EVALUATION OF HEAVY METALS IN AGRICULTURAL SOIL AND TRANSFER OF

SAME TO ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS, SOLANUM LYCOPERSICUM AND

AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS IN KASHERE.

BY

ABIGIAL HARUNA DANZARIA

FUKD/SCI/18/CHE/0039

BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL

SCIENCES, FACULTY OF SCIENCES, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
GOMBE. IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD
OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B. SC.) DEGREE IN CHEMISTRY

JANUARY, 2022

i
 DECLARATION

I Abigial Haruna Danzaria hereby declared that this research project is my original work and has

not been presented elsewhere by another student in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

award of Bachelor of Science (B. Sc) Degree in Chemistry.

ABIGIAL HARUNA DANZARIA Signature/Date:………………………

FUKD/SCI/18/CHE/0039

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This project has been read and approved by the Chemical Science Department, Faculty of

Science, Federal University of Kashere, as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award

of Bachelor of Science (B. Sc.) degree in Chemistry.

Dr. Bertha Audu Danja Sign / Date ………………………

Project Supervisor

Dr. Bertha Audu Danja Sign / Date ………………………

Head of Department

Dean Faculty of Science Sign/Date ………………………..

External Examiner Sign / Date ………………………

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 DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to God Almighty. Who gave me the knowledge and wisdom to

finish this research.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My most profound gratitude goes to God Almighty for his guidance, protection for making this

seminar to be a success.

With great respect, I want to extend my gratitude to my supervisor in person of Dr. Bertha Abdu

Danja, for her time, patience and motherly disposition in supervising this work despite her tight

schedules. I am grateful to have a scholar of her academic thoroughness to enlighten me on the

complexities on this research project.

I also wish to acknowledge Dr. Saidu Jibrin, Mrs. Lodma, Dr. Sani Isiyaka, Dr. Esther, Mr.

Kawuwa, Dr. Zannan, Mr. Ogidi, Mr. Mansul, Mr. Rano and the rest of the lecturer, Chemical

Science Department, Federal University of Kashere.

Finally, I want to appreciate my beloved husband Danladi Sabo, my parents and siblings for their

support financially, spiritual and morally. And great regards also to my course mates.

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 Table of contents

CERTIFICATION...................................................................................................................................iii

DEDICATION.........................................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................................................................................v

Table of contents......................................................................................................................................vi

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the Study...................................................................................................................1

1.2 Significance of the Study...................................................................................................................3

1.3 Scope of the Study..............................................................................................................................3

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study....................................................................................................3

CHAPTER TWO: ITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................4

2.1 Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................................4

2.1.1 Heavy Metals...................................................................................................................................4

2.1.2 Compartmentalization of heavy metals in the soil......................................................................7

2.1.3 POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF SOME SELECTED HEAVY METALS AND

METALLOIDS.......................................................................................................................................10

2.1.4 Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Uptake by Plant...........................................................................14

2.1.5 Transfer Factor.............................................................................................................................16

2.2.6 Phytoremediation..........................................................................................................................17

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................20

3.1 Study Site..........................................................................................................................................20

3.2 Sample Matrix/ Sample Codes........................................................................................................20

3.3 Sample Collection, Preservation and Pretreatment......................................................................20

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3.4 Sample of Digestion.........................................................................................................................20

3.5 Apparatus/ Reagents........................................................................................................................21

3.6 Physio-Chemical Parameters Determined.....................................................................................21

3.6.1 Determination of pH of Soil.........................................................................................................21

3.6.2 Determination of Moisture Content Determination in Soil......................................................22

3.6.3 Determination of Transfer factor................................................................................................22

3.6.4 Electrical conductivity (EC).........................................................................................................22

3.7 Method of Analysis..........................................................................................................................22

3.8 Statistical Analysis...........................................................................................................................23

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION...........................................................................24

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..........................31

5.1 Summary...........................................................................................................................................31

5.2 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................31

5.3 Recommendation..............................................................................................................................32

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................33

vii
 ABSTRACT

This research project makes an evaluation of heavy metals in agricultural soil and
transfer of same to abelmoschus esculentus, solanum lycopersicum and amaranthus
caudatus in Kashere. The study adopted experimental design method. The
instrumentation used for the analysis was Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Soil
samples were collected using stratified sampling in Kashere, the sampling sites were
Agricultural soils along Billiri Road, Futuk Road and Federal University School farm.
The physio-chemical composition of Kashere soil were conducive for growing crops.
While, the elements that were detected were Lead, Cadmium, Chromium, Zinc and Iron.
The trend of heavy metal composition in Kashere soil is Pb < Zn < Cr < Fe < Cd. The
transfer factor of the heavy metals on the plants shows that only Okra has traces of lead,
while the concentration of iron and zinc was normal on the plants, while the
concentration of cadmium and chromium were relatively high. The recommendations
made were: Individuals who want to grow Okra in Kashere soils are advised to maintain
soil pH > 6.5, and use adequate NPK fertilizers to minimize plant uptake of Pb,
application of organic amendments, such as compost, can further reduce Pb uptake by
crops. However, vegetables should be washed to remove soil and deposited aerosols, soil
remediation techniques such as soil washing, vitrification, and phytoremediation
processes should be encourage.

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Heavy metal contamination is a global issue and of high significance in Nigeria. Evidence from

research within the context of Nigeria suggests a growing concern for protecting different

varieties of food from the toxic effects of heavy metals.

Human activities sometimes contribute impacts to the environment in order to meet their needs.

These impacts can be either positive or negative. One negative impact due to human activities is

the decline of environment quality, such as the soil quality degradation due to waste pollution

produced by household, industrial, and agricultural activities. One of the most impactful

pollution or contaminants for soil is heavy metal. This contaminants infiltrate into soil and

increase the toxicological effect because soil is closely related to agriculture. The generation,

distribution and accidental spills of different xenobiotic organic molecules (herbicides,

insecticides, and hydrocarbons, among others) have caused environmental degradation directly

or indirectly accumulate in soil, water and air.

Soils are made up of particles, gaseous and liquid constituents. They act as sink for pollutants

through the adsorption process which bind inorganic and organic pollutant with varying strength

to the surface of soil colloids. Soil may become contaminated due to the accumulation of metals

via emissions from industrial sites, mining operations, and disposal of wastes containing metals,.

