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EVA LUA

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or
l lowever, ·m ,t,ew o f the posl':1bili1y huma n error o r changes in med ical sciences, n e:ith er1he editors, no r the publish er, no r
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in- Publication Data

Autho r: l\auma n, Adrian E. ( Adrian Ernest), a utho r.
Title: Evaluatio n ·m a nut.she.II: a practical g u ide lo the evalu ation o f h ealth promo tio n progra ms/Adria n Ba uman &
Don N utbeam.
Edi(1o n: 2 n d ed itio n
ISBN : 9780071016209 (paperbod<)
Notes: Includes b ·1 b1'1ogra p hical referen ces a nd ind ex.
Su b jects: Health p romo fion.
I lealth planning.
O th er Autho rs/
Co n tr'1buto r:-: N utbeam, Don, au th o r.
Dewey Numbe r: 613

Publish ed in Austra l'1a by

McG raw-Hill Education (Australia.) Pty Ltd
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Prin ted in C hina o n 90 gsm matt art by RR Donnelley
 List of tables and figures VI

About the authors IX

Preface XI

Introduction Xlll

Planning for evaluation 1

1.1 Problem definition: starting at the end 3
1.2 Planning a solution 3
1.3 Creating the right conditions for the successful
implementation of programs 5
1.4 Planning for the implementation of health promotion
projects and progTams 6
1.5 Health promotion actions and outcomes 7
1.6 Evaluation 11
1.7 Summary 13
References 16
Further reading 16

Research and evaluation in h ealth promotion:

key stages, methods and types 17

2.1 Evaluation methods and types 17

2.2 Balancing scientific design with practical need 19
2.3 Stages of evaluation 22
2.4 Quantitative and qualitative methods in program
evaluation 32
2.5 Fom,ative, process and outcome evaluations 35
2.6 Sununary 36
References 37
iV CONTENTS

Formative evaluation 38
3.1 Formative evaluation: testing methods and materials befo.re
starting a project or program of work 38
3.2 Formative evaluation for different types of health promotion
intervention 47
3.3 Summary 48
References 48

Process evaluation 51
4.1 Assessing the.implementation of health promotion
projects and programs 51
4.2 Methods for conducting process evaluation 54
4.3 Summary 61
References 61

Evaluation methods for health promotion projects

[interventions] 64
5.1 Evaluation designs for health promotion projects 65
5.2 Selection bias and sampling 74
5.3 Statistical significance and data analysis 77
5.4 Health promotion measure.ment 79
5.5 Summary 87
References 87

Complex program evaluation 89

6.1 Background to complex program evaluation (CPE) 89
6.2 Complex public health interventions 90
6.3 Formative and process evaluation for CPE 92
6.4 Evaluation designs for complex programs 95
6.5 Challenges in conducting CPEs 97
6.6 Summary 102
References 102
 CONTENT S V

..
Evaluation methods for program replication,
dissemination and institutionalisation 104
7.1 Stages in assessing the sjgnificance of programs 105
7.2 Replication (intervention demonstration) 107
7.3 Dissemination 111
7 .4 Institutionalisation 114
7.5 Summa1y 116
References 11 7

Evidence, practice, policy and the critical practitioner 119

8.1 Getting evidence into pr actice 119
8.2 Getting evidence into policy 123
8.3 Critical appraisal of research and evaluation evidence 124
8.4 Concluding comments: evaluation- art and science 128
References 129

Appendices 130
Glossaiy 141
Index 149
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Hypothetical logic model: planning a health
promotion program to improve healthy food
in school canteens 15

Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The differences and similarities between
practitioner and scientific perspectives of health
promotion programs 21
Table 2.2 Case studies of research illustrating the stages in
the model using different health promotion
interventions 30

Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Examples of the uses of formative evaluation in health
promotion 43

Chapter4
Table 4.1 Practical tasks in carrying out process evaluation tasks 55
Table4.2 Examples of process evaluation (PE) 57

Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Examples of research design 72
Table 5.2 Sampling methods used in the evaluation of health
promotion interventions 76
Table 5.3 Measurement at ruffe1·ent stages of program evaluation 85
 LI ST OF TABLE S A ND FIGURE S Vii

Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Published e."<amples of CPEs showing 'complexity' in
formative, process and in1pact evaluation 100

Chapter?
Table 7.1 Replication and d issemination examples 110

Chapters
Table 8.1 Examples of systematic reviews of health
promotion evidence 126

Appendices
Table A2.1 Examples of statistical techniques and analysis in a
hypothetical (and effective) weight-loss intervention 131
Table A3.1 Some examples of techniques and methods used to
assess measure:me:nt reliability and validity 133

Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The planning and evaluation cycle 2
Figure 1.2 Health promotion actions and outcomes 8
Figure 1.3 Theoretical distrib ution over time of outcomes
from health promotion inte1ventioos 12

Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Building evidence: for public health programs:
stages of research and evaluation 24

Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Stages showing formative, process and impact/
outcome evaluations 39
Viii LI ST OF TABLE S AND FIGURES

Chapter4
Figure 4.1 Advanced statistical modelling in process evaluation:
understanding bow interventions work through
mediator and moderator analyses 60

Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The evaluation process 66
Figure 5.2 Quantitative evaluati on designs for individual
progran1s (stage 3 of Figure 2.1), ranked from
'most scientific' experimental designs to less scientific
'pre-experimental' designs 74
Figure 5.3 Reliability (reproducibility) and responsiveness of
measurement 83

Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Complex interventions: planning and
evaluation stages 92

Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Stages in scaling up interventions to achieve
population health 106
Figure 7.2 Conceptual framework for research replication and
dissemination 107

Chapter B
Figure 8.1 Variation in the use of evidence in health promotion:
planned, responsive and reactive practice 120
Adria n Bauman is Sesquicentenary Professor of Public Health and Health
Promotion at the University of Sydney, Australia. He directs the WHO
Collaborating Centre on Physical Activity, Nutrition and Obesity, which
has a major interest in chronic disease prevention. He has taught health
promotion research methods and program evaluation to public health
students for 30 years, and has applied these principles in his population
health research program. His recen t research interests are in research
translation and in evaluating scaled-up health promotion inteIVentions at
the population level.

Don Nutbeam is Vice-Chancellor of the University of Southampton, UK, and

a Professor of Public Health. He was formerly Head of Public Health in the
UK Department of Health.

