Finished Wafers Typical Specifications for Silicon Wafers

Parameter 125 mm 150 mm 200 mm 300 mm

Diameter (mm) 125+1 150+1 200+1 300+1

Thickness (mm) 0.6-0.65 0.65-0.7 0.715- 0.755-

0.735 0.775

The wafer as cut varies enough in thickness to warrant an additional lapping Bow (µm) 70 60 30 <30
operation that is performed under pressure using a mixture of Al2O3 and glycerine.
Subsequent chemical etching removes any remaining damaged and contaminated Total thickness 65 50 10 <10
regions. variation (µm)

Polishing is the final step. Its purpose is to provide a smooth, specular surface on Surface orientation +1o +1o +1o +1o
which device features can be photoengraved.

City University of Hong Kong

Objectives
• List the four components of the photoresist
Chapter 6 • Describe the difference between +PR and PR
• Describe a photolithography process sequence
• List four alignment and exposure systems
Photolithography • Describe the wafer movement in a track-stepper
integrated system.
• Explain relationships of resolution and depth of
focus to wavelength and numerical aperture.
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 Introduction
Photolithography is :
Applications of Photolithography
• Temporarily coat photoresist on wafer and • Main application: IC patterning process
Transfers designed pattern to photoresist • Other applications: Printed electronic board,
• Most important process in IC fabrication nameplate, printer plate, and et al.
• To consume 40 to 50% total wafer process
time
• Determines the minimum feature size, e.g.
0.18um technology in 2000, 70nm technology in
2004
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IC Fabrication Flow Photolithography Requirements

• High Resolution
e-Beam or Photo
Ion Implant • High PR Sensitivity
Mask or
EDA
Reticle
PR Chip • Precision Alignment, say within 10% of
Etch
minimum feature size
Photolithography
• Precise Process Parameters Control
EDA: Electronic Design Automation • Low Defect Density
PR: Photoresist

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 Photoresist Photoresist
• Photo sensitive material, sensitive to ultraviolet Negative Photoresist Positive Photoresist
(UV) but to visible light
• It’s why we use yellow light to illuminate and call • Becomes insoluble • Becomes soluble
“yellow room” after exposure after exposure,
• Transfer design image on it through exposure and (photosolubilization)
• When developed,
development the unexposed parts • When developed, the
• Very similar to the photo sensitive coating on the dissolved. exposed parts
film for camera dissolved
• Positive and negative types • Cheaper with poor
resolution • Expensive with better
resolution
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Negative and Positive Photoresists

Photoresist Photoresist Composition
Substrate

UV light
Mask/reticle • Polymer
Photoresist
Exposure • Solvents
Substrate
Negative
• Sensitizers
Photoresist • Additives
Substrate After
Positive Development
Photoresist
Substrate
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 Polymer Solvent
• Dissolves polymers into liquid
• Solid organic material
• Allow application of thin PR layers by spinning
• Transfers designed pattern to wafer surface
• 75% of PR before spin coating
• Changes solubility due to photochemical
reaction when exposed to UV light. • Acetate-type solvent for positive PR; xylene
(C8H10) for negative PR
• Positive PR: from insoluble to soluble
• Negative PR: from soluble to insoluble

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Sensitizers Negative Resist

• Controls and/or modifies photochemical
reaction of resist during exposure.
• Determines exposure time and intensity
Additives
• Various added chemical to achieve desired
process results, such as dyes to reduce
reflection.
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• Most negative PR are polyisoprene type
• Exposed PR becomes cross-linked polymer
• Cross-linked polymer has higher chemical
etch resistance.
• Unexposed part will be dissolved in
development solution.
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 Negative Photoresist
Negative Photoresist
Disadvantages
Mask • Polymer absorbs the development solvent
Negative
Photoresist • Poor resolution due to PR swelling
Expose
• Environmental and safety issues due to the
main solvents xylene.
Development