Other are leaded gasoline, and paints, application of fertilizers and animal manures, other

agrochemicals and spillage of petrochemicals. Heavy metals are natural components of the

earth’s crust that are not biodegradable. Heavy metals tend to be transferred into the human body

trough the ingestion of food materials, water and air. At low concentration levels, certain heavy

1
metals such as copper, manganese, zinc and iron are essential in maintaining certain body

functions. However above the recommended concentrations they pose health risk. Examples of

heavy metals include, Ar, Cd, Cd, Co, Cu, Au, Ag, Fe, Mn, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn. Some heavy

metals become toxic at levels slightly above the background concentrations normally present in

nature. It is necessary to provide information about the health impact of metals and carry out

proactive measures to prevent excessive exposure to heavy metals. Toxic are chemicals that can

pose a harmful threat to human health.

From the definition, it can be seen that some critical medical condition can occur as a result of

heavy metals. If not detected or not properly treated, it leads to serious health issues and reduce

the quality of human life. The presence of toxic heavy metals (at levels that contaminate ) in soil

pose risk and creates health issues in humans and also affects the ecosystem via the direct intake

of food and drinking of contaminated ground water. It also affects the quality of food (affecting

the safety and market value of such foods) via reduction in land usability for agricultural

production, leading to food insecurity.

Living organisms require trace amounts of some heavy metals e.g. cobalt, vanadium, strontium

and zinc. The increase in the uptake of these heavy metals by plants and animals (most of which

ends up as food for human beings) pose as health risk to humans. Excessive levels of essential

metals can have environmental effects on organisms. Non- essential metals such as Cd, Cr, Hg,

and Pb even at low concentrations pose threats to the health of humans. The main threats to

human wellbeing however, are associated with lead, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury. Plants have

the capacity to accumulate metals (from water, and soil) that are essential for growth and

development; examples of these metals are Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, and Nickel.

2
Ingestion serves as the most common means of exposure in children. The hand-to-mouth activity

of small children often result to toxic levels of heavy metals concentrations when they come in

contact with soil contaminated with the metals or by consuming substances which are not eatable

foods such as dirt or paint chips.

1.2 Significance of the Study

Heavy metals as discussed above can caused some serious health problems to humans and can

damage soil. The study area has been exposed to heavy agricultural practices involving the use of

huge chemicals and fertilizers. The food being farmed and consume by human beings and

animals can contain heavy metals through absorption and bio-accomulation of these metals.

Therefore is very important to know the extent of metals in the soil and study the transfer of

same to crops. Therefore, this study is very significant to human health.

1.3 Scope of the Study

This study is limited to cultivated agricultural soils of Kashere, Akko Local Government, Gombe

state, Nigeria.

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The aim and objective of this study is to:

1. Determine some heavy metals contents in cultivated agricultural soils of Kashere

2. Determine transfer factors and bioaccumulation factors of heavy metals contents in some

selected crops; Amaranthus spp, Tomatoes, and Okra.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Heavy Metals

Heavy metals are naturally occurring elements that have high atomic weight and a density at

least 5 times greater than water. Their multiple industrial, domestic, agricultural, medical and

technological applications have led to their worldwide distribution in the environment; raising

concerns over their potential effects on human health and the environment. Their toxicity

depends on several factors including the dose, route of exposure and chemical species, as well as

the age, gender, genetics, and nutritional status of exposed individuals. Because of their high

degree of toxicity, arsenic, cadmiusm, chromium, lead, and mercury rank among the priority

metals that are of public health significance. These metallic elelments are considered systematic

toxicants that are known to induce multiple organ damage, even at lower level of exposure.

Basically, heavy metals are unarguably the transition and posttransition metals, and the examples

which are common in various literature are lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), vanadium (V), cobalt (Co),

chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), arsenic (As), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), tin (Sn), zinc

(Zn), and mercury (Hg). The availability and accessibility of these metals and metalloids through

natural and anthropogenic pathways remain a major global concern in the ecosystem. The

sources of heavy metals in the surface environment are natural and anthropogenic. Natural

sources include parent rocks and metallic minerals. Anthropogenic sources include agriculture

(fertilizers, pesticides, etc.), metallurgy (mining, smelting etc.), energy production (power plant,

leaded gasoline, etc.), and sewage disposal.

4
Metals and metalloid are influenced by the conditions of the environment of deposition such as

acidity, alkalinity, pH, adsorption, speciation, and temperature which inform their solubility,

mobility, availability, and accessibility. They also make their way into the different

environmental media such as soil, water, rock, and sediment from which we grow most of our

food.

The chemistry of heavy metals is a major contribution to their implications within the human-

ecological context. In terms of usefulness, the universe had been largely blessed by the

abundance of heavy metals and the roles they play both in keeping the equilibrium and

sustainability of ecosystem functions. For example, Fe which is the most abundant metal on

Earth and very electropositive metals can combine easily with O 2 (oxygen gas) and thus forms a

rich compound for industrial and biological purposes.

In their experimental research, Bae (2014) assiduously showed the crucial roles that Zn plays in

dermatology. Cu is effectively used in the treatment for fish diseases and to treat radiation

sickness. Nagajyoti et al. argued that in trace amounts, most of the heavy metals are of

significance to plant metabolism. However, these metals and metalloids adversely affect lives in

the ecosystem, including humans, plants, and animals through their bioaccumulation in the food

chain.

Alkorta et al. and Volesky were of the opinion that most heavy metals are toxic even at low

concentration of about 0.1 to 0.3 mg/l. However, pH level plays a vital role in heavy metal ion

adsorption from an aqueous solution, and speciation and adsorption level influence the mobility

of these metals. The soil type can also influence adsorption of heavy metals; for instance, soil

clay minerals have a greater influence on adsorption and inactivation compared with soil organic

matter.

5
In view of these impacts, Ali et al. observed that some heavy metals possess the ability to disrupt

metabolic activities and genetic makeup, while others affect embryonic or foetal development.

This often results in cancer, developmental disorders, and neurological and behavioural changes

often found in children. So, the health impacts of heavy metals on the food chain, which include

the soil, plants, and aquatic life, cannot be more obvious. As a major source of human exposure

to heavy metal toxicity, the food chain is a critical component that now draws the attention of

major discussions within the academy of nutritional and environmental sciences. With the

increasing human populations and rising issues of food insecurity which have heightened the

demand for genetically engineered food, it is now ever more crucial that current research should

examine the typology of heavy metals found in the food chain and the pathway in which these

metals contaminate a range of staple foods consumed by many people within the diversity of

geographical contexts.

This study focuses on the negative impacts of heavy metals and metalloids in the food chain

regarding their total concentration levels in the environment in Nigeria. With the early

industrialisation stage in Nigeria and poor implementation of environmental protection policies

and regulations, its environmental pollution and contamination have been a great concern.