Acknowledgments
Several people have contributed to the development of Evaluation in a
Nutshell. We would like to acknowledge the contribution of Bill Bellew and
Lesley King for their constructive comments and advice on early drafts of this
edition of the book.
 his book is for students of health promotion and for health promotion
T practitioners. Evaluation in a Nutshell is intended to equip the reader
with the ability to understand, interpret and assess the quality of published
research, and to excite interest in evaluation and promote further study
that will lead to the development of core skills in evaluation. It provides
foundation knowledge and recommended further reading.
In writing this book, we have drawn on many years of expe1ience in
conducting evaluations of health promotion programs, working with health
promotion practitioners and teaching public health students. From this
experience we recognise the need for students and practitioners to understand
the basic principles of evaluation and the application of these principles in
evaluation design, whether for the: purpose of conducting an evaluation or for
assessing the work of others.
Any review of published research will reveal that not all health promotion
programs are equally successful in achieving their goals and objectives.
Experience tells us that programs are most likely to be successful when the
determinants of a health problem are well understood; when the needs and
motivations of the target population are addressed; and when the context in
which the program is being implemented is taken into account. That is, the
intervention 'fits' the problem.
Similarly, in developing an evaluation design for a health promotion
program, the evaluation design needs to fit the circumstances of the program.
Programs can be evaluated in a ran ge of ways, may demand differing levels of
resources and may use various evaluation designs. This book illustrates how
evaluation questions change as a program evolves, and shows how programs that
are truly innovative need dose scrutiny and highly structured and comprehensive
evaluation. On the other hand, programs that have previously been shown to
work in a variety of circumstances, and are Low-cost and Low-risk, v.rill require
more modest monitoring for the purposes of accountability and quality
control. The evaluation of projects ""ith tightly defined objectives in a controlled
environment will be different to that of multi-component, long-term programs.
Evaluations must be tailored to suit the activity and circumstances of
individual programs: no single method or design will be 'right' for all
programs.
Xii PREFACE

Evaluation in a Nutshell introduces the strategic and technical issues in

evaluation and discusses some of the practical and scientific challenges related
to the evaluation of health promotion programs. The book takes a real-life
public health perspective. Even for experienced researchers and practitioners,
the book provides a useful prompt on key issues, as well as guidance on how
to organise and conduct evaluation studies.
 intnoducsitiom
valuation is the formal process ofjudging the 'value' ofsomethlng. In health
E promotion, an evaluation will detem1ine the extent to which a program
has achieved its desired health outcomes and will assess the contribution of
the different processes that were applied to achieve these outcomes. Scientists,
health practitioners, politicians an d the wider community all have different
views on what represents 'value' from a health promotion program, how
success should be defined and what should be measured. For example:
• Policy-makers and budget managers need to judge the likely
success of programs in order to make decisions about how to
allocate resources and to be accountable for these decisions.
Success is often defined by the relationship between financial
investment and the achievement of health outcomes in the
short term.
• Health practitioners need to judge the likely and actual success of
a program in achieving its defined health outcomes in 'real-life'
situations, so that they know that their work is effective and
understand what needs to be done to ensure successful
implementation. Success may be defined in tem1s of the
effectiveness of the program in achieving health outcomes, the
practicality of implement ation, program sustainability and the
maintenance of health gains in the longer term.
• The community that is to benefit from health promotion action
may place great value on the processes through which a program
is conducted, particularly on whether the program is pa1ticipato1y
and addresses priorities that the community itself has identified.
Success may be defined in terms of relevance to perceived needs
and providing opportunities for community participation.
• Acaden1ic researchers need to judge a program's success ( or
failure) in order to contri bute to the science of health promotion
and improve health promotion practice. Success may be defined
in tem1s of the effects identified through rigorous study designs
and measured through quantifiable and validated outcomes, and
where the expected effects are theoretically based.
xiv I NT RODU CT I ON

These perspectives are distinct but not mutually exclusive. In each

perspective, success is judged through improved health outcomes, yet each
differs greatly in the emphasis given to the cost, practicality and processes
involved in achieving these outcomes. Correspondingly, there is a vast
spectrum of approaches used to evaluate health promotion programs. These
range from highly structured, methodology-driven evaluations that focus
strongly on the measurement of outcomes through to much less rigid, highly
participatory fom1s of evaluation.
As practitioners, we need to be accountable for what we do and we
need to make explicit what we expect to achieve through the investments
that are made in health promotion interventions. All programs can benefit
from some form of evaluation, but not all require the same intensity of
evaluation nor use the same crite1ia for success. Innovative programs using
a costly or controversial intervention for the first time need close scrutiny
with comprehensive evaluation. Programs that have been proven to work,
and are low-cost and uncontroversial, require monitoring for the purposes of
accountability.
This book aims to:
• provide an overview and a simple classification systen1 for the
evaluation of a health promotion program;
• distinguish between fom1ative, process, impact and outcome
evaluation;
• cons ider the relative strengths of qualitative and quantitative
research methods;
• provide practical guidance on when and how to evaluate programs,
and the range of evaluation designs and research methods that can
be used to evaluate different project and program types;
• consider how best to 'measure' health promotion activity and
outcomes;
• provide a practical glossa1y of terms used in health promotion
program evaluation;
• refer the reader to sources of fu1ther infom1ation.
Updates to the e,'(amples and tables in this book will be made available
at v.rww.mhhe.com/ au/ bauman2e.
Planning for evaluation

This chapter introduces the purposes and functions of evaluation and describes the
stages in planning and implementing a health promotion program or intervention.
These range from defining the problem and developing solutions to planning and
implementing programs. Each stage is linked to the evaluation methods described in
this book.

Evaluation should be included during the planning stage as an integral part

of the development of a project or program. It is far more difficult to 'add' the
evaluation in at later stages, after the critical decisions on program design and
execution have been made.
Successful evaluation of a program is more likely if:
• a thorough analysis of a h ealth problem and its distribution
in a population is conducted (thls will indicate the scope for
intervention);
• there are clearly defined, logical and feasible program goals and
objectives related to the initial analysis;
• formative assessment is used to develop an intervention, giving
sufficient attention to the materials, resources and human capacity
required for successful implementation;
• the intervention is implemented as planned;
• the project or program is of sufficient size, duration and
sophistication to be proven effective or ineffective in relation to
its goals and objectives;
• there is dear direction on how the evaluation is to be conducted
and what is to be measured;
• the evaluation provides sufficient relevant information to those
deciding the program's value.
Achieving these conditions for successful evaluation is challenging, but more
likely if a structured approach to planning is adopted.
Planning models are commonly used in the development and
management of contemporary health promotion. Such models support
evidence-led practice and provid e a foundation for systematic evaluation
2 EVA LU A TIO N I N A NUT S H ELL

by specialist evaluators, when this is feasible and funded. Some models of

planning use population, and individual enablers, facilitators and barriers, to
identify the best approach to project planning ( Green & Kreuter 2005); others
use planning models to specify the intervention components to be delivered.
Using a model enables those planning a project or program to
structure the various sources of infom1ation that have guided the
development of the intervention, and to consider in a logical sequence
the likelihood of achieving the program goals and objectives through
each step and strategy planned for the program. A model provides
a structured description of how the impacts of, and outcomes from, a
health promotion inte1vention develop over time and also provides a
sound foundation for the evaluation of an intervention (see Chapter 5).
Figure 1.1 presents the health promotion planning and evaluation 'cycle'
used in the companion volume to thfa book, Theory in a Nutshell: A Practical
Guide to Health Promotion Theories (Nutbeam et al. 2010). This describes the
various stages in the planning, implementation and evaluation of a health