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Positive Photoresist
Comparison of Photoresists
• Exposed part dissolve in developer solution
• Image the same that on the mask
• Higher resolution
• Commonly used in advanced IC fabs
 PR + PR
Film Film

Substrate Substrate

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 Question
• Positive photoresist can achieve much higher
resolution than negative photoresist, why
didn’t people use it before the 1980s?
• Positive photoresist is much more expensive
therefore negative photoresist was used until
it had to be replaced when the minimum
feature size was shrunk to smaller than 3 m.
2005/10/18
Chemically Amplified Photoresists
• To pattern a small feature, a shorter wavelength
light source is required
• For deep ultraviolet (DUV),   248 nm or 193 nm
• Light source: excimer lasers
• Light intensity is lower than I-line (365 nm) or G-
line (436 nm) from high-pressure mercury lamp
• Need different kind of photoresist
19 2005/10/18 20

Requirement of Photoresist
Chemically Amplified Photoresists • High resolution
– Thinner PR film has higher the resolution
• Catalysis effect is used to increase the effective – Thinner PR film, the lower the etching and ion
sensitivity of the photoresist implantation resistance
• A photo-acid is created in PR when it exposes to
• High etch resistance
DUV light
• During PEB, head-induced acid diffusion causes • Good adhesion
amplification in a catalytic reaction • Wider process latitude
• Acid removes protection groups – Higher tolerance to process conditions like spin
• Exposed part will be removed by developer rate, baking temperature and exposure flux

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 Photoresist Performance Factors :
Photoresist Physical Properties • Resolution
• Photoresist must be able to withstand • Adhesion
process conditions • Expose rate, Sensitivity and Exposure Source
• Coating, spinning, baking, developing. • Process latitude
• Etch resistance • Pinholes
• Ion implantation blocking • Particle and Contamination Levels
• Step Coverage
• Thermal Flow

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Resolution Capability Photoresist Characteristics

• The smallest opening or space that can Summary
produced in a photoresist layer. Parameter Negative Positive
• Related to particular processes including expose
Polymer Polyisoprene Novolac Resin
source and developing process.
Photo-reaction Polymerization Photo-solubilization
• Thinner layer has better resolution.
Provide free radicals
• Etch and implantation barrier and pinhole-free Sensitizer for polymer cross-
Changes film
to base soluble
require thicker layer link
Additives
• Positive resist has better resolution due to the Dyes Dyes

smaller size of polymer.

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 Basic Steps of Photolithography
1. Photoresist coating
2. Alignment and exposure
Photolithography Process 3. Development

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Basic Steps, Old Technology Basic Steps, Advanced Technology

• Wafer clean • Wafer clean
• Dehydration bake • Pre-bake and primer coating
PR coating PR coating
• Photoresist spin coating
• Spin coating primer and PR
Track- • Soft bake
• Soft bake stepper • Alignment and exposure
• Alignment and exposure integrated
• Post exposure bake
system
• Development • Development Development
• Pattern inspection Development • Hard bake
• Hard bake • Pattern inspection
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 Wafer Clean Pre-bake and Primer Vapor
Primer
Gate Oxide

Polysilicon Polysilicon
STI USG STI USG
P-Well P-Well
2005/10/18 31 2005/10/18 32

Photoresist Coating Soft Bake

Primer

Photoresist Photoresist
Polysilicon Polysilicon
STI USG STI USG
P-Well P-Well
2005/10/18 33 2005/10/18 34
 Alignment and Exposure Alignment and Exposure
Gate Mask Gate Mask

Photoresist Photoresist
Polysilicon Polysilicon
STI USG STI USG
P-Well P-Well
2005/10/18 35 2005/10/18 36

Post Exposure Bake Development

Photoresist PR
Polysilicon Polysilicon
STI USG STI USG
P-Well P-Well
2005/10/18 37 2005/10/18 38
 Hard Bake Pattern Inspection

