high temperature performance
Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman 10 and 30 Hz 160 and 200 °C TGA results showed release of polymeric components into asphalt matrix
(2013)

Amirkhanian, 2006; Shen et al., 2009a, b; Thodesen et al., 2009; occur.

Rodriguez-alloza et al., 2015) have included a mixing rate of 700 rpm in
their experimental program, as it was commonly used to produce CRM
binder in the field. Some studies have used specific mixing rates of 1200
and 2000 rpm to produce homogeneous CRM binder (Navarro et al.,
2002, 2005; Venudharan and Biligiri, 2017).
4.10. Mixing temperature
Mixing temperature has had two effects on the CR swelling me-
chanism (Green and Tolonen, 1997): (1) as the temperature increased,
the swelling rate increased significantly, and (2) with increase in the
temperature, the extent of swelling decreased. Billiter et al. (1997a)
reported that devulcanization of CR takes place at 232 °C and with
extension up to 260 °C, both devulcanization and depolymerization
increase, alarmingly. Leite and Soares (1999) noted that for the same
asphalt type and curing condition, AR produced at 190 °C showed
higher compatibility than at 150 °C. Increased mixing time resulted in
greater interaction, while increased mixing temperature entailed in
quicker interaction (Chehovits, 1989). Studies (Billiter et al., 1997b;
Shen and Amirkhanian, 2005; Thodesen et al., 2009; Shen et al., 2009a,
b; Rodriguez-alloza et al., 2015; Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006) have
utilized an operating temperature of 177 °C in their experimental pro-
gram as it was similar to the one used to produce CRM binders in the
field. Experiments with the processing temperature formulation in the
vicinity of 177 ± 10 °C have been reported to produce a homogeneous
and storage-stable AR matrix (Takallou and Sainton, 1992; Bahia and
Davies, 1994; Mikinis and Michon, 1998; Navarro et al., 2002, 2004;
Navarro et al., 2005; Venudharan and Biligiri, 2017). Table 5 gives the
gist of mixing temperatures recorded for CR-asphalt interaction to
4.11. Mixing time
CR when heated at an elevated temperature with the extension of
mixing time could lead to loss of volatile matter from CR or dissolution
of rubber into asphalt (Mikinis and Michon, 1998). The mixing time
intervals of 15, 30, and 45 min at the common temperature (177 °C)
used in the field to produce AR did not show significant influence on
viscosity and phase angle of modified binders (Shen et al., 2009a, b;
Rodriguez-alloza et al., 2015). At different processing time (0.5, 1, and
2 h) conditions with temperatures being below 200 °C, the strain re-
coverable portion of both natural and synthetic rubber increased with
increasing reaction time. However, at temperatures above 220 °C with
blending time of 2 h, there was no substantial improvement in the
elastic recovery for both the rubber types, while natural rubber, con-
versely, showed reduction in strain recovery for 1- and 2 -h intervals
(Oliver, 1981). During the initial mixing time, rubber particles swelled
in asphalt after which depending on the temperature and material
properties, CR started to dissolve, thereby reducing the viscosity, as
found by several researchers alike (Chehovits, 1989; Billiter et al.,
1997a; Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman, 2013).
Leite and Soares (1999) observed that with the increase in curing
time from 30 to 180 minutes, viscosity of the different AR binders (AC-
20 A and AC-20 B) decreased due to increased rubber dissolution.
Further, the influence of blending time on the AR binder properties was
dependent on the mixing temperature (Abdelrahman and Carpenter,
1999). Essentially, the effect of interaction time was divided into two
phases: (1) initial / short-term phase that lasted for 30–40 min, during
which time major changes in the blended matrix took place, and (2)

Table 5
Summary of mixing temperature on rubber-asphalt interaction.
Source Rubber content Mixing temperature Observation