Theory helps identify what are

Theory helps 10
targets for intervention
clarify how and
when change can
be achieved in !
1 ,.
targets for
Problem definition \
intervention
( redefinrtion)

~ 2
Solution
generation

6
Intermediate
3 outcome
Resource

5
Impact
4
Theory indicates
how to achieve
organisation change
measurements
and raise community
for use in
awareness Theory provides a benchmark
eva luation
against which actual can be
com pa red with ideal program

Figure 1.1 The planning and evaluation cycle

 CHAPTER 1 P L ANN IN G FOR EVA LU A TI ON 3

promotion program, in the form of a cycle. In this chapter, we consider each

of these stages in tum.

1.1 Problem definition: starting at the end

A wide range of information can be used to define a health problem and
generate potentially effective solutions. This may include routinely collected
epidemiological, demographic and behavioural and social information, but
may be enhanced by focused local community needs assessments. At this
information-gathering stage, it is important to consider:
• what is the overall magni tude of the problem- how many people
in the target population are likely to have the problem or be
affected by it?
• how prevalent is the problem in various subgroups (for example,
older adults, adolescents and people from socially disadvantaged or
culturally diverse populations)?
• what is the public health impact of the problem- how serious
are the consequences of the problem for the individuals affected
and the population as a whole (for example, does it contribute to
disability, reduced quality of life or reduced mental health, and
does it increase health service usage and costs or contribute to
premature death)?
• does it have any impact outside health (on the environment,
economic effects or effect s on other sectors)?
• what is the potential for intervention- can some factors or
conditions be changed that will have an impact on the problem
(these may be behavioural, social or environmental, or relate to
improved health services)?
• what evidence is there that, if there is potential to intervene
to change risks or conditions, this may produce the desired
in1provements in public h ealth?
• what evidence is there that the community recognises the problem
and gives priority to addressing it?

1.2 Planning a solution

The second stage in the cycle prompts analysis of potential solutions, leading
to the development of a program plan and/or individual project component
plans that specify the interventions to be employed, as well as the sequence
of activity. Planning for a program will inevitably be more complex and
4 EVA L UA TIO N I N A N U TS H E LL

multifaceted than planning for a more limited individual project, because

it involves clearer sequencing and the use of a wider range of measures
for success. The differences between projects and program evaluation are
discussed in greater detail in Chapters 3 and 4.
This stage in the planning process indicates how and when change
might be achieved in the target variable (population, organisation or
policy). The processes of change in the program are identified, leading to
the selection of effective interventions to achieve change and to the timing
and sequencing of interventions designed to achieve maximum effect. This
stage in the planning process can be supported by the use of techniques such
as intervention mapping (IM) and logic models. These techniques describe
how the project or program elements are expected to work, involving the
structured, systematic description of the intervention and the changes
that a project or program is intended to bring about, and defining what
will happen during a program, in what order and with what anticipated
effects. These planning processes and techniques are also part of formative
evaluation (the steps required before a program is launched), described in
Chapter 3.
A theoretical framework or model often underpins the planning of
health promotion programs, guiding the project or program's content. These
theories can be considered using a socio-ecological framework and may
include strategies to influence a range of people, from individuals and small
groups to communities, environments and policies. Further infom1ation on
theories and models in health promotion practice can be found in Nutbeam,
Harris & Wise (2010). A review of health promotion programs shows that a
wide range of potential intervention methods can be used. A discrete project
based on the use of a single method (such as education) in a well-defined
setting (such as a school) may make detailed use of individual behaviour
change theo1y, and the tasks of evaluation will usually be clear. In a more
comprehensive program that uses different intervention strategies in different
settings and that is directed at different target populations, the task of
evaluation is generally more complex and contentious. The interdependence
of the various health promotion actions makes it difficult to assess their
individual contributions and poses real problems in the choice of evaluation
methods and the analysis of results. These challenges in evaluation design
and the differences in evaluating projects and programs are considered more
fully in Chapters 5 and 6.
Decisions about what represents the best sta1ting point and how to
combine the different interventions will be guided by established health
promotion theory, evidence from past programs and the experience of
 CHAPTER 1 P L ANN IN G FOR EVA LU A TI ON 5

others, and knowledge of the local context in which the program will be
implemented.
The development of program strategies that incorporate the right
combination of actions in the right sequence completes the planning stage of
the program and should link clearly and logically to the project or program
outcomes that were identified in the first stage of planning. Some modification
of the objectives may be required at this stage, together with refinements
to the measures used to evaluate the short-term impact of a program. The
measurement of impact and outcome is addressed in more detail in Chapter 5.
It is essential to define clearly the planned optimal structure and
sequencing of the intervention in the second step of the planning process.
This definition provides a point of reference for evaluating the process of
implementation that has led to progress (or lack of progress) in achieving
program goals and objectives. This is desuibed in more detail in Chapter 3
and is a compulsory element of any program evaluation. This process
provides key information that will be very useful to practitioners in refining
and reproducing future interventions.

1.3 Creating the right conditions for the successful

implementation of programs
This stage (stage 3 in Figure 1.1) is not only concerned with obtaining the
resources (such as money, staff and materials) required for the successful
implementation of a project or program. lt is also concerned with the need to
build capacity in a community or organisation to enable an intervention to
be introduced and sustained, an d to generate and maintain the community
and political support necessary for successful implementation. It will usually
involve different types of formative evaluation, testing and piloting of
interventions to be used as a part of the program. Formative evaluation is
desuibed in more detail in Chapter 3.
In some circumstances, either the resource assessment or fom1ative
evaluation of methods and materials may show that the available resources or
community response do not match what is needed. It will then be necessary
to refomrnlate the program objectives to better fit available resources and/or
to clarify the types of action required to secure the level of community and
political support necessary to generate essential resources and opportunities
for action. This planning stage is important whether the inte1vention is a
simple, time-limited project or a more complex, long-tem1 program with
multiple components.
6 EVA L UA TIO N I N A NUT S H EL L

Insufficient attention to this phase in the development

ofa program, including the pre-testing of methods and materials,
is a common reason for program failure. This is especially true
when program delivery may involve working through partners,
such as schools, work sites and different government agencies.