PR PR
Polysilicon Polysilicon
STI USG STI USG
P-Well P-Well
2005/10/18 39 2005/10/18 40

Photolithography Process, Clean

Wafer Clean
• Remove contaminants • Older ways
– High-pressure nitrogen blow-off
• Remove particulate
– Rotating brush scrubber
• Reduce pinholes and other defects
– High-pressure water stream
• Improve photoresist adhesion
• Basic steps
– Chemical clean
– Rinse
– Dry
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 Wafer Clean Process
Photolithography Process, Prebake

• Dehydration bake
• Remove moisture from wafer surface
• Promote adhesion between PR and surface
• Usually around 100 °C
• Integration with primer coating
Chemical Clean Rinse Dry

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Photolithography Process, Primer Pre-bake and Primer Vapor Coating

• Promotes adhesion of PR to wafer surface

Prep Chamber Primer Layer
• Wildly used: Hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS)
• HMDS vapor coating prior to PR spin coating Wafer HMDS
Wafer

• Usually performed in-situ with pre-bake Vapor

• Chill plate to cool down wafer before PR coating Hot Plate Hot Plate
Dehydration Bake Primer Vapor Coating

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 Spin Coating
Wafer Cooling
• Wafer sit on a vacuum chuck
• Wafer need to cool down • Rotate at high speed
• Water-cooled chill plate • Liquid photoresist applied at center of
• Temperature can affect PR viscosity wafer
– Affect PR spin coating thickness • Photoresist spread by centrifugal force
• Evenly coat on wafer surface

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Photoresist Spin Coater Viscosity

PR • Fluids stick on the solid surface
Wafer
• Affect PR thickness in spin coating
EBR
Water • Related to PR type and temperature
Sleeve
Chuck • Need high spin rate for uniform coating
Drain Exhaust
Vacuum

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Relationship of Photoresist Thickness
to Spin Rate and Viscosity Dynamic Spin Rate
3.5
100 cst
3.0
50 cst
2.5

Spin rate
Thickness (mm) 2.0
27 cst
20 cst
1.5

1.0 10 cst

5 cst
0.5

0
2k 3k 4k 5k 6k 7k
Spin Rate (rpm)
Time
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PR Spin Coater Photoresist Applying

 Photoresist spread on spinning wafer surface PR dispenser

nozzle
 Wafer held on a vacuum chuck
Wafer
 Slow spin ~ 500 rpm
 Ramp up to ~ 3000 - 7000 rpm Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
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 Photoresist Suck Back Photoresist Spin Coating

PR dispenser PR dispenser
PR suck back nozzle PR suck back nozzle
Wafer Wafer

Chuck Chuck
Spindle Spindle

To vacuum To vacuum
pump pump
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Photoresist Spin Coating Edge Bead Removal (EBR)

PR dispenser • PR spread to the edges and backside

PR suck back nozzle • PR could flakes off during mechanical
Wafer handling and causes particles
• Front and back chemical EBR
Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
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 Edge Bead Removal Optical Edge Bead Removal
• After alignment and exposure
• Front-side wafer edge expose (WEE)
Solvent
Wafer • Exposed photoresist at edge dissolves
during development
Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
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Optical Edge Bead Removal Developer Spin Off

Edge PR removed Patterned photoresist

Photoresist

Wafer Wafer

Chuck Chuck
Spindle Spindle

To vacuum
pump

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 Soft Bake
• Evaporating most of solvent (> 80%) in PR
Baking Tools
• Solvents help to make a thin PR but absorb radiation
and affect adhesion
• Soft baking time and temperature are determined by PR Wafer MW Source
Heated N 2 Photoresist
types and specific process Heater

• 90~110°C for 30 min. in oven; 10~15 min. for hotplate Chuck

Wafers
• Over bake: polymerized, less photo-sensitivity
Vacuum Wafer
• Under bake: affect adhesion and exposure Heater Vacuum