Oliver (1981) 15 % 220 and 240 °C The elastic recovery of rubber polymer increases with increase in temperature
up to 240 °C
Billiter et al. (1997a) Not specified 232 and 260 °C Increased mixing temperature drastically increased the devulcanization and
depolymerization mechanism
Billiter et al. (1997b) 5, 10, 15, and 18 177 °C The mixing time and temperature may not be optimum for rubber dissolution
%
Abdelrahman and Carpenter (1999) 10 % 160, 200, 240 °C At 160 °C rubber particles swell, at 200 °C devulcanization progress and at
240 °C depolymerization takes place
Leite and Soares (1999) 15 and 20 % 180 to 200 °C Non-settling compatible AR can be produced with increased temperature
Navarro et al. (2006) 10 % selected temperatures between The optimum processing temperature was noted as 210 °C
90–250 °C
Li and Liao (2009) < 25 % 180 °C Rubber swelling is mainly affected by shearing temperature
Aflaki and Memarzadeh (2011) 10, 14, and 16 % 170 °C ANOVA results showed that blending condition has more effect on
performance temperature than rubber content
Ghavibazoo and Abdelrahman (2013) 10 % 160 and 200 °C After early stages of interaction, rubber dissolution is controlled by
interaction temperature

10
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
long-term phase that lasted for few hours, accounting for stability of the
modified binder. Investigators have implemented 90 min as the optimal
time at a mixing temperature of 180 °C (Navarro et al., 2002, 2004;
Navarro et al., 2005, 2006; Venudharan and Biligiri, 2017). Similarly,
others (Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006; Thodesen et al., 2009; Li and
Liao, 2009) have utilized 30 and 40 min as blending time for a mixing
temperature of 180 °C. Also, there are studies that have experimented
with a reaction time of 60 min at a temperature of 180 °C (Bahia and
Davies, 1994; Billiter et al., 1997b). Billiter et al. (1997a, 1997b) be-
lieve that 60 min and reaction temperature of 177 °C may not be the
optimal blending environment to carry out CR-asphalt interaction.
Shen and Amirkhanian (2005) inferred that for a CR concentration
of 15 %, an increase in the mixing time from 15−45 min at a mixing
temperature of 177 °C did not bring difference in the failure tempera-
tures of the two types of CRM (ambient and cryogenic) blends. This
review paper indicates that there is no uniform optimal mixing solution
that can be applied to different sources of CRM and asphalt binder. Due
to complex interaction mechanism and the difference of sources, che-
mical composition of materials makes the repeatability of uniform
mixing condition difficult to maintain.
The effectiveness of AR and its different mixtures as a substitute to
conventional HMA mixes comes at a higher cost. The problem asso-
ciated with the wet process in terms of storage, need for specialized
equipment, and the poor performance of rubber aggregate in the dry
process created a space for advancing the CRM technology. Researchers
have engineered innovative methods and materials that help produce
enhanced CRM-based binder and mixture technology. The next section
will describe the various advancements in the rubberized pavement
systems that utilizes further sophistication of the AR material.
5. Enhanced CRMB
Over the years, researchers have established various methods to
address the issues pertaining to transportation, stability, and storage of
virgin and AR binders. Mollring (1951) had an embodiment for asphalt
pelletizer that could produce solid asphalt pellets of No. 10 mesh size
coated with powdered mica that could be stable for storage purposes
and convenient to handle. In another method, a product had been pa-
tented wherein the coated asphalt pellets could be produced with the
help of towering unit, spray nozzle at the top, discharge chute at the
bottom, and finely ground minerals (Moar, 1962).
The surfaces of CR particles were morphed with hydrogen peroxide
to produce carboxylic sites that interact with the functional group of
asphalt to improve the dispersion and settling down characteristics of
CR (Memon, 1998a). Different techniques that involve catalytic agents,
dispersing agents, and hydro-thermal reactions to activate CR particles,
which could improve the rheological properties and widen the appli-
cation temperature range of AR binder were also invented (Memon and
Chollar, 1998). Further, enhanced CR granulates termed as reacted and
activated rubber (RAR) was developed using specially designed process
that could be added directly to the pug mill at the HMA plant to
Table 6
. Summary of production of chemically modified crumb rubber asphalt.
Source Chemical solution
Memon (1998a) Hydrogen peroxide
Memon (1998b) Hydrogen peroxide and monomer (methacrylate based glycidyl/
ethylene based glycidyl)
Memon and Chollar Hydrogen peroxide and catalyst (Feanton’s agent, cobalt salt, tall
(1998) oil, p-toluene sufonic acid and, dioxomolybdenum)
Memon (1999) Water
Memon (2002) Hydrogen peroxide, dispersing agent (furfral), activator (Lewis
acid), and micro activator (phenyl formaldehyde resin)
Shatanawi et al. (2013) Hydrogen peroxide and catalyst (Fenton’s agent)
11
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
produce AR mixtures (Sousa et al., 2012; Kedarisetty et al., 2018). RAR
is a blend of soft binder, CR, and siliceous activated mineral binder
stabilizer (AMBS) at optimized proportions (Ishai et al., 2014).
Additionally, GTR bitumen pellets designed by blending CR in as-
phalt and pelletized by the aid of hydrated lime filler was introduced
(Artamendi et al., 2014). Pelletized AR products reduce the energy
demand required to keep the AR binder in molten state and in turn
minimize GHG emissions during rubberized asphalt mixture production
stage (Amirkhanian et al., 2015). In a recently developed technology,
