Module 2

MODULE 2

Elementary Concepts of Magnetic circuits

Electromagnetic Induction and
AC Fundamentals

Magnetic Circuits: Basic Terminology: MMF, field strength, flux density, reluctance –
comparison between electric and magnetic circuits- Series and parallel magnetic circuits
with composite materials, numerical problems.

Electromagnetic Induction: Faraday's laws, problems, Lenz's law- statically induced and
dynamically induced emfs - Self-inductance and mutual inductance, coefficient of coupling

Alternating Current fundamentals: Generation of alternating voltages- representation of

sinusoidal waveforms: frequency, period, Average, RMS values and form factor of
waveforms-Numerical Problems.
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

▪Material which posses magnetic properties(power of attracting small

pieces of iron) is called a magnet.
▪Property of the body by virtue of which this attraction takes place is
magnetism.

Classification of magnets
Permanent magnets: materials when magnetized retain their magnetism
for long time even after removal of magnetizing force.
Electromagnet: If magnetization is done by passing electric current in a
coil surrounding the material the magnet is called electromagnet.
The study of magnetic circuit concepts is essential in design analysis
and applications of electromagnetic devices like transformers,
gen-erators and motors.
 Magnetic field around bar magnet

Figure shows the magnetic lines of force around a bar magnet.

The lines of magnetic field from a bar magnet form closed lines.
By convention, the field direction is taken to be outward from the North Pole and into the South
Pole of the magnet.
Magnetic field around current carrying conductor
Magnetic field around current carrying coil
wound on iron core
Magnetic field around current carrying
conductor
•When an electric current is passed through a
conductor a magnetic field is setup around it along
the length of conductor.
•Magnetic field forms concentric circles normal to
the direction of current.
•Relation between direction of current and magnetic
field determined by right hand thumb rule.
If current carrying conductor is held by right hand so
that thumb points direction current flow, then fingers
will point direction of lines of flux.
 MAGNETIC FIELD

•Just as electric field exit near a charged body, magnetic field exist
around a magnet .
•The space in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is called
magnetic field.
•The magnetic field around a magnet is represented by imaginary
lines called magnetic lines of force, these lines of force could
emerge from north pole of the magnet passes through the
surrounding medium and re-enter the south pole inside the
magnet . each lines of force passes from south or north
 Magnetic flux(Ф)

▪Total no of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field.

▪ Denoted by Ф
▪ Unit :Weber.
Properties
▪Magnetic flux lines are imaginary lines.
▪Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop.
▪Magnetic flux lines do not intersect each other.
▪Behave like stretched elastic threads and try to shorten themselves.
▪Flux lines which are parallel & in same direction repel each other.
▪Closed path formed by flux lines is called magnetic circuit.
 Magnetic flux density(B)
•B is flux per unit area at right angles to the direction of
flux
B= Ф/ A
unit : wb/m^2 or tesla
where Ф is flux
A is area of cross section
 Magneto Motive Force( MMF)

• MMF is the force which establishes the magnetic flux in a

magnetic circuit ie cause producing flux.
• analogous to EMF in electric circuit

• When a current is passed through a coil, a magnetic flux is set up

around it. The product of current (I) and number of turns (N) of
the coil gives MMF.

• MMF given by the expression.

MMF= F= NI unit is ampere turns(AT)
I – current through coil
N – no of turns of coil
 Magnetic field intensity(H)
• Magneto motive force per unit length of magnetic
circuit.
•Unit is ampere turns/metre.
• Also called magnetic field strength or magnetizing
force.
 Permeability(μ)
The ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it is
called permeability of that material.
It is represented by letter μ
Unit is Henry/metre
Flux and hence flux density directly proportional to
magnetizing force
B αH
B= μ H
 Relative permeability(μr)

The ratio of the flux density produced in a material to the flux

density produced in vacuum by the same magnetizing force is
called relative permeability of that material.
It is denoted by μr