According to Onakpa et al., both natural and anthropogenic sources are pathways by which

heavy metals and metalloids contaminate many Nigeria food crops and vegetables. Previous

studies on the health implications of heavy metals are fragmented and mostly focused on

individual states and localities within Nigeria. The findings of these studies are consistent with

the general view that heavy metals are non-biodegradable, and metallic elements with relatively

high density are toxic or poisonous even at low concentrations. They accumulate in the

environment and over time contaminate the food chain, which is a major source of

6
environmental and human health risk. Despite the obvious significance of these studies, a

country-wide knowledge base of the implication of heavy metals on the food chain within

different regional and socioeconomic settings of Nigeria is lacking. This is a major gap in

science, which this study makes efforts to address. Their study make important insight into the

toxicity of heavy metals and the particular foods that are increasingly vulnerable to heavy metals

and hazardous for consumption with respect to different geographical regions in Nigeria. The

authors synthesize the findings of the current studies to create a knowledge base which

somewhat simplifies an understanding of the impacts of heavy metals on the food chain within

the context of Nigeria.

Given the high population of Nigeria, its extreme poverty level, and environmental and public

health challenges, food availability and consumption are key factors to its continuous existence.

Therefore, research must inform decision towards ensuring that health and sustainability are core

in the choice of foods that Nigerians consume. This will mitigate several health issues that

constrain economic and human capital development within the country.

2.1.2 Compartmentalization of heavy metals in the soil.

The Processes governing the biogeochemical speciation of metals in soils result in reactions of

precipitation - dissolution and reactions adsorption-desorption, which directly affect the

distribution of metals between solid and aqueous phase and complexation reactions and

oxidation - reduction Affecting the reactivity of the metal itself (solubility and bioavailability).

These reactions are controlled by environmental factors such as pH, cation exchange capacity

(CEC), the redox potential and the type itself and chemical speciation of the elements. The pH is

considered the dominant factor in the behavior of metals, since it affects the surface charge of the

clay, organic matter and oxides of Fe and Al and influences the complexation of metals with

7
organic matter in the precipitation reactions, dissolution, redox reactions and colloid dispersion.

A pH increase causes an increase in the absorption and retention of cations with a maximum

around neutrality. Exceptions with Mo, V, Cr (III) and metalloids such as As and Se, commonly

less mobile under acidic conditions.10 In the case of Cd, solubility increases with decreasing pH

from a value pH 6.5. Pb and Hg begins from pH 4, while other elements such as As, Cr, Cu and

Ni begins to solubilize at pH values between these two extremes.

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils is largely dependent on the surfaces of adsorption

determined by the amount and type of clay, organic matter (OM) and oxides of Fe, Al and Mn.73

In general, the higher the clay content, the greater the CIC (negative cation exchange capacity)

and therefore greater the amount of metal that can be held without potential danger, since the

solubility and mobility of metals is limited. The ratio 2:1 of clays (montmorillonite and

vermiculite) also have much higher CEC values than 1:1 (kaolinite). The adsorption capacity of

the oxides of Fe, Al and Mn can also play an important role in controlling and immobilizing

metals in soils. Furthermore, some heavy metals such as Co, Cu, Hg, Y, Pb and Zn have high

affinity to organic matter, forming soluble and insoluble complex. Organic matter has both the

ability to complexation as cation exchange.

Complexation processes occur as an exchange reaction with water molecules coordinated, which

are exchanged for some ligands, which can be described by the principle of strong and weak

acids and Lewis bases. Protons and all metal cations of interest in the soil solution are Lewis

acids, while Lewis bases include H2O, oxyanions OH-, SO42-, PO43-, COO-, CO32-, F-, NO3- and

organic compounds as N, S and P electron donors. According to the principle of Lewis, bases

strong are complexed more easily with strong acids and weak bases with weak acids, all under

comparable conditions of acid-base strength. These bonds are much stronger, this because the

8
ions penetrate the crystal structure, and are linked by covalent bonds via oxygen atoms or

hydroxyl groups. The moisture content of the soil is another important factor governing metal

speciation and mobility through oxidation-reduction reactions. Under reducing conditions can

form metal sulphides, which are quite insoluble, so that mobility and bioavailability are

considerably lower than those expected under oxidizing conditions. Analyzing an extracted

solution of a floor, which is treated with iodine, indicates for example, decreased solubility of

Cd, Cu and Zn and increasing the solubility of Mn and Fe under reducing conditions.

Furthermore, it is known that the chemical nature of the mineral surfaces is the most significant

factor contributing to the retention / mobility of contaminants, and these properties are generally

considered invariable during the exposure time and reaction of the pollutant. Studies show,

however, that the mineral surface chemistry is extensively modified by changes in the oxidation

state of the Fe in the crystalline mineral structure, assuming a great impact on the chemical

environment. The redox activity of the mineral surface affects the oxidation state, and

consequently speciation and chemical behavior of ionic metals sensitive to redox reactions

aqueous phase such as Cr, which can go from Cr6+ to Cr3+, less mobile and dangerous.

Some of the physicochemical properties of the elements, as electro negativity, ionic strength and

the diameter of the hydrated ion in aqueous solution, have influence on the behavior of metals

biogeochemical. Electro negativity influences the order in which the heavy metals are absorbed

by soil constituents, the more electronegative metals tend to form strong covalent bonds with

oxygen atoms on the surface. For some divalent metals, binding preferences could be: Cu> Ni>

Co> Pb> Cd> Zn> Mg> Sr.10 However, it also influences the binding forces, ionic potential, and

preferences can be: Ni> Mg> Cu> Co> Zn> Cd> Sr> Pb. Trivalent trace metals as Fe 3+ and Cr3+

may be preferentially adsorbed this in presence of divalent metals listed above. Similarly, it

9
should be mentioned that Mn oxides show a particularly strong preference for the adsorption of

and Pb, while oxides of Fe and Al preferentially adsorb Pb and Cu.

Because of this variety of factors, mobility and risk of toxicity to different organisms and human

health due to the presence of metals, it cannot be solely based on the total concentration of the

element in question, but rather in their physical chemical state. The bioavailability of the

elements refers to biologically available forms that can become absorbed by the organisms and

integrated into your metabolism, this will depend mainly on the species in which the metals are

in the soil and the absorptive capacity of the organism self. In fact, absorption and toxicity of

many metals, depend on the chemical species in which the metal is located, and are often

correlated with the activity of free metal ion.