CR as a fiber was blended in different proportions with pre-established
agglomeration of cellulose, plastomers, and glass fibers composite other
than the conventional method of adding CR by wet and dry processes to
produce rubber-asphalt mixtures (Eskandarsefat et al., 2019). Two
composite fibers: one with a blend of cellulose fiber, high amount CR,
and minor portion of glass fiber (RF); the other having a blend of cel-
lulose fiber, plastomeric polymer, and CR with minor proportions of
glass fiber (RPF) were designed. A series of SMA mixtures with or
without RAP material and composite modified fibers (CMF) were pro-
duced with SBS modified and virgin asphalt (Eskandarsefat et al.,
2019). For SMA mixtures containing RAP material, a vegetable-oil
based rejuvenator was blended with SBS modified binder and virgin
asphalt.
5.1. Chemical additive
Research studies have used chemical agents to activate the surface
of CRM (Memon, 1998a, b; Memon and Chollar, 1998; Memon, 1999,
2002; Shatanawi et al., 2012; Kocevski et al., 2012; Shatanawi et al.,
2013). Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) of the USA developed
chemically modified crumb rubber bitumen (CMCRB) (Mull et al.,
2002; Shatanawi et al., 2013). The novelty was to establish chemical
bonds between the unreactive CR particles and the asphalt compounds
(Memon, 1998a; Memon and Chollar, 1998; Memon, 1999, 2002;
Shatanawi et al., 2012; Kocevski et al., 2012; Shatanawi et al., 2013).
The objective of all those chemical modifications was to improve dis-
persion, storage stability, viscosity, and widen the low and high tem-
perature ranges. Table 6 tabulates some chemical activation processes
carried out on CRM. Cheng et al. (2011) processed storage stable CRMB
utilizing the activated CRM. The activation of CRM was carried out by
blending with polymeric compatibilizer (styrene-butadiene latex and
other additives) in an extruder under high shear and temperature-
controlled conditions. In order to produce asphalt mixtures with
CMCRB, the activated rubber crumbs had to be blended with virgin
asphalt by the wet process.
Chemical modification though seems to improve the stability of
modified binders, its performance as per the superior performing as-
phalt pavements (Superpave) protocol has not been assessed thor-
oughly. The long-term stability of CMCRB can be an issue as the binder
might undergo aging. A recent study (Shatanawi et al., 2013) has shown
that chemical modification seems to improve the performance of one
type of CRM (cryogenic), but has no significant influence on the other
Surface activation Interaction mechanism
Creation of carboxylic sites Functional group of asphalt with carboxylic
site of CRM
Creation of carboxylic sites Functional group in asphalt and carboxylic
sites of CRM in presence of monomer
Creation of free radicals Reaction of asphalt compounds with
activated CR particles
Creation of activated fine CR Release of excess oils and chemicals from
particles the particles into the slurry
Creation of new chemical bonds and Dispersion of CRM followed by activation
devulcanization,
Creation of hydroxyl radical A higher ratio of large molecule size (LMS)
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
type (ambient). The cost of CMCRB can be much higher than conven-
tional AR due to initial treatment required. Also, additional processing
units have to be established by the paving contractors either at the HMA
plant or at the production source of CR. It is noteworthy that there is no
literature related to the lifecycle assessment of CMCRB and the asso-
ciated aspects such as energy demand, GHG emissions, occupational
health risks, and feasibility.
5.2. Reacted and activated rubber (RAR)
5.2.1. Composition and production
Very recently, a new product called Reacted and Activated Rubber
(RAR) was produced by hot blending of selected asphalt binder, CR, and
activated mineral binder stabilizer (AMBS) in a specially designed
process (Sousa et al., 2013). RAR being a powdered binder was in-
tended to replace some percentage of asphalt binder in HMA to out-
perform traditional HMA and AR mixes. Typically, RAR is composed of
about 62–65 % CR, 20–25 % soft asphalt, and 15–20 % AMBS as re-
ported by a few researchers who have had experience with the material
(Sousa et al., 2012, 2013; Kedarisetty et al., 2016). RAR is produced in
a specially designed plant operated under fully controlled industrial
process by short time hot blending and activation followed by cooling
to form a dried ground activated rubber material, and hence RAR
(Sousa et al., 2012; Ishai et al., 2014). The production of RAR as a
powder binder helps eliminate the need for hot rubber-binder storage
tank, and can be added directly into the pug mill of a batch plant or at a
convenient position of the dryer unit in a drum mix plant using aux-
iliary feeder system.
5.2.2. RAR mix design and performance
Sousa et al. (2013) suggested the processes of blending sequence for
the production of RAR modified mixtures both in the laboratory and in
the mixing plant. It was also reported that the loose RAR mixtures
should undergo aging in an oven for one hour at 170 °C before com-
paction during which time the filler coating the RAR activates the
virgin asphalt and aggregate surfaces. The newly developed RAR
powder binder was investigated by researchers at the laboratory level
as a testimony for its improved rheological and mechanical properties
of the asphalt binder and the various corresponding mixtures (Sousa
et al., 2012; Kedarisetty et al., 2016, 2018). The improved mechanical
performance characteristics were affected by the type of aggregate
gradation and the mineralogical properties of aggregate fractions. A
comparative study on the carbon footprint between AMBS and cellulose