1.4 Planning for the implementation of health

promotion projects and programs
The next stage is planning for implementation (stage 4 in Figure 1.1). At
this planning stage., the primaiy aim is to ensure that a program is likely to
be implemented as closely as possible to the original plan, recognising that
implementation in ' real-life' conditions will often require adaptation. Good
record-keeping to assess the process of implementation is the key evaluation
task at this stage. This will enable subsequent examination of program fidelity
(the extent to which a program was implemented as planned) and the
relationship between program implementation and subsequent observed
outcomes. Further information on process evaluation is described in Chapter 4.
There may be pressure to implement projects with insufficient resources,
within time frames that are too short or in communities that are not ready
for the inte1vention. Such projects may happen, but such pressure often leads
to incomplete project implen1entation and tends to produce incomplete
evidence on the program's effectiveness.
As we have seen, the implementation of a project or program may involve
one or multiple strategies or components to achieve the program objectives
and goals that were identified through the initial analysis of the problem
and its determinants. Traditionally, health promotion interventions have
relied heavily on methods designed to promote individual behaviour change
through public education or mass communication aimed at improving
knowledge and changing attitudes. Increasingly, however, health promotion
programs involve other forms of intervention designed to influence the
social, environmental and economic factors that detem1ine health. This
requires working through professional groups and directly with communities
in different ways to mobilise social action, as well as advocating for political
and organisational change. Combining the delivery of different interventions
and securing the necessa1y partnership s to achieve desired healtl1 promotion
outcomes are among the major challenges for practitioners.
 CHAPTER 1 P L ANN IN G FOR EVA LU A TI ON 7

1.5 Health promotion actions and outcomes

It is important to identify and define a range of measurable outcomes that form
the basis for a program plan. These outcomes range from the direct ' impact' of
health promotion interventions in the short tem1 to health outcomes in the
longer tem1. These levels of program effects are shown in Figure 1.1 as stages
5-7. They provide an oveiview of the relationship between the ' processes' of
health promotion and the different types of impact and outcome that such
interventions might produce.
A comprehensive health promotion program (see Chapter 6) might
consist of multiple interventions targeted at achieving different types of
outcome in the shorter and longer term. A shorter term health promotion
project might focus on achieving a smaller subset of health promotion
outcomes. Figure 1.2 shows a typology that characterises these different
health promotion actions and the subsequent measures that can be used to
assess their impact and outcomes.
Working from the end-points on the right-hand side of the model in
Figure 1.2, health and social outcomes reflect the end-points of health and
preventive interventions. Thus, ou tcomes such as quality of life, functional
independence and equity have the highest value in the model. Some health
outcomes are also more narrowly defined in terms of disease and physical
and mental health status. For example, for an HIV-prevention program the
primary health outcome would be to reduce HIV infection and AIDS-related
mortality rates.
Inte rmediate health outcomes represent the determinants (immediate
antecedents) of health and social outcomes. These include personal behaviours
that provide protection from disease or injmy (such as physical activity) or
increase risk of ill health (such as tobacco use) and are represented as healthy
lifestyles in the model. The physical environment can limit people's access to
facilities or represent a direct hazard to their physical safety, and economic and
social conditions can enhance or li mit people's ability to adopt recommended
behaviours. These detem1inants are represented as healthy environments.
Access to, and appropriate use of, preventive services are acknowledged as
an important determinant of health status and are represented as effective
preventive health services.
Thus, for example, a multi-component program designed to reduce HIV
infection rates in the long term might have a project component targeted at
a sex worker population. In this case, the project might be directed towards:
• achieving preventive behaviours (safe sex) among the target
population;
• delivering services that p rovide access to HIV testing and affordable
HIV treatment for the target population.

Health promotion Health promotion
actions outcomes
(outcomes of the process
of intervention)
Education Health literacy
Examples include Measures include
pa1ien1 educa1ion, heal1h-related knowledge,
school e duca1ion and anitude, motivation,
broad cast media behavioural imentions,
communication persona I skills and
self-efficacy
Social mobilisation
Socio/ action and influence
Examples include Measures include
community communi1y participation,
developmen1,
community empowerment,
group facilitation and
so cia I norms and
te chnica I advice
public opinion
Ad..acacy Healthy public policy and
Examples include organisational practices
lobbying, poli1ical Measures include policy
orga ni sat ion and statements, legislation,
ac1ivism, and regulation and re source
allo cation organisational
overcoming
bureaucratic inertia practices
Figure 1.2 Health promotion actions and outcomes
(X)
rn
<
lnte rmed iate Social health )>
r
health outcomes outcomes c
)>
(program impact, or (long·term outcomes) ....
short-term outcomes) 0
z
z
Healthy lifestyles )>
Measures include z
c
tobacco use, ....
(/1
physical activi1y, ::c
rn
Food choices and r
Social outcomes r
alcohol and illicit drug use
Measures include
quali1y of life,
tffecrive prevenrive functional independence,
health services social capital and equity
Measures include
access to and provision of
relevant and preventive
services
Health outcomes
Healthy environments
Measures include
Measures include
reduced morbidity,
safe physical environment,
reduced disability and
supponive economic and
avoidable mortali1y
soda I conditions, good
food supply and res1ri cted
access to 1obacco/ alcohol
 CHAPTER 1 P L ANN IN G FOR EVA LU A TI ON 9

At the previous stage, health promoticm outcomes (shown in Figure 1.2) refer
to modifiable personal, social and environmental factors that lead to the
detem1inants of health (intermediate health outcomes). These may represent
the immediate results of planned health promotion activities. Thus, they
include measures of the cognitive and social skills that determine the ability
of individuals to gain access to, understand and use health information
(health literacy in the model). Examples of health promotion outcomes
would include improved health knowledge and an understanding of where
to go and what to do to gain access to health seivices and other support.
Social action and influence includes organised effo1ts to promote or enhance
the actions and control of social groups over the detemunants of health.
This includes the mobilisation of human and material resources in social
action to overcome suuctural barriers to health, enhance social support and
reinforce social norms conducive to health. Examples of outcomes range from
improved social 'connectedness' a nd social support to improved community
empowem1ent.
Healthy environments are largely detem1ined by healthy public policy and
organisational practices. Policy-determined legislation, funding, regulations
and incentives significantly influence organisational practices. Thus, e,'(amples
of health promotion outcomes here might be changes to health and social
policies that lead to improvements in services, social benefits, the built
environment and housing. These would influence organisational practices
and redirect resource allocation to suppo1t environments conducive to health.
Using the HIV-prevention project as an e,'(ample, health promotion
outcomes could include:
• in1proving health literacy by raising levels of accurate knowledge
about HIV prevention and improving skills and confidence
to put into practice recommended behaviours in challenging
circumstances among the target population;
• facilitating a more supportive environment through social action,
to improve commitment to safe sex practices in commercial sex
establishments, and to support access to condoms and other
preventive behaviours;
• improving health policy and services by providing more facilities
for, and better access to, HIV testing and regular health checks
among the target population.
Figure 1.2 also indicates three health promotion actions- what to do, as
distinct from what outcomes are achieved. Education consists primarily of
the creation of opportunities for learning that are intended to raise levels of
personal health literacy and thereby increase the capacity of individuals and
communities to act to improve and protect their health. Social mobilisation
10 EVA L UA TIO N I N A N U TS H E LL