B= μ H
 Reluctance (S)
•Opposition offered by the magnetic circuit to the establishment of
magnetic flux
•Reluctance is denoted by S and is directly proportional to the
length and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the
magnetic path.
•It is analogues to resistance in electric circuit.
Electric and magnetic circuit
Comparison b/w electric and magnetic circuits
(similarities)
 Magnetic circuit

•Complete closed path followed by a group of magnetic

flux lines.
•Composite magnetic circuit:
1. series magnetic circuit: same flux flows through the
entire part of the circuit
2. parallel magnetic circuit
A solenoid, "pipe-shaped"[2]) is a type of electromagnet,
the purpose of which is to generate a controlled magnetic field through a coil wound
The coil can be arranged to produce a uniform magnetic field in a volume of space when
an electric current is passed through it.
Series magnetic circuit
•The same flux ∅ passes through all the parts of the series
magnetic circuit.
•The total reluctance of the series magnetic circuit is the sum of
the reluctances of the series- connected parts of the magnetic
circuit.
•The total MMF is equal to the sum of the MMFs required for
the individual parts of the series magnetic circuit.
The series magnetic circuit are classified as:
.Simple series magnetic circuits
.Composite series magnetic circuit
 Parallel magnetic circuit

A parallel magnetic circuit has the same MMF appearing across

all the parallel parts.
The total is the sum of the fluxes in the individual parallel parts
of the magnetic circuit.
∅= ∅1+∅2
The reciprocal of the effective reluctances is equal to the sum
the reciprocals of the reluctances of the individual parallel
parts.
1/S =1/(S1)+1/(S2)
Analysis of series magnetic circuit

• In a magnetic circuit if same flux flow through all part of circuit then
we can say that circuit is a series magnetic circuit
 Force on a current carrying conductor

•Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic

field it experiences a mechanical force on it.
•Consider a conductor of length L metre carrying current I
ampere placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B
wb/m^2 making an angle θ with the direction of field. Then the
mechanical force experienced by the conductor is
• F= BILsin θ newtons
•Direction of force determined by flemings left hand rule
•According to Fleming's left hand rule, if the thumb,
fore-finger and middle finger of the left hand are stretched to be
perpendicular to each other as shown in the illustration, and if
the fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field, the
middle finger represents the direction of current, then the thumb
represents the direction of force. Fleming's left hand rule is
applicable for motors.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Fig shows a coil whose terminals are connected to Galvanometer. Bar magnet is
initially at rest some flux is linked with the coil but there is no deflection in G.
• Now the bar magnet is suddenly brought closer to the coil. There is sudden
deflection in G and this deflection exists as long as the magnet is in motion
relative to coil.
• When magnet moved away from the coil there is a sudden deflection in opposite
direction
• The deflection in G indicates production of emf in coil. This emf exists
as long as there is change in the flux linked with the coil.
• Stationary flux however strong will never induce emf in a stationary
coil.
• The process by which an emf is induced in a conductor whenever
there is change in magnetic flux linked with the conductor is called
electromagnetic induction
 Faradays laws of Electromagnetic induction

•First law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit

changes an emf is induced in it.
•Second law: The magnitude of the induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.
•N= no of turns, Ф1= initial flux, Ф2= final flux, t= time for flux
change
•According to faradays law of EMI, induced emf is
e= N (Ф2 - Ф1) / t
Ф2 - Ф1 = dФ
e= N dФ / dt volts
Lenz’s law

• Lenzs law gives the direction of induced current in a conductor or

coil.
• Lenzs law states that the electromagnetically induced current always
flows in a direction so as to oppose the cause producing it
• Combining faradays and lenzs law
e= - N dФ / dt
Electromagnetically induced emf

•There are two types of induced emf:

• Dynamically induced emf: - The emf induced in the conductor due
to relative motion between the conductor and magnetic field.
• Conductor is moving/stationary
• Magnetic Field is stationary/moving
• Eg electric generators
Consider a conductor of length l metres moving in a uniform magnetic field
having flux density B wb/m2
let this conductor moved with velocity V m/s in the direction of the field fig 1(b).
In this case no flux is cut by the conductor, therefore, no emf is induced in it.
Now if this conductor is moved with Velocity v m/s in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 1(c) flux is cut by the
conductor, therefore, an emf is induced in the conductor.
Induced emf e= Blv
If the conductor is moved with velocity v meters per second in a direction
perpendicular to its own length and at an angle ᶿ to the direction of magnetic
field, as shown in Fig. 1(d).
Then induced emf e = Blv sin ᶿ
ie Component of velocity perpendicular to field is responsible for inducing voltage
in the conductor
• Statically induced emf: - when the conductor is stationary and the magnetic
field is moving or changing, the emf induced in the conductor is called
statically induced emf.
• Conductor is stationary
• Magnetic Field is changing in a stationary Magnetic System;
• Eg: Transformer
• statically induced emf is further classified as (a) self-induced emf (b)
mutually induced emf
Self-Induced EMF
• When the current flowing through the coil is changed, the flux linking with
its own winding changes and due to the change in linking flux with the coil,
an emf, known as self-induced emf, is induced.
When a coil is carrying current a magnetic field is established through
the coil. If the current in the coil changes then flux linked with the coil
also changes which will produce an emf in it by faradays law. The emf
is called self induced emf
• This property of the coil or circuit due to which it opposes any change of
the current in the coil or circuit, is known as self-inductance.
• e= N dФ/dt
• Let e be self induced emf and i current through the coil, self induced emf
is directly proportional to rate of change of current in the coil e ᾳ di/dt
• e= L di/dt
• L constant of proportionality called self inductance or coefficient of self
induction, direction of induced voltage by lenz’s law hence e= L di/dt
Self inductance

•
 Mutually induced emf
The emf induced in a coil due to change the changing current in the
neighbouring coil is called mutually induced emf
Mutually induced emf

•
Mutual inductance(M)

•
Coefficient of coupling

•
 Module 2
AC Fundamentals
 AC fundamentals
• An alternating voltage is any voltage that varies both in
magnitude and polarity w.r.to time similarly current.
• An AC circuit is a circuit in which an alternating current flows
and reverses its direction at regular intervals of time.
• A sinusoidal voltage can be generated either by rotating a coil
in a stationary magnetic field or by rotating magnetic field
within a stationary coil.
• Instantaneous values of emf and current vary as sine functions
of angle θ so they are known as sinusoidal voltage and
current.
• e = Em sin ωt and I = Im sin ωt where Em and Im are peak
values of induced emf and current where ω = 2πf.

• Waveform: The graph obtained by plotting the values of an

alternating quantity (V or I) at different instants on Y axis and
time/angle on X axis.
• Time period T: Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle

• Frequency f: The no of cycles per second unit hertz or cycles/sec. f= 1/T.

• Cycle : One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating
quantity which repeats at regular intervals of time.
• Amplitude : The max value +ve or –ve which an alternating quantity attain
during one complete cycle.

• An alternating voltage or current can be expressed in terms of its

• 1) instantaneous value
• 2) peak value
• 3) Rms Value
• AC is most commonly referred by its RMS value. It is based on heating
effect in electric circuit.
• RMS value: RMS value of an alternating current is
defined as the steady state DC current which when
flowing through a given circuit for a given period of
time produces the same heat as produced by the
alternating current for the same circuit and for the
same period of time.
• Analytical or integral method suitable for waveforms
which can be expressed using mathematical
expression such as sine, square, triangular wave etc
• Average Value: average value of an alternating
current is defined as the steady state DC current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a
given period of time transfers the same charge
for the same circuit and for the same period of
time.

• Also Vavg = area under the curve/ time period

• Average value of symmetric waveform is zero

because area of +ve and –ve half cycles are equal.
Therefore algebraic sum is zero. In practical case
it is calculated over one half of the cycle.
• PEAK FACTOR ?
• FORM FACTOR?
• Alternate method to find average value