fibers in SMA mixtures demonstrated 34 % reduction in GHG, 33 %
decline in energy consumption, and 33 % reduction in the production
cost for every ton of SMA mixture with AMBS (Svechinsky et al., 2011).
Table 7 summarizes the results of a few laboratory and field studies
pertaining to RAR product.
5.2.3. RAR benefits and limitations
One of the striking features in the development of RAR material is
the conglomeration of different additives such as non-polymer, re-
claimed rubber, and monomer blended into one single product unlike
the traditional method of utilizing an additive based on the need of the
paving project. The advantages of employing RAR technology in paving
applications are as follows: (1) elimination of specialized storage tanks
and re-heating of asphalt binder at the job site, (2) easy to handle, store,
and transport since it is a dry powdered material, (3) all possible kinds
of mixes can be produced with the correct RAR dosage, (4) in-
corporation of RAR in asphalt mix outcasts the need for any other ad-
ditive to enhance the performance of the derived mixture, (5) when
some concentration of RAR powdered binder is blended with the liquid
asphalt, a premium AR binder is formed with increased viscosity,
softening point and improved resilient nature, and (6) the use of two
waste by-products (CR and raw silica mineral) from the manufacturing
industries (automobile and phosphate mining) to produce RAR that
12
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655
would help keep the environmental clean and achieve sustainability in
roadway infrastructure.
With that being said, the implementation and acceptance of RAR
within the pavement community is possible only when the technical
knowhow of the RAR product technology is exchanged. Despite the
benefits obtained by pre-activation and pre-coating of rubber particles
of the RAR-modified-asphalt mixtures, there are some technical issues
that are not addressed in any of the available literature pertinent to
RAR such as: (1) lack of research studies on the complex interactions
and networking of RAR modified binders along with constituents, (2)
license fee for using the patented product, (3) lack of standard mix
design criteria, (4) sensitivity of the material to various types of base
binder, (5) non-availability of reports that discuss the ability to recycle
RAR paving materials containing CRM, (6) effectiveness of RAR for
other paving applications such as crack sealing, surface treatments, and
slurry seal has not been demonstrated, and (7) LCA of RAR pavements
to evaluate their ecological footprint does not exist.
6. Activated crumb rubber pellets
Bailey invented storage stable asphalt paving pellets, including,
materials such as recycled asphalt shingles and lime (Bailey, 2009,
2011). A typical pellet includes a core and a shell. The core may house
materials, but not limited to recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) fines,
GTR, ground plastics, different rubber polymers, emulsifying agent,
waxes, and elastomers. The shell may include, but not limited to:
polyethylene, water-resistant polymer, a wax, or fines. The lime-based
asphalt pellets had calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2) or calcium oxide
(CaO) as their core and the shell could be an asphalt-compatible binder.
The asphalt-compatible binder may include crude oil-based binders
through polysaccharides, synthetic polymers, bitumen, hydrocarbon-
based materials, or acids. Pellets can be coated with various additives
that can impart structural integrity, color, progressive interaction, and
rheology modification. The size of pellets was adjudged to be larger
than 1.4 mm (No. 14 mesh size) to cater for ease of use and handling
purposes.
GTR asphalt pellets are solid particles with a rubber-bitumen core
covered with a thin layer of mineral filler (Artamendi et al., 2014). The
GTR bitumen pellet was produced using Pen 100/150 binder and the
rubber crumbs obtained from truck tires (Artamendi et al., 2014). The
nominal maximum size of CR was 1 mm and the mineral filler used was
hydrated lime. The dosage of individual components estimated in a
pellet was: (1) 30.4 % CR, (2) 38.4 % bitumen, and (3) 31.2 % hydrated
lime using TGA.
Amirkhanian et al. (2015) testified two commercially available
pelletized binders: (1) PelletPAVE®, and (2) PelletPAVE Plus® as a re-
placement to conventional binders. PelletPAVE® consists of large sized
CR at lower percentage, virgin binder, stiffener and some other ad-
ditive. Conversely, PelletPAVE Plus® includes higher percentage of fine
CR, virgin binder, and smaller proportions of other material.
The advantages of producing GTR pellets are as follows: (1) they
reduce the amount of energy needed to keep the asphalt in a flowable
state, (2) necessity of specialized tanks to produce rubberized asphalt at
the plant site could be avoided, (3) the problem of activated AR powder
products becoming air borne and problem with erroneous reading by
metering units while being fed can be eliminated, (4) because of their
uniform shape and size, pellets can be conglomerated with aggregates
in the hopper unit and supplied instead of bulk addition separately, (5)
Pellets can significantly reduce the energy demand for heating the CR
modified binder in storage tanks and save fuel resources (Amirkhanian
et al., 2015), and (6) binder pellets can reduce the occupational health
risks during the mixture production stage by avoiding handling of hot
materials and fumes emanating due to binder heating at elevated
temperature (Obaidi et al., 2019).
On the other hand, some of the barriers for GTR-asphalt pellet
technology are: (1) need for specialized processing systems and
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104655