is action taken in partnership with individuals or social groups to mobilise

social and material resources for health. Advocacy is action taken on behalf
of individuals and/ or communities to overcome structural barriers to the
achievement of health.
In the example of HfV prevention, these health promotion actions would
include, for example, the direct education of sex workers; advocacy on their
behalf with operators of commercial sex establishments; and training of
health professionals to advocate for and provide HfV testing and treatment
servJCes.
Another example of this hierarchy of actions and outcomes can be
considered for smoking-prevention programs among teenagers. Social and
health outcomes include reduced tobacco-related morbidity and mortality,
but these outcomes may come decades after the original health promotion
program. Intem1ediate outcomes include reduced smoking rates and higher
quit rates among adolescents. Health promotion outcomes would include
measures of intention to not smoke, changes to social and peer norms
around smoking, and policies restricting cigarette advertising or restricting
purchases ( as in proof of age requir ements). In the far left-hand column
of Figure 1.2, health promotion actions in this example would comprise the
education of young people concerning the negative consequences of smoking;
the social mobilisation of parents and other social role models to make
smoking less socially attractive and acceptable to young people; and advocacy
for legislative action to reduce access to tobacco and exposure to tobacco
advertising.
Figure 1.2 can be used to illustrate not only the linkages between the
different levels of outcomes but also those within levels. For example, among
the intem1ediate outcomes, action to create healthy environments may be a direct
determinant of social and health outcomes ( for example, by producing a safe
working and living environment or improving equity in access to resources),
and also separately influence healthy lifestyles, for example, by improving
access to healthy food or restricting access to tobacco products. There is a
dynamic relationship between these different outcomes and the three health
promotion actions; it is not the static, linear relationship that the model in
Figure 1.2 might suggest.
By starting in this way, the beginning of the planning process is firmly
focused on the end-point outcomes and the shorter term measures that are
logically related to their achievement. Sta1ting planning with the end-points
prompts a thorough and logical analysis of the linkages between intervention
and outcome. This phase ensures that there is a clear definition of who or
what is the target of the intervention (sub-population group, environmental
or organisational element) and what outcomes will be sought. The early
 CHAPTER 1 P L ANN IN G FOR EVA LU A TI ON 11

definition of these outcomes and consideration of how they might be measured

form the important fust stage of the evaluation process. The principles of
measurements, and selection methods, are described further in Chapter 5.

1.6 Evaluation
Different types of evaluation tasks occur at each stage of the cycle shown in
Figure 1.1. These start with formative evaluation, a set of activities designed to
develop and pre-test program materials and methods (see Chapter 3); and
process evaluation, a set of activities directed towards assessing progress in
program implementation (see Chapter 4).
Health promotion interventions have different types of impact and
different outcomes over time. Change in the different types of outcome will
occur according to different timescales, depending on the nature of the
intervention and the type of social or health problen1 being addressed. As a
consequence, different evaluation methods are used to measure impact and
outcome at different stages in the life of a program.
Impa ct evaluation measures t he short-term effects that are predicted and
defined during the planning stage of the program. These impact measures
are termed health promotion outcomes in Figure 1.2. These health promotion
outcomes are intended to lead to subsequent change in intermediate health
outcomes, for example, in behaviours and environments, in ways that will
ultimately improve health and social outcomes in the model. Outcome
assessment involves the measurement of individual behaviour or changes
to the social, economic and en vironmental conditions that determine
health. Figure 1.2 provides e,'Camples of these intermediate outcomes. The
assessment of social and health outcomes is the end-point assessment of
health promotion.
Figure 1.3 illustrates how a comprehensive set of health promotion
interventions might produce different outcomes over time. This model was
originally developed to illustrate likely progress over a five-year period in a
comprehensive, community-base<l heart disease- prevention program. Thus
the 'units of time' are years and the model shows how, after one year, the
program impact could be measured mainly in terms of increased community
awareness and participation in intervention components. By the third year,
good progress in achieving short-term program impacts (health promotion
outcomes) should be measurable, alongside peak-level community awareness
and participation. Early progress in achieving intem1ediate outcomes (such as
behavioural risks) should also be measurable. After five years, major progress
in these intem1ediate outcomes should be obseivable and early impact
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 An experiment made by a noted electrician some years ago will
illustrate this point: A frame was made of iron wire in the shape of a
barn, the wire representing the edges of the walls and roof. The
frame was connected to the ground, or “grounded,” as the
electricians say, and then artificial lightning was allowed to play upon
it from a distance of a foot or more above. This gave a model about
in proportion to the real barn and actual lightning. All the discharge
followed the wire frame, and did not ignite a dummy of gun-cotton
which was placed inside. The instant that the metal barn frame was
removed the dummy was struck and burned violently. One can draw
his own conclusions from an experiment of this sort.

Fig. 134. Proper adjustment of lightning rods on a barn.