The process of sequential extraction it is a frequently used tool for the fractionation of metals in

soil, and it allows us to identify the main points of union and associations of trace elements in

different soil constituents. This allows evaluating the potential remobilization of metals and the

risk of release towards the dissolution of soil. Likewise, there are some simple extraction

methods to study the ecotoxicity and mobility of metals in soils, to determine the fraction of

bioavailable m-etal. They have been used a variety of extractants, such as strong acids, or

solutions of neutral salts, may be buffered or unbuffered, and metal complex agents.83,86 Some

of them are widely used, such as EDTA, DTPA, or the mixture of ammonium/EDTA acetate,

which often cause good correlations between the extracted metals and absorbed by plants.

2.1.3 POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF SOME SELECTED HEAVY METALS AND

METALLOIDS

Lead (Pb)

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Toxicological review of lead has shown inhibition of the activity of d-aminolaevulinic

dehydratase (porphobilinogen synthase, one of the major enzymes involved in the biosynthesis

of heme) and developmental problems such as impaired cognitive function, behavioral disorder,

stunted growth, and impaired hearing at blood lead level as low as 5 μg/l. Lead also interferes

with calcium metabolism, both directly and by interfering with vitamin D metabolism; it

concentrated largely in bones in animals and humans and interferes with the normal maturation

of erythroid elements in the bone marrow. These effects have been observed in children at blood

lead levels ranging from 12 to 120 μg/l. Lead is toxic to both the central and peripheral nervous

systems, inducing subencephalopathic neurological and behavioral effects. Other effects include

epidemiological effects (blood lead level of 30 μg/l), intelligence quotient deficits of about four

points in children due to prenatal/postnatal exposure to lead (blood lead level ranging from 11 to

33 μg/l), headache, irritability, constipation, weight loss, fatigue, hypertension, miscarriages,

stillbirths, and renal tumors. However, there is evidence from studies in humans that adverse

neurotoxic effects other than cancer may occur at very low concentrations of lead, and that a

guideline value derived on this basis would also be protective for carcinogenic effects.

Manganese (Mn)

Adverse effects of Mn can result from both deficiency and overexposure, causing neurological

effects due to high level in drinking water, which can cause tremor, gait disorders (seen in

primate), psychological symptoms such as irritability, and emotional liability. For instance,

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, according to Hubbs-Tait et al. is a progressive neurological

disorder, which appears to be a disease that may reflect a deficiency of Mg or Mn. The decreased

intake of Mg or Mn leads to a decreased ability to store and use thiamin (vitamin B1). These

11
authors further noted that there is some evidence suggesting that Parkinson’s disease may be

casually related to Mn, but in this case, to an excess of it.

Nickel (Ni)

Nickel is an essential trace element in animals. Some of its health risk includes fibrosis, chronic

bronchitis, impaired pulmonary function, and emphysema. Allergic contact dermatitis is the most

prevalent effect of toxicity of nickel in the general population. However, it is suspected to be an

essential element for some plants and animals. Ni deficiency results in decreased plasma

cholesterol, increased liver cholesterol, ultrastructural changes in the liver calls, rough hair,

impaired reproduction, and poor growth of the offspring.’

Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is an essential trace element whose threshold value in surface and groundwater normally do

not exceed 0.01 and 0.05 μg/l, respectively. However, concentrations in tap water can be much

higher as a result of dissolution of zinc from pipes. It should be noted that drinking water

containing zinc levels above 3 μg/l may not be acceptable for consumers.

Cobalt (Co)

Cobalt is an essential microelement for humans in the form of vitamin B12 with a complex

pathway through the food to man. Deficiency of Co results in pernicious anemia syndrome,

whereby the intrinsic factor from the stomach that facilitates B12 absorption is absent,

characterized by larger than normal (macrocytic) red blood cells plus neurologic abnormalities.

Excessive Co added to the foam stabilizer in beer however produced severe cardiomyopathy,

haematologic, neurologic, and thyroid abnormalities in humans. A relationship between

Co/iodine (I) ratios in geochemical environment showed an inverse correlation between Co in

water and soil and thyroid enlargement in animal and man.

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Copper (Cu) and Chromium (Cr)

These are important essential elements but when consumed in excess, they cause toxicity. It

should be noted that the threshold for the effects of copper on the gastrointestinal tract still leaves

some uncertainty regarding the long-term effects of Cu on sensitive populations, such as carriers

of gene for Wilson disease and other metabolic disorders of copper homeostasis. Copper

deficiency results in kinky and steely hair syndrome in humans and abnormal wool in sheep,

while excessive Cu intake results to hepatolenticular degeneration with progressive impairment

of Cu-laden tissues until death results. It also helps in interconversion of the major

neurotransmitters, dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline, and in pigment production. Zinc-Cu

interaction has shown hypothesis of ischemic heart disease, which proposes that decreased Cu

intake with excessive Zn may play an aetiologic role in cardiac deaths in both animals and man.

Contamination and pollution of vegetable and soils near smelters does occur, and excessive Cu

in drinking water has been reported to have caused a toxic syndrome in an infant called pink

disease. Chromium helps to maintain blood glucose levels, but its toxicity can result in allergic

dermatitis such as eczema.

Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium may also be adsorbed onto organic substances, such as humic and fulvic acids, and

therefore organic-rich waters may have higher Cd concentrations given a local Cd source.

Chronic exposure to the metal can lead to kidney disorders, anemia, emphysema, anosmia (loss

of sense and smell), cardiovascular diseases, renal problems, and hypertension. Itai-itai disease

appears to be a Cd-related disease, which is very painful and causes the wastage and

embrittlement of bones.

Arsenic (As)

13
Arsenic is a metalloid whose chronic exposure effects include tingling, numbness, and peripheral

neuropathy according to Plant and Thornton. These authors also argued that arsenic toxicity in

cattle has been found to cause dysentery and respiratory distress. An ecological correlation

between the arsenic level of well water and mortality from various malignant neoplasm in China

(Province of Taiwan) demonstrated a significant association with the arsenic level in well water

ranging from 0.35 to 1.14 mg/l with a median of 0.78 mg/l for cancer of the liver, nasal cavity,

lung, skin, bladder, and kidney and hyperpigmentation, hyperkeratosis, Blackfoot disease (a type

of gangrene) in both males and females, and prostate cancer in males.

2.1.4 Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Uptake by Plant

Contaminant uptake by plants and its mechanisms have been being explored by several

researchers. It could be used to optimize the factors to improve the performance of plant uptake.

According to Sinha et al. [36], the plants act both as “accumulators” and “excluders”.

Accumulators survive despite concentrating contaminants in their aerial tissues. They biodegrade

or biotransform the contaminants into inert forms in their tissues. The excluders restrict

contaminant uptake into their biomass.