Hot plate Convection oven Microwave oven

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Hot Plates Wafer Cooling

• Need to cool down to ambient temperature
• Widely used in the
after baking
industry
• Water-cooled chill plate
• Back side heating, no
surface “crust”
Wafer • Silicon thermal expansion rate: 2.5106/C
• In-line track system
Heater
• For 8 inch (200 mm) wafer, 1C thermal
change causes 0.5 m difference in
diameter

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 Alignment and Exposure Alignment and Exposure Tools
• Most critical process for IC fabrication  Contact printer
• Most expensive tool (stepper) in an IC fab.  Proximity printer
• Most challenging technology  Projection printer
• Determines the minimum feature size  Stepper
• Currently 0.18 m and pushing to 0.13 m

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Contact Printer Contact Printer

• Simple equipment. Widely used before mid-
70s Light Source

• Resolution: capable for sub-micron Lenses

• Use of UV light source
• Image ratio 1:1
• Direct mask-wafer contact, limited mask
Mask
lifetime
• Particle contamination issue Photoresist
Wafer

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 Proximity Printer Proximity Printer
Light Source
• 10 ~ 20 m distance from wafer
surface. No direct contact Lenses

• Use of UV light
• Image ratio 1:1
• Less particles and longer mask Mask

lifetime Photoresist ~10 m

Wafer
• Resolution: > 2 m
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Projection Printer Projection System

• Works like an overhead projector
Light Source
• Mask to wafer ratio, 1:1
Lenses
• Resolution to reach at 1 m
• The scanning projection exposure system
- the mask and wafer stage move synchronously, allowing UV Mask
light source scanning across the mask to refocus and expose
PR across the wafer
Photoresist
Wafer

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 Scanning Projection System Stepper
Slit
Light Source • Most popular used photolithography tool in the
advanced IC fabs
• Reduction of wafer image gives high resolution
Lens
• Use of deep UV light
Synchronized Mask • Reticle-to-wafer ratio ~ 10:1
mask and wafer • A reticle with 1.25 m min. feature size say can achieve
movement Lens 0.125 m min. feature size on wafer
• Very expensive ! (extremely complicated and precise)
Photoresist
Wafer
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Q&A Step-&-Repeat Alignment/Exposure

Light
Q : Why does the 5:1 shrink ratio is more Source
popular than the 10:1 shrink ratio? Projection
Lens
A : 10:1 image shrink has better resolution
Reticle
than 5:1 image shrink. However, it only
exposes a quarter of the area, which means Projection
total exposure time will be quadrupled. A Lens

trade-off between resolution and Wafer

throughput. Wafer Stage

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 Step&Repeat Alignment System
Exposure Light Source
Light Source Reference Mark

Should have :
Alignment Laser
– Short wavelength
Reticle Stage – High intensity
Reticle
– Stability
Interferometer
Laser Projection Lens Includes :
 High-pressure mercury lamp
Y
 Excimer laser
X
Interferometer
Mirror Set
Wafer
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Wafer Stage

Photolithography Light Sources

Spectrum of the Mercury Lamp
Name Wavelength (nm) Application feature
size (m)
G-line 436 0.50
I-line G-line
(365) (436) Mercury Lamp H-line 405
Intensity (a.u)

I-line 365 0.35 to 0.25

H-line
XeF 351
(405)
XeCl 308
Deep UV Excimer Laser KrF (DUV) 248 0.25 to 0.15
(<260) ArF 193 0.18 to 0.13
Fluorine Laser F2 157 0.13 to 0.1
300 400 500 600
Wavelength (nm)

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 Exposure Control
• Exposure light flux is controlled by production
Standing Wave Effect
of light intensity and exposure time
•Interference of the incident and reflection lights
• Very similar to the exposure of a camera
•Due to constructive and destructive interference
• Intensity controlled by electrical power
at different depth
• Adjustable light intensity
•Periodically overexposure and underexposure
• Routine light intensity calibration is required.
•Affects photolithography resolution.
Intensity, I, measured in mW/cm2