A barn properly fitted with lightning rods is shown in Fig. 134. The
location of the points is such that there is not more than forty feet
between two adjacent ones. The rod projects about six feet above
the roof, and these projections are all connected by means of rod of
the same form as the vertical conductors. Sharp turns are avoided in
erecting the conductor, for an electric discharge would prefer to go
straight through the air rather than turn a corner.
It will now be necessary to go into some practical details of the
construction of lightning rods, and the suggestions that will be made
have been included here because good points or rods may not
always be readily obtainable. Their manufacture is easy and can be
performed with the limited facilities of a small village. If the raw
materials have to be bought at a distance, this can be easily done by
correspondence.
Parts of the system: The equipment will consist of three parts—the
conductor and its support, the points, and the ground connection.
The conductor, or so-called “rod,” first demands attention. All
metals conduct electricity to some extent, but certain ones are very
much better than others. For example, lead, platinum, brass, and
iron are poor conductors, which is equivalent to saying that they heat
up readily on the passage of an electric current. On the other hand,
silver, copper, and aluminum are good conductors. In making a
lightning rod, the best all-round conductor should be used, when cost
and conductivity are the basis for the selection. As an example, take
the metals iron, copper, and aluminum for comparison. Iron is
cheapest in price per pound, but its electrical conductivity is small,
while copper, though more expensive, has so much more
conductivity that to get rid of a certain charge of electricity requires
much less of it. So with aluminum, which has slightly less
conductivity and which costs more than copper, but which is so light
that a rod having the same conducting ability when made of this
metal actually costs less than one made of copper, and the price of
aluminum is constantly lessening, while that of copper cannot fall
much on account of the limited supply. To compare actual figures,
call the conductivity of copper 100, then that of steel or iron will be
about 18, and that of aluminum about 60. As to relative weights,
copper weighs about 550 pounds per cubic foot, iron or steel 480,
and aluminum 160. As the prices of these materials are constantly
varying, it would be impossible to say at this time what the relative
costs would be at any other time; but it can be said that on the score
of cost there is little choice among them. For a number of reasons
aside from cost, copper is at present the best material, and these
 reasons are: That it is smaller than the
others for a given conducting ability, and
thus is more sightly; that it is easier to
support on account of this small size, and
that it can be readily soldered to the ground
plate, which will be considered later.
In addition to the material of the lightning
rod, its form is a matter of considerable
importance. The cable forms have been
used extensively and successfully, but the
ribbon or flat form is better on account of the
smaller cost, and because there is a greater
area exposed for the dissipation of the heat
generated by the lightning in passing from
the points to the ground. A rectangular
section of three-quarters by one-eighth of an
inch is recommended.
In supporting the conductor from the wall
or roof, it should be separated or “insulated”
from these surfaces. There is a slight
chance that the lightning might leave the
conductor if the building were wet. A more
important reason for the use of the insulator
is that the heat which is generated on the
surface of the rod when a heavy discharge
occurs will not be able, if supported away
from the wall, to heat up any inflammable
material near it. Fig. 135 shows a method of
support in which one of the standard
Fig. 135. Supporting a rod. insulators used in running electric light and
other wires is employed. These insulators,
which are made of porcelain and iron, can be screwed into the wood
or into a plug driven into the joints between the stones very readily.
The insulator shown is manufactured by the General Electric
Company, of Schenectady, New York, and similar ones are made by
other manufacturers of electrical materials.
 In order to attract the discharge, the rods
must project some distance above the roof,
about 6 feet being the proper height. This
projection must be supported, and there are
two ways to do this. The first is to screw or
nail a piece of timber to the side of the
building, projecting about 5 feet above the
roof. Two insulators on this will provide the
necessary support for the rod. As this might
be considered unsightly in some places, a
neater but more expensive method is to use
a piece of ³⁄₄-inch copper, brass or iron rod
for the upper 9 or 10 feet of the rod. This
can be easily joined and soldered to the
copper ribbon and is strong enough to
support itself in any wind. A brace from the
vertical to the horizontal rod will provide
additional support if desired, and will give a
more substantial appearance. At the point at
which the horizontal rod passes through a
timber support, in case such plan is used, a
hole 1¹⁄₂ inches should be bored in the
timber to avoid any risk of its being burned.
In joining the horizontal to the vertical rod,
the former should be bent up at right angles
for an inch, and the surfaces should then be
well cleaned and soldered. Fig. 136. Efficient points
The points for attracting the discharge for a lightning rod.
should be made very carefully, and with a
view to accommodating the brush discharge particularly. As a rule,
the more points in the bunch at the head of the rod the better will the
brush discharge be attracted; and for the same reason these points
should be sharp and bright. These facts have been determined by
experiment, from which it has been learned that the discharge is
quieter and at a lower pressure from sharp, bright terminals than
from others. Aluminum wire fulfils the requirements for the points
better than any other metal of reasonable cost. Unfortunately this
metal is difficult to solder, but if the directions here given are carefully
followed there will be no difficulty in producing a good bunch.
The sketch (Fig. 136) shows the general construction. In the end
of a block of copper of the dimensions shown, drill a hole ⁵⁄₈ of an
inch in diameter and 1 inch deep. Cut off a number of pieces of
aluminum wire, of about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch in diameter, about 4 inches
long. This wire can be obtained from the Pittsburg Reduction
Company, of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. These wires must then be filed
to sharp points on one end, the opposite ends being roughened with
coarse sandpaper. Push as many of the wires into the hole in the
block as it will hold and bend the points back so as to form a brush.
Now heat some solder in a ladle and pour in around the lower ends
of the aluminum wires, having first taken the precaution to heat the
copper block so that the solder will flow well. The conductor rod is
then soldered into a slot filed in the lower end of the block, and the
bunch of points is complete.
The ground connection is the most important part of the whole
equipment. With poor ground connections, the rods become a
menace to a building rather than a protection. Examples could be
cited where buildings were actually struck and destroyed, even
though “apparently properly rodded.” In one case the wire entered
but two inches into dry soil, while in another the lower end was
buried in concrete. It is absolutely essential that the lower end of the
rod be connected with moist earth in some way, as this is the only
method which will insure safety. If there are water pipes in the
building, they should be attached to the rod in the basement in
addition to the main ground connection.
As the charge is to be dissipated in the earth, it will be necessary
to expose a considerable area of metal under ground. If a spring is
near, the rod should be run to the vicinity of the spring and there
soldered to the ground plate, which should be below the level of the
surface of the spring. Moist soil is the only kind which will conduct
electricity, hence the insistence on a moist place for the terminal of
the rod. In case the plate must be planted some distance from water,
either it must go quite deep or it may be placed in a barrel of
charcoal or coke buried under the surface. These materials will hold
whatever water they receive, and it is a simple matter to wet the soil
above such a terminal from time to time. The plate itself should be of
copper and of an area of at least 25 square feet, including both
sides. An old copper boiler, flattened out, makes a cheap and
effective ground plate.
There is no doubt that many buildings have been saved from
destruction by means of properly installed lightning rods, and it is
plain that they are not difficult nor expensive to install.
 CHAPTER XXI
THE FIELDS

While it is the primary object of this book to discuss the lay-out of

buildings and their accessories, it would be incomplete if something
were not said of the general plan of the fields themselves.
 FENCES