Table 7
Summary of laboratory and/or field studies on RAR material.
Source Objective Experimental program Major conclusion

Ishai et al. (2014) Laboratory and field performance
investigations constructed in Israel
Sousa et al. To design Thingap 9.5 mm section,
(2005) that could house maximum amount
of RAR possible in a mix
Kedarisetty et al. RAR performance characteristics
(2016) with VG binders available in India
Kedarisetty et al. To develop and investigate RAR-
(2018) modified dense-graded asphalt
mixtures
Kumar et al. Comparative study of rubberized gap
(2018) mixtures with RAR and CRM
through dry process
Aggregate mixes: 19 mm dense and Superpave gradations.
Binder PG 70-22 grade, and RAR of 15 % replacing the
virgin binder
A total 48 mixtures were prepared using Pen 35/50 with
RAR of 40 and 45 %
A total of 13 different asphalt binders that included 2
binders (VG-30 and VG-40) without and with RAR
dosages of 5, 10, 15 and 20 % were tested for fundamental
consistency and advance binder characterization and
compared to a commercially available crumb rubber
modified binder (CRMB 60)
A total of seven dense asphalt mixtures were prepared
using the dry process with two binders (VG-30 and VG-40)
along with 0, 2, and 4 % RAR dosages. The designed
samples of seven asphalt mixtures were analyzed for
rutting, fatigue, fracture energy and moisture damage
A total of 108 gap graded mixtures with 3 different binder
contents (OBC, OBC ± 1) of viscosity graded (VG-40)
were prepared for 3 %, 6 % RAR, and 6 % CRM by weight
of the specimen
Improved resilience, rutting and fatigue resistance and
durability as compared to conventional mixtures
Thingap 9.5 mm RAR mixtures present higher rut
resistance and improved fatigue life than any other mixes
prepared with RAR
Reduction in viscosity-temperature variation. A notable
finding was the increase in binder recovery with
increased RAR dosage, substantiating the enduring
viscoelastic nature of RAR modified binder
Increased resistance to rutting and fatigue. No significant
evidence to substantiate the inclusion of RAR material
would improve the fracture resistance
RAR modifier with unconventional gradation improved
strength and elastic behavior. RAR content of 3 % by
weight of the mixture was recommended as the optimum
dosage for RAR gap mixes