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Standing Wave Intensity Standing Wave Effect on Photoresist

Constructive Destructive
Average Interference, Interference,
Intensity Overexpose Underexpose /nPR
Light Intensity

Photoresist
Substrate

Overexposure
Surface Surface of
the of PR /nPR the substrate Underexposure
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 Post Exposure Bake (PEB)
• Photoresist’s glass transition temperature, Tg
• Baking temperature is higher than Tg
• Induce thermal movement of photoresist
molecules
• Rearrangement of the overexposed and
underexposed PR molecules
• Average out standing wave effect,
• Smooth PR sidewall and improve resolution
PEB (cont.)
• For DUV chemical amplified photoresist, PEB
provides the heat needed for acid diffusion
and amplification.
• After the PEB process, the images of the
exposed areas appear on the photoresist, due
to the significant chemical change after the
acid amplification

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Post Exposure Bake Steps Development

• PEB normally uses hot plate at 110 to 130 C • Developer solvent dissolves the softened
for about 1 minute. part of photoresist
• For the same kind of PR, PEB usually requires • Transfer the pattern from mask or reticle to
a higher temperature than soft bake. photoresist
• Insufficient PEB will not completely eliminate • Three basic steps:
the standing wave pattern, – Development
• Overbaking will cause polymerization and – Rinse
affects photoresist development – Dry
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 Development – to make etch or
Development: Immersion implantation perfect
Mask

PR PR
Film Film
Substrate Substrate
PR Coating Exposure

PR PR
Film Film
Substrate Substrate
Develop Rinse Spin Dry Etching Development
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Development Profiles Developer Solutions

PR PR Positive PR Negative PR
Substrate Substrate Developer TMAH Xylene
Normal Development Incomplete Development

PR PR Rinse DI Water n-Butylacetate

Substrate Substrate

Under Development Over Development

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 Hard Bake PR Pinhole Fill by Thermal Flow
• Evaporating all solvents in PR
• Improving etch and implantation resistance Pinhole

• Improve PR adhesion with surface PR PR

• Polymerize and stabilize photoresist
• PR flow to fill pinhole Substrate Substrate

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Hard Bake (cont.) Improper Hard Bake

• Hot plate is commonly used • Under-bake
• Can be performed in a oven after inspection – Photoresist is not filly polymerized
• Hard bake temperature: 100 to 130 C – High photoresist etch rate
– Poor adhesion
• Baking time is about 1 to 2 minutes
• Over-baking
• Hard bake temperature normally is higher than
the soft bake temperature for the same kind of – PR flow and bad resolution
photoresist
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 Photoresist Flow Pattern Inspection
• Over-baking can causes too much PR flow, • Inspection, stripped PR and rework
which affects photolithography resolution. – Photoresist pattern is temporary
– Etch or ion implantation pattern is permanent.
• Photolithography process can rework
PR PR
• Can’t rework after etch or implantation.
Substrate Substrate • Scanning electron microscope (SEM) for
small feature size (< 0.5 um)
Normal Baking Over Baking
• Optical microscope for large feature size
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Q&A Pattern Inspection

• Why can’t optical microscope be used for
the 0.25 m feature inspection?
• Because the feature size (0.25 m = 2500
Å) is smaller than the wavelength of the
visible light, which is from 3900 Å (violet)
to 7500 Å (red)..
• Overlay or alignment
– run-out, run-in, reticle rotation, wafer rotation,
misplacement in X-direction, and misplacement
in Y-direction
• Critical dimension (CD) loss
• Surface irregularities such as scratches, pin
holes, stains, contamination, etc.