Some ten years since, someone estimated that for every dollar’s
worth of live stock kept in New York another dollar was expended in
fences to restrain it. It is probable that this estimate is below rather
than above the facts. Be this as it may, the first cost of fences and
their maintenance is a serious draft on the resources of the farmer.
In the pioneer days, when even the best of fencing material was
so abundant that it was burned to clear the land, there was great
temptation to split the tender logs into great rails and construct
fences with them. Each winter a few acres of land were cleared and
each year’s clearing was surrounded by a great ten-rail fence, which
served to discourage some of the larger wild animals from destroying
the crops. It is easily seen why our ancestors in the wooded districts
fenced the farm into small fields. In some cases the surface stones
were so numerous on the land that the larger ones had to be
removed to make way for the plow. Naturally they were used for
constructing fences, for the most economical way to get rid of these
too numerous stones was to make fences of them. The haul was
short and the fences could be increased in width and height until
storage room was provided for all the rocks which the farmer cared
to remove. So here, too, the temptation was great to fence the farm
into small fields. The following diagrams show the fields and the
fences as they were on the old homestead, and also as they are at
the present time (Fig. 137).
Changed agricultural conditions imply fewer fences and the
adoption, in part at least, of the soiling system. Then, too, the
introduction of the horn-fly makes a radical change imperative in the
summering of the dairy. This worst of all dairy pests robs the cow of
flesh and the owner of profit.
Now that the silo is an assured success, except under rare
conditions, soiling, or the partial soiling system, should be adopted
on many farms, especially in the dairy districts. The object should be
to provide a continuous and full supply of food, and comfortable
conditions for the animals at all times. In May and June the pastures
 are succulent and the
grasses usually
abundant, and the
annoying flies are not
present. When the
animals are first
turned out on the
pastures the nights
may be too cold and
damp for comfort, in
which case they may
be stabled and fed a
small supplemental
ration; in fact, cows in
milk should always
receive some dry,
concentrated food for
the first few weeks
after they are turned
out to grass. Often
the early grass is
over-succulent and
deficient in food
constituents to such
an extent that the
cows cannot eat
enough to sustain life
and produce the most
profitable quantities of
milk. When the
pastures begin to fail,
the flies appear and
the days are hot,
Fig. 137. The old-time fence system on the right; the manifestly the
present condition on the left.
animals will be most
comfortable in the stables in the day time and in the pastures at
night. This system will permit of reducing the pastures nearly one-
half, and the removal of all fences except those which surround the
permanent pasture land. If it is desired occasionally to pasture a part
of the unenclosed land, a light woven wire fence, which can be easily
erected and removed, may be constructed. All changes in the
present system of summering animals should be towards smaller
areas of pasture-land, fewer fences, more comfortable conditions for
animals, economy of effort, and control of food-supplies for the
animals at all seasons of the year.
In most of the states the laws require each farmer to restrain his
own animals without the aid of the neighbors; hence the road-fence,
often the most unsightly and ill kept of all the fences, may be
discarded. How many of the inside fences would best be removed
depends upon circumstances; but certain it is that a more rational
system of restraining and feeding cattle will be adopted than the one
now almost universally in use. We cannot destroy the hornfly; we
can remove the useless fences and house the animals in stables
from which the pestiferous flesh- and milk-reducing flies are
excluded.
 ORCHARDS

In some fruit districts the farmers are cutting down their orchards,
saying that they cannot afford to bother with them, and that fruit-
raising must be carried on in a large way by specialists to be
profitable. This is tantamount to saying that they are not intelligent
and enterprising enough to manage six or eight acres of orchard
successfully, while their neighbor is competent to care for ten times
that acreage. The man who owns the smaller orchard should, other
things being equal, secure a relatively larger profit than the owner of
the large orchard, since he will be able to give it more personal
attention. The man who overcomes the difficulties of fruit-raising is
constantly adding to his education and power, while the man who is
appalled with the difficulties of orcharding, and falls back on rye,
buckwheat and oats as money-crops, sinks in intelligence and loses
courage. The orchard, when intelligently cared for, seldom fails to
give much larger profits than a like area devoted to the cereals. As a
rule, the most difficult crop to raise or the most difficult business is
the one which brings the most liberal reward after the difficulties
have been surmounted.
When convenient, the orchard might well be set to the north or
west of the buildings, in most sections of the United States, but not
so close to them as to prevent a good air passage between it and
the dwelling. Low-headed fruit trees should not be set in the house
yard or near to it. The trees in most orchards are set too close
together, and even when set appropriate distances apart it will be
found to be unprofitable, in the long run, to grow two crops on the
same land at the same time, as wheat or oats and apples. Specific
directions for the care and management of orchards can now be
found in well written books and bulletins; therefore there is no
occasion for treating orchards in detail here. Suffice it to say that the
farmer without an abundance of fruits in their season is like the lad
with empty pockets outside the circus tent: lots of fruit and fun, ready
to be enjoyed by those who have made thoughtful provision for the
gratification of desires which always come, sooner or later. Every
farmer should grow most of the fruits suited to his soil and climate,—
enough to eat and to sell and to give to the worthy poor.
 FARM GARDEN

The farm garden should be ample and contain not only enough
vegetable and small fruits for the use of the family, but a surplus to
sell or to give away. The farmer used to large areas is reluctant to
undertake anything so small as he imagines the garden to be;
hence, too often he plows it and leaves the planting and cultivation of
it to the “women folks.” If he knew how to manage a garden he would
find that the half-acre of land devoted to small fruits and vegetables
could be made the most profitable and pleasurable part of the farm.
Higher remuneration is received for the time spent in harvesting the
products of a large, well kept garden, than in harvesting the cereals
or milking the cows. It must be said, however, that there are good
reasons for the farmer’s distaste for gardening, for the gardens, as
usually laid out, necessitate the maximum of hand-culture and the
minimum of horse-culture. The result of such gardens is a minimum
of products secured by maximum of effort, and a resultant surplus of
weeds.

Fig. 138. Plan of a home garden.

The garden should be about four times as long as it is broad,

unfenced when possible, near to the house, and should be, in
miniature, a farm with the cereals, grasses, and large fruits left out
(Fig. 138). The side farthest from the dwelling should be devoted to
the perennial plants, such as grapes, currants and other bush-fruits.
Everything should be planted in straight rows, with spaces
sufficiently wide between the rows to admit of horse-hoe culture. The
grapes and blackberries might occupy one row, the raspberries and
currants a second row, rhubarb, asparagus and like plants a third
row. The spaces between these various fruits should be eight feet,
as it is poor economy to so crowd vines and bushes as to force them
to struggle the year through for plant-food and moisture. A rod or two
of land, more or less, virtually amounts to nothing on the farm;
crowding the plants is only admissible in the city or village. Here the
plants may receive unusual care, and often may be irrigated at
fruiting time from the city hydrant. The rows of ordinary vegetables
may be thirty inches apart, except in case of such plants as onions,
lettuce, and early beets. These small, slow-growing esculents should
be planted in double rows. Starting from the last row of potatoes a
thirty inch space is measured off, a row of lettuce planted, and then
one foot from this a row of beets or onions; then leave a space thirty
inches wide and again plant double rows, if more of the small
esculents are wanted. The larger spaces may be cultivated by horse-
hoe and the smaller spaces by hand-hoe. The entire garden which is
to be planted in the spring should be kept fertile and plowed early in
the spring, leaving that part of it which is not designed for immediate
planting unharrowed. It may be necessary to replow. It certainly will
be necessary to cultivate several times that part of the garden which
is used for late-growing crops, such as cabbage and celery. As a
rule, the farmer cannot afford to attempt to raise two crops on the
same land the same year, since labor is everything and the use of
land nothing; therefore, better prepare the ground by two or three
plowings for the late crops, than to attempt to raise them on land
which has parted with much of its readily available plant-food in
producing the early crop. Then, too, land which has produced one
crop is likely to be deficient in moisture, while land that has been
plowed two or three times during the summer and kept well
harrowed will be moist and contain an abundance of readily available
plant-food. Early in the spring, when the land is cold and often too
moist, it is best to leave the soil rough for a time if it is not to be
planted immediately, that it may become somewhat dry and warm.
As a rule, the garden should not be fenced, but the chickens should
be restrained by fences a part of the time; at other times they may
have free access to the garden, where they are often very beneficial
in reducing the insect enemies.
 INDEX

Abandoned lands, significance of, 31.