equipment to manufacture pellets, (2) license fee for using the patented
products would make it an expensive product, (3) quality and con-
sistency of pellets produced is unknown, (4) long-term storage stability
could be an issue, and (5) universal mix design specifications do not
exist.
7. Way forward: research prospects and innovations
of vehicular tires from cradle-to-grave to cradle-to-cradle framework.
Thus, the cradle-to-cradle approach for tires not only eliminates land-
filling and the negative impacts on ecosystem but also recovers a few
essential materials that could serve as alternatives to virgin materials.
Rubber in the form of fragments (crumbs) is one such recovered ma-
terial popularly used in asphalt roadway systems. It has the potential to
reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions, if considered over the
entire lifecycle period. Additionally, CR as a modifier enhances the

• Applied research: this review paper discussed the two major practices
rheological and mechanical properties of AR mixtures that could pro-
long the serviceable life of those special pavement systems and/or
available to process crumb rubber in order to utilize the inclusions
procrastinate maintenance/rehabilitation strategies compared to un-
in blending the AR binder material. Although ambient grinding was
modified conventional asphalt pavements. The main objective of this
found to be effective in augmenting the performance of AR binder
review was to apprise about the various aspects related to CR modified
than the cryogenic process, a comprehensive investigation that es-
materials such as raw material extraction, rubberized asphalt produc-
timates the energy use during the two processes is needed to pro-
tion techniques, and enhanced rubber products with major emphasis on
duce energy efficient AR blending technique. Furthermore, the
their effectiveness in overcoming the problem associated with storage
feasibility of different CR activation techniques that utilize sec-
stability, mechanical performance, energy utilization during produc-
ondary materials / chemical agents is yet to be quantified in terms of
tion, and conservation of resources.
cost-benefit and environmental performance. Most importantly, the
In general, the origin and attributes of CR in relation to extraction
nature of the complex coalescence and networking of secondary
techniques, source, physical nature, physiognomy, chemical composi-
materials / chemical agents with CR as well as AR binders are yet to
tion, and its environmental impacts were documented. The two dif-
be characterized for their effectiveness in enhancing AR properties,
ferent processing technologies of incorporating CR into asphalt binder
and promoting healthy work conditions in a concurrent manner.
•
were also examined with focus on their limitations from engineering
Advancement in technology: this review report documented a few
and environmental perspectives. The review also indicated that
advanced AR products. Amongst the various types, elastomeric ex-
rheology of AR binder was significantly affected by curing parameters,
tender and pellets showed potential to address the major issues re-
including: mixing temperature, mixing rate, and mixing time, and there
lated to rubber-modified material production and applications.
was no consensus about uniform operating / processing condition that
Further, the products were found to minimize energy consumption
could deliver better AR blend through the wet process. Further, the
during blending process through utilization of the material directly
nuances of enhanced rubber product and its properties in different
into the production plant unlike the conventional AR that requires
forms were collated. Based on the collection, it was found that there
agitating units to maintain high temperature and homogeneity.
exists immense scope to further advance the current state-of-the-art in
However, it is important to note that the products have not been
creating a green asphalt roadway system design that helps facilitate
applied in the field to check for their all-weather and all-road con-
recyclability of CR, conservation of resources and energy as well as that
ditions. Also, both being patented products, the benefit of using such
which can promote sustainability in pavement infrastructure.
materials from lifecycle assessment perspective needs to be ad-
dressed in order for their global utility. Not only that, the compat-
ibility of the products with varying sources of aggregates needs to be
Declaration of Competing Interests
investigated that may also lead to assessment of resource con-
servation and hence cost implications of the new technologies.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
8. Conclusions ence the work reported in this paper.

Recyclability of scrap tires expands the lifecycle system boundaries

13
V.H. Nanjegowda and K.P. Biligiri
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