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 Misalignment Cases Critical Dimension
Run-out PR PR PR
Substrate Substrate Substrate
Run-in

 Reticle rotation
Wafer rotation

Misplacement in x-direction

Misplacement in y-direction
Good CD CD Loss Sloped Edge

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Wafer In
Track-Stepper System or Photo Cell
Hot Plate Spin Station
• Integrated process system of photoresist
coating, exposure and development Stepper
• Center track robot
Track Robot
• Higher throughput
• Improves process yield

Developer Hot Plate

Track
dispenser
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 Stacked Track System Future Trends

Developers
Hot Plates
• Smaller feature size
Chill Plates
• Higher resolution
• Reducing wavelength
Spin • Phase-shift mask
Coaters
Prep Chamber

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Optical Lithography Light Diffraction Without Lens

• Optics Diffracted light Mask

• Light diffraction Intensity of the
• Resolution projected light

• Depth of focus (DOF)

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 Light Diffraction With Lens
Diffraction Reduction
Strayed
• Short wavelength waves have less diffraction refracted light D Mask

• Optical lens can collect diffracted light and Lens ro

enhance the image
Diffracted light
collected by the Less diffraction after
lens focused by the lens

Ideal light
Intensity pattern

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Numerical Aperture
(Optical) Resolution
• NA is the ability of a lens to collect diffracted • The achievable, repeatable minimum
light feature size
• NA = 2 r0 / D • Determined by the wavelength of the light
and the numerical aperture of the system.
– r0 : radius of the lens The resolution can be expressed as
– D : the distance of the object from the lens
K1
• Lens with larger NA can capture higher order R
of diffracted light and generate sharper image. NA
K1 : the system constant,  is the wavelength of the light,
NA = 2 ro/D, the numerical aperture
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 To Improve Resolution
Exercise 1, K1 = 0.6
• Increase NA
– Larger lens, could be too expensive and unpractical
K
R 1 – Reduce DOF and cause fabrication difficulties
NA • Reduce wavelength
– Need to develop light source, PR and equipment
    R
– Limitation for reducing wavelength
G-line 436 nm 0.60 ___ m
I-line 365 nm 0.60 ___ m
– From UV to DUV, to EUV, and to X-Ray
DUV 248 nm 0.60 ___ m • Reduce K1
193 nm 0.60 ___ m – Phase shift mask (PSM)
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Wavelength and Frequency of

Depth of focus
Electromagnetic Wave
Visible
• The range that light is in focus and can
RF MW IR UV X-ray -ray achieve good resolution of projected image
• Depth of focus can be expressed as:
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 f (Hz)

4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(meter) K 2
DOF 
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

2 ( NA ) 2
RF: Radio frequency; MW: Microwave; IR: infrared; and UV: ultraviolet

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 Depth of Focus Depth of Focus
• Smaller numerical aperture, larger DOF
– Disposable cameras with very small lenses
– Almost everything is in focus
– But, with bad resolution
• Prefer to reduce wavelength than increase
K2  NA to improve resolution
DOF  Focus
2 ( NA ) 2 • High resolution, small DOF
• Focus at the middle plane of PR layer
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Focus on the Mid-Plain to Surface Planarization Requirement

Optimize the Resolution • Higher resolution requires
– Shorter 
– Larger NA.
Center of focus Depth of focus
• Both reduces DOF
Photoresist
• Wafer surface must be highly planarized.
Substrate
• That’s why CMP is significantly required for
0.25 m feature patterning.

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 I-line and DUV Silica and DUV
• Mercury i-line, 365 nm
• SiO2 strongly absorbs UV when  < 180 nm
– Commonly used in 0.35 m lithography
• Silica lenses and masks can’t be used
• DUV KrF excimer laser, 248 nm
• 157 nm F2 laser photolithography
– 0.25 m, 0.18 m and 0.13 m lithography
– Fused silica with low OH concentration, fluorine
• ArF excimer laser,193 nm doped silica, and calcium fluoride (CaF2),
– Application: < 0.13 m – With phase-shift mask, even 0.035 m is possible
• F2 excimer laser 157 nm • Further delay next generation lithography
– Still in R&D, < 0.10 m application
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Future Trends
Phase Shift Mask
Photolithography
1.6
1.5
1.4
Maybe photo- Pellicle Chrome pattern Phase shift coating
1.2
Feature Size (mm)