Agricultural statistics, 8; what they do not show, 10.
Agriculturists, what they have done, 8.
Air space required in cow stables, 281.
Anglo-Saxon, cause of superiority, 50.
Animal, necessity of exercise for, 278; voidings, how cared for in
stables, 277.
Asphalt for stable floors, 292.
Bailey, Professor L. H., quoted, 7.
Bailey, chap. xiv, 237.
Balloon frames, 129.
Barns, 288; basement, location of, 268; building the basement,
266; connected by covered way to house, 257; discussion of,
249; distance to locate from house, 257; economy in
construction, 253; excavations for, 268; high large ones
preferable, 253; location of, 255; octagonal, discussion of,
254; planning, 259; size required, 249; water supply for, 261;
why large ones are required, 250.
Barnyards, open ones objectionable, 258; paddocks are
preferable to, 259.
Basement barns, bridging for, 269; location of, 268; on level
ground, 269; floors, how to construct, 277; walls, how to
prevent dampness on, 275; wood preferable to stone, 275.
Beauty and utility should be combined, 107.
Bonanza farming, cause of decline, 36-38.
Brick used in stable floors, 278.
Building the barn, chap. xvii, 288; framing, 289; horse stables,
294; lightning rods on barns, 296; painting the barn, 296;
plank frames, 290; protecting the root-cellar, 289; repairing old
barn floors, 293; roof of barns, 296; stable floors, 292;
windows, 295.
Cattle, stanchions for, 284.
Cement, Portland, cost and mixing of, 274; proportion of, to
sand in mortar, 273.
Changes in houses, considerations, 85.
Children, city and country compared, 3.
Cisterns as a source of water supply, 263.
Cleanliness, and sanitation, water supply and sewage, chap. xii,
204; bacteria, harmful and beneficial, 204-206; bath room,
210; bath tubs, 213; cess pools, 220; closets, 210;
disinfectants, 207; dry-earth closets, 222; kitchen sink, 212;
laundry, 214; outhouses, 216; personal cleanliness, 209;
pipes, 212; sewage, 219; water closets, 214; water supply,
217.
College buildings and what they illustrate, 104.
Colleges. Land Grant, aim of, 14; endowment, 14; data of
incomes, 15.
Competence, how obtained, 20.
Concentration of barns, 84.
Counsel at the right time, 69.
Country churches, 119.
Country life, what it stands for, 74; what things have no place in
it, 74.
Country school houses, 119-122.
Cows, air space required for, 280, 281; mangers for, section of,
286.
Crops, good and poor, 27; specialized, baleful results of, 33.
Dams for artificial pools, how to construct, 262.
Decorations inside, 193.
Deeds and abstracts, 67.
Demolins, M., quoted, 50.
Economy, 224.
Educating the eye and judgment, 107.
Education, by contact with nature, 4; higher, concentration
necessary, 52; higher, in the past, 13; industrial, 14.
Evolution of high wages, 25.
External construction, principles of, 108.
Farm buildings, concentrated and distributive, 251; concentrated
system preferable, 252; examples of mistakes, 89.
Farm laborers, wages received by, 253.
Farmers’ contribution to economic status of the United States, 9.
Farms, selection of—climatic conditions, 55; cheap lands, 56;
water supply, 57.
Farms overloaded with buildings, 88.
“Farming doesn’t pay,” 6.
Fences, 336.
Fields, the, chap. xxi, 336.
Filigree work, not for farm houses, 96.
First impressions, 116.
Floors, basement, how to construct, 277; cows to stand upon,
280; stable, wooden ones preferable, 278.
Foundations for buildings, how squared, 266.
Foundation walls, properly and improperly bonded, 272.
Frost pockets, 76.
Furnishing, 193.
Garden, farm, 341; planting the, 342.
Gingerbread cornices, 130.
Ground floor unhealthy, 77.
Gypsum, use of in stables, 277.
Heating, 190.
Home education suggestions, 48.
Home, old (should be preserved), 112; suggestions for
improvement of, 113.
Home training, 46.
Homestead, improving the old, 114.
Horn-fly, reference to, 337.
House, building the, chap. viii, 132; brick and stone houses,
169; chimneys—flue linings, 140, openings for, 141; excluding
vermin from the, 135; foundations, building the, 138; mortar
for foundations, 139; protecting from frost, 136; the cellar,
133, 134; Wooden houses—the frame, 142; bridging the
joists, 143; cutting braces and rafters, 150; diagonal boarding,
144; girders for second-story joists, 145; made-up timbers,
 146; old houses, 170; roofs—kinds of, 147, pitch of, 149;
studding, size of, 143; the story-and-a-half, 155.
House furnishing and decoration, chap. xi, 193; carpets vs. rugs,
196; decorations, 200; draperies, 198; general principles, 193-
196.
House, location of, 74; extremes, 75; on elevated lands, 76, 80,
82.
House of pioneer, where located, 75.
House, old farm, an example of a good, 90-91.
House sites—old and new, 84.
House sites to be avoided, 82; near middle of estate, 83; and
highway, 83.
House with many gables, 96.
Houses, exposed and overshaded, 117, 118; planning, 94;
studying other models, 95; useless cost of, 95.
Houses, farm, not a direct source of income, 87; mistakes in
building, 87; what they are for, 87.
Houses, old farm, 85.
Houses, veneered, 168.
Household administration, economy and comfort, chap. xiii, 224;
a definite income, 225; bargain-hunting, 229; cash vs. credit,
286; economy of health, 232; keeping accounts, 230; reading
matter, 235; systematic buying, 227; the farmer’s diet, 234;
the wife’s share, 225.
Improvements on the farm, 59.
Inappropriate styles of architecture, 124.
Inside finish, heating and ventilation, chap. x, 181; baseboards,
183; facings, 186; finish, hard oil, 186; floors, 182; patent
mortars, 188; plastered walls, 186-188; picture moulding, 184;
stairs, 185; wainscoting, 185; Heating—steam recommended,
191; systems of, compared, 190; Ventilation, 191.
Land for market-gardening, 61.
Lands, cheap, 56.
Lawns, 243.
Lawyer and the farmer, 73.
Lawyer, province of the true, 72.