Plants have evolved highly specific and very efficient mechanisms to obtain essential

micronutrients from the environment, even when present at low ppm levels. Plant roots, aided by

plant-produced chelating agents and plant-induced pH changes and redox reactions, are able to

solubilize and take up micronutrients from very low levels in the soil, even from nearly insoluble

precipitates. Plants have also evolved highly specific mechanisms to translocate and store

micronutrients. These same mechanisms are also involved in the uptake, translocation, and

storage of toxic elements, whose chemical properties simulate those of essential elements. Thus,

micronutrient uptake mechanisms are of great interest to phytoremediation (Prasad 2003).

14
The range of known transport mechanisms or specialized proteins embedded in the plant cell

plasma membrane involved in ion uptake and translocation include (1) proton pumps (″-ATPases

that consume energy and generate electrochemical gradients), (2) co- and antitransporters

(proteins that use the electrochemical gradients generated by ″-ATPases to drive the active

uptake of ions), and (3) channels (proteins that facilitate the transport of ions into the cell). Each

transport mechanism is likely to take up a range of ions. A basic problem is the interaction of

ionic species during uptake of various heavy metal contaminants. After uptake by roots,

translocation into shoots is desirable because the harvest of root biomass is generally not

feasible. Little is known regarding the forms in which metal ions are transported from the roots

to the shoots (U. S. Department of Energy 1993).

Plant uptake-translocation mechanisms are likely to be closely regulated. Plants generally do not

accumulate trace elements beyond near-term metabolic needs. And these requirements are small

ranging from 10 to 15 ppm of most trace elements suffice for most needs The exceptions are

“hyperaccumulator” plants, which can take up toxic metal ions at levels in the thousands of ppm.

Another issue is the form in which toxic metal ions are stored in plants, particularly in

hyperaccumulating plants, and how these plants avoid metal toxicity. Multiple mechanisms are

involved. Storage in the vacuole appears to be a major one (U. S. Department of Energy 1993).

Water, evaporating from plant leaves, serves as a pump to absorb nutrients and other soil

substances into plant roots. This process, termed evapotranspiration, is responsible for moving

contamination into the plant shoots as well. Since contamination is translocated from roots to the

shoots, which are harvested, contamination is removed while leaving the original soil

undisturbed. Some plants that are used in phytoextraction strategies are termed

“hyperaccumulators.” They are plants that achieve a shoot-to-root metal-concentration ratio

15
greater than one. Nonaccumulating plants typically have a shoot-to-root ratio considerably less

than one. Ideally, hyperaccumulators should thrive in toxic environments, require little

maintenance and produce high biomass, although few plants perfectly fulfill these requirements

(Salido, 2003).

Metal accumulating plant species can concentrate heavy metals like Cd, Zn, Co, Mn, Ni, and Pb

up to 100 or 1000 times those taken up by nonaccumulator (excluder) plants. In most cases,

microorganisms bacteria and fungi, living in the rhizosphere closely associated with plants, may

contribute to mobilize metal ions, increasing the bioavailable fraction. Their role in eliminating

organic contaminants is even more significant than that in case of inorganic compounds (Erdei

2003ab).

2.1.5 Transfer Factor

Vegetables are an important part of human’s diet and sources of important nutrients like protein,

vitamins, minerals, fiber etc. (Arai, 2002). Heavy metal accumulation in soils and plants is of

increasing concern because of the potential human health risks. Through food chain toxic

pollutants can enter human body (Qadir et al., 1999). Consequently, serious systemic health

problems such as belly ache, renal dysfunction, pulmonary emphysema (Yeung and Hsu, 2005;

Kirkham, 2006) can develop from excessive dietary accumulation of toxic metals in human

body. Thus determination of metal in environmental samples such as soils and vegetables is very

necessary for monitoring environmental pollution (Tuzen, 2003; Al-Khashman, 2007). Leafy

vegetables grown in heavy metals contaminated soils accumulate higher amounts of metals

compare to those grown in uncontaminated soils (Al Jassir et al., 2005).

Transmission of metals from soil to plant tissues is studied using an index called Transfer Factor

(TF). It is calculated as a ratio of concentration of a specific metal in plant tissue to the

16
concentration of same metal in soil, both represented in same units. Higher TF values (≥1)

indicate higher absorption of metal from soil by the plant and higher suitability of the plant for

phyto-extraction and phytoremediation. On the contrary, lower values indicate poor response of

plants towards metal absorption and the plant can be used for human consumption. The

availability of metals for plants is controlled by plant’s requests for micronutrients and their

capacity to absorb and eliminate toxic elements. This availability is different, depending on plant

species and their adaptation to the environmental conditions.

Based on this, plants can be divided into three categories: excluderators, indicators and

accumulators. Herbs absorb less metal than fast growing plants such as lettuce, spinach,

tomatoes, carrot and tobacco. Different plant parts contain different heavy metals quantities; the

highest quantities are in roots and leaves, and the lowest are in fruits and seeds. Accumulation of

Pb in the seed coat is a form of protection mechanism from the unfavorable effects of high

concentrations and lead accumulation in the central parts of the seed (embryo). Seeds with the

largest total mass accumulate less content of Pb in embryo and endosperm. The analysis of the

roots may indicate the degree of heavy metals accumulation in the polluted soil and could offer

clues on the soil pollution degree, and the analysis of leaves may even suggest the atmosphere

pollution degree.

Determination of Transfer Factor (TF): The transfer coefficient is calculated by dividing the

concentration of heavy metals in vegetables by the total heavy metal concentration in the soil.

where, Cplant = metal concentration in plant tissue, mg kg-1 fresh weight and C soil = metal

concentration in soil, mg kg-1 dry weight.

17
2.2.6 Phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is defined as an emerging technology using selected plants to clean up the

contaminated environment from hazardous contaminant to improve the environment quality.

Figure 1 depicts the uptake mechanisms of both organics and inorganics contaminants through

phytoremediation technology. For organics, it involves phytostabilization, rhizodegradation,

rhizofiltration, phytodegradation, and phytovolatilization. These mechanisms related to organic

contaminant property are not able to be absorbed into the plant tissue. For inorganics,

mechanisms which can be involved are phytostabilization, rhizofiltration, phytoaccumulation

and phytovolatilization.

Based on Figure 1, some certain essential processes involved in phytoremediation technology are

phytostabilization and phytoextraction for inorganic contaminants, and phytotransformation/

phytodegradation, rhizofiltration, and rhizodegradation for organic contaminants.