1.0 lithography
1 d
0.8 0.8 Next Generation
0.6 0.5 Lithography Quartz substrate
nf
0.35
0.4 0.25
0.18 0.13
0.2
d(nf  1) = /2
0.10 0.07
0
84 88 90 93 95 98 01 04 07 10 14
Year nf : Refractive index of phase shift coating
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 Phase Shift Mask Patterning
Phase Shift Mask Normal Mask Phase Shift Mask

Constructive Phase shift

Pellicle Chrome pattern Phase-shifting etch Interference coating Total Light
Intensity
Total Light
Intensity Destructive
d ng Interference

Quartz substrate PR PR
Substrate Substrate
Final Pattern Final Pattern

d(ng  1) = /2 PR PR
Substrate Substrate
ng: refractive index of the quartz substrate Designed Pattern Designed Pattern
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Next Generation Lithography (NGL) EUV

•  = 10 to 14 nm
 Extreme UV (EUV) lithography • Short wavelength and reduced NA
 X-Ray lithography
• Mirror basis due to strong absorption at
 Maskless lithography - electron beam or ion beam
short wavelength
 Immersion lithography
• Use a mask with Pd/C and Mo/Si
multilayer coatings
• For 0.1 m technology and beyond
• Still in development (support from Intel)
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 EUV Lithography X-ray lithography
• Similar to proximity printer
• Difficult to find pure X-ray source
(synchrotron radiation facility)
Mask • Challenge on mask making (1:1)
Wafer
Mirror 2 Mirror 1 • Very expensive! unlikely will be used in
production

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X-ray Printing
Optical Mask and X-ray Mask

Beryllium X-ray
Glass Beryllium
Gold
Gold

Chromium

Photoresist Aspect ratio < 1:5 Aspect ratio > 1:1

Substrate Photo Mask X-ray Mask

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 E-Beam Electron Beam Lithography System
• Used for making mask and reticles
Electron Gun
• Smallest geometry achieved : 0.014 m
• Direct print possible, no mask is required Lens
Blanking Plate
– Low throughput
• Scattering exposure system (SCALPEL) looks Lens

promising
– Tool development Stigmator
Deflection
– Reticle making Coils
– Resist development Lens
– Very similar to stepper lithography Wafer

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SCALPEL Ion Beam Lithography

• Can achieve higher resolution
– Direct writing and projection resist exposing
– Direct ion implantation and ion beam sputtering
patterned etch, save some process steps
• Serial writing, low throughput
• Unlikely will be used in the mass production
• Appropriate for mask and reticle repairing
• IC device defect detection and repairing

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 Diffusion
Immersion Lithography • In general, diffusion refers to the movement of atoms or molecules. However, in
se ico ducto p ocessi g, the te diffusio usually efe s to the e ti e p ocess of addi g a
• Fill DI water between light source and wafer dopant to the surface of wafer at high temperature.
• Reach higher DOF Junction:
K w • The silicon used for making the ICs is rarely without any dopant, and it usually contains a
DOF 
2( NA) 2 specific quantity of boron.
Kw : refractive index of water (1.43)
• The B atoms are distributed uniformly and hence the doping profile will be uniform.
• Applied in 193 nm or 248 nm systems Additionally during chip manufacturing process, dopants will be added by diffusion or ion
• Likely to push further to 90 or beyond if implantation from the top surface of the wafer.
refractive index increased • Hence, the concentration profile of the newly added materials will not be uniform from the
• TSMC proved result in 90 nm product with top of the wafer to the bottom.
ASML • N type dopant concentration is high on the surface and decreases as we go inside the wafer.

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Diffusion Diffusion
• Diffusivity vs Temperature:
At room temperature, the inter-solid diffusivity is quite low and for all practical
purposes the atoms can be considered as immobile.
• The typical temperatures employed are 900 to 1200 oC.
• The diffusivity in solid state is related to the temperature by Arrhenius

where D0 is the pre-exponent and EA is the activation energy.