18
The root plants exudates to stabilize, demobilize and bind the contaminants in the soil matrix,

thereby reducing their bioavailability. These all are called as phytostabilization process. Certain

plant species have used to immobilize contaminants in the soil and ground water through

absorption and accumulation by roots, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation within the root

zone. This process is for organics and metals contaminants in soils, sediments, and sludges

medium (Pehlivan 2003)

Specific plant species can absorb and hyperaccumulate metal contaminants and/or excess

nutrients in harvestable root and shoot tissue, from the growth substrate through phytoextraction

process. This is for metals, metalloids, radionuclides, nonmetals, and organics contaminants in

soils, sediments, and sludges medium (Pehlivan 2003)

Phytovolatilization process is the plants ability to absorb and subsequently volatilize the

contaminant into the atmosphere. This process is for metal contaminants in groundwater, soils,

sediments, and sludges medium. Since phytotransformation/phytodegradation process is the

breakdown of contaminants taken up by plants through metabolic processes within the plant or

the breakdown of contaminants externally to the plant through the effect of compounds produced

by the plants. This process is for complex organic molecules that are degraded into simpler

molecule contaminants in soils, sediments, sludges, and groundwater medium (Pehlivan 2003).

Plant roots take up metal contaminants and/or excess nutrients from growth substrates through

rhizofiltration (root) process, the adsorption, or, precipitation onto plant roots or absorption into

the roots of contaminants that are in solution surrounding the root zone. This process is for

metals, excess nutrients, and radionuclide contaminants in groundwater, surface water, and

wastewater medium (European Commission 2000).

19
The breakdown of contaminants in the soil through microbial activity that is enhanced by the

presence of the root zone is called rhizodegradation. This process uses microorganisms to

consume and digest organic substances for nutrition and energy. Natural substances released by

the plant roots, sugars, alcohols, and acids, contain organic carbon that provides food for soil

microorganisms and establish a dense root mass that takes up large quantities of water. This

process is for organic substance contaminants in soil medium (European Commission 2000).

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Site

Kashere is a settlement in Akko L.G.A, Gombe state, Nigeria and located on Lat 9°59'0" N and

10°56'0"E. It is located at an elevation of 523m above sea level.

3.2 Sample Matrix/ Sample Codes

Nine soil samples was collected at each sample site and mixed into a composite representative

sample for each sample site.

3.3 Sample Collection, Preservation and Pretreatment

Amaranthus spp, Tomatoes, and Okra were collected in within Kashere community. Plant

samples were chosen randomly from the soil sampled farms.

The soil samples were collected from soil surface (0 – 20cm depth) at ten different spots with the

help of stainless steel. The soil samples were placed into a nitric acid treated polythene bag to

prevent metals from adhering to the containers and then transported to the laboratory where they

were air dried for about 3days then oven-dried to constant weight at 105 , disaggregated in a

ceramic pestle and mortar, ground to powder and sieved, (Kisamo, 2003, Ndimele and Jimoh,

2011).

20
3.4 Sample of Digestion

Soil samples were digested with 15mL of concentrated acid mixtures (5mL conc.HClO 4, 15mL

conc.HNO3, and 10mL conc. H2SO4) was poured into the 100mL beaker containing the soil

sample (1g), covered with watch glasses, and heated over a water bath in a fume cupboard until

the digestion was complete. The content of the beaker was then diluted to 100mL with de-

ionized water and transferred to dispersing bottles for heavy metal analysis (Ndimele and Jimoh,

2011, Wufen, et al., 2009).

The plant samples were washed with tap water followed by deionized water to eliminate soil

particles and dust. The edible parts were also separated from the other portions and rinsed with

deionized water so as to remove surface contaminants like soil, dust and spray residues. The

samples were chopped by scissor in to small pieces and packed in aluminum foil and the samples

were dried in an oven at 70 ℃ for 96hrs. The dried samples was ground and homogenized into

fine powder with a grinding device and then stored in plastic bags for further chemical analysis.

The plant were Nitric acid, (69%, Merck, France), 37% HCl (Fine Chem. Industries Mumbai,

France) and extra pure hydrogen peroxide 30% H 2O2, (Scharlau, European Union) were used for

digestion of the various plants and its supporting soil samples.

3.5 Apparatus/ Reagents

All glass ware, including sample bottles, burette, and pipettes used were washed cleaned and

rinsed with HNO3, followed by distilled water to avoid errors arising from contamination. All

reagents used were of analytical grade (APHA, 1985; Ademoroti, 1996).

3.6 Physio-Chemical Parameters Determined

Physio-chemical parameters of samples determined in the course of study are as follows

21
3.6.1 Determination of pH of Soil

The pH of the soil samples was measured using a Kelilong portable electronic pH meter (KL-

009). Just before the pH meter was used it was standardized with three buffer solutions of

different pH values to serve as check for proper instrument response. Buffers with pH values of

2,7and 12 were used, About 20g air-dry tailing sample was mixed with 100mL of distilled water

and in a 250mL volumetric flask, shaken for 1 hour and the pH measured (Miller and Kissel,

2010).

3.6.2 Determination of Moisture Content Determination in Soil

About 4g of sample was weighed into a previously weighed crucible, and then transferred into an

oven set at 105 to dry to constant weight for 24 hours overnight. At the end of the 24 hours, the

crucible plus sample was removed from the oven and transferred to desiccators, cooled for ten

minutes and weighed. The moisture content of the sample was thus determined as below:

w 1−w3
Moisture content = X 100
w1−w o

Where, weight of empty crucible = W0

Weight of crucible + sample = W1

Weight of crucible + oven dried sample = W3

3.6.3 Determination of Transfer factor

Transfer factor (TF) were calculated to determine the degree of metal accumulation in the plants

grown at the farm site:

Concentration of metal∈ plant

TF =
Concentration of metal∈soil

22
3.6.4 Electrical conductivity (EC)

Electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract was determined at a 1:2.5 soil/water ratio

(Udo et al., 2009). Ten (10) grams of the soil samples were soaked with 25mls of distilled water

for 24 hours. The suspension was then read using a Wheatstone bridge at 25oC.

3.7 Method of Analysis

The method of analysis used in determining heavy metals content of samples is the atomic

absorption spectrophotometric (AAS) method, due to its accessibility, specificity, wide range of

application, low detection limit, and cost effectiveness (Ademoroti, 1996). The heavy metal

content of the samples where determined using an atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS), Perkin

Elmer 400ASS.

3.8 Statistical Analysis

The minimum, maximum, range, mean, and standard deviation, as well as the student t-test

values of the concentrations of heavy metals in soil were determined. Microsoft excel 2016, were

employed in statistical analysis.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results obtained from physio-chemical and Atomic Absorption

Spectroscopy. The samples include soil samples (A, B, and C), while plant samples comprise

(Amaranthus caudatus, Solanum lycopersicum, and Abelmoschus esculentus). Heavy metal

concentration of both soil and plants were detected, while Transfer factor of the heavy metals

were calculated respectively to the metals.

4.1 Presentation of Result

Table 4.1.2 Physio-Chemical Determination

PARAMETERS SOIL A SOIL B SOIL C

pH 8.223 6.696 6.553
EC 3.020µs/cm 0.493µs/cm 0.323µs/cm
MC (%) 2.50 2.50 8.01
NB: EC= Electric Conductivity pH=Hydrogen Ions MC=Moisture Content

Determination of pH

The pH of the soil samples was measured using a Kelilong Portable Electronic pH Meter in the

Chemical Science Laboratory, Federal University of Kashere. The pH of Kashere soil varies

from 6.553 – 8.233. The minimum pH value was at Sample C which was slightly alkaline, and

the maximum value was at sample A (Along Billiri Road) is slightly acidic. The pH of soils in

this study is favorable for the growth of food crops. Heavy metal ions are more mobile in acidic

conditions; heavy metals are freely available and absorbed by plants from the soil at this

condition.Soil pH is important because it influences several soil factors affecting plant growth,

such as:

24
 i. Soil bacteria

ii. Nutrient leaching

iii. Nutrient availability

iv. Toxic elements

v. Soil structure.

Bacterial activity that releases nitrogen from organic matter and certain fertilizers is particularly

affected by soil pH, because bacteria operate best in the pH range of 5.5 to 7.0. Plant nutrients

leach out of soils with a pH below 5.0 much more rapidly than from soils with values between

5.0 and 7.5. Plant nutrients are generally most available to plants in the pH range 5.5 to 6.5. The

structure of the soil, especially of clay, is affected by pH. In the optimum pH range (5.5 to 7.0)

clay soils are granular and are easily worked, whereas if the soil pH is either extremely acid or

extremely alkaline, clays tend to become sticky and hard to cultivate.

Despite the fact that pH is not an indication of fertility, but it does affect the availability of

fertilizer nutrients. A soil may contain adequate nutrients yet growth may be limited by a very

unfavorable pH. Likewise, builder's sand, which is virtually devoid of nutrients, may have an

optimum pH for plant growth Nesmith and McElwee (2003).

Moisture Content

The moisture content of soils at Kashere ranged from 2.5% to 8.01%. The maximum value was shown in

sample C. Water contained in the soil is called soil moisture. The water is held within soil pores. The soil

moisture is the key factor in determining how the soil of the region supports vegetation and crops.

25
Electric Conductivity

The electric conductivity of the sample shows value of 3.02ms/cm for Sample A, 0.493ms/cm

and 0.323ms/cm accounts for Sample B and Sample C respectively. Soil EC is affected by

cropping, irrigation, land use, and application of fertilizer, manure, and compost. When

managing for salinity on irrigated land, irrigation water salinity must also be measured. Irrigating

in amounts too low to leach salts, or with water high in salts, allows salts to accumulate in the

root zone, increasing EC.

Elemental Analysis of Soil

Table 4.2 Heavy metal Concentration (mg/L) in Sample A

Concentration(mg/L)
Lead (Pb) Cadmium Chromium (Cr) Zinc Iron (Fe)
(Cd) (Zn)
Soil A 0.0031 0.0402 0.0400 0.0042 0.0211
0.0035 0.0413 0.0012 0.0045 0.0108
Mean 0.0033 0.0408 0.0206 0.0043 0.01595
SD 0.00028 0.00078 0.02744 0.00021 0.00728
SEM 0.0001 0.0004 0.0002 0.0001 0.0003
Sample A= Soil Sample Along Billiri Road
SD = Standard Deviation
SEM= Scanning Electron Microscopy

Table 4.2 above shows the concentration of heavy metals in sample A. lead has concentration

value of 0.0033 ± 0.00028, Cadmium 0.0408 ± 0.00078, Chromium 0.0206 ± 0.0274, Zinc

0.0043 ± 0.00021, and Iron 0.01595 ± 0.00728. The trend of the concentration level is Pb < Zn <

Fe < Cr < Cd.

26
Table 4.3 Heavy metal Concentration (mg/L) in Sample B

Concentration(mg/
L)
Lead (Pb) Cadmium(Cd) Chromium (Cr) Zinc Iron (Fe)
(Zn)
Soil B 0.0027 0.0320 0.0036 0.0031 0.0121
0.0023 0.0317 0.0016 0.0024 0.0058
Mean 0.0025 0.0319 0.0026 0.00275 0.00895
SD 0.00028 0.00021 0.00141 0.00049 0.00445
SEM 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002
Sample A= Soil Sample Along Billiri Road
SD = Standard Deviation
SEM= Scanning Electron Microscopy

Table 4.3 above shows the concentration of heavy metals in sample B. Lead has concentration

value of 0.0027 ± 0.00028, Cadmium 0.0319 ± 0.00021, Chromium 0.0026 ± 0.00141, Zinc

0.00275 ± 0.00049, and Iron 0.00895 ± 0.00445. The trend of the concentration level is Pb < Cr

< Zn < Fe < Cd.

Table 4.4 Heavy metal Concentration (mg/L) in Sample C

Sample Concentration(mg/L)
Lead (Pb) Cadmium Chromium (Cr) Zinc Iron (Fe)
(Cd) (Zn)
Soil C 0.0020 0.0275 0.0042 0.0052 0.0024
0.0018 0.0270 0.0036 0.0036 0.0030
Mean 0.0019 0.0273 0.0039 0.0044 0.0027
SD 0.00014 0.00035 0.00042 0.00113 0.00042
SEM 0.0001 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002

Table 4.5 above shows the concentration of heavy metals in sample C. Lead has concentration

value of 0.0019 ± 0.00014, Cadmium 0.0273 ± 0.00035, Chromium 0.0039 ± 0.00042, Zinc

27
0.0044 ± 0.00113, and Iron 0.0027 ± 0.00042. The trend of the concentration level is Pb < Fe <

Cr < Zn < Cd.

Table 4.5 Heavy metal Concentration (mg/L) in Okra

Concentration(mg/L)
Lead (Pb) Cadmium(Cd) Chromium (Cr) Zinc (Zn) Iron (Fe)
A Okro 0.0012 0.0069 0.0024 0.0032 0.0021
0.0011 0.0062 BDL 0.0021 0.00
Mean 0.00115 0.00655 0.0024 0.00265 0.00105
SD 0.000007 0.00410 0.00092 0.00148 0.00148
SEM 0.0000 0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000

The concentration of heavy metals in Okra. Lead has concentration value of 0.00115 ± 0.000007,

Cadmium 0.00655 ± 0.00410, Chromium 0.0024 ± 0.00092, the second sample was below

detection level for Cadmium, Zinc 0.00265 ± 0.00148, and Iron 0.00105 ± 0.00148. The trend of

the concentration level is Fe < Pb < Cr < Zn < Cd.