• At some location, the concentration of N and P type dopants would be equal and that is called the • This is valid for solid-solid diffusion.
junction. • For gases, the dependence of diffusivity on temperature is given by
• A o e p ecise defi itio is, the locatio whe e the co ce t atio of elect o s a d holes a e e ual is
called the ju ctio .
• If the dopants are introduced by the diffusion process, then the surface concentration of those dopants will
be higher than the concentration inside.
• Atoms diffuse from high concentration region to low concentration region.
• Inter-solid diffusivity coefficient will increase significantly with an increase
in the temperature.
Diffusion Diffusion
Types of diffusion: • In the interstitial diffusion, the dopant atoms are found in the space between the
• The inter-solid diffusion can occur by two types of movements: 1. substitutional regular crystal lattice sites.
and 2. interstitial. • Some elements such as Au, Cu, Fe, Na and Li diffuse primarily by interstitial
• In the substitutional movement, the dopant atom occupies the crystal lattice diffusion.
space normally occupied by the silicon. • They do not form strong bond with the silicon atoms and do not need vacancies
• Hence, it can move from one location to another only if vacant sites are to move.
present. In this, it has to break old bonds and form new bonds for each • Thus, interstitial diffusion is a relatively fast process. Since it is a fast process, it is
movement and this is inherently a slow process. difficult to control it
• Elements such as B, P, Ga, As, In and Al diffuse primarily through substitutional
mechanism.

Diffusion Diffusion
Solubility:
• The solubility of a dopant in the substrate also plays a key role.
• Even if the diffusivity is large, if the solubility is small, then it will take a long time
to achieve a particular level of doping.
• This is because the total quantity diffused depends on the concentration gradient
and the diffusivity.
• The concentration gradient depends on the solubility limit.
• Typically, the solubility of dopant is much more than the doping level required.
The solubility is a function of temperature and for most dopants, it varies
between 1019 to 1021 atoms-cm-3 in the temperature range of 400 - ˚C.
• For impurities such as Cu, Fe or Au, the solubility is in the range of 10 to 1018
15

atoms-cm-3 in the same temperature range.

Diffusion
Equipment:
• Usually, large chambers that can hold many wafers are used to conduct the
diffusion process.
• The doping source is usually in gas or liquid phase.
• When it is a liquid source, it is typically carried out using nitrogen in gaseous form Doping by Diffusion and Implantation
Sometimes even for solid source the carrier gas may pass over a heated solid
source.
• Even though liquid or gas sources are used, finally they are all converted to solid
source. Uma Parthavi M
• When a solid source is used, the source will be in the form of slugs, which will be Dept. of Electrical Engineering,
kept between the wafers.
• The advantage is that these are safer to handle. There is no toxic wafer, at least at Indian Institute of Technology Delhi.
room temperature. Tutor: Prof. N Dasgupta
• The disadvantage is that cleaning is an issue; the slugs can break down, in which
case, cleaning is an issue.
• The other disadvantage is the throughput is low; that is, the number of wafers
that can be doped in unit time is lower in this method.

Contents Doping Silicon

 Doping
 Diffusion :
 Two step doping process
 Diffusion equipment & sources  The spread of particles through random motion from regions of
 Diffusion-Microscopic & Macroscopic point of view higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
 Fick‟s Laws – solutions
 Diffusivity  Ion implantation
 Influence of Electric Field, Defects
 Bombarding the substrate with ions accelerated to high
 Oxidation Enhanced Diffusion
 Ion Implantation
velocities
 Implantation Basics
 Ion implanter
 Implantation profiles
 Channeling
 Damage annealing
 Comparison between diffusion and ion implantation
 References

2 Doping by Diffusion and Implantation Contents 3 Doping by Diffusion and Implantation Introduction