4.6 Heavy metal Concentration (mg/L) in Spinach

Sample Concentration(mg/L)
Lead (Pb) Cadmium(Cd) Chromium (Cr) Zinc Iron (Fe)
(Zn)
Spinach B.D.L 0.0050 BDL 0.0042 0.0045
ND 0.0042 0.0005 0.0018 0.0026
Mean ND 0.0046 0.0005 0.003 0.00355
SD ND 0.00056 0.00035 0.00169 0.00134
SEM ND 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002

The concentration of heavy metals in Spinach. Lead was beyond detection limit, Cadmium

0.0046 ± 0.00056, Chromium 0.0005 ± 0.00035, Zinc 0.00030 ± 0.00169, and Iron 0.00355 ±

0.00134. The trend of the concentration level is Zn < Cr < Fe < Cd.

28
4.7 Heavy Metal Concentration (mg/L) in Tomatoes

Concentration(mg/
L)
Lead (Pb) Cadmium(Cd) Chromium (Cr) Zinc Iron (Fe)
(Zn)
A Tomatoes B.D.L 0.0058 BDL 0.0052 0.0052
ND 0.0057 0.0001 0.0021 0.0078
Mean ND 0.00575 0.0001 0.00365 0.0065
SD ND 0.005725 0.00005 0.00365 0.0065
SEM ND 0.0000 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002

The concentration of heavy metals in Spinach. Lead was beyond detection limit, Cadmium

0.0046 ± 0.00056, Chromium 0.0005 ± 0.00035, Zinc 0.00030 ± 0.00169, and Iron 0.00355 ±

0.00134. The trend of the concentration level is Zn < Cr < Fe < Cd.

4.8 Transfer Factor

Lead (Pb) Cadmium(Cd) Chromium (Cr) Zinc Iron (Fe)

(Zn)
Okra 0.0448 0.1965 0.265 0.694 0.114
Spinach ND 0.138 0.055 0.786 0.385
Tomatoes ND 0.1725 0.011 0.956 0.706

The trend of transfer factor of heavy metal concentration in the plants listed above is sorted from

the least concentration to the highest, thus the trend is shown below:

For Okra, the trend is Fe < Cd < Cr < Pb < Zn, for Spinach the trend is Pb < Cd < Fe < Cr < Zn,

while the trend for tomatoes is Pb < Cr < Cd < Fe < Zn.

The transfer factor coefficient of Zinc was relatively high in the plants respectively (0.694,

0.786, and 0.956). The accumulation of Zinc by the plants shows that the plants are

bioindicators of Zinc pollution. According to Sajjad et al. if the transfer coefficient of a metal is

greater than 0.5, the plant will have a greater chance of the metal contamination by

29
anthropogenic activities. Normal concentrations of Pb in plants are 0.0001-0.0010mg/l according

to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1989) while toxic concentrations of Pb are defined as 0.0030-

0.030mg/l. Our results shows that lead accumulation in Okra has 0.0448, while tomatoes and

spinach has zero traces of lead. than the other vegetables. The TF values of Cadmium shows

(0.197, 0.138, and 0.173) which accounts for Okra, Spinach and tomatoes respectively. Okra has

the highest TF value (0.197). As these plants are widely consumed by humans, it is apparent that

toxic elements can be easily transferred to human’s body creating disruption in various

biological systems. Depending on their Cd content, plants are considered Cd accumulators or Cd

avoiders. Generally, it is accepted that the normal Cd concentrations in plants are between

0.0002 and 0.0008 mg/l and toxic concentrations of Cd are defined as 0.5000-0.3000 mg/l)

Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1989). Thus, the concentration of Cadmium in the various plants

were relatively high. The TF value of Iron (0.114, 0.385, and 0.706) which accounts for okra,

Spinach and Tomatoes respectively. In the case of ionisable salts, iron from ferric salts is less

well absorbed than from ferrous salts (approximately two- to threefold), and could be tolerated at

higher levels. The provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for man [0.8] mg/kg

bw/d, which applies to iron from all sources except for iron oxides used as colouring agents,

supplemental iron taken during pregnancy and lactation, and supplemental iron for specific

clinical requirements. As prescribe by Who, the average daily intake of Iron 17 mg/d (males, age

20-34) & 9-12 mg/day (females).

30
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

This study makes evaluation of heavy metals in Agricultural soil and transfer of same to

abelmoschus esculentus, solanum lycopersicum and amaranthus caudatus in Kashere. The study

has two objectives; Determine some heavy metals contents in cultivated agricultural soils of

Kashere and to determine transfer factors of heavy metals contents in some selected crops;

Amaranthus spp, Tomatoes, and Okra. Both physio-chemical and heavy metal concentration of

Agricultural soils samples were identified. The instrument used for analysing heavy metals in

plants and soil samples was Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). The elements that were

identified were Cadmium, lead, Zinc, Chromium and Iron. The pH of Kashere was suitable for

crop cultivation, the traced of heavy metals in the soil was Cr > Zn > Cd > Pb > Fe. The transfer

factor of the heavy metals were identified.

5.2 Conclusion

The capacity of accumulating different heavy metals of different plant species is related to the

heavy metal content in soil and the alternative absorptivity to heavy metals. The concentration of

heavy metals in soil depended mainly on the characteristics of the soil sample and the distance

from the source of contamination. Uptake and accumulation of heavy metals by plants varied

with heavy metal type and plant species. Therefore, this research concludes that:

i. The traces of heavy metals (Fe, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn) were normal in the soil.

ii. The transfer factor in plants shows that Fe and Zn were normal according to WHO, while

in Okra has high concentration of lead, while Spinach and Tomatoes were beyond

detection limit.

31
iii. The physio-chemical properties of Kashere Agricultural Soil were moderate for optimum

cultivation.

5.3 Recommendation

The recommendations made from the findings of this research work are:

i. Individuals who want to grow Okra in Kashere soils are advised to maintain soil pH >

6.5, and use adequate NPK fertilizers to minimize plant uptake of Pb.

ii. Application of organic amendments, such as compost, can further reduce Pb uptake by

crops. However, vegetables should be washed to remove soil and deposited aerosols.

iii. Soil remediation techniques such as soil washing, vitrification, and phytoremediation

processes should be encourage.

32
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